SSPX Seminary Mass Course

8/14/2019 SSPX Seminary Mass Course

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Catholic Liturgics

First Year

General LiturgicsThe Holy Sacrifice of the

MassThe Novus Ordo Miss

prepared from various sourcesfor the use of the First year

at the

Holy Cross Seminary,Goulburn Australia


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1998


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Contents

Introduction........................................................................................................... ............... 1Liturgics as a Science............................................................................. .............................. 1

Division of Liturgics............................................................................................................. .. 1

Chapter One........................................................................................................ ................. 2Survey of the History of Liturgics.................................................................. ........................ 2Ancient Period 2Beginning of Systematic Presentations.................................................... ............................. 2Western Liturgy in the Early Middle Ages..................................................... ......................... 2From the Time of St. Gregory VII to the End of the Middle Ages............................................. 2Modern Period 3

Chapter Two......................................................................................................................... . 4Catholic Liturgy in General.............................................................................................. ...... 4Duty and Species of Divine Worship............................................................................ .......... 4

Chapter Three....................................................................................................................... 5The Subject of Liturgy............................................................................................... ............ 5The Priesthood of Jesus Christ................................................................................... ............ 5The Church 6

Chapter Four....................................................................................................................... .. 7The Nature of Liturgy............................................................................................... ............. 7The application of the subject............................................................................... ................ 7Mediation of Christ in Liturgical Texts.................................................................. .................. 8

Chapter Five.................................................................................................. ....................... 8

Purposes of Liturgy............................................................................................ ................... 8Glorification of God.................................................................................................. ............. 8Sanctification of Men................................................................................. .......................... 10

Chapter Six.................................................................................................................... ...... 10The Manner the Liturgy................................................................................................... ..... 10Symbolism 10Liturgical Art 11Liturgical Language................................................................................... .......................... 12Reasons for the use of Latin......................................................................................... ........ 14Ecclesiastical Chant and Music......................................................................................... .... 14Musical Accompaniment.................................................................................. .................... 16

Action as a Liturgical Expression.......................................................................... ................ 17

Section II................................................................................................ ............................. 20

The Liturgy of the Mass or theSacrifice of the Church.................................................................................... .......................... 20

Chapter Seven........................................................................................................... .......... 20The Concept of Sacrifice................................................................................ ...................... 20

Chapter Eight........................................................................................ .............................. 21The Sacrifice of the Crossand the Institution of the Holy Eucharist..................................................................... ............... 21

The Sacrifice of the Cross.................................................................... ................................ 21The Institution of the Holy Eucharist....................................................... ............................. 21

Chapter Nine............................................................................................. .......................... 22


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Mass in the First Three Centuries................................................................. ........................ 22Apostolic Age 22Later Development................................................................................................ .............. 22

Chapter Ten..................................................................................................... .................... 24The Roman Mass from the Fourth to the Seventh Century............................................... ..... 24

Chapter Eleven..................................................................................................... ............... 25

The Roman Mass from the Seventh Century to 1962..................................................... ....... 25The Leonine Sacramentary............................................................................ ...................... 25The Gelasian Sacramentary.................................................................................. ............... 25The Gregorian Sacramentary............................................................................... ................ 26Development of the Missal................................................................................................. .. 26Roman Missal 26

Chapter Twelve..................................................................................................... ............... 27Names and Species of the Mass.................................................................................... ....... 27Sacrificial Character....................................................................................................... ...... 27Mode of Operation............................................................................................... ................ 28

Chapter Thirteen.................................................................................. ............................... 29Preparation of the Celebrant for Mass............................................................... ................... 29Preparation for the Valid and Licit Celebration of Mass......................................................... 29Preparation for the Worthy celebration of Mass....................................................... ............. 30

Chapter Fourteen............................................................................................................. .... 31The Parts of the Mass....................................................................................................... .... 31Beginning of the Mass......................................................................... ................................ 31Prayers at the Foot of the Altar.................................................................. .......................... 32Incensation 33The Introit 33Kyrie eleison 33Gloria 33The Greeting 34Oration 34Scriptural Lessons and Intervening Chants....................................................................... .... 34The Epistle. 35The Gradual 35The Alleluiatic verse........................................................................................................... .. 35The Tract 35 The Sequences................................................................................................. ................... 36The Gospel 36Credo 37The Offertory 38Incensation and Washing of the Hands................................................................................ . 39

Expression of the Purpose of the Sacrifice.................................................................... ........ 39Secret 40The Consecration.......................................................................................................... ....... 40Preface 40Sanctus 40Canon 41Te igitur 41Memento 41Communicantes.................................................................................................................. . 41Hanc igitur 42Quam oblationem................................................................................................. ............... 42Qui pridie 42

Elevation 43Conclusion of the Canon.................................................................................. .................... 44 The Communion........................................................................................... ....................... 44Agnus Dei 45


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Reception of Holy Communion............................................................................... .............. 45Communion Chant and Postcommunion.............................................................................. . 46 The Postcommunion................................................................................... ......................... 46Conclusion of the Mass................................................................................. ....................... 46Last Gospel 47Thanksgiving of the Celebrant.................................................................... ......................... 47

Section III............................................................................................................................. 48

A Critical Study of the Novus Ordo Miss.................................................. .......................... 48

Chapter Fifteen.................................................................................................... ................ 48An Historical Preponderation........................................................................................ ........ 48The Liturgical Movement...................................................................................................... 48The C.P.L. or Centre de Pastoral Liturgique.......................................................... ................. 49Who was Father Annibale Bugnini?...................................................................................... . 50

Chapter Sixteen.......................................................................................................... ......... 51Vatican II and the Novus Ordo Miss................................................................... ................ 51The document: Sacrosanctum Concilium (a few extracts):................................................... 51

What did the Liberals think of this document?................................................................... ... 52Why was the Novus Ordo Missae Instituted?....................................................... ................. 52

Chapter Seventeen.................................................................................................. ............ 54A Critical study of the Novus Miss in Specie............................................... ....................... 54The Mass, Sacrifice or Supper........................................................................... ................... 54The Purpose of the Mass........................................................................................ .............. 54

The Whole Purpose of the Sacrifice........................................................................................ .... 55The realisation of the Sacrifice............................................................................... .............. 57The New Canons........................................................................................................ .......... 59The Borrowing from eastern Rites?......................................................... ............................. 59Reasons of Unity........................................................................................ .......................... 59

Chapter Eighteen............................................................................................ .......................... 60A Look at the Change in Orations................................................................................ ......... 60


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Introduction

Liturgics as a Science

Division of Liturgics

Liturgics, or the science of liturgy, is the systematically arranged and scientifically substanti-ated presentation of that activity of the Church known as liturgy. Liturgy, however, as will beexplained later, is according to its internal nature nothing else than the continuation of thepriesthood of Jesus Christ. It receives its external character from the official rites which areregulated by the laws of the Church.

As a descriptive science liturgics must not content itself with an explanation of religious ritesaccording to their structure and historical development. It must seek also to establish themeaning and import of each act of worship in its relation to the priesthood of Jesus Christ. As apositive science, liturgics, like all theological sciences, recognises as primary sources Sacred

Scripture, tradition and the teaching office of the Church; as secondary sources, the history ofreligion, experience and reason.

The name liturgics (scientia, theologia liturgica) has come into use in modern times. In thelatter half of the sixteenth century the writings of George Cassander ( 1566) and James Pamelius( 1587) prepared the way for its use. But it was not until the Benedictine Martin Gerbert, laterPrince Abbot of St. Blaise in the Black Forest ( 1793), had published his work Principia theologiaeliturgicae (1759), that the term received general acceptance. Soon afterward, the name wasgiven to the corresponding branch of theology - at that time a part of pastoral theology, whichhad just become independent. It is the purpose of the latter to present the entire activity of theChurch, by which she perpetuates the threefold office of Jesus Christ: the teaching office of theChurch is treated in catechetics and homiletics, the pastoral office in pastoral theology in thestrict sense, and the priestly office in liturgics and subsidiary branches.

As subsidiary branches liturgical history and the science of rubrics have done good service.Through numerous monographs the former contributed toward the scientific upbuilding of li-turgics; the latter directly aids the ministry in a practical manner, inasmuch as it leads to thecorrect execution of all religious rites by means of the so-called rubrics. The rubrics are briefregulations originally written in red (rubrica) in liturgical books. Already by the 1930s frequentattempts were made to separate the practical element from the science of liturgy and to give thelatter an independent position. The presentation of that which pertains to the pastoral office inliturgical acts was called "pastoral liturgics". Great dangers lie in this. The Liturgy, as we willshow, pertains firstly and foremostly to divine adoration. Reducing it to a merely pastoral toolwill, and did, cause it to become man-centred and loose its reason of being.

