Spring Final Exam Review

2015

Evolution

Charles Darwin said that

evolution occurred due to

Natural Selection.

• Evolution = change in a

POPULATION over time

Natural Selection occurs due to:

a. Variation exists in nature

b. More offspring are produced than will survive

c. There is a constant struggle for survival

d. Some individuals in the species will have variations that

cause them to be the most fit in a particular

environment.

e. Vast amount of time is required for a species to change

Evolution

• What evolves?– The individual does not evolve; the POPULATION evolves.

• Where does the variation within a species originate?

– Mutations in DNA are the source of all new variations

– Helpful mutations increase fitness of the individual

– Harmful mutations decrease fitness.

– The frequency of the mutated gene will increase if it is a helpful

mutation

Evidence to Support Evolution

• What are adaptations?– Physical or behavioral traits that helps

an individual survive & reproduce in its environment.• The long neck of a giraffe is an example of

an adaptation.

• Fossil Records– Fossils in lowest sedimentary rock

layers are older and simpler than fossils found in higher layers of rock.• Example of Relative age dating

• The youngest and most complex fossils are found in the top layers of rock.

Evidence to Support Evolution

• Homologous Structures– Similar structures but different functions

• Whale’s flippers and humans arms are examples of homologous structures.– Show evidence of a common ancestor

• Vestigial Structures• structures or organs that are reduced in size;

do not seem to serve a useful function• Hip bones in whales and snakes are examples

of vestigial organs because they serve no function.

• Analogous Structures– Similar structure, similar function– Originated from different embryological

structures• Example: Wing of an insect and wing of a bird

Evidence to Support Evolution• Similarities in Embryology

– The embryos of vertebrates are very similar during early development.

– Common cells & tissues growing in similar ways produce homologous structures.

– The same groups of embryonic cells develop in the same order and in similar patterns to produce tissues & organs. All vertebrate embryos are alike in that they all have similar

patterns of development, especially in the very early stages, which suggests a common ancestor.

Survival of the Fittest & Natural Selection• Darwin proposed that natural selection was the

mechanism for evolution.

• Individuals vary in one or more traits & there can be slight differences in their ability to survive & reproduce (FITNESS).

• Nature selects those individuals w/ favorable traits to leave more offspring that are better suited (FIT) for their environment.

Label Each Type of Evidence for Evolution

A B

CD

Embryology

Vestigial Structures

Homologous Structures

Fossil Record

3 Types of Natural Selection:

1. Directional Selection

2. Disruptive Selection

3. Stabilizing Selection

Directional Selection

By favoring either of the extreme forms of a trait, directional selection can lead the one population to evolve into a new species.

Disruptive SelectionIn this type, both extreme forms of a trait are favored. In some cases, there may be no intermediate forms, which can lead to the evolution of two new species. (Speciation occurs)

Stabilizing Selection

This type of natural selection favors average individuals. In this way, variation in a population is reduced. Evolution does not occur.

Selection against both extremes

keep curve narrow and in

same place.

Stabilizing Selection

High mortality, low fitness

Low mortality, high fitness

Types of Natural Selection Practice

• __ B _a a. Does not lead to speciation or evolution.• __ C _ b. Cause one species to evolve into two

different species.• __ A __ c. Causes one species to evolve into a

different species.• __ A _ d. Type of selection that favors one extreme

variation.• __ B _ e. Type of selection that favors the average

variation.• __ C _ f. Type of selection that favors the two

extreme variations.

Genetic Drift

Another source of evolutionary change.

Allele frequencies can become more or less common

simply by chance.

Genetic Drift - Random change in allele frequencies

that occurs in small populations.

The smaller a population is, the farther the results may be from what

the laws of probability predict.

Unlike natural selection because:

1. It happens by chance - such as random mating or a natural

disaster (fire, landslide or lightning strike).

How does Geographic and Reproductive

isolation lead to speciation?

Geographic isolation: a barrier that physically separates

members of a species into two or more groups.

