State and Religion: Paper by Hassan Jafar Zaidi

8/6/2019 State and Religion: Paper by Hassan Jafar Zaidi

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StateandReligion

inthePerspectiveofMuslimHistory

HassanJafarZaidi

([email protected])

Goddidnotcreatestate.Manevolvedandcreatedstateintheshapesandformssuitedto

himaccordingtogrowthofmeansofproductionandtheleveloforganizationrequiredto

managetherelationshipsofproductionandmaintainequilibriuminaparticularsociety.The

statehas not existed from all eternity. Therehave been societies,whichhavemanaged

withoutit,whichhadnonotionofthestateorstatepower.Atadefinitestageofeconomic

development, which necessarily involved the cleavage of society into classes, the state

became a necessity because of this cleavage. Religions,whether evolved terrestrially, or

descendedheavenly,neverevolvedapoliticalsystemorcreatedastatestructurethough

theyhadcloseculturalassociation,inoneformortheother,withthisinstitutionofkeeping

balanceinthesociety,calledstate.Andthishasbeentrueforallreligionsandforallforms

andshapesofstatesevolvedsofar.

History took a historical turn on 9/11/2001. A discriminatory stigma was associated with

Muslimsintermsoftheirreligionandtheirstates,asiftheyweretheonlycreaturesonthe

faceofthisearththatcombinedtheirfaithwithgovernmentalsystem.Westernpowersand

theirmediaportrayedMuslimsandtheircountriesassourceofterror.Protagonistsofso-

called War on terror created an Islamophobia by making a case against them on the

groundsthat:

Muslimsbelieveinunityofreligion&statei.e.atheocraticstate If Muslimswere given a free hand, they would impose a Taliban like religious

extremiststateauthorityontheentirecivilisedworld

Interestinglyenough,duringthecold-warerathesameprotagonists


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Patronised the ideology of unity of state & religion in Islam as bulwark for thecontainment of anti-God communism: the concept of Islamistan was

propounded by Anglo-American Imperialism that culminated in Baghdad pact

(CENTO)

Patronised monarchs, despots & dictators who used the same ideology toconsolidatetheirrule.

Patronisedwholehostofreligiousextremist/terroristorganisationstopromotethesame ideology and crushed liberal/progressive democratic forces in the name of

IslamicRevivalism

PatronisedIslamicJihad,Pan-Islamism&ModelIslamicStateoftheirbrandAt the same time,many of the innocentMuslims,especially the educated lowermiddle

classesfellpreytotheserevivalistsinbelievingthatMuslimscouldoutgrowtheirproblems

iftheycouldrevivethefollowingasexistedintheirgloriouspast;

IslamicSystemofGovernment IslamicUnityorPan-Islamism IslamicJihad IslamicCharacterofMedievalMuslims

Let us look at the history and see if the image portrayed by theWest or the urge of

revivalismamongstsomesectionsofMuslimsbearhistoricaltestimonyoritisjustafallacy.

BeforetheadventofIslam,thereexistedtwopoliticalordersinthehumansocietiesacross

theentireglobe.

One:thedynasticmonarchyin theareaswhereagrarianrevolutionhadsuccessfullytaken

roots, especially in the rivervalleys,and advancemeansofproduction generated ample

surpluswealththatneededhigherorderoforganizationofstateauthority.

Two:thetribalpoliticalorderinthedeficitareas,barrendesertsorjungleswithbackward

means of production capable of producing just enough to keep themselves and their

community, and did not produce any significant surplus, so there was little room for


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exploitationoraroyalauthorityorastateauthority;sopracticallythereexistednostate

exceptthattheyhadaloosetribalconfederacy.

Onewasadvancedcomparedtothesecondintermsofleveloforganization,civilizationand

wealth. Both the systemswere product of socio-economicevolution ofmankind on this

planet,andwereneverderivedfromanyscriptureoraholybook.

Thesocietieslivingunderthesametypeofsocio-economicorder,yetindifferentpartsof

the world, practiced and believed in different faiths. The god-kings of Nile valley, the

Pharaohs;andthegod-kingsofGangesvalley,theRamahandtheKrishna;thegod-kingsof

Euphrates valley, the Assyria; and the prophet-kings of biblical Palestine; all formed

different sets of beliefs, yet the political order they followed was hereditary dynastic

monarchy.ThecultsworshippedinChina,South-EastAsia,Iran,Assyria,Greece,andRoman

Empireregionsweredifferent,butthepoliticalorderpracticedinthesesocietieswasagain,

a dynastic monarchical order. The conclusion is very simple: the believers in different

religionsandcults, living under similar stage of socio-economic developmentof agrarian

basedeconomyandtrade,hademployedsimilartoolsofgovernancetokeepabalancein

thatsocio-economicorder.Itfurtherleadsustoaveryimportantcorollarythatanypolitical

orderorsystemthatcouldbesuprareligionorcreedorfaith,wouldbetermedassecular

system.Thereforetheprevalentpoliticalorderofancientandmedievalera,thesystemof

dynastic monarchy running the different kingdoms and empires, was a secular system

independentofreligion,creedandfaith.However,theofficeofclergy,againirrespectiveof

religion, was part of the administrative structure with varying degree of power, yet

subservienttothekingoremperor.

