State of the Environment in Africa

Economic Commission for Africa

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3TATE OF THE%NVIRONMENT IN !FRICA

%CONOMIC #OMMISSION FOR !FRICA!DDIS !BABA %THIOPIA

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).42/$5#4)/. "ACKGROUND 'OALS AND /BJECTIVES /RGANIZATION OF THE 2EPORT

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!4-/30(%2%!.$ #,)-!4% )NTRODUCTION 4HE #LIMATE OF !FRICA IN THE 4WENTIETH #ENTURY #LIMATE #HANGE )MPACTS 6ULNERABILITY AND !DAPTATION TO #LIMATE #HANGE

.!452!, $)3!34%23 )NTRODUCTION $ROUGHT $ROUGHT 0REPAREDNESS AND -ITIGATION 3TORMS AND &LOOD (AZARDS &OREST AND 7ILD &IRES 6OLCANIC $ISASTERS

,!.$!.$ &//$ )NTRODUCTION 2ESOURCE AND 5SES ,AND $EGRADATION 4HE 3TATE OF &OOD IN !FRICA )NITIATIVES IN ,AND $EGRADATION AND &OOD 3ECURITY

")/$)6%23)49!.$ &/2%343 )NTRODUCTION "IODIVERSITY 2ESOURCES "IODIVERSITY AND THE CONCEPT OF 0ROTECTED !REAS 4HE 6ALUES OF "IODIVERSITY AND &ORESTS 4HREATS TO "IODIVERSITY $ECLINE IN &ORESTS

IV

&2%3(7!4%2 )NTRODUCTION 7ATER 2ESOURCES 7ATER $EMAND AND 5SE $EPLETION OF 7ATER 1UANTITY AND 1UALITY )NITIATIVES #ONSTRAINTS AND /PPORTUNITIES

-!2).%!.$ #/!34!,!2%!3 )NTRODUCTION 0HYSICAL &EATURES AND "IODIVERSITY 0OPULATION 0RESSURE %CONOMIC !CTIVITIES 2ESOURCE $EGRADATION 3EA,EVEL 2ISE #HALLENGES AND 2ESPONSES

52"!. %.6)2/.-%.4 )NTRODUCTION %NVIRONMENTAL 3USTAINABILITY 'REEN AND "ROWN !GENDAS $ETERIORATION OF THE 5RBAN %NVIRONMENT %NVIRONMENT AND %COSYSTEMS )MPACT ON (UMAN 3ETTLEMENTS 3OLID AND (AZARDOUS 7ASTE

4(% %.6)2/.-%.4!.$ (5-!. (%!,4( )NTRODUCTION )MPLICATIONS OF %NVIRONMENTAL #HANGE ON (UMAN (EALTH %NVIRONMENTAL #HANGE AND )NCIDENCE OF $ISEASE IN !FRICA 5RBANIZATION AND (UMAN (EALTH .EXUS OF 0OVERTY %NVIRONMENT AND (EALTH

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4HE MAIN OBJECTIVE OF THE 3TATE OF %NVIRONMENT IN!FRICA REPORT IS TO IDENTIFY AND HIGHLIGHT THE MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF CONCERN ON THE CONTINENT AND TO MAKE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION

4HE INFORMATION PRESENTED CONlRMS THAT THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN !FRICA HASBEEN AND CONTINUES TO BE INmUENCED PRINCIPALLY BY RAPID POPULATION GROWTH INCREASING AND CHRONIC POVERTY AND INAPPROPRIATE DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES ESPECIALLY AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION METHODS 4HESE FACTORS HAVE LED TO WHAT HAS BECOME POPULARLY KNOWNAS THE POPULATIONAGRICULTUREENVIRONMENT NEXUS /THER FACTORS INCLUDE UNFAVOURABLETERMS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE THE DEBT BURDEN THE IMPACT OF DROUGHT AND OTHER NATURALDISASTERS AND INEFFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT POLICIES

4HE CUMULATIVE IMPACT OF THE ABOVEMENTIONED FACTORS ON THE ENVIRONMENT IS EXTENSIVE DEGRADATION OF LAND AND OTHER NATURAL RESOURCES 4HE ISSUES OF CONCERN ARE MANYAND INCLUDE WIDESPREAD LAND DEGRADATION AND DESERTIlCATION LOSS OF ARABLE AND GRAZING LAND DECLINING SOIL PRODUCTIVITY LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY POLLUTION AND DEPLETION OFFRESHWATER RESOURCES AND DETERIORATING AIR QUALITY ESPECIALLY IN URBAN AREAS 4HESEHAVE WIDER IMPLICATIONS ON FOOD SECURITY SUSTAINABLE NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENTHUMAN HEALTH AND EFFORTS TOWARDS POVERTY ERADICATION $ETAILS OF THE IDENTIlED FACTORSAND MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OF CONCERN ARE DISCUSSED BELOW