Since preaching is the most important element of divine service among Protestants, they givethe first place among the subjects of practical theology to homiletics. Their liturgics deals merelywith the purely formal "elements of the Christian cult" which still remain, in so far as they "are

determined by and for the worshiping community." c. G. Rietschel, Lehrbuch der Liturgik I(Berlin, 1900).

Liturgy embraces the entire public worship of the Church, her service of prayer, sacrifice andsacraments. Naturally this worship finds expression in sacred rites that have a relation to placeand time.We will divide our studies in the next three years as follows:

Liturgy I: a. The Principles of Catholic liturgy.b. The liturgy of the Mass or the sacrifice of the Church.c. The problems and errors of the Novus Ordo Missae.

Liturgy II: a. Liturgical prayer or Breviary of the Church.b. Liturgical time and seasons.

Liturgy III: The Ritual or liturgy of the sacraments and sacramentals.

This order is most in keeping with the practical needs of candidates for the priesthood intoday's modern world. Before minor orders, they require a knowledge of liturgy in general and an


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overview of the Mass and the evilness of the Novus ordo Missae. This is of capital importancebecause of the present crises in the Church. After this they must be instructed in the liturgy ofthe Divine Office, the official prayer of the Church. After this they need to see the liturgy of thesacraments and sacramentals. Besides, the particular parts of liturgy are so closely connectedthat there are certain things which liturgics can present only in their organic relation to oneanother; otherwise it would have to anticipate what is essential or engage in needless repetition.

For instance, though the Mass prayers properly belong to the prayer of the Church, they arebetter treated together with the Sacrifice of the Mass.

Chapter One

Survey of the History of Liturgics

Ancient Period. Because of the great persecutions, the first four centuries of the Christianera offer no systematic treatment of all the elements of divine service. Still there are not wantingoccasional remarks of great value on particular liturgical practices, such as are found in theDidache, in the first epistle of Clement of Rome to the Corinthians, in the first Apology of themartyr and philosopher St. Justin, and in the works of the apologist Tertullian and of St. Cyprian,

Bishop of Carthage. Valuable testimony concerning the ancient liturgy is also preserved in the so-called Church Ordinances, which are in great measure ascribed to the Apostles or even to ChristHimself. Such is the writing formerly called the Egyptian Church Ordinance, and now regarded asidentical with the Apostolic Tradition of St. Hippolyte of Rome; such also are the so-calledApostolic Constitutions and the Syriac Testament of the Lord. Of very great value also is the diaryof the Western pilgrim Etheria concerning the religious practices in vogue in the Holy Landtoward the end of the fourth century

Beginning of Systematic Presentations. At about the end of the fourth century, asystematic presentation of liturgy had its rise, though at first it served merely practical purposes.It was the purpose of the catechumenate to teach the neophytes the sacraments and theSacrifice of the Mass. Such catechetical discourses of St. Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem ( 386, PGr,33, 1065-1128), and of St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan ( 397, PL, 16, 389-410), have been

preserved to posterity. Soon afterward liturgy rose to a certain degree of perfection at theimperial court of Byzantium. This fact led the ecclesiastical writers of the Orient to describe theentire liturgical service in a systematic manner for the other faithful as well as for the newlyconverted. Since the allegorical method of interpreting Scripture was so much in vogue at thetime, it is not strange that the allegorico-mystical interpretations should also have been preferredin the explanation of the liturgy. Thus, for instance, about the year 500 the Pseudo-AreopagiteDionysius conceived the priestly office of the Church on earth as imitating the worship of theheavenly choirs and as having for its purpose the union of man with God (PGr, 3, 121-584). Hewas followed by St. Sophronius of Jerusalem ( 638), St. Maximus Confessor ( 663, PGr, 91, 658)and Nicholas Bulgaris ( 1718), St. Germanus of Constantinople ( 740), St. Theodore of Studium( 826) and many others. In the Church of Syria the great attention given to worship alsooccasioned a series of commentaries of an allegorical nature; such are, among the West Syrians,the works of James of Edessa ( 708) and Dionysius bar Salibi ( 1171), and among the East

Syrians, those of Narsai ( 506) and Ps.-Georgius of Arbela (tenth century). The allegorico-mystical method prevailed in the Orient down to Modern times and even rose to a certainprominence there through Nicholas Kabasilas ( 1371), Symeon of Tessalonica ( 1429) andNicholas Bulgaris ( 1684?).

Western Liturgy in the Early Middle Ages. Allegorico-mystical explanations also arose inthe West, but in the beginning at least they kept within moderate bounds. Thus Ps.-Germanus ofParis ( after 576, PL, 72, 89 s.) wrote a short and simple exposition of the Gailican liturgy.Similarly, it is the intention of St. Isidore of Seville ( 636, PL, 83, 737 ss.) in his two books Deecclesiasticis officiis to give an explanation of liturgy in general, and Spanish liturgy in particular,as a help in the necessary instruction of the clergy; his explanation is for the most part historical.Both still adhere to the traditional explanations. A different course, however, is followed byAmalarius of Metz ( about 850). In his four books De ecclesiasticis officiis, which he presented to

the Emperor Louis the Pious in 823, he gives a free allegorical interpretation of the principalelements of the liturgy; in the dedication of his work to the emperor he states that he did notfollow previous authors, but wrote down his own thoughts. He makes his own the words of St.Paul: "The manifestation of the Spirit is given to every man unto profit" (I Cor. 12; 7). Being asked


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at the Synod of Quierzy in regard to the authorities to which he could appeal, he answered that"he had read everything in his own mind." His many arbitrary explanations were vehementlyattacked for a time, for instance, by the deacon Florus in his writing De divina psalmodia (PL,104, 335 ss.) and by Bishop Agobard of Lyons in two characteristic treatises (PL, 104 and 119, 71ss.). Among later liturgists, however, they met with approval and were imitated. From about thesame time two other important works have been preserved: one is a short treatise on liturgical

matters, composed by Rabanus Maurus, lector at the monastic school in Fulda and later Arch-bishop of Mayence ( 856); the other is a history of liturgical practices, written by Walafrid Strabo,Abbot of Reichenau ( 849), and entitled: De exordiis et incrementis quarundam inobservationibus ecclesiasticis rerum (PL, 114, 919 ss.). The latter is a totally independent andvery remarkable work for that period.

From the Time of St. Gregory VII to the End of the Middle Ages. The pontificate of St.Gregory VII (1073-1085) was very important for the liturgy of the West. Before this time Germaninfluence was exerted upon the liturgy of Italy, but now efforts were made to rid the Church of it.Pope Gregory VII turned against the distortions of the ancient Roman liturgy by the Germans. ThePope thought that they had unduly shortened the venerable night Office, and had likewise madeunwarranted additions. He eliminated the supposed additions and abridgements, and urged theacceptance of his reforms throughout Italy, France and Spain. Soon afterward a German, veryprobably the Benedictine Bernold of Constance ( 1100), wrote a short but excellent and veryinfluential work, the Micrologus, entirely along the lines of Gregory's efforts at reform. In thiswork he advocated the closest possible adherence to the Roman rite and also the acceptance ofthe Gregorian reforms in Germany.

The great Scholastics dealt with liturgical questions principally from the viewpoint of thedogmatic foundation of divine worship; thus, for instance, Alexander of Hates ( 1245) and St.Thomas of Aquin ( 1274). In comparison with his contemporaries, St. Albert the Great ( 1280) isvery moderate in the use of allegorical interpretations; in his Opus de mysterio Missae he statesthat he prefers to leave these things to others who understand them better ("alia sublimiamelioribus linquendo"). Among the advocates of the allegorical and moralising method ofexplaining the liturgy were the Abbot Rupert of Deutz ( 1135), the Parisian professor of theologyJohn Beleth (wrote about 1160), Bishop Sicard of Cremona ( 1215), Cardinal Hugh of St. Cher (1263), the erstwhile professor of jurisprudence at Bologna and Bishop of Mende, William

Durandus ( 1296). The work of the last mentioned, Rationale divinorum officiorum, contains al-most all the symbolic-mystical significations of the liturgy and in this respect is still of value. Itwas of much greater value in his own day, for the reason that it provided the numerous canons ofthe time with the most varied incentives to a devout execution of the Canonical Hours. Numerouseditions of this work have appeared since the invention of the art of printing.