Forthesecondtypei.e.thetribalpoliticalorder,wefindthatstatehoodwasnotevolved

yet.TherethetribewasaState,andtribalchiefsandelderswouldruntheiraffairs.Inter-

tribeagreementsordisagreementsandfightswerejustlikewhatwouldtranspirebetween

thestates.Aloosetribalconfederacyprovidedafunctionalarrangementbetweenthetribes

to maintain a balance in that society which was based on deficit or subsistent socio-

economic order. Some of such societies were known to or surrounded by the so-called

civilizedworldandhadsomekindofinteractionwithit.Morecommonlyknownwerethe

Arabs,yetconfinedwithinthepeninsula,NorthAfricanBerbersormoors,MongolsofGobi


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desert,andTartarsandAfghansofcentralAsia.Howevermanyofthemwerestillnotknown

to the civilized world i.e. those in Americas, Australia and Sub-Saharan Africa. But

interestingly the political systemwas run by similar traditions of inter-tribal pacts, tribal

assemblies (namedJirga inAfghans). The tribesmen inAmericasorsub-SaharanKalahari

Desertwouldbelieveindifferentcultsyettheysharedthecommonalityinthemannersof

runningtheirpoliticalaffairs.ThecultsworshippedbyArabs,Mongols,Australians,Tartars

and Afghanswereentirelydifferent and unknown toeachother, but theirpolitical traits

were quite common. We again draw the same conclusion, that the second prevailing

political orderof thatera, the tribal order,was also independentofbeliefs and faiths in

cults,thussecularinnature,androotedinthesocio-economicstageofdevelopment.

Inearly7thcenturyAD,whenProphetMuhammadproclaimedhisprophet-hoodinMakkah,

thepoliticalorderintheArabianPeninsulawaspredominantlyofthesecondtypei.e.the

tribalorderbasedondeficitunderdevelopedeconomywithlittleagricultureduetolackof

waterresourcesandscatteredpopulationinthevastariddesert.Thereexistednostateor

statesexceptsomesmallonesontheperipheryofpeninsulamainlyonitscoastline.The

oldest and thewell knownamongst themwas inYemen,owing tosomeagricultureand

maritimetrade. Some Yemeni tribes, asa result of tradebetween Yemenand Syria, got

settledin theNorthernendofpeninsulaborderingIraq,andestablishedtwoprincipalities

calledHeeraandGhassan. Theseweresortofbuffer states betweenByzantine and Iran.

Anothersmallprincipalitywasrecentlyestablishedby KindatribeontheEasterncoastline.

The rest of the mainland Arabia was without any state authority; the cities ofMakkah,

Madinah (Yathrib) and Taif had nokingsor rulers nor had allegiance toany neighboring

empiretohavetheirgovernorsthere.

Arabpeninsulawasdivided intotworegions, thearidareaofthenorthand

therain-fedareaofthesouth:northwasBedouineandSouth(calledYemen)

was set tled s tate under Jews , Chr i st ians and I ran ians. In the 6th century ,

withtheoutbreakof international warsbetweenByzantineandIranandthe

weakeningof major powers that control led thesouth, the regionbeganto

d is in tegrate and exper ienced a b reakdown o f i ts pol it ical and economic


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structure.At thesamet ime,Makkahemergedasaneweconomicandsocial

f orc e i n Arab ia. Its g eogr aph ical po siti on on th e sp ice route, h alfway

between Yathr ib (Madinah) and Naj ran, the s trongholds o f Judai sm and

Christ ianity, respectively, madeMakkahacaravanstat ionandaholyc ityat

thesamet ime.ThehouseconstructedbyAbrahamandIsmail ,enjoyedgreat

fol lowingandsanctityamongstArabtr ibes. Therel igious l i fewasbasedon

idolatryandpolytheism; theobject of worshipwasa t r io of goddesses, al-

Lat, al- Uzza, and Manat, cons idered to be daughters of A l lah and p laced

aroundthesacredhouseofAllah.

Therewasnostate:Tribalcustomsprevailedwithfollowingfeatures:Jirgasortofa

consultation;inter-tribeagreements; Bayiat(Bayiah)i.e.strikinghandonhandtoconfirm

the commitment either for trade or resolution of political or social issues, it could be

comparedwiththetraditionofmanumissioninEurope,aseculartraditionhavingitsrootsin

theprimitivebody language. Theseprevalent customsandtraditionswere knownasUrf.

