Standard Operating Procedure

Soft cage traps for capture of macropods

SOP No: 9.5

Prepared by:

Department of Parks and Wildlife, Species and Communities Branch, Locked Bag 104 Bentley Delivery Centre WA 6983

Prepared for:

Department of Parks and Wildlife’s Animal Ethics Committee Version 1.1 (April 2013)

SOP No 9.5 – Soft cage traps for capture of macropods

Approvals

Version 1.0 Approved by:

Dr Manda Page l Zoologist, DPaW Species and Communities Branch

Endorsed by: Date:

{Title and name} {Position and organisation}

Endorsed by: Date:

{Title and name} {Position and organisation}

Acknowledgements

Various internal documents were consulted when compiling the content of this standard operating procedure. These documents included Peter Orell’s Western Shield Operational Fauna Monitoring Protocols, Adrian Wayne’s DRAFT Possum Ecology Research Operation Handbook and Nicole Godfrey’s Peron Captive Breeding Centre Protocols. The content of the South Australian Department for Environment and Heritage Wildlife Ethics Committee’s “Standard operating procedure for the use of live traps to capture terrestrial vertebrates” was also used. The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions of the following reviewers in improving the content of this standard operating procedure: Neil Thomas, Nicole Willers, Nicole Godfrey and Nicky Marlow. This document has been reviewed by the Department of Parks and Wildlife’s Animal Ethics Committee.

Revision History Log Version # Revision Date Author Changes

1.0 24/01/2010 Vanessa Richter & Christine Groom

Drafted and finalised document

1.1 23/04/2013 Rebecca Kay Revision with minor changes

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Table of Contents

1 Purpose ........................................................................................ 1

2 Scope ............................................................................................ 1

3 Approved trap types ................................................................... 1

4 Procedure outline ........................................................................ 2

4.1 Baiting traps ........................................................................... 2

4.2 Setting traps ........................................................................... 3

4.3 Checking and picking up traps............................................... 3

4.4 Removing animals from traps ................................................ 4

4.5 Trap care and maintenance ................................................... 5

5 Level of Impact ............................................................................ 5

6 Ethical Considerations ............................................................... 6

6.1 Handling time ......................................................................... 6

6.2 Pouch young .......................................................................... 6

6.3 Trap placement ...................................................................... 6

6.4 Injuries inflicted during removal from trap .............................. 6

6.5 Capture myopathy .................................................................. 7

6.6 Unexpected deaths ................................................................ 7

6.7 Breeding season .................................................................... 7

6.8 Weather ................................................................................. 7

7 Competencies and Approvals................................................... 7

8 Further Reading .......................................................................... 9

9 Health and Safety Considerations ............................................ 9

9.1 Animal bites and scratches .................................................... 9

9.2 Zoonoses ............................................................................... 9

10 References ................................................................................... 9

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1 Purpose

Soft cage traps are preferred for species that are particularly prone to injury or capture myopathy. They have been effectively used for a variety of species, including black-flanked rock-wallabies (Petrogale lateralis lateralis), tammar wallabies (Macropus eugenii derbianus) and mala (Lagorchestes hirsutus).

This standard operating procedure (SOP) provides advice on the use of soft cage traps for non-

lethal trapping of fauna.

2 Scope

This SOP applies to all fauna survey and monitoring activities involving the use of soft cage traps undertaken across the State by the Department of Parks and Wildlife (DPaW). It may also be used to guide fauna monitoring activities undertaken by Natural Resource Management groups, consultants, researchers and any other individuals or organisations. All DPaW personnel involved in monitoring using soft cage traps should be familiar with the content of this document. This SOP complements the Australian code of practice for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes (The Code). The Code contains an introduction to the ethical use of animals in wildlife studies and should be referred to for broader issues. A copy of the code may be viewed by visiting the National Health and Medical Research Council website (http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/).

Please note: Projects involving wildlife research require a licence to take (i.e. capture, collect, disturb, study) fauna for scientific purposes (Reg 17) under the provisions of the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950. Other licences may also be applicable and care should be taken to ensure that the appropriate licences and permits are adhered to when planning any project. All projects involving the use of soft cage traps for the capture of macropods must be approved by the DPaW Animal Ethics Committee.