Besides the aforementioned work of Albert the Great, the treatise of Pope Innocent III, Dealtaris mysterio (PL, 217, 763 ss.), the Expositio Missae of the renowned Carthusian, Denis Ryckel( 1471), and an exposition of the prayers of the Canon by the professor of Tuebingen, GabrielBiel ( 1495), contributed to a better understanding of the Mass. It was still during the pontificateof Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) that the Office "according to the custom of the Roman Curia"was adopted by the newly founded Franciscan Order, and was diffused throughout the Church.This circumstance resulted in the temporary revival of Gregorian chant. But in the late middle

ages the ancient Roman practices again gave way more and more to new customs. Ralph ofTongres ( 1403), the last important liturgist of the middle ages, particularly warned against thistendency, but it was all in vain (De canonum observantia, ed. K. Mohlberg, Muenster, 1915).

Modern Period. Attacks by Luther and Zwingli on the apostolic origin of Catholic worshipwere the occasion of a revival of liturgical studies from new points of view. The expansion of theart of printing, Humanism, and later the general zeal for Church reform which was aroused by theCouncil of Trent, likewise exerted a favorable influence.

Special chapters of the new catechisms were devoted to liturgy, and an exposition of theSacrifice of the Mass (Rational teutsch ueber das Amt der heiligen Mess) was published in 1535by Bishop Berthold of Chiemsee (1542). The publication of the translation of some liturgicaltexts from the Latin also had for their purpose to increase the interest of the faithful in theSacrifice of the Mass.

In opposition to the attacks of the Protestants, scientific research rightly followed the

historical path and acquired new weapons by the collection and republication of the most ancientliturgical documents. Though the first attempts were still imperfect and frequently brought forthuntrustworthy material, more recent times witnessed the production of important and often trulymonumental works. Of this nature are the liturgical collections of Melchior Hittorp of Cologne,


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Edmond Martene of the Benedictine Congregation of St. Maurus, the erudite librarian LouisMuratori, Cardinal Thomasius and Abbot Gerbert of St. Blaise; the editions of Oriental liturgies bythe Dominican Goar, the Orientalist Renaudot and J. S. and J. A. Assemani; the commentaries onliturgical books by Gavanti, Quarti, Catalani and Cardinal Bona; finally, the critical presentationsor researches of de Vert, Lebrun, Georgi, Zaccaria and Krazer. Though rationalism for a timediverted the attention of liturgists to the didactic element of Christian worship, the historical

element was far from being forgotten, thanks to the rise of historical studies at the beginning ofthe nineteenth century. For instance, the important work of Father Binterim, Die vorzueglichstenDenkwuerdigkeiten der christkatholischen Kirche (17 vols., Mainz, 1825-41), contains abundantmaterial of an archeological nature.

Liturgical studies were popularised in the nineteenth century in no small degree by suchworks as Gueranger's L'annee liturgique (twenty-sixth edition, Tours, 1919; English translation,15 vols.) This Benedictine Abbot of Solesmes (1875), likewise aroused interest in the scientificresearch of liturgy.

Chapter Two

Catholic Liturgy in General

Duty and Species of Divine Worship

Duty of Divine Worship. Everyone who has come to the knowledge of God realises that theCreator is the ultimate reason for the existence of all creatures, and that He must be glorified byall in some manner. Irrational creatures attain this purpose by the very fact that they are in theworld in accordance with the will of God, and develop their natural powers; they thereby reflectthe power and the greatness of God and contribute their share toward His glory, in the mannerthat is proper to them.

The case is different with rational and free creatures. As the noblest creature on earth, man

has, according to his nature and the intention of the Creator, the (natural) duty to direct to theglory of God not only the powers of his body, but also the faculties of his soul. He does this, in thefirst place, by mediately referring to God all the activities that primarily serve his own welfare orthat of his fellow-men; then also, by exercising these in conscious subordination to the will ofGod, or by offering them up for the glory of God by a so-called good intention. But this is not all.He must also glorify God directly by special acts and, since he is by nature a social being, hemust unite himself with others in performing acts of immediate divine worship. Furthermore, onaccount of the serious defection of man from God, and his redemption through the divine mercyand goodness, the obligation of giving immediate and public worship to God has become muchmore urgent. It is clearly defined in the revelation of both the Old and the New Testament. It issufficient to recall here the first three of the Ten Commandments of God, the perfectly developedJewish cult which was prescribed by God Himself, the warnings of the Psalmist (c. Ps. 21; 23 _.)

and of the prophets (e.g. Is. 66; 21 _.), the teaching of Jesus Christ and the Apostles (Matt. 6; 5 _.: 7; 7 _. : Rom. 1; 21).It is a serious error, therefore, to reject such divine worship. Kant and David Hume refused to

recognise the special worship of God as obligatory. Recent Theosophists have thought that theycould substitute devout intuition or emotion. Modernists must logically deny the duty ofworshiping God on account of their denial of the existence of a true and objective God.

Species of Divine Worship. Divine worship is that cult which directly and by its very natureseeks the glorification of God and directly dedicates our faculties to God, for instance, the wordsof a prayer or the symbolical acts of a sacrifice. Cult (from colere sc. Deum) signifies the act ofreligion, through which man recognises God as his sovereign Lord, gives Him due honour andseeks to become pleasing to Him. Every man must come to understand that he is dependent onGod. From the understanding of this dependence arise acts of adoration, praise, thanksgiving,petition and atonement. The goal of all acts of worship is to approach nearer to God and to beunited more intimately with Him. In as much as man by acts of worship dedicates himself and hisfaculties to God, he honours God as his Creator, gives homage to Him and at the same timedraws upon himself divine favour and grace.

The continual effort to serve God by special acts of worship constitutes the virtue of religion


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(virtus religionis) in the strict sense.Acts of worship must above all be internal, that is, they must spring from knowledge and free

will. Only as human acts (actus humani) are they of any meritorious value before God. This truthis repeatedly expressed in the Old Testament through the prophets (c. 1 Kings 15; 22 : Is. 58; 6),but especially in the New Testament through Christ and the Apostles (c. John 4; 23 : Matt. 15; 7_.).

If these acts are to correspond still more perfectly with the mind of the Creator, and theobligation of man, who is composed of body and soul, they must also be external. The Son ofGod, our Saviour Jesus Christ, has made the divine will clear in this regard. He Himself appearedon earth in human flesh, not as a pure spirit, and offered up to His heavenly Father an externaland visible sacrifice for the redemption of mankind; furthermore, He instituted a visible Churchand visible means of sanctification.

External cult is nothing but a natural unfolding or perfecting of internal worship. The latter isintensified by reason of its natural connection with the former (c. St. Thom. IIa IIae, q.81, art.7).External cult, therefore, in no wise restrains or debases internal worship; it rather reacts upon thesoul in a manner that is at once enlivening, stimulating and strengthening.

Finally, the cult which most perfectly corresponds with the duty of man is public worship; inother words, it must unite worshipers in common and public expressions of divine worship. This is

not only based on human nature, which requires the united action of society in all importantmatters, but is likewise shown by Christ Himself to express the will of God. Indeed, it wasparticularly for the purpose of giving public worship to God that Christ founded the Church andentrusted to it the continuance of His priesthood. Every public worship presupposes three things:a particular place for carrying out the liturgy, the appointment of certain times for divine serviceand the designation of an official mediator, of a priest. In regard to the last, our Lord Himselfassumed the office of representing His Church and, as the mediator of all the faithful of the entireworld, exercised His priesthood upon the cross. But since His ascension into heaven, He permitsHis priesthood to be continued by human beings, to whom He has communicated a certainresemblance with Himself. These are also priests, and they act in the name of Christ as Hisvicars. (c. Conc. Trid. sess. XXII c.1 s.; St. Thom. IIa IIae q 81, 100, 180-189; likewise J. M.Hanssens, S.J., De Natura liturgiae ad mentem S. Thomae (Periodica de re morale, canonica,liturgica, XXIV, 127 _.))

Chapter Three

The Subject of Liturgy

The Priesthood of Jesus Christ, the primary subject of liturgy. The Jews of the OldTestament had a public worship at which priests officiated; these were recognised, and evenappointed, as in the case of Aaron and his sons, by God Himself. But all divine worship of the OldLaw, even that performed by the kings and patriarchs, was of value only by reason of its relationto the future Saviour (Hebr. 10). The priest who by nature was pleasing and acceptable to Godcould be no other than Jesus Christ, the Son of God, after He had assumed human nature in the

fullness of time. To Him naturally belong the vocation and the authority to represent mankind asprincipal Mediator before God, to give due homage to God and thereby to reconcile God withmankind and apply supernatural graces to men. Christ in human form did not merely bestow di-vine favours upon individuals on various occasions during His early life, nor did He merely offer toGod for Himself and others acts of homage by prayers and works of love. He was a true priestand exercised His office by priestly acts. By a vicarious act of homage, the Sacrifice of the Cross,Christ voluntarily offered to God for all mankind His own flesh and blood and His very life. ThusHe brought redemption in an objective sense to the entire world. Jesus Christ is, therefore, calleda Priest in Sacred Scripture; "a Priest forever according to the order of Melchisedech" (Hebr. 5; 6),and the High priest Who gave up His life "that He might be a propitiation for the sins of thepeople" (Hebr. 2; 17). He Himself declared: "The Son of Man is not come to be ministered unto,but to minister and to give His life a redemption for many" (Matt. 20; 28); and: "Therefore doththe Father love Me, because I lay down My life .... No man taketh it away from Me, but I lay it

down of Myself" (John 10; 17 f.). St. Paul, however, admonishes us: "Walk in love, as Christ alsohath loved us and hath delivered Himself for us, an oblation and a sacrifice to God for an odour ofsweetness" (Eph. 5; 2).