Engelsusedatermofgentileconstitutionforsimilarsetoftraditionsthatprevailedbeforetheoriginsofstatehood.

SomeinstancesofthekindofpoliticalconstitutionthatexistedinandaroundMakkahcan

be traced from the sources of early Muslim historians like Ibn-i-Hisham who based his

source mainly on Ibn-i-Ishaq. Regarding theear ly inhabi tan ts of Makkah we find

that in onepart l ived BaniJurham the descendants of Prophet Ismai l (Bani

Ismail) and in the other l ived Bani Qatoora. The Jurham wou ld col lec t

the10th par t (Ushar) f rom those who would enter f rom the i r s ide and the

Qatoora the same f romthe ir s ide . Once f ight broke out between the two

tr ibes and Bani Qatoora were defeated, yet a ll branches of the two t ribes

heldanassembly(Jirga) andthesupremacyof BaniJurham wasrecognized.

Themanagement of af fa irs of houseof God ( Kaaba) was accededto them.

ThetraditionorUrfoftribalassembly(Jirga)settledthis issue.


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After sometimes , in -house f ighting got rampant between Bani Jurham on

tr ibutescol lectedfor Kaaba; another t r ibe BaniKhoza a tookadvantageof

the s ituat ion , a ttacked on Bani Jurham, defea ted and ous ted them f rom

Makkah.Themanagementof Kaaba wentunderKhoza a. Thedecis ion inthis

casecamebyfighting.

Somet imepast andQussiyBinKulaabofQuraish, son-in-lawofBaniKhoza a

claimedinheritanceafterthedeathofhisfather-in-law;thedisputeresulted

i n f ight between Qurai sh and Khozaa; then a moderator (Hakam) was

appoint ed ; t he dec is ion was t aken i n f avor o f Qus si ye , t he f ounder o f

Quraish supremacy on the management of Kaabah (Tawwalliyat) , including

the services of water and food for pilgrims (S iqayyah and R if adah ),

organizingconsultat ion(Nadawah ) andthe f lag ( Liwa) bearing.Qussiybui lt

aroomnearKaaba calledNadwahforconsultations.

During6thcenturyAD,HashimandUmayyiah,bothdescendantsofQussiye,stooduphead-

onagainsteachother;thedecisionthroughmoderator(Hakam)resolvedtheissueinfavor

ofHashim.Sometimeslater,conflictirruptedagainbetweenAbdulMuttalib-bin-Hashimand

Harab-bin-Umayyiah; decision again by a moderator (Hakam) was in favor of Abdul

Muttalib.

Until early 7th century AD same tribal traditions held sway. State could not be evolved

because means of production did not develop much; Abbas Bin Abdul Muttalib was

Muttawalli (custodian) of Kaaba at the time of prophets declaration of prophet-hood.

TherewasnorulerofMakkahorMadinahorthatofTaiforArabianPeninsula.

Thesystemofinter-tribepactsoragreementswasinplace.Someinstancesofsuchpacts

enteredbetweenthetribesofMakkahattheadventof7thcenturywere:pactofMuteebiyn

between thebranchesofBaniAbd-i-Munaf againstBaniAbd Aldar; and a similar treaty

betweenBani Abd Aldar againstBani Abd Munaf; another famous treaty called Half-al-


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Fazooltohelpanyoppressedagainsttheoppressorandredressthegrievances.Atthetime

ofreconstructionofKaaba,thedisputeastowhowouldfixthesacredblackstone HajarAl

AswadwasresolvedbyconsultationbetweentribaleldersofQuraishandthedecisionwas

madebytheProphetMuhammed.

Duringhisownlifetime, theProphetfollowedtheexistentnormsUrfoftribalorderinhis

day-to-daypolitics.DuringhisearlierperiodinMakkah,hemadesecretpacts BayiatAqaba

1stand2ndwith tribal eldersofMadinahwhowere invitinghimtomigratetoMadinah.

Thenaftermigration(Hijra) toMadinah,when Islamwasgoing tograspstrong roots,he

madeapactMithaq-i-MadinahwiththeJews&thetribes,irrespectiveofMuslimsandnon-

Muslims, living aroundMadinahwhich, in fact,was aunited frontofmostof the forcesconcentratedinandaroundMadinah,against QuraishofMakkahItwassecularinessence

whereinMuslims, Jews and othernon-Muslims had a political binding only; no religious

binding.HeconductedBayiat-i-Ridhwan,anoathofallegiance,beforethepeaceagreement

ofHudaibiya.AfterthevictoryofMakkahandTaif,mostofHijazrespondedtohiscallfor

Islam,yettheProphetdidnotestablishanystateorstateinstitutions,neitherinMadinah,

norinHijaz.OnlyakindofcentralauthorityemergedinthepersonofProphetwhichwasa

sortoftransitionfromprimitivetribalordertosortofchiefdom.Sometimestherewasan

advisorycouncilaswell,buttherewasnobureaucracyofprofessionaladministrators.The

governmentwasessentiallyjustthepersonofProphetwithhisteamofcounselorsi.e.the

companions(Sahabas).