3 Approved trap types

A common feature of the soft cage traps is the use of soft material in the walls of the trap to absorb the movement of trapped animals and minimise injury. Approved soft cage trap types are:

Thomas: A Thomas trap comprises a shadecloth ‘bag’ attached to a collapsible galvanised steel rod frame. The ‘bag’ is attached to the front of the frame by cable ties (for easy replacement of the shadecloth) and is hooked to the rear of the trap by shock-cord loops (Figure 1 and 2). The door is released via a treadle mechanism similar to that of a cage trap. The door consists of shadecloth attached to a steel rod frame by cable ties. This trap was designed by Neil Thomas (Science Division, Woodvale), with assistance from Sheffield Wire Products (Sheffield Rd, Welshpool, WA), specifically for use with small to medium-sized macropods. It is manufactured commercially by Sheffield Wire Products. Two sizes have been manufactured: a 30cm high frame for hare-wallabies and 45cm high frame for tammar wallabies and rock-wallabies.

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Figure 1: Thomas trap. Photo by N. Thomas/DPaW. Figure 2: Thomas trap and black-flanked rock-wallaby

at Querekin Rock. Photo by C. Freegard/DPaW.

Several variations of the Thomas trap have been field trialled and subsequent modifications have been made. Such modifications include different accessibility options for removing animals and methods of stabilising traps. The shade cloth ‘bag’ can be made to include a zip closing device or may just have overlapping layers of shade cloth material at the top for the easy removal of animals. A metal rod (approximately 1m in length) may be secured to the rear of the larger (45 cm frame) trap with cable ties to better stabilise the trap from rolling over (Figure 3). This is particularly helpful where the ground is too hard to use tent pegs to secure the trap. However, the use of tent pegs with the metal rod is recommended where possible, to provide maximum stability.

Figure 3: Thomas trap with stabilising rod at rear. Photo by C. Freegard/DPaW.

Bromilow: The Bromilow trap comprises a strong cotton or synthetic mesh ‘cage’ suspended within a collapsible aluminium frame with sliding door and treadle release mechanism. Shade cloth is fitted to the external frame, on all sides of the trap to provide shade for the animals and to reduce their sense of exposure. Bromilow traps have traditionally been used for rock-wallabies but are also suitable for tammar wallabies and other similar sized macropods. They were originally designed to capture black-flanked rock-wallabies (Petrogale lateralis lateralis) and design specifications are published in Kinnear et al. (1988). This trap design is not manufactured commercially and is expensive to make.

4 Procedure outline

4.1 Baiting traps

(a) Various bait types are used in soft cage traps depending on the target species. Bait options

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include apples, lucerne (fresh or dry), chaff, grain or pellets. If using grain, it should be treated in such a way that it cannot germinate. Other bait types or ingredients may be used if they have been identified as appropriate and approved for use for a particular project.

(b) It is recommended that some bait is placed outside the trap and leading into the trap to entice the target animals. The majority of bait should be placed at the very rear of the trap to minimise animals spending too much time around the front door and triggering the trap without capture.

(c) Pre-baiting trap locations, or traps that have been wired open, can also be employed to increase trap success. This is particularly useful if trapping for the translocation of a species.

4.2 Setting traps

(a) Traps must be set so that they are not readily visible from roads to avoid public curiosity and possible theft of traps. Traps should be placed a minimum of 10m from the road edge except where the density of the vegetation makes this impracticable.

(b) Traps should be placed in sheltered positions that will protect any captured animals from heat, cold, wind and exposure. Note the track of the sun and position the trap accordingly, so that it will not be in the sun before it is emptied.

(c) When rodents and rabbits are abundant they can cause problems as they enter the traps, set off the trigger and then chew their way out through the netting. This issue can be resolved by placing a series of Elliott or cage traps next to the soft cage trap. This reduces the chance of the rodents or rabbits occupying the soft cage trap and maximises trap availability for the target species. Similarly, locally common native species (e.g. brush-tail possums) may decrease trap success of the target species by occupying traps. This problem can be overcome by placing standard cage traps beside soft cage traps in affected areas.

(d) Trap locations must be marked with flagging tape and labelled or numbered. A GPS reading for each trap is also recommended and is required for long-term monitoring sites (e.g. Western Shield transects). Permanent monitoring trap sites should also be marked using a numbered dropper post. The location information for permanent monitoring transects and their trap points should be recorded on datasheets and a database.