Since perfect worship, as stated above, must be both internal and external, the priestly


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function of Jesus Christ does not merely consist in the internal act of freely submitting His will andgiving obedience to His heavenly Father, however important and meritorious this act really is(Hebr. 10). Essentially connected with it is the Passion of the God-man on the cross. This externalact of supreme love, was determined by the will of God, by the "commandment" which Christ"received of the Father" (John 10; 18).

The Priesthood of Christ in His Church. The redemption is concluded as a historical event

and an objectively meritorious act. Christ "dieth now no more" (Rom. 6; 9), as St. Paul says, andstill, according to the words of the same Apostle, He "hath an everlasting priesthood, whereby Heis able also to save forever them that come to God by Him" (Hebr. 7; 24 f.). For the subjectiveapplication of the merits of the redemption He arranged that His priesthood be continued by per-sons whom He specially calls to intercede for the faithful. These persons, who have acquired acertain resemblance with Christ by definite consecratory acts, are empowered to offer to Godanew and repeatedly and in a sacramental manner, as a pleasing sacrifice, the substance ofChrist's human nature, His body and blood, and in truth the very Sacrifice of Christ upon thecross. He has, therefore, not only redeemed all men in an objective manner, but as High priestHe also applies the fruits of His redemption through the instrumentality of human ministers;furthermore, He stands out as the principal minister of all official worship in His Church, the onlycult that is of any value.

Jesus Christ in His human nature is, accordingly, the primary subject of that worship which wecall liturgy, not indeed in His natural condition, as on Calvary, but in a sacramental state, as inthe cenacle of Jerusalem, where He anticipated the Sacrifice of the Cross in an unbloody manner.Thus He cooperates as High priest in every Sacrifice of the Mass celebrated in His Church, inorder to apply to all generations the fruits of the Sacrifice of the Cross. St. Thomas (S.Th.III q.83,art.1 ad 2 et 3) says that, as human priests bear in themselves the sacramental image of Christ,they also pronounce the words of consecration "in the person and by the power of Christ" - "Andthus in a certain respect the priest and victim are identical." And the Council of Trent (sess. XXIIc.2) declares: "It is one and the same victim (that is, Christ in the Sacrifice of the Mass), the sameWho now offers Himself through the ministry of priests, but then offered Himself on the cross, foronly the manner of offering is different." Similarly it is Christ Who "baptises" (1 Cor. 1 and 3; 5 :Eph. 5; 26) and administers the other sacraments through the instrumentality of human priests(Catech. Roman.11; 1,23); furthermore, He offers to His heavenly Father in union with His

redeeming sacrifice all the prayers and sacrifices of His Church (Hebr. 7; 24 . : 9; 24 : 1 John 2; 1: Rom. 8; 34 : Apoc. 5).

It is important to note that this priestly activity of Christ in the Church on earth is not merelyto be regarded as a continuous and eternal act, which was performed but once by the glorifiedChrist. It is rather a sacramental act continually renewing the act of redemption. In performing it,the eternal High priest does not merely act through representatives (remote agens), like a richman who distributes alms through his servants; but He Himself (actu et proxime agens)determines the essential action which both honours God and sanctifies men. As the true "Ministerof all the faithful" (Hebr. 8; 2). He is active, as it were, in the midst of the Church and is thereforerightly styled the principal priest or the primary subject of liturgy.

The Church, the secondary subject of liturgy. She is the Mystical body, having as hermembers all those for whose salvation Christ assumed the priesthood. At Baptism, through

sanctifying grace, which confers upon the soul a permanent, supernatural habitus or state, andthrough the increase or restoration of sanctifying grace at the reception of the other sacraments,He unites most intimately with Himself the individual members of the Church. It is this mysticalunion of the soul of the Christian with Christ by grace which is meant in the Gospel of St. John,when the Lord admonishes His disciples to remain always united with Him, as the branches mustremain joined to the vine if they are to bear fruit (John 15, 4). It is the basis of the doctrine of theChurch as the Mystical Body of Christ. The members of the Church are called by St. Paulmembers of Christ's Body: Christ is their "Head," He is the "corner-stone" upon which they are tobe framed together in the Holy Ghost and grow up with Christ "into a holy temple of God" (Eph.1; 22 : 2; 5 f. : 2; 21 f. : 4; 11 & 16). According to the Apostle, Christ is "the Head of the body ofthe Church"; "it hath well pleased the Father ... through Him to reconcile all things unto Himself,... both as to the things that are on earth and the things that are in heaven" (Col. 1; 19 . : Rom.12; 5). The members of the Church "are all one in Christ Jesus" (Gal. 3; 8), Who "is able to saveforever them that come to God by Him" ' (Hebr. 7; 25). "As in Adam [that is, in consequence ofnatural generation from Adam who sinned) all die, so also in Christ [that is, through thesupernatural, mystical union with Him all shall be made alive" (1 Cor. 12; 22 : c. 12, 12 .). Inline with this idea, St. Augustine addresses the faithful in these words: "Be ye filled with


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admiration: rejoice. We are of Christ. For if He is the Head, we are the members.... What is theHead and the members? Christ and the Church" (Tract. 21 in Joann. 8).

All Christians who are mystically united with Christ through sanctifying grace, resemble Himby reason of the baptismal character and are already in a certain respect images of Christ.Hence, every Christian can and should in a certain manner participate in the liturgy. The prayersof the Church mention them as attendants ("circumstantes") at the sacrifice, but also as

cooperators in offering it (c. "Offerimus" and "suscipiamur a te," at the Offertory of the Mass;"Hanc igitur oblationem servitutis nostrae sed et cunctae familiae tuae .... Unde et memores,Domine, nos servi tui, sed et plebs tua sancta" in the Canon of the Mass), and urge them throughthe Oremus to join in prayer, and through theAmen to affirm and corroborate the liturgical acts.Moreover, the laws of the Church assign to inferior clerics certain duties about the altar, andfrequently requires lay members of religious societies to recite the Divine Office.

Christ, however, also instituted in His Church a special priesthood, which resembles His ownby reason of the indelible character conferred by the sacrament of Holy Orders (ordination ofdeacons, priests and bishops). To this special priesthood are entrusted the most importantliturgical acts, especially the celebration of Holy Mass. It belongs to the Church to regulate themanner of carrying out these acts. Those persons, however, who possess priestly power byreason of ordination, perform the essential acts of the liturgy in the name of Christ, with Whomthey are intimately united, and in the name of the Church, which has commissioned them for thispurpose. The non-essential acts, that is, the numerous ceremonies which accompany theessential acts, were later added by the Church in virtue of a divinely constituted authority. Theyare performed only in the name of the Church, by priests who are mystically united with Christand resemble Him on account of the character of Holy Orders. The teaching of the Churchregards the priests as instrumental causes, not as material instruments in the hands of Christ orof the Church, but as intellectual and free agents carrying out the externals of the liturgyaccording to the will of Christ and of the Church, just as the Sacrifice of Christ on the cross had itsexternal element, so also for the continuance of the priesthood of Christ on earth an externalelement, perceptible to the senses, is required. This is provided by the human priests asinstruments of Christ and of the Church. This is particularly their, function, their ministry, theirpriestly office.

Testimony of Tradition. St. Augustine writes of Christ's priesthood in the Church: "One and

the same Saviour prays for us and prays in us.... He prays for us as our Priest, He prays in us asour Head" (Enarr. in Ps. 85). Elsewhere he states: "It is He (Christ) Who baptises, nor has He, asPetilian says, ceased to baptise, but He still does this, not through the ministry of His corporealnature, but by an invisible act of authority" (Contra litt. Pet. 3; 49, 59). In ancient and modernliturgical texts there are frequent references to the priesthood of Christ. Thus on ordinarySundays after the Sanctus, according to the Missale Gothicum (Thomasius 386), the celebrant ofthe ancient Gallican Mass continued: "Truly holy and blessed is our Lord Jesus Christ Thy Son,Who came from heaven that He might live on earth, became man that He might dwell among us,and became a victim that He might make us priests." The Preface for the Tuesday after Eastercontains the following: "... through Christ our Lord, Who abolished the sacrifice of carnal victims,and appeared as Priest and sacred Lamb in offering Himself for our salvation... ." The hymn Adregias Agni dapes, dating from the sixth century and recited at Vespers and Matins during Easter-

tide, is especially significant in this connection; the second stanza represents Him as personifiedlove sacrificing His body and giving His sacred blood to drink in the Eucharist, while the eleventhrefers to Him as the eternal Shepherd cleansing His flock from sin in the water of Baptism.