TherealrevolutionthatProphetbroughtin,wasunificationoftheArabtribesaroundhim

despitegreatdiversitybetweenthem,andhecouldachieveitbyhisgreatqualityofliberal,

pragmatic andmagnanimousattitude,having nonarrowprejudices, reflected in thepact

with non-Muslims in Madinah (Mithaq Madinah); pact for peace at Hudaibia; general

amnesty to all his adversaries at the time of the conquest of Makkah and later-on, his

magnanimousdistributionofbootytothefamilyofAbuSufiyanafterthevictoryofbattleof

Hunain.

Deathof Prophet raised the issueof succession; according tobroader belief he did not

appointhissuccessorandleftthemattertoprevailingUrfi.e.theprevailingtraditionorconstitutionofgentile,whereasonesectioni.e.theShiitesbelievethathenominatedAlias


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his successor, which again was a tribal norm. However his close companion Abu Baker

succeededhimthroughconsultationoftribaleldersand BayiatinSaqifahwasconducted

undertheprevailingtraditionandcustoms(Urf).SuccessionofAbuBakerbyOmarthrough

nominationwasalsoanotherprevailingtradition.SuccessionofOmarbyOthmanthrougha

committee(Shura)ofsixseniorchiefswasalsooneoftheprevailingtribaltraditions.Finally

thesuccessionofOthmanbyAliwastheresultofanarmedrebellion,atribaltraditionof

settlingmattersbyforceandsiege.

The conflict between Ali andMuawiya led to bloody battles ofJamal and Siffin, which

ultimatelyculminatedintoappointingmoderators(Hakam):Musa-AshariandAmr-binAas

onbehalfofeachrespectively.Resolvingmattersthroughmoderators(Hakam)wasalsoa

tribaltraditionthatwasinpracticeamongstArabtribessincecenturies.Theinitialperiodof

PuritanSuccessors(Khilafat-e-Rashida),consideredastherolemodelbyMuslims,didnot

defineanewanddefinitepoliticalsystemthatpresumablycouldbeunderstoodasderived

from Islamic scriptures, rather the system of tribal constitution Urf that prevailed for

centuriesamongstArabswasfollowed.Thistribalpoliticalconstitutionwassecularinnature

in the sense that it had common traits with those tribal societies, which were passing

throughthesimilarstageofsocio-economicdevelopmentinotherpartsoftheworld.The

ProphetofIslamandhisimmediatesuccessorsdidnotintroduceareligiousortheocratic

stateauthority.

During the era of immediate successors, one decisive factor that laid down the basis of

qualitativechange was the conquestof vast areas spread over thousands ofmiles from

North Africa to Central Asia, comprising of very rich and fertile river valleys having

accumulatedthesurpluswealthofmanycenturies,insomecasesthousandsofyears;where

thepeoplehadlivedunderdynasticmonarchiesforseveralcenturiese.g.Egypt,Byzantine

andIran.Theoccupationoftheseareasandtheinductionofsurpluswealthcollectedfrom

there upset the socio-economic balance of tribal society which led to political disorder.

Strugglebetweenthetwolineserupted;oneinfavorofprevalenttribalorderofequality

and simplicity: the other to adopt monarchy of Byzantine & Iran. This contradiction

crystallizedduringOthmanerathatledtoarmedrebellionandmartyrdomofOthman,who


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failed to resolve this contradictioneitherway. The rebels pursued the first line: that of

retainingtheprevalenttribalorderofequalityandsimplicity.

ThesuccessionofAliunderpressureofrebelsprecipitatedthecrisisthatcausedgreatdivide

resultingintothebloodybattlesofJamalandSiffinbetweenAliandMuawiya:theformer

wassupportedbytherebelswhereasthelaterpursuedthesecondlineofgoinginforthe

monarchical order. When Ali entered into political dialogue with Muawiya, through

moderators,theextremistelementoftheupholdersoffirst-line,hithertogatheredaround

Ali,alsoturnedagainsthim;theyweregiventhename Khawariji.e.therebels.Alihadto

fightagainsttheminthebattleof Nehrawananddefeatedthem,butlateron,theyplotted

against him and assassinated him.After that,AmirMuawiya consolidatedmonarchyand

nominated his son Yezidashis crownprince. The tragedyofKerbala, themartyrdomof

Hussain,sonofAli,atthehandsofarmiesofYezidledtothefinalswayofmonarchicalorder

intheMuslimsociety.ThefoundationsofUmmaiyaddynasty,thefirstofitskindinMuslims

werelaiddown.ThecenterofpowershiftedfromMadinah,thecenterofthefirstlineof

politicalorder,toDamascus,thewintercapitalofByzantineEmpireandthentoBaghdad,

theareasthatremainedundermonarchiesforthelastmanycenturies.