Members of an original species can no longer breed

together to produce fertile offspring so they are

reproductively isolated and now 2 species.

Behavioral Isolation

2 species do not breed due to behavior

Female meadowlark only responds to mating call of males that are

like them

Blue-footed boobies perform elaborate dance to show off blue feet.

Helps identify himself to female as a potential mate.

Male fireflies signal to females by flashing their lights in specific

patterns. Females only respond to signals flashed by own species

(keeps them from mating with other closely related firefly species)

Survival of the fittest and Genetic

Equilibrium

Nature selects (Natural selection) those individuals w/

favorable traits to leave more offspring that are better suited

(FIT) for their environment

Genetic Equilibrium

when no change takes place.

What must occur in order for allele frequencies to remain

constant?

Random mating, no mutations, no movement into or out of population

and no natural selection

1. Why Classify?

a. To study the diversity of life

b. To group organisms according to shared lines of evolutionary descent

2. Why are organisms given scientific names?

a. Common names are misleading

Why do we classify organisms?

jellyfish silverfish star fish

None of these animals are fish!

Cladograms• Diagram used to show the evolutionary

relationships among groups of organisms

• The more derived characteristics the organisms have in common, the more closely related they are.

Which letter designates the most recent common ancestor of the ant and grasshopper? C

The traits on the lines are called – derived characters

Give the number of where would you place the trait “doubled wing pairs” 2

Which letter designates the most recent common ancestor of all of the organisms shown? A

Which organisms would have the most similar DNA? The butterfly and dragonfly or spider and caterpillar? Butterfly and dragonfly

Binomial Nomenclature

• Created by Linnaeus

• Why do we care?– Allowed scientists to give each organism a

universally accepted two-part name

– In order to avoid confusion

• The first part is the Genus; the second part is the species– First letter in Genus is always capitalized

• EX – “Homo sapiens”

Classifications

• Kingdom (most general)

• Phylum

• Class

• Order

• Family

• Genus

• Species (most specific)

King Philip came over for good

sweets!

Cell Type: none because not a cell

Cell wall: not a cell just a capsid (protein coat)

Body Type: noncellular

Nutrition: N/A

Reproduction: Replication requiring a host cell

Examples: influenza and HIV (attacks the immune system)

Viruses are Highly Specific

HIV infects Helper T cells– part of the

immune system.

Different cold viruses attack the cells lining

the nose and sinuses.

Antibiotics are not effective against viruses.

Viruses can cause changes in a cells DNA

which can lead to cancer (uncontrolled cell

growth—mitosis)

Two methods of virus replication

◦ Lytic and Lysogenic

◦ Both result in the host cell being destroyed

and more copies of virus being released

Lytic Replication– virus enters a cell,

makes copies of itself, and causes the

cell to burst relatively quickly

◦ Host cell is lysed and destroyed.

1. Virus attaches 2. Virus injects genetic

information into host

3. New viral proteins and

genetic material are made4. Viral parts are

assembled

5. New viruses are released as host cell lyses (bursts) and is destroyed.

• Lysogenic Replication–– Virus integrates its genetic information into the

DNA of the host cell

– Viral genetic information replicates along with the host cell’s DNA for a relatively long period of time

Vocabulary to remember

• Prokaryote: lacks a nucleus

• Eukaryote: contains a membrane-bound nucleus

• Unicellular: contains one cell only

• Multicellular: contains two or more cells

• Autotroph: makes its own food

• Heterotroph: must consume food

Kingdom Archaebacteria: Live in Extreme Habitats

Bacillus infernus lives in deep sea vents in the ocean –obtains energy from Earth’s heat

Classification of Living Things

Domain Archaea

Kingdom Archaebacteria

Cell Type Prokaryotic

Cell Structures Cell walls do not have peptidoglycan

Number of Cells Unicellular

Nutrition Autotroph or heterotroph

Examples Methanogens Halophiles Thermophiles

Kingdom Eubacteria

:

E. coli bacteria (yellow) on the head of a needle.

Streptococcus

Classification of Living Things

Domain Bacteria

Kingdom Eubacteria

Cell Type Prokaryotic

Cell Structures Cell walls have peptidoglycan

Number of Cells Unicellular

Nutrition Autotroph or heterotroph

Examples Streptococcus, Escherichia coli

Kingdom Protista

• Cell Type: Eukaryotic

• Cell wall: Cellulose (some)

• Body Type: Unicellular and Multicellular

• Nutrition: Autotrophic and Heterotrophic

• Are Mobile (can move around)

• Examples: paramecium, euglena, algae

What is a Protist?