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Chapter Four

The Nature of Liturgy

The application of the subject. "And I, if I be lifted up from the earth, will draw all things toMyself" (John 12; 32). By these words, according to the explanation given in Sacred Scripture(John 12; 33), Christ indicated the character of His death. But according to Pope Leo the Greatthese words imply much more. They express the fact that the cult of the New Testament is visibleand perfect (Plenum et apertum sacramentum), in contradistinction to the obscure and typicalcult of the Old Law; that it unites the faithful of all the nations of the world and leads them toheavenly glory by admitting them to a share in the great work of redemption, the bloodySacrifice of Jesus Christ (Serm 8, 12, 32). It has already been pointed out that the Christian cult orliturgy is nothing else than a most extensive application of the priesthood of Jesus Christ. Thispriesthood is the same which Christ exercised in shedding His blood upon the cross andcontinues according to fixed rites through human representatives, the priests of His Church, forthe glory of God and the salvation of the faithful united with Christ. We may therefore, defineliturgy as:

The public worship of the Church, through which the priesthood of Jesus Christ iscontinued, the work of redemption is renewed, the greatest glory is given toGod through Christ, and the grace of redemption is communicated to thefaithful who unite themselves with Christ.

Etymologically liturgy signifies either a duty or a service for the welfare of the community,that is, a service in the interest of the public. In the Septuagint the word is already used for thesacrifices of the Jewish cult (c. Exod. 28; 39; 29 : 30; 39, 13 : Joel 1; 3 : 1 Par. 23; 28); in the New

Testament for the priestly activity of Jesus Christ (Hebr. 8; 6; c. 5, 1). Accordingly, Christianantiquity made use of the same expression for the sacrificial ministry of Christian priests at thealtar (Clement of Rome, Ad Cor. 44; 3). Down to the present day, the Eastern Church haspreserved it to designate only the Sacrifice of the Mass; in the West, however, since the middle of

the sixteenth century the Latin word liturgia has been accepted in a broader sense and signifiesall acts of public worship of the Church.Union with Christ is the essence of liturgy. Christ is its primary subject, the Church its

secondary subject. Individual Christians who perform liturgical acts or participate in them are byreason of sanctifying grace the mystical members of the Body of Christ; by reason of thecharacter of Baptism and Confirmation - they are in greater or lesser degree likenesses of Christ.By reason however of Holy Orders, the individual does not compare in degree to those Baptisedor confirmed, but has a special relation with Christ, which theology speaks of as an "alterChristus". Furthermore, Christ's presence is brought about:a) Through the most important liturgical act, the Sacrifice of the Mass, Christ becomes

substantially present in His human nature, though concealed under the sacramental species.Thus He not only assumes a permanent character, but also takes part in an act of greatestvalue. The Council of Trent (sess. XIII c. I de Euch.) expresses the same idea by the words"truly, really and substantially" (vere, realiter et substantialiter). The words of theConsecration of the Mass cause the body and blood of Christ to become present upon thealtar in a sacramental manner under separate species; the act of consecration at the sametime represents the work of redemption, the Passion and death of Christ. More concerningthis matter will be considered in treating the Sacrifice of the Mass.

b) In all sacraments Christ is truly active in the production of grace, that is, in imparting orincreasing sanctifying grace, through which a vital union with Himself is established. Thusevery time a sacrament is conferred, He becomes, as it were, actually present inasmuch asHe imparts the grace by means of the sacramental sign (in virtute gratiae et in signosacramenti).

c) Christ also distributes His grace to the recipients or participants of the sacramentals andother liturgical acts, especially in those who take part in the Divine Office. He gives His grace

on account of the ecclesiastical institution of these liturgical acts. Here, too, we can speak ofChrist being present in signo, since the efficacy is dependent upon the observance of certainexternal rites. In the work De Sacramentis (11, 5, 14) we read: "There the eternal Word ispresent, where He operates." Frequently the sacred minister is regarded as symbolising


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Christ, or even certain objects (the Gospel-book, bread and Wine, the altar, the crucifix) cansymbolize Him. At least the external element of the liturgical act is a sign symbolising thehuman nature of Christ. According to the teaching of the Church, however, grace is notalways imparted (ex opere operato), but it is conferred in accordance with the internalcooperation of the recipient (ex opereoperantis) and is increased on account of the dignityand meritoriousness of the act as an action of the Church (quasi ex opere operato).

d) Finally, both liturgical places and seasons are sanctified by the presence of Christ: the formerby His substantial presence perpetuated in the tabernacle, as well as by His actual presencein the production of grace; the latter by the repeated commemoration of all the importantevents connected with our salvation, as well as by the frequent repetition of those actsthrough which grace is imparted.It is evident, then, that a regulation of the liturgy by the Church is essential. At the Last

Supper Christ said to the Apostles and their successors: "Do this in commemoration of Me." They,therefore, had to observe the rites which Christ had determined. Without being empowered byChrist Himself, no one has the right to perform, alter or add to the rites of the Church. The Churchalone has the right to make additions. Her laws alone can establish a liturgy which is productiveof grace and unites the faithful, with Christ and thus perpetuating His priesthood. A cult notregulated by the Church is merely a private cult.

Besides, as will be stressed again later, exterior signs (signa externa) are characteristic ofCatholic liturgy. Their visible elements are signs of the internal workings of grace. We usuallyspeak of such productions of grace on the part of God by means of symbolical rites as mystical ormysteries. In this broad sense of the term, Catholic liturgy itself is frequently and quite properlycalled Mysterium.

Mediation of Christ in Liturgical Texts. The central position of the mediation of Christ inthe liturgy is evident from the fact that every prayer of the Roman rite concludes with a referenceto Him "per Christum Dominum nostrum" (or a similar expression). The sign of the cross at thebeginning and end of prayers and in the various blessings of the Church is an expression ofconfidence, even without the utterance of a word, in the mediation of the crucified Saviour. Thedoxologies or the praises of God in use in the Old Testament, as for instance, "Blessed be theLord God of Israel" (Ps. 105; 48), were transformed by the Church in the apostolic age to a formlike: "Glory be to the Father through the Son together with the Holy Spirit" (c. Rom. 11; 36 : 16;

27 : Gal. 1; 5 : 2 Cor. 13; 13). The greater doxology, the Gloria of the Mass, is a notable exampleof such a development; originally it was an ancient hymn to the Messias (J.Brinktrine, Roem.Quartalschr. 35, 303-315), then it was changed into a hymn for Matins in the Eastern Church(Const. Apost. 7; 47), and finally it developed in its second part into a solemn invocation of JesusChrist as the only-begotten Son of God, Who takes away our sins and graciously hears our prayer.This doxology appears in the East before the Communion in a shorter form, symbolising in unionwith the cries of "Holy" and "Hosanna" a rebirth or new manifestation of Christ. At the end of theconsecratory prayer the bishop refers to holy Communion in the words: "Holy thing's to the holy."The faithful then continue as follows; "One Holy, one Lord, Jesus Christ, in the glory of God theFather, blessed art Thou forever. Amen. Glory to God in the highest and on earth peace, good willamong men; Hosanna to the Son of David. Blessed is He Who cometh in the name of the Lord,Lord and God, and He appeared among us; Hosanna in the highest."

The Roman rite recalls the birth of Christ at the beginning of the Mass. In Masses of feasts,the Gloria in excelsis Deo immediately follows the Kyrie, while the cries of "Holy" and "Hosanna"come after the Preface. Moreover, the Canon, the principal prayer of the Mass, begins and closesin the Roman rite with a solemn reference to the mediation of Christ: "Therefore, O most mercifulFather, we humbly pray and beseech Thee through Jesus Christ Thy Son, our Lord ... throughChrist our Lord. Through Whom, O Lord, Thou dost create, sanctify, quicken, bless and bestow allthese gifts upon us. By Him and with Him and in Him is to Thee, God the Father almighty, in theunity of the Holy Ghost, all honour and glory, for ever and ever. Amen."