The transition from tribal political order, having no state structure, to the prevalent

monarchicalstatesystem,bothsecularinnature,hasbeendescribedlucidlybyamedieval

Muslim sociologist, thinker and historian, Abdul Rehman Ibn-e-Khaldoon, coming from

Tunisia in 15th century AD. In his renowned Epilogue to History, he writes about the

caliphateofPuritans(Rashidah);Itsfunctionwasjusttobindthepeopletoabidebythe

Shariyah(religiouslaws)andtheycouldneverimagineaboutthekindofgovernmentthat

existedinthecountriesofinfidelsatthattimeThoseseniorCaliphshadnothingtodowith

the kind of that royal typeofgovernment.One reasonwas theirpietyand religion; and

secondly theirArabic Bedouinismkept themaway from the luxury because the Arabsof

thosetimeswerefarawayfromluxuryandworldlypleasures.Hefurthersays,Afterthem,

fromMuawiyaonwords,thechauvinism(Asabiyah)oftheArabsreacheditsfinalgoal,royal

authority.Therestraining influenceofreligionhadweakened.Therestraininginfluenceof

governmentandgroupwasneeded.(ThePrologue)


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Ibn-e-Khaldoon at another place in the same Prologue elaborates on this issue further:

DuringthereignofCaliphOmer,AmirMuawiyawasgovernorofSyriaandhelivedinthe

palace of emperor of Byzantine in Damascus; their winter capital. Also he would wear

preciousroyalrobesanddineinthegoldencrockery.ItwasbroughttothenoticeofCaliph

OmerwhocensuredMuawiyaonhislifestyle.ButMuawiyadefendedonthegroundsthat

theprovincehehasbeengiventogovernhadremainedunderroyalruleforcenturiesand

couldonlybecontrolledifhewouldlivelikeRomans.Healsoneededtoshowhisgrandeur

to the neighbouring Byzantine Empire to overawe them and subjugate them. Omer

acceptedtheargument.(ThePrologue)

On adopting hereditary monarchy by Umayyad, Ibn-e-Khaldoon says, They cannot be

blamed because they gave preference to their own sons and brothers, in that respect

departingfromtheSunnah(tradition)ofthefirstfourcaliphs.Theirsituationwasdifferent

fromthatofthe(four)caliphs,wholivedinatimewhenroyalauthorityassuchdidnotyet

exist,andthe(sole)restraininginfluencewasreligion.Thus,everybodyhadhisrestraining

influenceinhimself.(ThePrologue)

OnthetransitionofArabsintoroyalorder,heelucidates,TheArabs,then,enslavedthe

people of the former dynasties and employed them in their occupations and their

householdneeds.Fromamongthem,theyselectedskilledmastersofthevariouscraftsand

were in turn taught by them to handle, master and develop them for themselves. In

addition,thecircumstancesoftheArabs'lifewidenedandbecamemorediversified.Thus,

theyreachedthelimitinthisrespect.Theyenteredthestageofurbancultureofluxuryand

refinementinfood,drink,clothing,building,weapons,bedding(carpets),householdgoods,

music,andallothercommoditiesandfurnishings.Thesame(perfectiontheyshowed)on

theirgaladays,banquets, andweddingnights. In this respect,they surpassed the limit.

(ThePrologue)

OnceArabsadoptedthesystemnewtothem,theytransformedtheircustomsaccordingly.

Ibn-e-Khaldoonsays,TheoathofallegiancethatiscommonatpresentistheroyalPersian

customofgreetingkingsbykissingtheearth(infrontofthem),ortheirhand,theirfoot,or

thelowerhemoftheirgarment.ithasbecomesogeneralthatithasbecomecustomary

and has replaced the handshake whichwas originally used, because shaking handswith


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everybodymeantthattherulerloweredhimselfandmadehimselfcheap,thingsthatare

detrimentaltoleadershipandthedignityoftheroyalposition.(ThePrologue)

ThustheMuslimsadaptedtothecontemporarystatestructureavailableatthatjunctureof

humanhistory,thatwaspracticedallovertheworldbyfollowersofdifferentreligionsand

creeds.Muslimdynastiesprevailedforabout1300yearsoveranareaspreadfromSpainto

Bengalirrespectiveofsectariancleavageof Sunni,Shia,Wahabi,Ashaari,Motazzilaite etc.,

the well known amongst them are: the Ummayyiads, the Abbasids, the Ummayyiads in

Spain, the Fatamids, the Mamaleek of Egypt, the Ottoman Turks, the Safawids and the

QacharsofIran,theSultansandtheMughalofIndia.

