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State of matter
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General Chemistry, ed. Saunders
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Physical state of matter
Quizzes• 1. When a solid changes to a liquid it
is called what?
• 2. When a gas reaches its condensation point it becomes a what?
• 3. What is it called when a solid changes directly into a gas?
• 4. How many states of matter are there? a.) two; b.) three; c.) five
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Gases
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Gaseous state of matter
The spaces between gas particles are much
larger than the spaces between solid or liquid
ones so forces of attraction that hold gas
molecules together are very weak.
Molecules of gases can move from place to
place within a container bumping against the
walls of the container and against other
particles.
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Gases :
1. can be compressed into smaller volumes
(their densities can be increased by applying
increased pressure);
2. exert pressure on their surroundings
(pressure must be exerted to confine gases);
3. expand without limits (gas samples
completely and uniformly occupy the volume
of any container);
4. diffuse into one another (so samples of gas
placed in the same container mix completely,
different gases in a mixture do not separate on
standing).
5. Amount and properties of gases can be
described in terms of:
✓ temperature (T, K)
✓ pressure (p, Pa)
✓ volume occupied (V, m3)
✓ number of molecules present (n, mole).
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(a) Diffusion (b) Effusion
Relative effusion rates of two different gases of differentmasses. The effusion rate of lighter He atoms (M = 4.00 g/mole) is considerably faster than rate of heavier ethylene oxidemolecules (M = 44.0 g/mole)
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Graham found that the effusion rate of a gas was inversely proportional to the square root of the density (d)
This is known as Graham’s law
Where MA is the molar mass of species A
A
B
A
B
M
M
d
d
B
A
TP
==
)( rateeffusion
)( rateeffusion
) and (constant d
1 rateeffusion
Quiz
• The molar masses of ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas are 17.03 g/mole and 36.46 g/mole, respectively. Which of this two gasses effuses more rapidly?
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𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑁𝐻3)
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐻𝐶𝑙)=
𝑀𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑀𝑁𝐻3
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑁𝐻3)
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐻𝐶𝑙)=
36.46
17.03=
6.04
4.13
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑁𝐻3)
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝐻𝐶𝑙)= 1.463
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• Laws for gaseous state
Boyle-Mariotte’s
p1V1 = p2V2
Product of pressure and volume for strictly determined amount of the gas which undergoes the isothermal transformationis the same in each state of this gas.
Gay-Lussac’s
Pressure to temperature ratio for strictly determined amount od the gas which undergoes the isochoric transformation is the same in each state of this gas.
Charles’s
Volume to temperature ratio for the strictly determined amount of gas which undergoes the isobaric transformation is the same in each state of this gas.
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Laws for gaseous state of matter
Combined law
f
ff
i
ii
T
VP
T
VP=
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Example 1:
A sample of gas has a volume of 200 mL at 40oC and 1.500 atm
pressure. What is the volume at 80oC and 5.00 atm?
Ti = 40o C = 273+ 40= 313 K
Vi = 200 mL
Pi = 1.500 atm
Tf = 80oC = 273 + 80 = 353 K
Vf = ?
Pf = 5.00 atm
Vf =
f
f
i
ii
P
T
T
VP
mLatm
K
K
mLatmV f 67.67
00.5
353
313
)200500.1(=
=
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Quiz
• Suppose that 12 L cylinder containing compressed argon at a pressure of 4.39 x104 torrmeasured at 24oC is used to fill light bulbs, each with a volume of 53.4 mL, to a pressure of 2.28 torr and its temperature is lowered to 21oC. How many of these light bulbs could be filled by the argon in the cylinder?
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Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures
PTOTAL= Pgas A + Pgas B + Pgas C +….+ Pgas Z
This law assumes that each gas in the mixture is behaving like an ideal gas.
General chemistry, 7-th ed.
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Example 2: The vapour pressure of water in
25OC is 3.92 kPa. The pressure of hydrogen in
the same temperature is 96.08 kPa. What is the
pressure of mixture of hydrogen in water?