Chapter Five

Purposes of Liturgy

Glorification of God, the first purpose of liturgy. The first and most excellent purpose ofliturgy is to give honour to God, to glorify God in a manner which best corresponds to theobligation resting upon the entire human race. Christ could say of Himself that He came upon


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earth to glorify His Father ("I honour My Father," John 8; 49). In like manner did He make itpossible for His Church to give glory to God "through Him, in Him and with Him" (Canon of theMass) in a truly efficacious manner. The Church can therefore give to the Creator offended by thedisobedience of Adam all the honour which He Himself can demand. In the first place she givesGod adoration (latria) in her liturgy by word and deed, by prayer and sacrifice. By adoration thesoul surrenders itself completely to God, acknowledging Him as its Sovereign Lord and

recognising its entire dependence upon Him. Other acts by which the Church honours God areacts of praise, gratitude, atonement and petition. All these acts constitute the absolute cult ofadoration by which the Church gives glory to God; the undivided Divinity, the most Holy Trinity,as well as the individual Divine Persons (material object); on account of His infinite perfection(format object). Particularly does the Church give absolute adoration (cultus latriae) to the entireSecond Person of the Godhead, to the human as well as to the divine nature of Jesus Christ; thereason being that the human nature of Christ is hypostatically united with the Son of God.

The Church, therefore, celebrates various festivals which have reference to particular eventsin the human life of Christ, or even to particular parts of His human nature. Such festivals areChristmas, commemorating the birth of Christ, Easter, commemorating His resurrection, thefeast of the most Sacred Heart of Jesus, the feast of Corpus Christi, the feast of the most PreciousBlood, etc.

In giving absolute worship to the humanity of Christ, the Church glorifies the Divine Personwith Whom it is united, and in Him she praises the infinite goodness, love and wisdom of God. Onthe other hand, she gives to images of Christ crucified and to relics of the Passion an inferior kindof adoration, the so called relative cult, on account of their relation to Christ.

Intimately connected with the primary purposes of the liturgy is the honour which the Church,from the earliest centuries of the Christian era, has rendered to the angels and the saints. Thesecreatures of God have been favoured by God Himself and are distinguished above the rest by aspecial supernatural excellence and, therefore, are deserving of special honour. By thissubordinate cult of saints (dulia) the Church indirectly glorifies God, Whose perfection becomesmanifest in the graces He has bestowed upon His chosen creatures. Especially does the liturgy ofthe Church single out the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Mother of Christ, and honour her by a specialcult (hyperdulia); in this respect the liturgy is but imitating the example of the angel Gabriel, whoin the name of God greeted Mary as "blessed among women" and "full of grace."

Catholics usually recite the Angelic Salutation, or, Hail Mary immediately after the Lord'sPrayer for the purpose of honoring and invoking Mary. This prayer is of scriptural origin only inregard to its most excellent portion, which is made up of the greetings of the Angel and Elizabeth(Luke 1; 28 and 42). These inspired greetings in praise of the Mother of God first appear unitedwith each other in the so-called "Liturgy of St. James"; later also in the Antiphonary of St. Gregorythe Great as the Offertory of the Mass for the fourth Sunday of Advent. Since the eleventhcentury they have also existed in translations as a favorite prayer of the faithful. The practice ofuniting the Hail Mary with the Our Father seems to owe its spread particularly to the Order ofPreachers. The usual conclusion up to that time, directly following "blessed is the fruit of thywomb," was "Jesus Christ. Amen," or simply "Amen." In view of the contention that a prayershould always contain a petition, the words, "Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners,"were added. The last phrase, "now and at the hour of our death" which contains a prayer for a

happy death, was probably appended during the fifteenth century through the influenced of theFranciscans. On account of the epidemics raging in the West about this time, many penitentialsermons were delivered, and the Hail Mary in an extended form was recited aloud.

In regard to its matter, the Angelic Salutation appears as a prayer of praise and petition. Maryis praised because of the fullness of grace she received, because of her sublime vocation,because of her virginity and divine Maternity. United with this praise is a popular and confidentprayer for aid in all our needs, especially for the grace of a happy death. In regard to form, theprayer reflects in the first part the characteristics of the language of Sacred Scripture, in thesecond part the fervour of the popular prayers of the middle ages.

Next in order after the Blessed Virgin the Church gives honour to the Apostles, the martyrs,the confessors, the virgins and the other holy women. According to the teaching of the Church,God has accorded to all of them on account of the merits of Jesus Christ, even while they werestill on earth, an abundance of supernatural privileges. For this reason the Church also considers

it fitting to give them due honour in their proper order in the divine liturgy (c. Litany of theSaints). In the course of centuries, in order to prevent abuses, the Holy See reserved to itself theright to beatify a deceased Christian, that is, to declare him blessed or worthy of honour, and alsoto canonize him, or command that liturgical honours be extended to him. Though most days of


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the Church's calendar are observed as festivals of saints, the essential element of the liturgy,namely, the Sacrifice of the Mass, the sacramental rites and the Divine Office, is devoted to thehonour of God Himself. The saints are remembered on their feasts in such parts as are accidentalto the Mass and Office, that is, in certain prayers or lessons. In the prayers the Church beseechesGod to bestow His grace upon us, as He granted favours to the saints, or to show mercy tosinners on account of the merits of saints, etc. In the lessons she places the count of the merits

and virtues of the saints before us for our imitation. In the Orations of the Mass according to theRoman rite no saint is ever directly invoked to intercede for us with God. just as the petition ad-dressed to God involves a recognition of the power of God, so the invocation of the saints meansthat we beseech God to grant to them through the merits of Christ the power to aid us. Thus theveneration of the saints in the liturgy is indirectly a worship of God.

Finally, in connection with the primary purpose of liturgy may be mentioned the honour thatis extended during divine service to certain persons who represent Christ in the performance ofliturgical functions. Such honour, which has the nature of a relative cult (dulia relativa), isbestowed by inclinations of the head, kissing of the hand and incensations. Similarly, certainliturgical objects (the chalice and paten), as also images and relics of saints, receive liturgicalhonour of a subordinate character: the former because of their use at divine service, the latterbecause of their relation to the respective saints.

Sanctification of Men, the secondary purpose of liturgy. The secondary purpose ofliturgy, correlative to the primary, is the sanctification of men, which is effected by graces ofdifferent kinds through the application of the merits of Jesus Christ. Every act by which God isglorified elevates the soul to God by its very nature, brings it closer to God and renders it in acertain manner susceptible to the operations of grace. It is particularly in the liturgy and throughthe liturgy that the God-man desires to apply to the individual faithful the graces of redemption.Union with Christ is so intimately bound up with the very nature of liturgy, that the grace of Christoperates in every act. In carrying out the liturgy the Church aims to direct to the faithful thefullest measure of this grace. Christ as man, to Whom the office of mediator has been entrusted,communicates His grace through the liturgy in different ways. According to the distinction madein dogmatic theology, grace results either from the proper performance of the external rite (exopere operato), or on account of the internal disposition of the recipient (ex opere operantis), orin virtue of the meritoriousness of the act as an action of the Church (quasi ex opere operato).

Moreover, various subordinate effects of the liturgy aid in the attainment of the secondarypurpose, by disposing the soul for grace, and therefore they are also expressly intended by theChurch. The liturgy edifies and instructs the faithful by means of lessons, strengthens faith andunity through a dignified execution of all the ceremonies, and elevates the heart throughimpressive Church music, various styles of Christian art, etc.

Protestants and Modernists teach that divine service merely serves the purpose of instructingand edifying. In more recent times it has also been regarded as serving the purpose of givingexpression to the "faith of the congregation" by "descriptive action." By means of such action"there is no attempt to effect anything," especially anything theurgical, which would be capableof forcing God to bestow His grace. It should rather express an actual condition of the community(Rietschel, Liturgik 1; 47), in order to give the faithful an opportunity of becoming conscious ofthe certainty of redemption in Christ; of resting in God "in the intervals which interrupt the

occupations of daily life," namely, on Sundays; of thanking God for the promise of grace afterhaving heard His word.Such views make the worship of God entirely dependent upon subjective feelings and dis-

positions in hearing the word of God, etc.; they also make the honour given to God dependentupon the ability of the representative of the congregation to describe his own feelings as well asthose of the congregation in a rhetorical, musical, artistic, aesthetic or symbolic manner. A liturgywith this for its purpose has no objective value. Catholic liturgy, on the other hand, judges itsrites according to their ability to unite us with Christ on the basis of objective religious truths;primarily they must serve the purpose of glorifying God and only secondarily other subordinatepurposes, namely, the sanctification of souls, edification, strengthening of religious belief, therepose of the soul in God, aesthetic delight, etc.