No Faqih (interpreter of religious code), Muhaddis (interpreter of traditions), Mufassir

(interpreterofTheQuran)oranyreligiousscholar,intheheydays,everdeclaredmonarchy

asun-Islamic;theyaccepteditastheprevailingsystemofgovernance,recitedtherulers

nameintheholysermon(Khutba),whowouldsucceedbyforceorbywill.Untilthefallof

Ottoman Empire (Khilafat-i-Osmania), the monarchies prevailed and still exist to-date in

someMuslimstates.

Inthepyramidofauthority,thereligiousscholarshadnocontrolorauthorityuponthekings

oremperors.ThereligiousscholarswereappointedatlowerladderofbureaucracyasJudge

(QadhiorMufti)andTeacher(Mudarris)to teachthesonsofroyalfamilyornobility.The

kingorroyalfamilywasnotanswerabletoQadhiforanykillingsorwrongdoingshewould

commitduringpowerstruggleorforconsolidationofpower.Qadhiwouldrecitethename

inthesermons(Khutba)ofwhosoeverwouldgetsuccessincapturingthepoweratthetime

ofpowerstruggle,withoutconsideringthecharacteroftherulerwhetherhewasIslamicor

practicingallreligiousritesornot.

Themysticsaintskeptthemselvesawayfromtheroyalcourts;theyhadmassbaseandthe

doorsoftheirmonasteries(khanqah)werealwaysopentoeverybodywithoutconsidering

his/herreligion,cast,colourorcreed.

Tworeligiouscurrentsprevailedamongstthereligiousleaders(1)TariqatorTariqah(mystic

way)ofSoofisaints,(2)Shariah(religiouslaw)ofMullahs.


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ThemainstreamMuslimswerefollowersofsaintsratherthanMullahs.Sincetherulerwas

Muslim,theMuslimswereprivilegedoverthenon-Muslims;yetmostofthesuccessfuland

stablerulerswerethosewhogavesharetonon-Muslimsinpower.AkberthegreatMughal

emperorofIndiaandmanymorelikehimcanbecountedinthatgenre.Mullahswouldplay

instrumental rolesometimesonbehalf ofone factionorthe otherin the powerstruggle

whenthenon-MuslimsorMuslimsofoppositesectsweregivenshareinthepower.Sheikh

AhmedSirhindistooduponbehalfofSunniTurks(Tooranis)againstAkberwhoemployed

IranianShiitesandlocalHindusinhisadministration.

TheseparationofstateandreligionintwocompartmentsisreflectedbymedievalMuslim

historianstoo,whoneverlookedat theirhistoryas IslamicHistory.To themitwasthe

historyofkingsand emperors likeany otherkingoremperor.Theyneverascribeany of

their compilation to the synonym of Islamic History or History of Islam? Allama

MohammadBin Jareer Al-Tabri, a greatnameamongthe historiansofearly periods and

knownasImam-ulMowarikheen,namedhisvoluminouscompilationasTarikh-ul-Ummam-

wal-Mulookmeaningthehistoryofthenationsandthekings.Thoughhecoveredabout

threehundredyearsofthehistoryofonlytheMuslimsyethedidnotnameitasIslamic

History, giventhe fact thathewas also the interpreter(Mufassir)of TheQuranandhe

compiled his interpretation (Tafsir) as a separate book. The name he attributed to his

historybookindicatesthat,tohismind,theMuslimswerenotonenationbutcomprisedof

anumberofnationsbearingtheiridentitybasedontheirtribe,raceorregion;similarlythe

Muslimkingsandemperorswerejusttherulers(Mulooks)identicaltotheotherrulersof

theworldbelongingtodifferentreligions.

Another great name, Al-Baladhari, who compiled all the expansions and conquests of

Muslims on the vast lands from Spain toSindhduring early threecenturies, entitledhis

compilationasFutuh-ul-Buldanwhichmeansconquestsofthelands;hedidnotchoose

to put it as Futuh-ul-Islam i.e. the conquests of Islam. Mullah Mohammad Umar Al-

Waqidi,averyprominentnameamongtherenownedearlyMuslimhistorians,labeledallhis

compilations after the namesof the landsconquered or the persoanalities; someof the

namesareFutuhat-ul-Iraq,Futuhat-ul-ShaamandKitab-ul-Maghazi-Al-Nabbawiyyah

etc.HissecretaryMohammadIbnSaadcompiledallhisworksunderthetitleofTabaqat-al-


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KabeerorTabaqat-al-KubrawhichearnedthefamelateronasTabaqaatIbnSaad.In

Arabic,Tabaqaatmeans classificationsor categories;as IbnSaadportrayedthehistorical

figuresunderdifferentcategoriesorclasses,hencethename.Anothergreathistorian,Al-

Masoodi, titled his famous compilation of history as Murooj-ul-Zahab-wal-Muaadin-ul-