PTotal = Pwater + PHydrogen =
= 3.92 kPa + 96.08 kPa= 100.00 kPa
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Ideal gas law
pV = nRT or
RTn
Vp=
Where: p- pressure, V- volume; n-number of
moles, R-gas constant (0.08206 )molK
atmL
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Example 3: What is the pressure of 1.00 mole of gas that has a volume of 10.0 L at 100.0oC?
P= ?
V= 10.0 L
n = 1.00 mole
R= 0.08206
T = 100oC = 100+ 273.2+ 373.2 K
atmL
KmolK
atmLmol
V
TRnP 06.3
10
2.37308206.000.1
=
==
molK
atmL
• Example 4:
If 0.233 g of N2 is confined at 22.4OCin a volume of 175 mL, what pressurewill it have?
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Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures part.2
ntotal = nA + nB + nC; where
n is number of moles of each kind gasses
ptotal V = ntotal R T
V
RTnnn
V
TRnP CBAtotal
total
...)( +++==
.......+++=V
RTn
V
RTn
V
RTnP CBA
total
V
RTnP A
A =V
RTnP B
B =V
RTnP c
C =
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Mole fraction, XA
...+++==
CBA
AA
nnn
n
compoundsallofmolesofnumberstotal
moleAofnumbersX
total
AA
P
PX =
total
BB
P
PX =
total
CC
P
PX =
Ptotal = XAPA + XBPB+XC PC + ……
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Example 5: The mole fraction of oxygen in the atmosphere is 0.2094. Calculate the partial pressure of O2 in air when the atmospheric pressure is 760 torr.
PO2 = Xo2 x Ptotal = 0.2054 x 760 torr = 159 torr
Example 6
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What is the mole fraction of oxygen in exhaled air ifPO2 is 137 torr and Ptotal is 788 torr?
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Real gas
pV = nRT; assuming that n = 1,
0.1=TR
Vp
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Fig. Deviation of the ideal gases behaviour
http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~itl/4411/lectures/lec_e.html
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(a) In an ideal gas, molecules would travel in straight lines. (b) In a real gas, the paths would curve due to the attractions between molecules.
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Van der Waals equation:
nRTbnVV
anP =−+ )()(
2
2
P –pressure
V- volume
n- number of moles
R- gas constant
T – temperature (K)
a, b- constants;
a- correction for molecular attraction
b- correction for volume of molecules
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0.03049 5.464 OH Water,
0.03707 4.170 NH Ammonia,
0.02661 0.02444 H Hydrogen,
0.01709 0.2107 Ne Neon,
0.02370 0.03421 He Helium,
mol L
mol atmL Substance
2
3
2
122 −−
ba
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Comparison of some physical properties of gases and liquids
Compound Density (at or near room temp.
and atmospheric pressures)
(kg/m3)
Specific Heat (J/g/°C)
Ethanol 49.06 2.51
Gasoline 48.05 2.82
Milk 65.07 4.18
Vegetable oil 57.60 1.80
Water 62.07 4.18
Air (26.7OC) 0.07 1.00
Carbon dioxide 0.11 0.83
Oxygen 0.08 0.91
Water vapour (steam; 100oC)
0.04 2.02
http://www.hotwatt.com/table3.htm
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•LIQUIDS
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Evaporation (vaporization) and condensation
Evaporation or vaporization - escape of molecules from the liquid
state to the gas or vapour state.
Molecules which energy is greater than average kinetic energy can
overcome the attractive forces and break away from the surface of
liquid to become a gas.
Gas Liquid
condensation
evaporation
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Vapour pressure – the pressure exerted by a vapour in equilibrium with its liquid at given temperature. Because the rate of evaporation increases with increasing
temperature, vapour pressures of liquids always enhance as temperature increases
Vapor Pressures (in torr) of Some Liquids
0°C 25°C 50°C 75°C 100°C 125°C
water 4.6 23.8 92.5 300 760 1741
benzene 27.1 94.4 271 644 1360
methyl alcohol
29.7 122 404 1126
diethyl ether
185 470 1325 2680 4859
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Easily vaporized liquids are called volatile liquids, and they have relatively high vapour pressures
Plots of the vapour pressures of the liquids vs temperature. The normal boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure is equal to one atmosphere. Normal boiling points are : for water, 100°C; benzene; 80.1°C; methyl alcohol, 65.0°C; and diethyl ether, 34.6°C.
