Stalking, victims and victimology

Diane Solomon Westerhuis, PhD

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Contents

• what is stalking?• How do we know? • what do we know about stalking?– research available, leads to

• victimology as a discipline– studies the impacts of stalking

• our responses- how can we help victims and prevent the abuse

Stalking focuses on a victim (so is central to the concerns of victimology)

Stalking affects the victim’s long term psychological, social and interpersonal functioning (so is central to the concerns of the community)

Stalking is not always reported, and therefore we do not know the extent to which it occurs in different communities

Stalking is a crime

stalking typologiese.g. Mullen PE, Pathé M, Purcell R and Stuart GW, “Study of Stalkers”

(1999) 156 American Journal of Psychiatry 1244.

broad, and occasionally overlapping, groups:1. the rejected (usually ex-intimate seeking further intimacy);

2. the intimacy-seeking (delusional infatuation- often strangers)

3. the incompetent suitors (pursuing real contact, usually sexual)

4. the resentful (pursuit for revenge for some actual or supposed injury or humiliation)

5. the predatory (preparatory to an attack, almost always sexual)

How do we know?

a new field of research. the literature is relatively sparse and generally rather

specialisedResearch has ….been characterised by forensic investigations

into the psychological profiles of stalkers, with occasional excursions into the area by sociologists, feminists and policy makers. There is, however, a dearth of literature examining criminal justice system practices relating to stalking.

Adam Graycar, Director, AIC, introducing Ogilvie, E. (2000). Stalking : policing and prosecuting practices in three Australian jurisdictions. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi176.html

Sources of information

• Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) www.abs.gov.au• Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC)

www.aic.gov.au• Academic research, e.g. Pathé, M., & Mullen, P. E.

(1997). The impact of stalkers on their victims. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 12-17.

ABS

• -Stalking has its own code.Actions intended to cause physical or mental harm to the victim or to arouse apprehension or fear in the victim for his or her own safety. These are coded to Group 0291, Stalking.• ABS 2005 Personal Safety Survey– 2005 Personal Safety Survey (PSS) conducted by the

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) throughout Australia from August to December 2005.

Women's Safety Survey 1996

Women who experience stalking by a man - type of stalking, when stalking began, whether stalking has stopped, how the perpetrator was known to them, police contact, reasons for not contacting the police, effects on life (change in day-to-day activities and time off work), fear for personal safety as a result of the stalking

http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/F16680629C465E03CA256980007C4A81/$File/41280_1996.pdf

AIC web site for Women and crime- Stalking

They have a link to their conference in 2000- AIC publications and conferences Then Other resources• Stalking : problem-oriented policing guide

National Center for the Victims of Crime (US), 2004 • Domestic violence, sexual assault and stalking : findings from the British

Crime Survey (PDF 562kB) Sylvia Walby and Jonathan Allen. Home Office (UK), 2004

• Stalking offences : crime statistics bulletin Queensland Office of Economic and Statistical Research, 2002

• The extent and nature of stalking : findings from the 1998 British Crime Survey (PDF 346kB) Tracey Budd and Joanna Mattinson, with the assistance of Andy Myhill. Home Office (UK), 2000

• Australian anti-stalking and threat website (note this has many links, but focuses on a UK survey questionnaire)

• See also Cyberstalking and online harassment

AIC- crime victimization surveys

• The majority of industrialised countries conduct crime victimization surveys to estimate the extent of certain crimes and the percentage reported to the police.

• These data are used to supplement police statistics and are particularly useful for examining crimes that have low percentages of reporting to police, such as sexual assault.

see Australian Institute of Criminology, 2008. Australian Crime: Facts and Figures 2007. Canberra: AIC

What do we know?Stalking involves various activities, such as loitering and

following, which the respondent believed were being undertaken with the intent to harm or frighten. To be classified as stalking more than one type of activity had to occur, or the same type of activity had to occur on more than one occasion.