(e) Traps must be set in level positions using natural cover wherever possible and avoiding the vicinity of ant nest or trails. Clear the debris from under the trap to ensure stability. Make sure that there are no obstructions (vegetation or debris) that will prevent the effective dropping and locking of the trap door. A short straight stick (that won’t reduce trap stability), no longer than the width of the cage, can be placed under the front lip of the trap to lift the bottom lip of the trap mouth off the ground by approximately 5mm.

(f) Soft cage traps are constructed in such a way that some protection from the elements is provided by the trap itself. The hessian carry bag for each Thomas trap should be draped over the top of the shade cloth portion of the trap for added protection (Figure 3). The hessian needs to be secured to ensure that it cannot be easily removed by an animal (e.g. brush-tail possum) and so the wind cannot blow it off the trap. Options include using cables ties, nestling the trap into a bush, tucking the edges of the bag under the trap (ensuring the stability of the trap is not impeded) or piling sand on the edges of hessian. Alternatively the hessian carry bag can be draped over the metal frame of the trap and secured with clothes pegs.

(g) Check that the trap release mechanism is working properly and is not impeded by any obstacle especially the hessian bag.

(h) Check that the trap cover is effective and secure and that the trap is positioned to take advantage of shade until emptied.

(i) For monitoring purposes, it is recommended that traps are set for a minimum of three nights (preferably 4-5 nights but consideration should be given to the impact on individuals that may be trapped every night, especially if they have dependent young).

(j) All traps must be accounted for before and after each trapping session.

4.3 Checking traps

(a) All traps must be counted out when setting traps and counted in when picking up traps. Personnel undertaking the trapping must keep tallies of traps to ensure that all are checked.

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There is no excuse for leaving unchecked traps set in the field. It is responsibility of the lead personnel at the survey location on each trapping day to ensure that all traps are accounted for and that the impact on animal welfare is minimised

(b) Traps must be checked for captures at night and early in the morning within three hours of sunrise. If checking of traps cannot be completed within this time frame, trap numbers must be reduced or the number of personnel increased before any further trapping is undertaken. If weather conditions are hot then trap checking must be completed earlier.

(c) Traps must either be closed on checking and re-opened late afternoon, or (where target species are not nocturnal) can remain open provided they are re-checked late afternoon. Traps remaining open during the day must be in a shaded position, and in the case of extreme weather conditions, checked more frequently.

(d) An appropriate handling bag must be carried when approaching a trap to ensure efficient removal of the animal from the trap (see SOP 10.1).

(e) Take care when approaching the trap and minimise noise during your approach (reduce noise from walking, vehicles, minimal talking, etc).

(f) The bait must be checked daily in every trap and replaced where necessary. Traps without bait reduce the real statistical validity of trapping results.

(g) The presence of ants in the trapping area can lead to detrimental impacts on captured animals. Surface insecticide (e.g. permethrin based products like Coopex ®) can be applied around traps to discourage ants. Surface insecticides should never be used inside traps and should not be used routinely as they can be harmful to trapped animals, particularly frogs and reptiles. Powder and spray forms are available however extreme care must be taken to ensure that no free standing liquid droplets remain when using the spray form as absorption/ingestion can be lethal to frogs and reptiles. Always read the MSDS of chemicals before use. If ants become highly attracted to the trapping area remove the traps and relocate them to a more suitable position.

(h) Trapping data should be recorded on an appropriate trapping datasheet and database.

4.4 Picking up traps

(a) All traps must be counted out upon setting traps and counted in when picking up. Personnel undertaking the trapping must keep tallies of traps to ensure that all are collected and that there are no traps left behind. If traps are not being collected immediately after checking (i.e. traps are not being checked and picked up simultaneously), the traps must be closed on checking and remain closed until they are picked up. There is no excuse for leaving traps set in the field. Responsibility of animal welfare rests with the lead personnel at the survey location during fauna trapping events.

(b) Ensure residual bait is removed from traps and flagging tape is removed from the area.

4.5 Removing animals from traps

Techniques for removing animals from traps vary depending on the species involved and the experience and skills of the person(s) involved. Removal of animals from traps should be demonstrated in person and these notes are provided as general guidance only.

(a) Animals must be removed from the trap as efficiently as possible.