Kingdom Protista = “Junk Drawer” Kingdom

Protists are eukaryotes that are not members of the Kingdoms Plantae, Animalia, or Fungi.

Prefer to live in moist, aquatic conditions

Classified according to their mode of nutrition:

Heterotrophic (animal-like)

Autotrophic/Photosynthesis (plant-like)

External digestion (fungus-like)

Commonly classified As: protozoa, ameoba, paramecium

Kingdom Fungi• Cell Type: Eukaryotic

• Cell wall contains Chitin

• Body Type: Unicellular and Multicellular

• Nutrition: Heterotrophic

• Are Immobile (cannot move around)

• Examples: yeast, morel, earthstar puffball, bread mold (Rhizophus stolonifer), mushrooms

Kingdom Plantae• Cell Type: Eukaryotic

• Cell wall contains Cellulose

• Body Type: Multicellular

• Nutrition: Autotrophic

• Examples: corn, ferns, roses, pine tree

Kingdom Animalia• Cell Type: Eukaryotic

• Nutrition: Heterotrophic

• Body Type: Multicellular

• Examples: insects, humans, coral, starfish

Importance of bacteria and fungi• Bacteria are helpful and

harmful organisms– Helpful:

1. Food

2. Clean up oil spills

3. Aids in human digestion (E. coli) and other life processes

4. Carry out photosynthesis

5. Decomposers (recycle nutrients)

6. Fix Nitrogen (bacteria live on plant roots & turn nitrogen in air into forms that plants can use to make proteins)

• Fungi play an essential role in maintaining equilibrium in nearly every ecosystem.

– recycle nutrients by breaking down the bodies and wastes of other organisms

Cladograms

• Show shared derived characteristics

• Lungfish, mammals, birds, and lizardsevolved with vertebrate and lungs

• They share these two derived characteristics

• All living organisms share the same molecule of DNA (or genetic information)

What is an Animal?

Characteristics of All Animals

1. Animals are Multicellular

2. Animals are Eukaryotic

3. Animals are Heterotrophs

4. No cell wall

Evolutionary/Developmental Milestones in Animals

1. Cell specialization and levels of

organization. Cells Tissues organs

organ systems organism

2. Development of body symmetry and

segmentation

3. Development of an internal body cavity

and tissue layers

What is homeostasis?

All of the organ systems work together to keep the body in a state of HOMEOSTASIS.

Homeostasis is the process by which an organism maintains a relatively stable internal environment.

ANIMAL BODY SYSTEMSBody systems are all interrelated and work together to perform their functions in animals. Body systems can be organized and studies by these functions:

REGULATION: Excretory & Nervous Systems

NUTRIENT ABSORPTION: Respiration, Digestion, & Circulatory Systems

DEFENSE: Immune, Integumentary, Lymphatic, Skeletal, & Muscular Systems

REPRODUCTION: Reproductive & Endocrine Systems

Animal Systems- Defense! Defense!

Integumentary System

Acts as a protective barrier; helps prevent excess water loss; helps regulate body temperature (sweating and shivering).

Skeletal System

The skeletal system produces immune cells (immune system) to protect against disease causing bacteria and viruses.

These immune cells(white blood cells) are then carried by the circulatory system for the immune response when needed.

The main organs of the skeletal system are the bones. Bones work with muscles to move, protect, and support sensitive internal organs.

Animal Systems- Defense! Defense!