We know that

• Younger people were more likely to be stalked than older people.– In the 12 months prior to the survey,

• 28% (31,000) of men and 31% (61,300) of women who experienced stalking were aged 18–24 compared to • 11% (12,500) of men and 8.8% (17,200) of

women aged 55 years or older

We know about violence for the proportion of males and females who experienced stalking or harassment during the

last 12 months(a) — 2005

EXPERIENCE OF STALKING -Relationship to perpetrator -

(percentages, all victims)• Other known persons (c) 8.9• Family or friends 31.9• Previous partner 17.2• Boyfriend or girlfriend or date 12.0• Stranger 32.6ABS (2006:26), Personal safety survey Australia(c) Includes acquaintance, neighbour, counsellor or

psychologist or psychiatrist, ex-boyfriend or girlfriend, doctor, teacher, minister, priest or clergy and prison officer.

Components may not add to the total as a person may have experienced stalking by more than one perpetrator type.

Effects of stalking

exemplar study- Australian study by Pathé, M., & Mullen, P. E. (1997). The impact of

stalkers on their victims. British Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 12-17.

see also Schell, B. H., & Lanteigne, N. M. (2000). Stalking, harassment, and murder in the workplace : guidelines for protection and prevention. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. (ptc. pages 50-54)

data

100 stalking ‘targets’- 83 ♀ 17♂• duration of stalking= 1 month to 20 years,

median= 24 months• same-sex stalking= 10% ♀ , 4% ♂• encountered their stalkers through work = 34%• ex-partners = 29%• no knowledge of any prior contact with stalkers=

16%

Effects of stalking

1. Multiple forms of stressors were commonThe majority of targets:• being followed (71%), • being repeatedly approached at work or at

home (79%), and • being repeatedly bombarded with letters (62%)

and telephone calls (78%). • Threats from the stalkers—overt and covert—

were received by 58% of the targets, and• 34% of the targets were physically or sexually

assaulted by their stalkers.

2. A Disruption of Life Routine Was Common

• life routines were severely disrupted by their stalkers’ activities• e.g. telephone calls at all hours, at home and work, giving

silence or declarations of love, obscenities, or threats. • break-ins of homes and surveillance - stalkers often waiting

outside or repeatedly driving past their targets’ homes or offices in a car

• stalkers liked to convey to their targets their continued knowledge of their targets’ movements

• Property damage • Unsolicited material =flowers, audiotapes, perfume,

confectionary, plush toys, jewellery, food parcels, gift vouchers, photos featuring the targets, a pig’s head, the body of the victim’s mutilated cat.

3. Threats to Reputation and to Life Took Many Forms

• malicious gossip (often attacking their credibility, morals, and professionalism) to their employers, family members, friends, landlords, and various government agencies

• threats to plague their targets until they succumbed to their demands—often to go out with them

• Incessant threats of sexual assault prompted one target to begin taking oral contraceptives

• Death threats came to targets in many forms e.g. letters and cards with pictures of crosses and gravestones. Another was told that she and her family members would be killed, and that their house would be burnt to the ground. In some instances, the targets’ children were the focus of the stalkers’ death threats.

4. Targets Experienced Psychological, Interpersonal, or Occupational Malfunctioning

• All of the targets felt that their stalking ordeals had a deleterious impact on their psychological, interpersonal, or occupational functioning.

• 94% of the targets made major changes in their work and social lives

• 53% of them changing jobs, taking early retirement, or ceasing employment altogether

their responses

• 39% of the targets moved from their homes (as many as five times; seven targets moved between states and three moved over seas).

• female targets said they had undertaken self-defence courses,

• some admitted that they kept makeshift weapons under their beds

• and two received instruction in the use of firearms—(see USA advice to arm)

• 70% of the targets curtailed their social outings through fear of encountering their stalkers.

• Others would not let their children play outside the home.

5.Targets Suffered from Pathological Distress or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• 83% of the targets reported suffering from pathological levels of anxiety and distress

• intrusive recollections and flashbacks of the stalking and harassment or deals were experienced by 55% of the victims, with high numbers of nightmares, appetite disturbances, and depressed moods also reported.