The increase in vapour pressure is not linear with temperature.
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Distillation, boiling point
A laboratory setup for distillation.
Different liquids have different cohesive forces, so they have different vapour pressures and boil at different temperatures. A mixture of liquids with sufficiently different boiling points can be separated into its components by distillation. In this process the mixture is heated slowly until the temperature reaches the point at which the most
volatile liquid boils off.
The boiling point of a liquid can be defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the prevailing atmospheric pressure.
Molecules with higher intermolecular forces have higher boiling points.
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The molar heat (or enthalpy) of vapourization (Hvap) of a
liquid is the amount of heat that must be added to one mole of the
liquid at its boiling point to convert it to vapour with no change in
temperature.
Heats of vaporization can also be expressed as energy per gram.
Heats of Vaporization, Boiling Points, and Vapour Pressures of Some Common Liquids
Liquid Vapour pressure
(Torr at 20oC)
Boiling point
(at 1 atm, oC)
Heat of vapourization at
boiling point
[kJ/mol]
Ethylene glycol 0.1 197.3 58.9
water 17.5 100.0 40.7
Ethyl alcohol 43.9 78.3 39.3
Benzene 74.6 80.1 30.8
Carbon tetrachloride 85.6 76.8 32.8
Diethyl ether 442.0 34.6 26.0
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When the temperature of a liquid is changed
from T1 to T2, the vapour pressure of the
liquid changes from P1 to P2.
These changes are related to the molar heat
of vaporization, Hvap, for the liquid by the
Clausius–Clapeyron equation.
)11
(ln211
2
TTR
H
P
P vap−
=
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Example 10: The normal boiling point of ethanol, C2H5OH, is 78.3°C, the vapour pressure at this temperature is 760 torrand its molar heat of vaporization is 39.3 kJ/mol. What would
be the vapour pressure, in torr, of ethanol at 50.0°C?
P1 760 torr at T1 78.3°C + 273.2 = 351.5 KP2 _?_ at T2 50.0°C + 273.2= 323.2 KHvap 39.3 kJ/mol or 3.93 104 J/mol
( ) 18.1)2.323
1
5.351
1(
)314.8(
1093.3
760ln
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2 −=−=
−−
−
KKKmolJ
molJx
torr
P
307.0760
18.12 ==
−e
torr
P
( ) torrtorrP 233760307.02 ==
Quiz
• At 64.6oC the methanol has vapour pressure of 1atm, and at 12oC it has a vapour pressure of 0.0992 atm. What is the heat of vaporization for methanol?
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Some chosen properties of liquid
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Viscosity
The property of liquid which is a measure of flow resistance. It
is related to the strength of the forces acting between
substance molecules.
Strong forces exhibit molecules interacting simultaneously via
hydrogen bonding, dipol-dipol interactions and dispersion forces
(water). Whereas molecules which interact only by dispersion
forces exhibit weak forces (hexane).
The stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction the more
viscous the liquid is. Substance which has a great ability to form
hydrogen bonds shows higher viscosity in comparison with
substances forming dispersion bonds.
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substance viscosity
water H(OH) 1.00
diethyl ether (CH3-CH2)2O
0.23
benzene C6H6 0.65
glycerin C3H2(OH)3
280
mercury 1.5
motor oil, SAE30
200
honey ~10,000
molasses ~5000
pancake syrup ~3000
Specific viscosity (i.e., relative to water) of some liquids at 20°C.
T/°C 0 10 20 40 60 80 100
viscosity/cP 1.8 1.3 1.0 0.65 0.47 0.36 0.28
Viscosity of Water as a Function of Temperature
http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/states/liquids.html
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Surface tensionAdhesion forces- the strength
which clings dissimilar particles and/ or surface to one another.
Cohesion forces- the strength
which clings similar or identical
particles or surfaces to one another.