!FRICAS LARGE POPULATION ESTIMATED AT MILLION IN AND ITS HIGH RATE OFGROWTH ARE EXERTING PRESSURE ON THE CONTINENTS NATURAL RESOURCES 0ER CAPITA ARABLELAND HAS DROPPED FROM HAPERSON IN TO HAPERSON BY 4HE MAJORITY OF THE PEOPLE ARE POOR AND THEY DEPEND ON NATURAL RESOURCES FOR THEIR LIVELIHOODSIE TO MEET THEIR FOOD ENERGY WATER AND OTHER BASIC NEEDS "ECAUSE OF THEIR POVERTYMANY FARMERS ARE INCAPABLE OF UNDERTAKING INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE THAT REQUIRES SIGNIlCANT INPUTS OR TO UNDERTAKE OTHER SOIL IMPROVEMENT INVESTMENTS 4HE ONLY ALTERNATIVELEFT FOR THEM IS TO USE THE SOIL UNTIL IT IS COMPLETELY DEGRADED

,AND DEGRADATION IS WIDESPREAD AND A MAJOR PROBLEM THROUGHOUT !FRICA .EARLY MILLION HECTARES ARE MODERATELY TO SEVERELY DEGRADED 4HIS IS LINKED TO POPULATIONPRESSURE AS WELL AS INAPPROPRIATE LAND USES POOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES POOR LAND MANAGEMENT AND DROUGHT 4HE DEGRADATION HAS GIVEN RISE TO INCREASEDDESERTIlCATION DECREASING LAND PRODUCTIVITY AND LOSS OF ARABLE LAND !PPROXIMATELY PER CENT OF LAND DEGRADATION IN !FRICA IS FROM OVERGRAZING PER CENT FROM ACTIVITIES RELATED TO CROP PRODUCTION PER CENT FROM VEGETATION REMOVAL AND ANOTHER PER CENT FROM OVER EXPLOITATION OF THE LAND ! DEGRADED ENVIRONMENT PRODUCES LESSFOOD MAKES BIOMASS FUEL SCARCER REDUCES ECOSYSTEM RESILIENCE AND RENDERS PEOPLEMALNOURISHED AND MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO DISEASES

!FRICA HAS A LARGE AND DIVERSE HERITAGE OF BIODIVERSITY INCLUDING MORE THAN PLANT SPECIES MAMMAL SPECIES AND BIRD SPECIES 5NFORTUNATELY A SIGNIlCANT PROPORTION OF THESE RICH BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES IS EITHER ENDANGERED OR UNDER THREATOF EXTINCTION !FRICA HOLDS lVE OF THE BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS OF THE WORLD INCLUDING THE 'UINEAN HOTSPOT WHICH IS HOME TO HALF OF !FRICAS MAMMALIAN SPECIES 4HERE

VI

ARE A NUMBER OF CRITICALLY ENDANGERED SPECIES IN ALL !FRICAN COUNTRIES WITH THE HIGHESTNUMBERS BEING PERHAPS IN 4ANZANIA MAMMAL BIRD AND PLANT SPECIES AND-ADAGASCAR MAMMAL BIRD AND PLANT SPECIES 4HE $EMOCRATIC 2EPUBLIC OF#ONGO AND #TE D)VOIRE ARE OTHER COUNTRIES WHERE BIODIVERSITY IS ENDANGERED ANDORARE VULNERABLE -OST OF !FRICAS INDIGENOUS TROPICAL FORESTS ARE ALSO THREATENED /NEESTIMATE PUTS THE RATE OF DECLINE AT NEARLY ONE PER CENT PER ANNUM

4HE MAJOR THREATS TO !FRICAS BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES COME FROM CLIMATIC VARIATIONS ANDHUMAN ACTIVITIES ,OGGING OVERHUNTING INTRODUCTION OF ALIEN SPECIES AND EXPANSION OF AGRICULTURAL LAND ARE SOME OF THE MOST SERIOUS THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY ,OGGING ACCOUNTS FOR PER CENT OF FOREST LOSS IN !FRICA WHILE AGRICULTURE AND ENERGY ANDOTHER INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT ACCOUNT FOR AND PER CENT OF BIODIVERSITY LOSSRESPECTIVELY