• 75% of the targets expressed overwhelming feelings of powerlessness

• thoughts of suicide as a way of ending their stalking ordeals were acknowledged by 24% of the targets.

• clinical criteria for a diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were met for 37% of the targets.

The effects of Stalking and Threat on Children and Adolescents

• post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) – appears in children than adults

• adolescents look more like adults

What do victims do?What do victims do?

• Relocate?• Chapter 13 of Michelle Pathe's book "Surviving Stalking" is

titled "Should I just disappear?" • Costs to victims of relocation• Moving away disrupts work, schooling and social ties. • It is both emotionally and financially draining"Stalking that arises between neighbours, when it is solely

confined to that neighbourhood, is usually resolved by the victims relocation. However, stalkers who are determined to maintain a relationship, particularly intimacy seekers and the rejected, have considerably more invested in their victims and will seldom give them up so easily’.

ResearchThomas, S. D. M., Purcell, R., Pathe, M., & Mullen, P. E. (2008). Harm

associated with stalking victimization. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 42(9), 800-806.

to determine the frequency at which assault and attempted assault occur as outcomes among stalking victims

to explore the common characteristics of those cases in which the victims report these harmful outcomes as a result of the stalking behaviour.

• Method: A sample of 3700 men and women randomly selected from the electoral roll were sent a postal questionnaire to determine the prevalence and nature of their experiences of stalking behaviours. Those who self-reported that they had been stalked were divided according to whether their pursuer had, or had not, attacked them.

Findings

• Of the 432 who reported having been stalked, 75 (17.4%) had been attacked.

• A number of victim and perpetrator factors differentiated those who reported attacks.

• A combination of the victim being threatened, being an ex-intimate, and being younger at the time of the stalking incident were predictive of attack.

• Conclusions: ‘Stalking is an all too common problem behaviour that can result in a range of harmful outcomes for victims. Threats made by ex-intimates are a particular cause for concern.’ (p800)

other researchother researchBlaauw, E., Winkel, F. W., & Arensman, E. (2000). The toll of stalking: the relationship between

features of stalking and psychopathology of victims. Paper presented at the Stalking: Criminal Justice Responses Conference. AIC: Sydney 7-8 December 2000

• to study the impact of specific stalking features on victim’s psychopathology

• to investigate whether stalking victims have a heightened prevalence of psychopathology

• the extent to which symptom levels are associated with stalking features.

the studySample= 246 stalking victims• high levels of psychopathology were found- symptom levels

were comparable to those of psychiatric outpatients• 77% had a symptom level indicating a diagnosable psychiatric

disorder‘Although testing for the frequency, pervasiveness, duration and

cessation of stalking, and the association of these variables with symptom levels, it was concluded that stalking victims generally have many symptoms of psychopathology independent of features of their stalking experience.

These findings indicate that better therapy outcomes can be expected from therapies focusing on boosting general coping skills and on decreasing general vulnerability (than from therapies focusing on specifically dealing with the stalking situation)’.

researchresearch

• This is a particularly difficult issue to research, This is a particularly difficult issue to research, because stalking is not always reported, and you because stalking is not always reported, and you will not find stalking as a crime type in the latest will not find stalking as a crime type in the latest crime statistics. crime statistics.

• although we know there are many victims, we do although we know there are many victims, we do not know the extent to which it occurs in different not know the extent to which it occurs in different communities communities

• however consistent findings in all countries where however consistent findings in all countries where research undertaken- common outcomes of victim research undertaken- common outcomes of victim pathologies, which leads topathologies, which leads to

VictimologyVictimology

• is both academic study and social is both academic study and social movementmovement

• is an indication of the concerns we have as is an indication of the concerns we have as a society about victims of crimea society about victims of crime

• an attempt to understand who are victims an attempt to understand who are victims and whyand why

• how does society respond to victims?how does society respond to victims?• what are the impacts upon victims of what are the impacts upon victims of

crime?crime?