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Some effects connected with surface tension
Natural waterproof surface
http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/states/liquids.html
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substance surface tensionmN/m
water H(OH) 72.7
diethyl ether (CH3-CH2)2O 17.0
benzene C6H6 40.0
glycerin C3H2(OH)3 63.0
mercury (15°C) 487.0
n-octane 21.8
sodium chloride solution (6M in water)
82.5
sucrose solution(85% in water)
76.4
sodium oleate (soap) solution in water
25.0
°C mN/m
0 75.9
20 72.7
50 67.9
100 58.9
Surface tension of water
Surface tension of some liquids
Water surface tension vs. temperature
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d
F=
Surface tension (σ) is the ratio between force (F) and the
length (d) along which force acts.
A rectangular wire frame of height d
with a sliding bar. A film of soap with
surface tension σ fill the space made
by the frame and the bar.
However, there are two surfaces
(bottom and top) of the film so the force
acts on a line of length 2d. 𝜎 =𝐹
2𝐷
• Example 7: If the size of the force is F= 4x10-3N and the length of the line is D = 5x10-2m, what is the surface tension of the liquid?
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𝜎 =𝐹
2𝐷=
4𝑥10−3 𝑁
2 ∙ 5 𝑥10−2𝑚= 0.04⋯𝑁 ⋅ 𝑚−1⋯
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h = elevation of the liquid (m)γ = surface tension (N/m)θ = contact angle (radians)ρ = density of liquid (kg/m3)g = acceleration of gravity (m/s–2)r = radius of tube (m)
MeniscusesConvexConcave
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Example 9: What is the surface tension of liquid which filled the capillary if the height of the liquid in capillary was 20 mm, the density of liquid was 150 kg/m3, the radius of capillary was
6 x 10-3m. Assume that the cos θ =1.0
cos2
rgh=
123232
08829.008829.012
)106)(81.9)(150)(102( −−−−−−
=== mNskgx
mxsmmkgmx
σ = 88.29 mN m-1
Mixtures
• Homogenous
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Solution
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Common types of solutions
Phase of solution
solute solvent example
Gas Gas Gas Air
Liquid Gas Liquid Soft drinks
Liquid Liquid Liquid Antifreeze
Liquid Solid Liquid Salt water
Solid Gas Solid H2 in Pt
Solid Solid Solid brass
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Properties of solution
• Two or more components, homogenous, variable
composition
•Dissolved solute might be molecular or ionic in
size
•Transparent (colored or colorless)
• Solute uniformly distributed throughout the
solution
• Physical methods allow to obtain pure solutes58
Solubility of gas in liquid
Parameters which influence solubility:
a) Temperature
b) Pressure
Solution of gas in liquid
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As the temperature increases, the solubility of a gas decrease.More gas is present in a solution with a lower temperature compared to a
solution with a higher temperature.
http://www.anton-paar.com/pl-pl/produkty/grupa/pomiar-tlenu-i-co2/ 60
The solubility of a gas in a liquid
is directly proportional to the
pressure of that gas above
the surface of the solution.
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Henry’s Law
The Henry's law constant "k" is different for every gas, temperature and solvent. The units on "k" depend on the units used for concentration
and pressure. The value for k is the same for the same temperature, gas and solvent. This means the concentration to pressure ratio is
the same when pressures change.
Cgas = kH Pgas
Example 11: What is the predicted concentration of
dissolved oxygen, if the partial pressure for oxygen is 56 mm Hg? The concentration of dissolved oxygen is 0.44 g / 100 ml solution. The partial pressure of oxygen is 150 mm
Hg.
C = 0.15 g O2 / 100 ml solution
Online Introductory Chemistry
0.44𝑔
100𝑚𝐿
150𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔=
𝑐
100𝑚𝐿
56𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
Liquid –liquid and liquid-solid solutions
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• The attractive forces between solute and solvent hold the solution together.
• The strength of the intermolecular attractive forces depends on both the solute and solvent.
• When the strengths of the intermolecular attractions are similar in solute and solvent, they form solution. These compounds are said to be miscible. e.g. ethanol and water (H-bonds)
• The strengths of intermolecular forces between benzene (London dispersion forces and π-πinteractions) and water (London dispersion forces
and H-bonds) differ thus they are immiscible and do not form solution.
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This can be summarized as the rule of thumb “like
dissolves like”.
The basic principles remain the same when the
solutes are solids. Sodium chloride dissolves when
it is added to water.