Muscular System

main organs of the muscular system are the muscles. There are 3 types of muscles tissue made up of individual muscle cells, called fibers

Bones and muscles work in opposing pairs to perform body movement. Muscles and bones support, protect, and maintain posture for the human body

coordinates with the nervous system to respond to environment.

Immune/ Lymphatic System

Your skin is your first line of defense. The skin works to keep pathogens out, then the immune system will attack pathogens if they get in

Nutrient Absorption

Digestive

Breaks down food into nutrients like glucose

converts food into simpler molecules that can be used by the cells of the body; absorbs food and eliminates waste

Circulatory

1. Transports O2 & nutrients (sugars, amino acids, hormones) to the cells

2. Carries wastes away from cells

Respiratory

Takes in oxygen

Provides O2 to the blood for cellular respiration in

the cells and removes CO2 from the body

Exchange of gases occurs through the walls of the lungs

Animal Systems-Reproduction

Reproductive

combines genetic information from both parents (in most animals) to produce new life forms.

This system produces sex cells (gametes), delivers them, and protects developing fetus until birth.

Endocrine

regulates long-term changes in the body such as growth and development

It is made up of glands that release their products into the bloodstream

Animal Systems-Regulation

Nervous

maintains homeostasis by controlling and regulating all other parts of the body.

Excretory

regulates the concentration of water and other components of body fluids.

Cellular respiration

What is the equation for Cellular Respiration?

Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy/ATP

What system provides the glucose for this process?

digestive

What system provides the oxygen for this process?

respiratory

Where in the cell does this process occur?

mitochondria

Components of blood and their function

White blood cells

fight off pathogens & destroy bacteria and pathogens

Platelets

help clot blood

Red blood cells

contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen

Plasma

liquid part of blood

Gametes

The female gametes are called ova/eggand are released from the ovaries.

The male gametes are called sperm and are produced in the testes

3 types of Muscles and examples

Skeletal

Skeletal is attached to bones for movement

Cardiac

cardiac muscle is only found in the heart

Smooth

smooth is found lining the blood vessels, stomach, small intestine and diaphragm

The picture to the left is represents the cells of the nervous system which are what?

Neuron!

Skeletal Body System Interactions:

Circulatory System: bones help produce new blood cells in addition to storing minerals transported by the circulatory system.

Muscular System: bones and muscles work in opposing pairs to perform body movement. Muscles and bones support, protect, and maintain posture for the human body.

Nervous System: bones protect many vital organs of the nervous system – Skull (brain), Vertebrae (spinal cord).

Interactions Among Systems to Achieve Nutrient Absorption

Nutrients are obtained from food that the digestive system has broken down. The respiratory system obtains oxygen from the atmosphere. These nutrients are transported by the circulatory system to cell of the body for absorption.

The Endocrine system working with other body systems…

Nervous System: Hormones provide feedback to the brain to affect neural processing.

Reproductive System: hormone production for sexual development to make offspring

Muscular and Skeletal System: endocrine system controls the growth of both bone and muscles

Immune System: the development is controlled by the endocrine system

Digestive System: The endocrine system controls the rate of metabolism

1. Sunlight

2. Water

3. Minerals

4. Gas Exchange

5. Transport of water and nutrients

throughout the plant body Remember Photosynthesis:

6H2O + 6CO2 → C6H12O6 + 6O2

(water + carbon dioxide + sunlight glucose + oxygen)

Plants most likely evolved from an organism

like the freshwater multicelluar green algae

living today.

Plants had to overcome “challenges” as they

moved from water to land:

Adapt to be able to acquire water

Adapt features to transport water

Be able to conserve water more efficiently

Vascular vs. Nonvascular

• VASCULAR PLANTS – Contain tube-like cells for transport• Can grow large and farther away from water source

• NONVASCULAR PLANTS – Don’t contain tube-like cells for transport• Water and nutrients travel by diffusion

and osmosis.