(b) Traps must remain covered as much as possible during removal of the animal to minimise stress.

(c) Techniques for efficiently removing an animal from a trap depend on the species, physique of the operator, size and demeanour of the animal and the availability of an assistant. Access to the animal can be achieved through the top of the trap (depending on how it is constructed) or the door. In the case of medium-sized animals such as tammar wallabies or black-flanked rock-wallabies, the trap is usually tipped on its end and the operator reaches in to grasp the base of the tail to lift the animal out of the trap. The animal is then placed (possibly with a gentle swinging motion) into the opening of an appropriate handling bag (Figure 4 and 5) (see SOP 10.1). Assistants can help by holding the door of the trap open or holding open the

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handling bag ready to receive the animal.

Figure 4: Black-flanked rock-wallaby grasped by the base of the tail. Photo by R. Groom.

(d) Prevent animals from gripping the sides of the trap during removal by acting swiftly. If grasping the animal by the tail, the other hand may be used to hold its hind legs together to stop the animal gripping the trap. If the animal does grip the trap, take care not to injure the animal by pulling against their grip.

(e) Particular care should be taken for those species that may drop pouch young (see SOP 14.1 Care of evicted pouch young for further information). Ensure that you check the bottom of the trap and handling bag (before you release the animal) for any dropped pouch young.

(a) Captured animals must be released at point of capture (unless the purpose of the trapping is translocation, specimen collection, or for some other approved reason). ). Animals must be released, or reach an alternate endpoint approved by the DPaW Animal Ethics Committee, within 24 hours of capture. Further, animals must be released at a time that is appropriate to their normal activity and caution taken to reduce exposure to risks such as predation i.e. nocturnal animals should be released early morning or kept until late afternoon before release at the point of capture.

4.6 Trap care and maintenance

(a) Traps must be maintained in good working order and cleaned after each trapping session. All bait must be removed and traps stored in an area that is free of rodents. The trap release mechanism must be kept clean of bait and scats. Advice on cleaning and disinfection of traps is available in Chapman et al. (2008).

(b) Take care in assembling and disassembling traps to ensure components are not bent or lost.

(c) Any damaged traps requiring attention need to be flagged and labelled in the field when a problem is identified so that it can be attended to on return to the office.

5 Level of Impact

The design of soft cages significantly reduces the occurrence of injuries to captured animals. However, injuries can occur if the traps are not maintained well or are not manufactured in accordance with specifications. Details such as mesh size in Bromilow traps are specified for a reason and should not be substituted. Potential animal welfare impacts of cage trapping include:

Capture myopathy (particularly for macropods)

Trauma (e.g. minor abrasions)

Hypothermia

Heatstroke

Dehydration

Figure 5: Black-flanked rock-wallaby being removed from a Thomas trap and transferred to a waiting handling bag. Photo by R. Groom.

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Starvation

Distress (caused by confinement, discomfort, social isolation, separation of mother and young, exposure to predators, ants etc)

If the cage traps are properly monitored and preventative actions are implemented then the impact should be small and only short-term.

6 Ethical Considerations

To reduce the level of impact of soft cage trapping on the welfare of animals there are a number of ethical considerations that should be addressed by monitoring personnel throughout projects involving soft cage trapping. DPaW projects involving the soft cage trapping of macropods will require approval from the DPaW Animal Ethics Committee and where appropriate the following ethical considerations must be adequately covered in any Application for Approval to Undertake Research Involving Vertebrate Animals.

It should be noted that whilst these ethical considerations are specifically associated with the procedure of capture, other ethical considerations need to be taken into account during procedures carried out post capture during processing.

6.1 Handling time

To ensure minimal stress to the animals they should only be handled for as long as required to identify them and to collect any necessary measurements (usually no more than five minutes). Captured animals must be released at point of capture (unless the purpose of the trapping is translocation, specimen collection, or some other approved reason). Animals must be released (or reach alternate end point) within 24 hours of capture. Most studies using soft cage traps are interested in nocturnal species. For these studies it is preferable that traps are opened at dusk (to avoid stray animals being captured during the day) and are checked at night and/or dawn to avoid stress and possible death of animals.

6.2 Pouch young

Ejection of pouch young is common in species of the Potoroidae and Peramelidae families. Persons that may encounter species of these families whilst trapping must be familiar with SOP 14.1 Care of evicted pouch young. Records need to be kept on orphans, their care and fate for annual reporting requirements for DPaW Animal Ethics Committee approved projects.