The sodium and chloride ions are hydrated or
surrounded by water molecules.
The solvation is general term for process of
surrounding a solute particle by solvent molecules.
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Before the solution forms, water
molecules are only attracted to
other water molecules and the
ions in NaCl are attracted only to
other ions in the solid.
In the solution, the ions have
water molecules to replace their
oppositely charged counterparts.
In addition, water molecules are
more strongly attracted to ions
than other water molecules
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Hydration energy (also hydration enthalpy) is a term for energy released upon attachment of water molecules to ions. It is a special case of dissolution energy, with the solvent being water.
Lattice energy – property of ionic solid which measure the energy (strength) of bonds in that ionic compound. It may also be defined as the energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous ionic constituents.
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• Consider the formation of aqueous potassium iodide.
• The lattice energy of KI is 632 kJ mole –1
The hydrations energy of KI is –619 kJ mole–1
Total: +13 kJ mole–1
(the value from experiment is +20.33 kJ mole–1)
• The formation of this solution of aqueous potassium iodide is endothermic.
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• Consider the formation of aqueous sodium bromide.
The lattice energy of NaBr is +728 kJ mole-1.
The hydration energy of NaBr is –741 kJ mole-1
Total: -13 kJ mole-1
(the value from experiment is –0.602 kJ mole-1)
• The formation of this aqueous solution of sodium bromide is exothermic
• Properties of solid in liquid systems
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Colligative properties of solutions
Colligative properties include:
➢ Raoults’ law
➢ Vapour pressure lowering
➢ Boiling-point elevation
➢ Freezing-point depression
➢ Osmotic pressure
These properties depend on the concentration of solute particles
but NOT on their identity.
http://www.ausetute.com.au/colligative.html
• Raoults’ law
• 𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜
• X = mole fraction of solvent
• Po = vapour pressure of pure solvent
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• Since the colligative properties depend only on the number of solute particles in solution and not on the nature of the solute particles the actual number of the particles in the solution should be described in someway.
• Actual number of particles in solution after dissociation is described by van’t Hoff factor (i)
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• 0.1 m NaCl solution =0.1 moles of Na+ + 0.1 moles of Cl- = 0.2 m of both ion kinds thus i = 2
• for nonelectrolytes i =1 lack of ions
• CaCl2 i =3 (three ions)
• FeCl3 i = ………….
• SnCl4 i =………..
• Glucose i = …………..
• Butanol i =………
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Δtf = Tf(solution) – Tf(solvent)= m Kf = - i Kf m
Δtb= Tb(solution) – Tb(solvent) = m Kb = i Kb m
Δtf – freezing point depression, oC
Δtb – boiling point elevation; oC
Kf – freezing point depression constant; oC kg solvent/mol solute
Kb – boiling point elevation constant,
oC kg solvent/mol solute
m – molality
i- Van’t Hoff factor
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• Application of boiling point elevation and freezing point depression
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Antifreeze working; preparing cold soda, preparing ice creams
Freezing-point depressionBoiling-point elevation
Home made candies- adding sugar to water
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Osmosis, osmotic pressure
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The process of diffusion of solvent molecules (water)
from diluted solution to the concentrated solution
through the semipermeable membrane is called
osmosis.
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Osmotic pressure (π) is a pressure difference
between the system and atmospheric pressure. It
could be measured by applying enough pressure to
stop the flow of water due to osmosis in the system.
V
TRn=
n- number of solute moles
T –temperature
V – volume
R – gas constant
TRM=For concentrated solution
M- molarity
TRm=
For diluted solution
m - molality
TRmi=
TRMi=
• Example 13.What is the osmotic pressure of a
0.0120 M solution of NaCl (electrolyte) in water
at 0o C, the van’t Hoff factor for NaCl i is equal to
1.94.
•
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TRMi=𝜋 = 1.94 ∙ 0.0120 𝑀 ∙ 0.0821
𝐿 ∙𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒∙ 𝐾273 K
𝜋 = 0.522 atm
• A very dilute solution, 0.001 M sucrose in water, is separated from the pure water by an osmotic membrane. What osmotic pressure in atm develops at 298K?