VictimologyEncyclopædia Britannica Online http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9389388

Definition: branch of criminology that scientifically studies the relationship between an injured party and an offender by examining the causes and the nature of the consequent suffering.

history of victimology

1940s and '50sseveral criminologists -Hans von Hentig,

Benjamin Mendelsohn, and Henri Ellenbergerexamined victim-offender interactions and

stressed reciprocal influences and role reversals

some of these early victim—offender interaction theories have been accused of victim-blaming

Shifts of focus

1960s- civil rights movements – focus on social inequalities and injustices- shift from victim blaming to victim-defending

1970s – feminist movement- focus on equal rights – shift to improved services such as sexual assault services and women's shelters.

Women’s movements produced legislative reforms which were more victim-oriented

1980s and '90s - the more conservative 'law and order' movement

‘focus on retribution is seen by many victimologists as counter productive to just outcomes for victims and offenders’ (Hayes and Prenzler 2007:330).

What is the focus of victimology?

focuses on • the characteristics of victims• The aspects of the crime (location, time of day

etc)• victim’s relationship to offenders- • why a particular person or place is targeted

Aims of victimology• the field sometimes focused on the varying degrees of

victim blaming- you can avoid being a victim• later studies intended to – prevent victimization – improve the way complainants are handled by the police

and courts– speed recovery

• so victimologists study – the kinds of help injured parties need – the effectiveness of efforts intended to make them “whole

again,” both financially and emotionallyvictimology research assisted to create:

United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime

and Abuse of Power (1985)

1. "Victims" means persons who, individually or collectively, have suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that are in violation of criminal laws operative within Member States, including those laws proscribing criminal abuse of power.

2. regardless of whether the perpetrator is identified, regardless of the familial relationship between the perpetrator and the victim

3. includes the immediate family or dependants of the direct victim and persons who have suffered harm in intervening to assist victims in distress or to prevent victimization (secondary and tertiary victims)

Our responses- what can we do?

• can we improve laws?• we can treat the stalkers• we can treat victims• can we reduce/prevent stalking?current research cconclusions include improving

laws, helping victims to become survivors, and put in place reduction and prevention strategies

Blaauw et. al. (2000) conclusions

better therapy outcomes can be expected from therapies focusing on boosting general coping skills and on decreasing general vulnerability than from therapies focusing on specifically dealing with the stalking situation.

‘Finally, future research is needed on long-term consequences of stalking and the consequences of stalking for the children of the victims, especially because of the fact that the majority of the victims had children and were forced to raise these children in difficult circumstances’ (p9)

Mullen, P. E., Pathé, M., Purcell, R., & Stuart, G. W. (1999). Study of Stalkers. Am J Psychiatry,

156(8), 1244-1249.

Bringing stalking to an end requires a mixture of appropriate legal sanctions and therapeutic interventions. (p1244)

BibliographyAustralian Bureau of Statistics. (2006). Crime and Safety Australia 2005, Cat. 4509. Canberra:

ABS.Blaauw, E., Winkel, F. W., & Arensman, E. (2000). The toll of stalking: the relationship between

features of stalking and psychopathology of victims. Paper presented at the Stalking: Criminal Justice Responses Conference. AIC: Sydney 7-8 December 2000

Encyclopædia Britannica Online http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9389388Hairon, N. (2004). Act quickly to avoid being the victim of a stalker. Pulse, 64(48), 20-20.Hayes, H., & Prenzler, T. (eds.). (2007). An introduction to crime. Frenchs Forest: Pearson.Mullen PE, Pathé M, Purcell R and Stuart GW, (1999) Study of Stalkers American Journal of

Psychiatry 1244Ogilvie, E. (2000). Stalking : policing and prosecuting practices in three Australian jurisdictions.

Canberra: Australian Institute of CriminologyThomas, S. D. M., Purcell, R., Pathe, M., & Mullen, P. E. (2008). Harm associated with stalking

victimization. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 42(9), 800-806United Nations (1985) United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of

Crime and Abuse of Power (1985)