• Small and grows close to water source

4 main plant groups:

Nonvascular

• 1. Bryophytes (Mosses and their relatives)

Vascular (Tracheophytes)

• 2. Seedless Vascular (Ferns and their relatives)

• 3. Seeded Vascular

a) Gymnosperms (cone-bearing plants)

b) Angiosperms (flowering plants)

Same for both:

Eukaryotic

Multicellular

Need water for

reproduction

Moist, shady

habitats

Reproduce with

spores

Photosynthetic

Small size

Non-vascular (don’t have water conducting

tissue)

No true roots, stems, and leaves

Mosses

Vascular

True roots, stems, and leaves

Ferns

Seed plants - gymnosperms• Bear their seeds directly on the surface

of cones.

• Vascular plants

• Gymnosperm means “naked seed”

• Includes conifers such as pines and spruces

Angiosperms – flowering plants

Reproduce using fruits, nuts, or flowers

#10 Difference between gymnosperms and angiosperms?

• Gymnosperms reproduce with cones.

• Angiosperms reproduce with fruits and flowers.

Reproduction of angiosperms

• STAMEN

– MALE PART = ANTHER THAT PRODUCES POLLEN AND THE FILAMENT (STALK THAT SUPPORTS THE ANTHER)

• CARPEL

– FEMALE PART = STICKY STIGMA,TUBELIKE STYLE, AND OVARY WHICH CONTAINS OVULES WITH EGGS INSIDE

• The ovary develops into the fruit

• Can be dry (nuts and grains) or Fleshy (peaches, tomatoes, squash)

• Fruits protect the seeds and aid in dispersal

Pollination – Transfer of pollen from the

stamen to the pistil.

Methods of Pollination:

1. Wind

2. Animals (most are

pollinated by animals)

Pollination Adaptations That Attract Animals:

1. Nectar

2. Petal Color

3. Scent

POLLINATION

Plants have 3 main organs: roots, stems, & leaves

Important Plant Structure Terms

1. Roots-Underground structure that help prevent soil erosion

2. Cuticle- Waxy covering on leaves that prevents water loss

3. Guard Cells- Cells that surround leaf openings that control the amount of transpiration by closing during hot or dry times

4. Mesophyll- The part of leaf where photosynthesis occurs

5. Xylem- Vascular tissue that transports water through the roots, stems and leaves

Important Plant Structure Terms Continued

6. Root Hairs-Tiny projections that increase the surface area for the absorption of water and nutrients from the soil

7. Stomata- Opening found in leaves that allows for gas exchange and transpiration with the environment

8. Phloem- Type of transport tissue that transports food through the leaves, stems and roots

9. Transpiration-Process by which water evaporates from the leaves of plants

How do plants obtain their energy?

• Photosynthesis:

o6H2O + 6CO2 → C6H12O6 + 6O2

(water + carbon dioxide + sunlight glucose + oxygen)REACTANTS PRODUCTS

o Carried out by chloroplasts in the leaves

• Plants also carry out cellular respiration:– Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy (ATP)

REACTANTS PRODUCTS

o Carried out by mitochondria in the cells

What Is Ecology?• Ecology- is the study of the interactions among

organisms and between the organisms and the environments in which they live.

(eco means “house”) .

– Biotic factors – all living things

• Ex. Types of plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, etc.

– Abiotic factors – all non-living things

• Ex. Climate, temperature, amount of rainfall, humidity, light, wind, soil type, nutrients available, etc.

(most specific) Species → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biome → Biosphere (most broad)

Important Ecology Terms

1. Species - Group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and produce fertile offspring.

2. Population - Groups of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area.

Levels of Ecological Organization

3. Communities - Assemblages of different populations that live together in a defined area.

4. Ecosystems – Collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their nonliving, or physical, environment.

5. Biome -- Group of ecosystems that have the same climate and similar dominant communities.

6. Biosphere -- Contains the combined portions of the planet in which all of life exists, including land, water, and air, or atmosphere

Sunlight Producers Consumers Decomposers

Producers: autotrophic organisms that are able to make own food from a inorganic substances.