6.3 Trap placement

Trap placement can greatly affect animal welfare. Traps need to be placed in suitable locations to reduce exposure (e.g. light, heat/cold, rain/water) of trapped animals. For example, considerations need to be given to the movement of shade, prevailing winds and drainage in wet conditions. Thick trap covers that provide protection from the elements and reduce the sense of exposure by the animals are required. If the traps are likely to capture species that are prone to panic or stress (e.g. woylies), trap placement should also consider allowing animal handlers to approach the traps without the knowledge of the potential captives (e.g. allow ‘blind’ approach, reduced noise from walking on leaf litter, vehicles, minimal talking). Traps should also not be located in the vicinity of high ant activity.

6.4 Injuries inflicted during removal from trap

Removing animals from traps always poses a risk of injury. Consideration should be given to the risk of injury to spine and fore/hind claws when being removed using a grip to the base of the tail. This method of removing an animal from a trap should only be performed by experienced personnel or under close supervision.

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6.5 Capture myopathy

Capture myopathy is a condition associated with capture and handling of many species of mammals and birds that results in degeneration of skeletal and/or cardiac muscle (Shepherd et al. 1988). The condition can result in sudden death, but death may occur weeks after capture as a result of complications from the disease, including abnormalities to posture and gait and increased susceptibility to predation (Abbot et al. 2005). Signs and symptoms include a drooping head and neck, laboured breathing, tremors, lethargy and lack of coordination or paralysis. Prevention of the condition through efforts to minimise stress to animals is better than treatment options. For projects approved by the DPaW Animals Ethics Committee, records of animals suspected to be suffering from capture myopathy and any deaths need to be provided to the Executive Officer for annual reporting requirements.

6.6 Unexpected deaths

If unexpected deaths or euthanasia occur, it is essential to consider the possible causes and take action to prevent further deaths. For projects approved by the DPaW Animal Ethics Committee, unexpected deaths or euthanasia must be reported in writing to the Animal Ethics Committee Executive Officer on return to the office (as per 2.2.28 of The Code).

6.7 Breeding season

Avoid trapping in breeding seasons where offspring in nests or dens may be separated from their captured parents; when there is an increased likelihood of injury; or there is likely separation when young are thrown from the pouch. Tammar wallabies are synchronous breeders and have large young in the pouch or at heel between May and October. However, many species breed throughout the year making it impossible to completely avoid trapping animals at sensitive times. If captured, lactating animals should be released as soon as possible.

6.8 Weather

Avoid trapping in extreme weather conditions (hot, cold, wet and/or windy) by planning ahead and monitoring long-range and daily weather forecasts.

7 Competencies and Approvals

Personnel undertaking soft cage trapping require approval from the DEC Animal Ethics Committee and will need to satisfy the competency requirements detailed in Table 1. This is to ensure that personnel involved have the necessary knowledge and experience to minimise the potential impacts of soft cage traps on the welfare of animals. Other groups, organisations or individuals using this SOP to guide their fauna monitoring activities are encouraged to also meet these competency requirements as well as their basic animal welfare legislative obligations. It should be noted that details such as intensity of the trapping being undertaken will determine the level of competency required and Table 1 provides advice for basic monitoring only. Table 1: Competency requirements for Animals Handlers of projects using soft cage traps to capture fauna.

Competency Category Competency

Requirement

Competency Assessment

Wildlife licences 1.1 Licence to take fauna for scientific purposes (Reg 17)

OR

Provide SC (DPaW personnel only) or SF licence number

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Competency Category Competency

Requirement

Competency Assessment

1.2 Licence to take fauna for educational or public purposes (Reg 15)

Provide TF licence number

Formal qualifications and course certificates

(Note: Suitable levels of skills/experience can substitute for formal training requirements)

3.5 TAFE qualifications in fauna management and handling

OR

Provide course year, TAFE facility

3.7 CALM Mammal Conservation Course (1992-1995)

OR

Provide course year

3.8 CALM/DEC/DPaW Fauna Management Course (1997-)

OR

Provide course year

3.10 Tertiary degree units in fauna handling

Provide graduation year, university

General skills/experience 5.1 Relevant knowledge of species biology and ecology

Personnel should be able to correctly identify the likely species to be captured in soft cage traps for the site/s being studied. This knowledge may be gained through sufficient field experience and/or consultation of field guides and other literature.