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Example 14
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http://mcatdaily.blogspot.com/2010/05/difference-between-hypertonic-hypotonic.html
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Donnan-Gibbs equilibrium
• It occurs for the system containing border (semipermeable membrane) between solutions containing high molecular polyelectrolytes and low molecular electrolyte.
• Such system turns to electro-neutrality (the sum of positive charges equals the sum of negative charges).
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• Proteins, as high molecular colloids, cannot penetrate semipermeable membranes, but due to their cation or anion form, they affect the distribution of electrolytes and environmental Reaction which can diffuse through the semipermeable membrane.
.87
For both systems before membrane and after membrane the principle of electro-neutrality is fulfilled as follows:
• on the side from which colloid ions are unable to diffuse, concentration of diffusing ions of the same sign as the polyelectrolyte,
is always lower,
• the concentration of the opposite sign's ions is higher, compared to similar concentrations from adjacent space containing diffusing electrolyte ions.
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Initial state
Area with protein ions (I) Area without protein ions (II)
Na+ (1 mM)
P- (1 mM)
Na+ (2 mM)
Cl- (2 mM)
Equillibrium state
X mol of ions migrate through the membrane from part II to part I
Area with protein ions (I) Area without protein ions (II)
Na+ (1+x) mM
P- 1 mM
Cl- x mM
Na+ (2-x) mM
Cl- (2-x) mM
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• 1. Sum of the cation concentration is equal to sum of the anions concentration on both parts (before and after the membrane)
• [Na+]I = [Protein-]I + [Cl-]I
• [Na+]II = [Cl-]II
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• thus
• 2. Product of concentrations of ion migrating through the membrane on the area I is equal to the product of ion concentrations on the area II
• [Na+]I [Cl-]I = [Na+]II [Cl-]II
based on the date from previous slide
(1+x) x = (2-x) (2-x)
X = 4/5 mM
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Donnan equilibrium state
Area with protein ions (I) Area without protein ions (II)
Na+ (1+x) = 9/5 mM Na+ (2-x) = 6/5 mM
Protein anion 1 mM Protein anion 0 mM
Cl- (x) = 4/5 mM Cl- (2-x) = 6/5 mM
Product of ionconcentration = 1.44
Product of ionconcentration= 1.44
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So: Colloid unable to migrate through the membrane changes the electrolyte concentration distribution.Since protein has negative chargé thus the concentration of Cl- in area I is lower than in area II and simultanceously concentration of Na+ is higher thanin area II.
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Consequences of Gibbs-Donnanequilibrium (balance)
• The electrolyte composition of the interstitial space is different from the composition electrolyte in plasma.
• The concentration of cations, mainly H+, is much higher in the blood cellsred than in plasma
• It affects the absorption of drugsoccurring in the form of ions (anions or cations).
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• Heterogenous mixtures
• Dispersed system
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Approximate Sizes of Dispersed Particles
Mixture Example Approximate particle size
Solution Sugar in water 1–10 Å
1-10 x 10-9m
Colloidal dispersion
Starch in water 10–10,000 Å
1 x 10-8 – 1x 10-5m
Suspension Sand in water larger than 10,000 Å
Higher than 1x 10-5m
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Colloids
A colloid is a type of dispersion system containing
particles between 1 nm and 1000 nm in
dimension surrounded by dispersing medium.
Colloid particles are usually aggregates of ions or
molecules.
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Colloid types
Dispersed phase
(solute-like)
Dispersing medium
(solvent-like)
Common name Examples
solid solid solid sol Alloys (steel)
Certain gems
(rubies)
liquid solid solid emulsion Cheese, butter, opals
gas solid solid foam Pumice, Styrofoam
solid liquid sols and gels Milk of magnesia, mud,
liquid liquid emulsion Milk, mayonnaise,
gas liquid foam Whipped cream, shaving cream, foam on beer
solid gas solid aerosol Smoke, dust in air
liquid gas liquid aerosol Fog, mist, clouds
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Colloids
Hydrophobic
(water-hating) e.g. milk; mayonnaise.
This colloid type cannot exist in polar solvents without the presence of emulsifying agents(surfactants).