Ex. Plants, algae (phytoplankton-microscopic marine plant life)

Energy Flow Through an Ecosystem

Consumers:• Consumers: heterotrophic organisms that get energy

by eating producers and other consumers. (ex. Deer, hawk, bear)

Herbivores: eat producers

ex. Deer, grasshopper, cow

Carnivores: eat other consumers

ex. Frog, wolf, hawk

Omnivores: eat producers and consumers

ex. Grizzly bear, humans

Herbivore Carnivore

Omnivore & decomposers

Level of Consumers:Primary consumer Secondary consumer3rd, 4th …level consumer

_______________ __________________

_______________________ can be 1st,2nd or higher level consumer

Sunlight Producers Consumers Decomposers

Decomposers:• Obtain energy from the dead and decaying organisms

(recyclers)

Earthworms and termites(detritivores) also aid in the breakdown of organic matter, which replenishes nutrients to the soil.

•Two Principle Decomposers:

Bacteria and Fungi

Sunlight Producers Consumers Decomposers

Bacteria

Termites

Worms

Fungi

What Do Food Chains and Food Webs Demonstrate?

• Each step in a food chain or web is called a trophic level, or a feeding relationship between organisms.

• Both food chains and food webs show the flow of energy in an ecosystem.

Energy flows from the leaf to the mouse

Energy flows from the snake to the

hawk

Food Chains• Food Chain: one way flow of

energy, illustrates only one feed relationship

• Arrows show the flow of energy and matter

Quaternary

consumers

Tertiary consumers

Secondary

consumers

Primary consumers

Producers

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

Food Webs• Food Web: shows many possible

feeding relationships within an ecosystem

• What if plants were removed?– No energy in system

• What happens to owl population if foxes are killed?– Over populate

When studying the overall health of an

ecosystem, we study food webs.

Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of energy-

used to illustrate the

amount of usable

energy at each trophic

level

Only 10% of the

energy available is

passed on to the next

level…

The other 90% is

given/lost as heat.

Three Types of Symbiotic Relationships

• Mutualism- Both organisms benefit from the relationship

– Bees and flowers

• Parasitism- One organism benefits, and the other is harmed (host)

– Ticks (benefits) and deer (harmed)

• Commensalism- One organism benefits, and the other is neither helped nor harmed

– Barnacles (benefits) and whales (not harmed/nor helped)

Mutualism

• Both organisms benefit from the relationship.

This bird will eat the insects found on the zebras’ body. The bird is high above the ground and has food, the zebra is removed of pests.

Bees receive food, while the flower’s pollen is spread for reproduction.

Parasitism

• One organism benefits, and the other is harmed (host).

Ticks feed on the blood of the host in which they live. The closer together organisms live, the easier these parasites can spread through the population.

Commensalism

• One organism benefits, and the other is neither helped nor harmed.

Barnacles live and grow on the bodies of various ocean organisms, however, they do not cause any harm to them. They do not aid them in any way, though.

The Carbon CycleIn photosynthesis, producers

remove CO2 gas from the atmosphere to make organic molecules (sugars).

Cellular respiration Animals burn the food they eat releasing CO2 gas as a waste product.

Combustion: Burning Fossil Fuels. When they are burned, CO2 gas is returned to the atmosphere and increases the amount of CO2

gas in the air.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Ecological Succession

• Ecosystems are constantly changing in

response to natural and human disturbances.

• As an ecosystem changes, older inhabitants

gradually die out and new organisms move in,

causing further changes in the community.

– Ecological Succession – Series of predictable

changes that occurs in a community over time

Primary Succession

• Soil starts to form as lichens and the

forces of weather and erosion help break

down rocks into smaller pieces

• When lichens die, they decompose,

adding small amounts of organic matter to

the rock to make soil

Lichens

• Fungus + Algae

• Fungus gets food from the algae

• The algae get water and minerals from fungus

Secondary Succession

• Begins in a place that already has soil and

was once the home of living organisms

• A disturbance of some kind changes an

existing community

• Occurs faster and has different pioneer

species than primary succession

• Example: after forest fires