Estimated total time in field: Minimum 1 year involved in similar projects.

Fauna survey and capture skills/experience

6.1 Experience in setting and use of live traps - cage, Elliott, pit, Bromilow, Thomas

AND

Personnel should be confident at identifying the best locations to set traps and how to set traps so that the mechanism works and animal welfare is considered at all times. This knowledge may be gained through sufficient field experience and/or consultation of literature.

Estimated total time in field: Minimum 1 year involved in similar projects.

6.3 Training and experience in trap hygiene, disease transmission

Personnel should be familiar with hygiene procedures. This knowledge may be gained by sufficient field experience and/or consultation of literature.

Estimated total time in field: Minimum 1 year involved in similar projects.

Animal handling and processing skills/experience

7.1 Experience in handling terrestrial mammal fauna

AND

Personnel should be confident at handling and restraint of the range of species likely to be captured. This knowledge may be gained through sufficient field experience and/or consultation of literature.

Estimated total time in field: Minimum 1 year involved in similar projects.

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Competency Category Competency

Requirement

Competency Assessment

7.2 Experience in handling terrestrial herpetofauna

Personnel should be confident at handling and restraint of a range of reptile species that may be caught (usually as by-catch for soft cage traps). Personnel should be familiar with reptile identification methods such as scale counts. This knowledge may be gained through sufficient field experience and/or consultation of literature.

Estimated total time in field: Minimum 1 year involved in similar projects.

8 Health and Safety Considerations

First aid kits should always be carried in vehicles. You must be aware of your own safety and the safety of others as well as the animals during handling.

It is recommended that a job safety analysis is undertaken prior to undertaking monitoring using soft cage traps at your site. This safety analysis should include the following considerations.

8.1 Animal bites and scratches

Removing animals from soft cage traps can result in injuries to handlers from the animals inflicting bites and scratches. All injuries should be appropriately treated as soon as possible to prevent infection and promote healing. If DPaW personnel or volunteers are injured an “Incident and Near Hit Notification” form must be completed and forwarded to DPaW’s Risk Management Section.

8.2 Zoonoses

There are a number of diseases carried by animals that can be transmitted to humans (i.e. zoonoses such as Toxoplasmosis, Leptospirosis, Salmonella). Advice on minimising disease risk is contained in SOP 16.2 Managing disease risk in wildlife management.

9 Further Reading

The following SOPs have been mentioned in the advice regarding use of soft cage traps. It is recommended that the following SOPs and further reading are also consulted when proposing to undertake soft cage trapping.

SOP 10.1 Animal handling/restraint using soft containment

SOP 14.1 Care of evicted pouch young

SOP 15.1 Humane killing of animals under field conditions in wildlife management

SOP 16.2 Managing disease risk in wildlife management

Environmental Protection Authority and Department of Environment and Conservation (2010) Technical Guide - Terrestrial Vertebrate Fauna Surveys for Environmental Impact Assessment (eds B.M. Hyder, J. Dell and M.A Cowan). Perth, Western Australia.

10 References

Abbott, C.W., Dabbert, C.B., Lucia. D.R. and Mitchell, R.B. (2005). Does muscular damage during capture and handling handicap radiomarked northern bobwhites? Journal of Wildlife Management 69: 664-670.

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Chapman, T., Sims, C. and Mawson, P. (2008). Minimising Disease Risk in Wildlife Management. Standard operating procedures for fauna translocation, monitoring and euthanasia in the field. 2

nd

edition. Department of Environment and Conservation, Perth.

Kinnear J.E., Bromilow R.N., Onus M.L., Sokolowski R.E.S. (1988). The Bromilow trap: a new risk-free

soft trap suitable for small to medium-sized macropodids. Australian Wildlife Research 15: 235-237.

NHMRC (2004). Australian code of practice for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes. 7

th

edition. National Health and Medical Research Council, Commonwealth of Australia.

Shepherd, N.C., Hopwood, O.R. and Dostine, P.L. (1988). Capture myopathy: Two techniques for estimating its prevalence and severity in red kangaroos, Macropus rufus. Australian Wildlife Research 15: 83-90.