Hydrophilic
(water-loving).e.g. proteins, gelatine, jellies
Hydrophilic groups on the macromolecule surface help to keep the macromolecule suspended in water.
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Hydrophilic colloids:
1. neutral or slight negative charge on the surface
2. dispersion of the molecules is stabilized by hydration forces
3. thermodynamically stable particles
4. reversible
5. there is an affinity between dispersion phase and dispersion medium
http://ceeserver.cee.cornell.edu/jjb2/cee6560/7-Coagulation
Hydrophobic colloids:
1. Usually negatively charged surface (physical/chemical origin)
2. dispersion of molecules is stabilized by electrostatic repulsion
3. thermodynamically unstable
4. irreversible (enough time allows the slowly particles aggregation)
5. there is no affinity between dispersion phase and dispersion medium, we cannot prepare sol by simple mixing
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Properties of colloid:
A. Mechanical (kinetic)
1. Brownian movement. Brownian movement is the random
zigzag motion of particles that can be seen under a microscope.
The motion is caused by the collision of molecules with colloid
particles in the dispersing medium.
2. Diffusion. The sol particles diffuse from higher concentration to
lower concentration region.
However, due to bigger size, they diffuse at a lesser speed.
3. Sedimentation. The colloidal particles settle down under the
influence of gravity at a very slow rate. This phenomenon is
used for determining the molecular mass of the
macromolecules.
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Light shining through a solution of sodium hydroxide (right) and a colloidal mixture. (Photo Researchers, Inc.
http://www.scienceclarified.com/Ci-Co/Colloid.html
The Tyndall effect
B. Optical properties
True solutions involve particle
too small to scatter light.
Colloidial particles are
large enough to scatter
visible light. light
Non colloidalsolution
Light
colloid
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C. Electrical properties
1. Electrophoresis
2. Electrical double layer
3. Electro-osmosis
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1. Electrophoresis is
a movement of solutes of various charges under the influence of electric field
http://www.doping.chuv.ch/en/lad_home/lad-prestations-laboratoire/lad-prestations-laboratoire-appareils/lad-prestations-laboratoire-appareils-ec.htm
Electrical double layer
Electrical double layer
Amino acids
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http://www.biol.uw.edu.pl/zbm/takao/rapidweaver/2016_BiBS.pdf
pKA pKBpI
Cation Neutral Anion
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Electrophoretic mobility of DNA restriction fragments in an agarose gel. The DNA is from bacteriophage lambda digested with the restriction enzyme Hind III. The graph shows migration distance in centimeters by size of the restriction fragment in base pairs.
http://cdn.idtdna.com/Support/Technical/TechnicalBulletinPDF/Gel_Electrophoresis.pdf
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• Electrophoresis as the tool for describing our health conditions
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Acute phase response.
C-reactive protein (CRP) and the postoperative acute phase reaction.
http://doctorlib.info/medical/biochemistry/6.html
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http://pl.depositphotos.com/77720298/stock-illustration-blood-serum-protein-electrophoresis-electrophoretogra
Chronic hepatitis, increase of the -1 and -2 globulin fraction
http://dolinabiotechnologiczna.pl/polecamy/przydatnosc-diagnostyczna-elektroforezy-bialek/
Electric double layer
112hhttps://www.asc.ohio-state.edu/singer.2/Electrokinetics.html
𝑆𝑖𝑂𝐻2+֞𝐾1
SiOH + 𝐻+𝐾2
𝑆𝑖𝑂− + 𝐻+
Electrical double layer
SiO-
SiO-
SiO-
SiO-
SiO-
SiO-
SiO-
SiO-
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.897.7636&rep=rep1&type=pdf
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Electroosmosis
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electro-osmosis
Electrophoresis, electromigration and
electroosmosis
Electrokinetic phenomena
Drivingforce
Resulting phenomena
Moving phase Stationaryphase
Electrophoresis
Electric field
Particlemovement
Particles Liquid
Electromigration Ion transport Ions/particles Plug or capillary
Electroosmosis Pressuregradient
Liquid Plug or capillary
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/42370098_Electrical_field_A_historical_review_of_its_application_and_contributions_in_wastewater_sludge_dewatering/figures?lo=1
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