Jawahir-fi-Tarikhmeaningthemeadowsofgold,andminesofgemsinthehistory:whata

secularbeautifulname.AnotherfamoushistorianIbnAthircompiledhismultivolumeworks

on history of Muslims under a very simple name Al-Kamil-fi-Tarikh,that means the

completehistory.AbdulRehmanIbnKhaldoon,agreathistorianandfirstknownsociologist

oftheworld,notonlycompiledthehistorybutalsoformulatedthephilosophyofhistoryin

hisfamousprologue(Muqaddimah)ofhiscompilation,entitledhisworksasKitab-ul-Iber-

wa-Diwan-ul-Mubtada-wal-Khabar-fi-Ayyam-il-Arab-wal-Ajam-wal-Berber which can be

translated as the book of narration and compilation of subjects and predicates of the

periodsofArabs,Ajems(non-Arabs)andBerbers(northAfricans):moredowntoearthto

describethetribal,racial,andregionalnatureofthehistoryofMuslims.Anotherprominent

nameisthatofAbulFidaIbnKathir,famousnotonlyforhisworkonhistorybutalsoforhis

interpretation (Tafsir) of The Quran; he named his book on history as Al-Bidayya-wal-

Nihayyathatisthebeginningandtheend:asimplesecularname.Jalal-ud-DinAl-Siyuti

labeled his works as Tarikh-ul-Khulafaa, meaning the history of Caliphs, yet did not

qualifythemascaliphsofIslam.

A famous historiographer of North Africa and Spain, Alllama Al-Maqqari, entitled his

compilationas Nafha-ul-Teeb that is the breeze of fragrance: yet a beautiful secular

name.AnotherrichsourceofhistoryisAhmadAli-Al-KhatibsTarikh-i-Baghdadi.e.the

historyofBaghdad.Similarlyahugesourceofinformationisprovidedinthemultivolume

worksofIbnAsaakerwhonamedhiscompilationasTarikhal-KabirorTarikhDamishqal-

KabirmeaningalargehistoryofDamascus.AnotherinterestingnamecomesfromIbn-i-

Miskweh,whotitledhisfamoussourceonhistoryasTajaareebul-Ummemmeaningthe

experiencesofnations,whichspeaksofitselfhowsecularhisapproachwastowardsthe

history.Ibn-i-Khalikaan,anauthenticandveryrichsourceonhistoryingeneralandliterary

history in particular, termed his compilation as Wifiyat-ul-Aaiyyaan which means

obituariesoftherenowned.Thenomenclatureofthesetitlesisaverystrongindicativeof


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thefactthat,intheirgloriousmedievalperiod,religionandstateneveroverlapped.Infact

religionwasaprivateaffair;andstateormonarchywasasecularinstitution.

There is lot ofconfusion and intellectual chaoscreatedby theWesternmedia regarding

IslamicJihad.AllMuslimconquestsoftheareasunderthesocalledinfidelswereledbythe

political heads of states or emerging states and those expeditionswere similar to such

conquestsasofanystrongerrulersoradventurersinvadingneighboringweakerstates.It

was never just the religion that acted as the driving force for these invasions. Ibn-e-

Khaldoon formulates that there had been the three motivating forces behind these

invasions: religion, booty and tribal chauvinism. The expeditions in the name ofJihad

organizedandledbystraygroupslikeAl-QaedahwasneverafeatureofmedievalMuslim

history.The conceptofHolyWar against infidelsor suchMuslims dubbed as infidelson

sectariangroundslaunchedbyasectionorfactionofMuslimsrecruitedfromalloverthe

world, never existed during so-called gloriousMuslim history except for two instances;

KhawarijandQaramtah.

TheKhawarijclaimedKhurooj-Fi-Sabeel-Allah(rebellioninthenameofAllah)astheircreed

and considered all of their opponents as infidels and believed that their murder was

legitimate;theyhadnostate;theyfailedandgraduallybecomeextinctbythe9thcentury

AD,butafterinflictinglotofdamagestoMuslimsatlarge.TheQaramtahhadsimilartraitsas of Khawarij; they emerged by the beginning of 10

th century AD and succeeded in

establishing temporary governments inBahrain,Yemen,Multan and Sind; they alsomet

ultimate failure having done lots of damages to Muslims and were extinct by the 13th

century AD. Both Khawarij and Qaramtah were never approved by the mainstream

Muslims.