The various purposes of liturgy are expressed in many different ways in liturgical prayers. In-stances of prayers which express the primary purpose of liturgy, the glorification of God, are as

follows: the psalm (94) for the Invitatorium at the beginning of Matins, Venite, exultemus Domino("Come, let us praise the Lord with joy.... Come, let us adore and fall down, and weep before theLord that made us") ; the minor doxology, Gloria Patri et Filio et Spiritui sancto, etc. ("Glory be tothe Father," etc.), at the beginning of each canonical hour and at the end of each psalm; the


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Benedicamus Domino ("Let us praise the Lord") at the end of each canonical hour. Both theprimary and secondary purposes find expression in the prayers of the Canon and Offertory.Prayers which are intended particularly to give honour to the saints are the Ave Maria at thebeginning of each canonical hour, the final antiphons of the Blessed Virgin and the short prayerof Prime, Sancta Maria et omnes Sancti ("May Holy Mary and all the Saints intercede with theLord for us, that we may deserve to be aided and saved by Him, Who liveth and reigneth for ever

and ever. Amen").

Chapter Six

The Manner the Liturgy

Symbolism. Because of the intimate connection of liturgical rites with the operations ofgrace and with the High-priest Jesus Christ Himself, the Author of grace, they are endowed with amore or less accurately defined symbolism.

Symbolism is a characteristic of external rites, according to which they ordinarily inspirethoughts of a moral or religious nature by reason of some spiritual relationship. In all thesacraments, the essential signs or rites must signify the grace which they confer. As St. Thomas

of Aquin teaches, they are commemorative rites (signa rememorativa), which recall the Passionof Christ as the meritorious cause of grace; demonstrative rites (signa demonstrative), whichmanifest and give assurance of their efficacy; prognostic rites (signa prognostica), whichannounce the consummation of grace in the future life. Furthermore, all liturgical rites point insome manner, by reason of their visible character, to the human nature of our Lord, Who iscontinually represented anew through words, actions or objects. They also show forth thevisibility of the Church. The spiritual relationship which is essential to symbolism is alwayspresent, for Christ, the principal Minister, directs all liturgical acts and makes them productive ofgrace.

A Sign may be either natural or conventional. The Church prefers the naturalsymbolism, which is usually understood without much difficulty. Actions possessing such signsare the natural and spontaneous expressions of internal acts of worship, as for instance, the

bending of the knee as a sign of a humble disposition and the bowing of the head as a sign ofreverence; or they are an external representation of that which occurs in the spiritual andsupernatural order, as for instance, the imposition of hands, which represents the conferring ofgrace. There are also liturgical objects with a natural sign. Thus the candle which burns at Massand is consumed by the flame, naturally suggests the love of the Saviour in sacrificing Himself formankind; burning incense sending forth its sweet odours heavenward is a natural symbol ofprayer ascending to God.

At times, however, the symbolism is conventional and not easily perceived; the symbolicalmeaning is given to actions and objects simply on account of some internal likeness orconvention. This symbolism is a free choice of the Church, and generally must be explained bythe Church in accompanying prayers. Thus, in the Western Church, the mixing of water with wineat Mass is regarded as symbolising the union of the faithful with Christ; in the Orient, assymbolising the two natures in Christ or His Humanity alone as constituted of body and soul (c.

the Offertory prayers and the Council of Trent, sess. XXII, c. 7).Liturgical Art. It is the function of the fine arts to give pleasing expression to the true, the

good and the beautiful. Poetry and rhetoric please the ear, painting and sculpture please the eye.In accordance with the nature of the ideas which are expressed, art is profane or religious. Ashistory shows, religious art belongs to the earliest activities of the human soul.

Judaism of the Old Testament was unable to dispense with art. In the construction of thetemple, artistic architecture was of the greatest importance, while music and the art of poetrywere employed at every divine service. The Christian Church at first was careful in her use ofmusic, painting and sculpture, because of the many recent converts from paganism. But whenpaganism was overcome for the most part, the Church blossomed forth true art.

Christian art became a central feature of the liturgy. The liturgy aims to present in as vivid amanner as possible, through the medium of symbolical expression, the most sublime doctrines of

Christianity, namely, the work of redemption and the efficacy of the sacraments in producinggrace.

As ecclesiastical architecture, it should not merely provide for the practical requirements ofthe liturgy, but rather suggest thoughts of a moral or a religious nature. With the help of painting


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and sculpture, as those of the goldsmith and the manufacturers of vestments, liturgical artadorns the places of worship with representations of truly Christian virtue and vivid scenes fromthe life of Christ. True liturgical art must always seek the manner of expressing the unchangeabledoctrines of Christian worship.

Colours. The symbolism of the sacred vestments is enhanced by the use of liturgical colours.These different colours indicate the dispositions with which the Church desires the faithful to

observe the festivals and seasons of the ecclesiastical year.Until the middle ages, the white colour was, if not exclusively, yet constantly used forreligious feasts and as a symbol of joy. Thus it is prescribed by the Apostolic Constitutions (8; 12),the Canones Hippolyti, the Canones Athanasiani, the Canones S. Basilii and other ancient Churchordinances. Nevertheless the Western Church has made use of vestments of other colours atleast since the time of the Emperor Constantine. From the ninth century on, certain coloursgradually came into use on certain days; red, green and black in addition to white were the firstcolours to be used. Innocent III (1198 - 1216 : De sacro altaris mysterio, 1; 65) was the first todetermine more accurately the use of these four colours and to explain their symbolism. Hementions violet as a substitute for black only on Laetare Sunday and the feast of the HolyInnocents. Durandus (3; 18, 9), however, already states that the Roman practice of using violetinstead of black vestments from Septuagesima Sunday to Easter, and from the first Sunday ofAdvent to Christmas, is 'not unbecoming" ("non inconveniens"). But he also regards theaforementioned four colours as the principal colours (colores principales). The use of the fiveliturgical colours which are in vogue at present was regulated by the Missal of Pius V.

White, the colour of light, gives expression to the joy of the Church on the great festivals,and is also a symbol of perfect purity (c. Apoc. 3; 4 : Osee 14; 6). It is used in the observance ofthe feasts of our Lord, our Lady and the saints, provided they are not kept in memory of a bloodydeath or are not days of grief. On Christmas, for example, the white vestments manifest the joyof the Church at the birth of the Son of God. Holy Thursday and also at processions andExposition of the Blessed Sacrament, the white of the vestments suggests the Real Presence ofthe glorified Christ in the Holy Eucharist and is in keeping with the colour of the consecratedbread. Furthermore, white as the colour of joy, is used in the administration of the sacraments, atthe funerals of infants, and also for all the sacramentals which are not joined with an exorcism. Itis not however used for the sacraments of Penance and Extreme Unction.

Red, the natural colour of blood and fire, symbolises love (c. Cant. 8; 6). It is, therefore, thecolour of the vestments on the feasts which commemorate the Passion of Christ (the festivals ofthe Cross); also on the feasts of all the martyrs, who shed their blood for Christ's sake. Moreover,it is prescribed for the vestments on Pentecost, because the Holy Ghost, the Spirit of divine Love,descended upon the Apostles on that day in the form of fiery tongues.

Green is regarded by Pope Innocent III as a "middle colour," and as proper on those dayswhich have neither a festal nor a sorrowful and penitential character. It is used, therefore, outsideof Advent, the pre-lenten and Lenten period and Eastertide, on all Sundays and weekdays onwhich no feast is observed. In more recent times, green, as the colour of the sprouting seed, hasbeen commonly explained as the colour of hope. In accordance with this symbolism, green issuitably chosen for those same Sundays and weekdays; in Catholic liturgy every Sunday isconsidered as a modified observance of the paschal mystery and serves to arouse in the faithful

the hope of reaping the eternal harvest of heaven, especially the hope of a glorious resurrection.Violet as a liturgical colour was originally subordinate to black. It signifies penance and is in

keeping with a sorrow which is tempered by hope. It is used on all days of penance (Advent, fromSeptuagesima Sunday to the end of Lent, Embertides and vigils), for penitential processions, forthe first part of the rite of Baptism, in administering the sacraments of Penance and ExtremeUnction and for all exorcisms. It was also used on the feast of the Holy Innocents as anexpression of sympathy for the bereaved mothers of Bethlehem. Red is now prescribed for thisfeast. On the third Sunday of Advent and the fourth Sunday of Lent, the colour of the vestments,according to the Caeremoniale episcoporum (2; 13), should be pale rose (color rosaceus)wherever that is possible; this lighter colour is an expression of an increase in our hope ofsalvation (c. the Mass-formularies for Gaudete and Laetare Sundays).

Black, the colour of total darkness, is a symbol of death and expresses great sorrow. It isused on Good Friday, at Requiem Masses and the funerals of adults. If there is Forty Hours'devotion or perpetual adoration in any church on All Souls' Day, violet vestments are worn forRequiem Masses; the festive joy which is intimately connected with the adoration of the BlessedSacrament requires that the external expression of sadness be modified in this way (Decret.Urbis et Orbis S.R.C. 27 June 1868 : c. Rubr. Gen: 130d).


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Gold vestements may be used where the custom exists, by reason of their greater value(ratione pretiositatis), may take the place of white, red and green vestments; vestments of silvertexture may be substituted for those of white colour (Decr. auth, 3145, 3191, 3646). Blue andyellow vestments are expressly forbidden (Decr. auth. 2704). Though various colours may appearon the same vestments, one liturgical colour must always be predominant (Decr, auth. 2769, V,2), for its purpose is to arouse in the assisting faithful the dispositions proper to the particular

feast or occasion. The ornamentation of the vestments, which should be artistic, is not subject tothe rules concerning liturgical colours.The Altar. The church interior receives its life particularly from the high altar; it is here that

the sacrifice of Christ is offered.The most ancient altars were manifestly wooden tables; these were set up whenever the

Mass was to be celebrated, and in the catacombs they were generally placed as close as possibleto the tombs of the martyrs. From the latter practice the ancient custom of erecting the high altarof a basilica over the tomb of a martyr developed. Later the relics of martyrs were placed in thealtars themselves or in a shrine in the reredos of the altar.

According to the Liber Pontificalis, Pope Felix I (269-274) had already ordered the celebrationof Mass over the tombs of martyrs ("Constituit supra memorias martyrum Missas celebrare").Such stone altars, which had the twofold character of a table of sacrifice and a martyr's tomb,became more numerous after the time of Constantine the Great, when the bodies of the martyrswho were most venerated were transferred to the ancient Christian basilicas. In order to stressthe importance of the altar and increase reverence for it, it was covered with a baldachin, theso-called ciborium (that is, "a cup"), from which curtains (tetravela) were frequently suspendedon all sides. The enclosed altar was regarded as a symbol of heaven into which the eternalHigh-priest has entered, and where He dwells forever to make intercession for us (c. Hebr. 6; 19f. : 7; 15). The table of the altar was surrounded with costly marble slabs, at times also withpanels ornamented with figures in relief or with enamel and precious stones.

The great importance of the Christian altar is evident from the fact that it is regarded, both inthe rite of the ordination of subdeacons and in the Breviary lessons of November 9, as a symbolof Christ, through Whom our sacrificial gifts are presented to our heavenly Father (c. Hebr. 13;10). For this reason the priest frequently kisses it with reverence during the celebration of Mass.According to the rite of consecration, the altar, like the Holy of Holies in the Old Law, should

become a sacred place. God is invoked to accept graciously in this place all the gifts offered toHim and to reward them with a blessing that is profitable to the present and future life. Since theSacrifice of the Cross is renewed on the altar in an unbloody manner, it may also be compared toMount Calvary, to the cross or to a throne for the crucified Saviour (c. St. Thom. 3 q.83 a.1 ad.2).

Liturgical Language. The spoken word is especially a suitable means of giving expressionto Christian worship. Jesus Christ made use of words for this purpose at the Last Supper. At theSacrifice of the Mass the Church makes use of words as the essential form of consecration. Thusalso in the liturgy of every sacrament, words constitute the essential form which gives efficacy tothe matter (c. St. Augustine, In Joann. tr. 80, 3: " Accedit verbum ad elementum et fitsacramentum").

Words turn our attention by reason of their origin to Christ Himself. More frequently the wordsare intended by their content to recall vividly to mind the Person of Jesus Christ, His teaching (as

at the Gospel) or His work of redemption or sanctification (as in the hymns, orations andprefaces).

The Church has laid down very precise regulations in regard to the tone of voice to be used invarious liturgical texts. Certain texts should not be heard even by the bystanders, and aretherefore spoken in a whisper (submissa voce or secrete). Others should be heard only by thosein close proximity, and must be spoken, therefore, in a moderate tone of voice (media voce,mediocre voce). Still others should be intelligible at a greater distance, and therefore are to bespoken in a loud tone of voice (alta voce, clara voce). The different vocal pitches indicatewhether the particular texts are intended only for the celebrant or whether they apply also to theassisting clergy or even to all the faithful.

Preaching in Palestine, Jesus Christ undoubtedly spoke in Aramaic, the language of thepeople, a dialect of the ancient Hebrew tongue. In the same language He must have taught His

disciples the Our Father, recited the psalms (c. Matt. 27; 46) and celebrated the Last Supper.The Apostles simply followed His example. Very soon, however, Hellenic Greek also became aliturgical language. Even in the time of Christ it was used quite extensively at the Jewish prayerservice on account of the great number of Jews who came from other countries; in Jerusalem


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itself there were Hellenic synagogues (Acts 6; 9). It is very probable therefore that with theadmission of heathens and Hellenic Jews into her fold, the Church made use of Greek as well asAramaic in the liturgy. Particularly in Antioch, the principal city of Syria, Greek was the primitivelanguage of the liturgy.

In their missionary activity the Apostles certainly applied the principle of employing thelanguage of the people, not only in their preaching (c. Acts 21; 40 : 22; 2), but also in the liturgy

(c. Cor. 14; 16). Only a few expressions, which were especially familiar to the converts fromJudaism and had been adopted into the primitive liturgy (as Amen,Alleluja, Sabaoth, Hosanna),remained untranslated. Thus in time the liturgy was celebrated in both the East and the West inseveral languages.

Liturgical Languages of the East. Among the liturgical languages of the East, Greek wasused most widely at first. Until the end of the second century it was the prevailing tongue in theRoman Empire, and facilitated in no small degree the spread of Christianity. In Rome itself it wasstill the language of the liturgy about the middle of the third century. In Constantinople, Greek asa liturgical language soon underwent a special development. The Byzantine liturgy composed inthis type of Greek gradually supplanted almost all other Eastern liturgies. Other languages, stillretained in the liturgy in certain places, are Syriac (Western Aramaic), Armenian, Coptic andAbyssinian-Ethiopic.

About the middle of the ninth century, the Holy See expressly approved the liturgy translatedby the Apostles of the Slavs, Sts. Cyril and Methodius, in the Slavonic language. A little later theGreek Byzantine liturgy was translated into Slavonian by the Bulgarians and Russians and thusbecame the most widely used liturgy in Eastern Europe. The Russians, Ruthenians, Serbians andBulgarians now use the Cyrillian characters (called thus after St. Cyril) for the ancient Slavoniclanguage of the liturgy. The Croatians and Dalmatians follow the Roman rite as translated intoancient Slavonian, and make use of the Glagolitic characters.

Finally, when various groups from the east were reunited with the Roman Church in moderntimes, the Popes permitted the use of other languages in the celebration of the liturgy, namely,Georgic (Caucasian), Ruthenic-Rumanian, Arabic-Greek, Albanian-Greek, Syriac-Arabic andCoptic-Arabic.

In regard to the language used in the liturgy, the aforementioned Oriental rites are divided asfollows: For the celebration of the Byzantine rite, Greek is employed in Greece, Turkey, Hungary,

southern Italy and North America; Arabic-Greek (by the so-called Melchites) in Syria, Palestineand Egypt; Slavonic in Russia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Jugoslavia and North America;Ruthenic-Rumanian in Rumania; Albanian-Greek in Albania; Georgic in Georgia. The Armenian riteis celebrated in Armenian, the Syrian rite in Syriac-Arabic; the Chaldean rite in Chaldaic, theMaronite rite in Syriac-Arabic, the Coptic rite partly in Coptic-Arabic and partly in Abyssinian.

Liturgical Languages of the West. In the West, the rural communities of Italy and thechurches of northern Africa and Spain were the first to use Latin as a liturgical language. Greek,however, still continued to be the language of the liturgy for a long time after the year 200 inRome and the larger cities of Italy, as well as in the commercial towns of Gaul and the region ofthe Rhine and the Danube; these towns were still frequently visited by merchants from AsiaMinor.

After these places had also adopted Latin, Greek was still retained or was introduced at a late

period for a few short prayers, as Kyrie eleison, Hagios o theos, etc. It also continued in use for atime for certain parts of the solemn Papal Mass, namely, the Gloria, Epistle and Gospel, whichwere chanted in both Latin and Greek.

The Latin of the liturgy originated from the simple language of the country districts (linguarustica). Many Hebrew and Greek idioms had already found their way into the Latin of the liturgythrough the ancient translations of the Bible. The ecclesiastical writers of Africa, Tertullian, St.Cyprian and especially St. Augustine, then gave Church Latin its particular character. From thesixth to the ninth century, active communication of ecclesiastics with Constantinople broughtabout a further enrichment of Church Latin by the adoption of such words as hebdomada,synaxis and litania. Soon after this period the Romance languages developed, and Lat

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