IbnKhaldoonsformulationaboutthosewholaunchedmovementsinthenameofreligion

tocapturepowerduringmedievalerawas:Theyarementallyderangedpeoplecannotget

powerbyordinarymeans.Sotheytryitthroughreligionandcannotassessthedamageand

lossoflivestheyultimatelyfaceintheend.(ThePrologue)

IntheentiremedievalMuslimhistory,therecouldbeonlytwooccasions,whensomekind

ofso-calledJihadmighthavebeenjustified.First;whenhordesofCrusadersfromEurope


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launchedinvasionsonPalestine,SyriaandEgypt,thatlastedforabouttwohundredyears

i.e.12thand13

th centuryAD. Yetwefindthat though,totheCrusaders itwasa religious

HolyWar, but to theMuslims it wasa simplewar, and they defended against it like an

ordinary invasion by outsiders. The war could be qualified as Jihad only if the Caliph

declareditasJihadandissuedageneraldecree(Fatwa)totheMuslimstoparticipateinit.

The Abbasid Caliph sitting in Baghdad, the backyard of battle fields of Crusades, never

issued a call forJihad totheMuslimworldtostandupagainst the Crusades.Heneither

himself participated nor sent any armies to take part in the defence or liberation of

Jerusalem.EventheMuslimhistorians,whorecordedthechroniclesofCrusadeslateron,

neverdescribedthemasJihad.Threegreathistorians,Ibn-e-Khaldoon,Ibn-i-AthirandAbul-

Fida-Ibn-i-Kathir,intheirchroniclesusethetermHaroob-Ul-Afrangmeaningaswarswith

Europeans.ThedefendingMuslimrulersofEgypt,SyriaandPalestine,initiallyFatamids,

then Zangis and Ayubids and finallyMamaleek, fought against Crusaders as an ordinary

defensivewaragainstinvaders,andnotasJihad.

ThesecondeventwasthethrustofTartarhordesunderGengizKhanonCentralAsiainthe

13thcenturyAD.TheroleofCaliphinBaghdadwaspartisan;he,insteadofissuingcallfor

Jihad, actually invited Gengiz Khan to invade upon Muhammad Khawarizm Shah the

emperorofthebiggestCentralAsianMuslimstateofthattime.Noneoftherulersofother

MuslimstatessidedwithKhawarizmShah,andnocallforJihadagainstTartarswasissued

fromanyquarter.Sectarianconflictwasrampantineverycityunderinvasion.NoMuslim

SultanincludingAltatmashofDelhiorNasiruddinQibachaofMultan,supportedJalal-ud-Din

KhawarizmShahagainstthearmiesofGengiz. MostoftheMuslimstatesofCentralAsia

andMiddleEastandallmajorcitiesincludingBaghdadweredecimatedbyTartars.

Therevivalistmovements in19thand20

th centuryresultedin reactionto theoccupation,

and direct or indirect control of vast lands of Muslim populations by the Western

colonialists.Duringcoldwar era, thesameWestern imperialistsexploited these revivalist

movements and patronized themtoencircleCommunism; and afterits fall in1991,they

abandoned them and started to use them as a bogey of danger to West andWestern

civilization,topushforwardtheiragendaofoccupationofMiddleEastandCentralAsia;the


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areasthatarerichinenergyresourcesandenjoystrategicpositionstoestablishhegemony

ontheworldatlarge.

Fromthisanalysis,wecandrawthefollowingconclusions:

State, political system and system of government is a product of socio-economicevolutionofmankindandhasneverbeenbasedonreligion

Muslims: so long as they remained in Arabian peninsula followed prevailing tribalnormssofarasstateandpoliticswasconcerned.Thesetribalnormswerenotpeculiar

toArabs;theseexistedwhereverintheworldtherewereandstillaretribalsocieties

andbackwardmeansofproduction.

InreligiousdomainanewdynamicreligionemergedthatunitedalltheArabpagansundertheconceptofoneGodanditexpandedveryfastinvastareasoftheworldof

medievaltimes.

WhenMuslimsconqueredthoseareaswhereempiresexistedforthelasttwotothreethousandyears,theyadoptedthesamesystemofstatethatexistedthereandthen

remainedinthatsystemevenaftertheBourgeoisIndustrialRevolution

Muslim rulers andmasses did not do anything different than what the rulers andmassesoffollowersofotherreligionsdidintheirhistory.

As their history goes, theMuslims have been adoptive to the changing realities allalongtheirhistoryandtheywouldliketogowiththecurrentsystemsofstatesand

governanceandhavenoreligiousinhibitionintheirway

Muslimsalwayshadasofterfaceintheirpracticeofreligion;itwashardenedbyworldimperialistsbypatronizingextremistelementsduringcoldwarperiod.

World imperialismkeptmost of theMuslim lands under their colonialregimes,andhavedevelopedsuchanimperialistorderthatMuslimmassesmightbepreventedto

adoptmoderndemocraticstates.

World imperialistsarepatronizing alldictatorsand reactionary forces tohinder theroadofdemocracyforMuslims.

(TheauthordeliveredhislectureonthesamesubjectinConwayHall,LondononJanuary7,2007)

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State and Religion: Paper by Hassan Jafar Zaidi

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