4HOUGH THE CONTINENT IS ENDOWED WITH ABUNDANT WATER RESOURCES MOST OF THEM ARENOT DEVELOPED AND THEREFORE ARE NOT AVAILABLE TO THE LARGE AND GROWING POPULATION!BOUT PER CENT OF THE RURAL POPULATION ARE WITHOUT ACCESS TO CLEAN AND ADEQUATEWATER SUPPLY AND PER CENT OF THE PEOPLE IN RURAL AREAS DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TO ADEQUATESANITATION FACILITIES 4HE SITUATION IS NO BETTER IN THE URBAN AREAS WHERE AN ESTIMATED AND PER CENT OF THE POPULATION DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TO CLEAN WATER AND SANITATIONFACILITIES RESPECTIVELY 0ROJECTIONS SHOW THAT BY SOME MILLION PEOPLE WILLBE LIVING IN EITHER WATERSCARCE MILLION OR WATERSTRESSED MILLION COUNTRIESDUE TO INADEQUATE DEVELOPMENT IN THE WATER SECTOR TO MEET DEMAND

0OLLUTION OF WATER BODIES FROM POOR SANITATION AND POOR MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTEAND BY EFmUENTS FROM AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES IS AGGRAVATING THE PROBLEMOF WATER SCARCITY 7ETLANDS IN MANY COUNTRIES INCLUDING .IGERIA #AMEROON AND"OTSWANA ARE ALSO AT RISK FROM CONVERSION TO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND OTHER DEVELOPMENTS SUCH AS CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS ON RIVERS THAT FEED INTO THE WETLANDS $EVELOPMENT OF WETLANDS HAS CONSIDERABLE ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC COSTS ON THECONTINENT

)N ADDITION TO THE DEPLETION OF FRESH WATER RESOURCES MARINE AND COASTAL AREA RESOURCESARE ALSO UNDER THREAT 4HE !FRICAN COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT HAS A BROAD RANGEOF HABITAT TYPES THAT HARBOUR RICH BIODIVERSITY OF GREAT ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SIGNIlCANCE /VER THE YEARS HOWEVER THESE RESOURCES HAVE BEEN EXPLOITED TO MEET DEVELOPMENT NEEDS (UMANITYS INCREASING DEMANDS ON THE COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTHAVE BEEN VERY EXPLOITATIVE IN NATURE RESULTING IN THE DEGRADATION OF ITS RESOURCES BOTHQUANTITATIVELY AND QUALITATIVELY

#OMPARED TO THE INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES OF %UROPE AND .ORTH !MERICA !FRICAS CONTRIBUTION TO GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE IS NOT SIGNIlCANT &OSSIL FUEL #/ EMISSIONS ARELOW IN BOTH ABSOLUTE AND PER CAPITA TERMS /NLY lVE COUNTRIES ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLEFOR !FRICAS REGIONAL EMISSIONS FROM FOSSIL FUEL AND CEMENT 3OUTH !FRICA IS BY FARTHE GREATEST EMITTER RESPONSIBLE FOR PER CENT OF THE CONTINENTAL TOTAL !NOTHER PER CENT OF #/ COME FROM!LGERIA %GYPT ,IBYA AND .IGERIA COMBINED /NLY ,IBYAWITH METRIC TONS AND 3OUTH !FRICA METRIC TONS HAVE PER CAPITA EMISSIONSHIGHER THAN THE GLOBAL AVERAGE OF METRIC TONS OF CARBON PER YEAR

VII

$ESPITE THIS THE CONTINENT IS CONSIDERED MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATECHANGE BECAUSE LIMITED RESOURCES RESTRICT!FRICAS ABILITY TO UNDERTAKE PREVENTIVE MEASURES TO MITIGATE THE EFFECTS OF WEATHER AND CLIMATE EXTREMES #LIMATERELATED DISASTERSAND DISEASES ARE ON THE INCREASE 4HE IMPACT OF DROUGHT CYCLONES mOODS AND BUSHlRESHAS BROUGHT MISERY EG STARVATION HOMELESSNESS AND DEATH TO MILLIONS OF PEOPLEESPECIALLY IN THE (ORN OF !FRICA AND THROUGHOUT 3OUTHERN !FRICA -ALARIA CHOLERA ANDLOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS ARE ALSO ON THE INCREASE 4HESE ARE A RESULT OF CLIMATECHANGE DETERIORATING WATER AND AIR QUALITY AND POOR DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE IN URBANAREAS AMONG OTHER FACTORS -ALARIA FOR INSTANCE IS INCREASING IN TERRITORIES WHERE THEPARASITE WAS HITHERTO NONEXISTENT 3IMILARLY DISEASES ONCE THOUGHT TO BE UNDER CONTROL SUCH AS DRUG RESISTANT TUBERCULOSIS HAVE REAPPEARED AND INCREASED TREMENDOUSLYCAUSING OVER THREE MILLION DEATHS ANNUALLY

4HE INABILITY OF URBAN AUTHORITIES TO PROVIDE BASIC AMENITIES SUCH AS WATER AND SEWAGEFACILITIES AND THEIR INABILITY TO PROPERLY MANAGE SOLID AND OTHER WASTES FROM DOMESTICAND INDUSTRIAL SOURCES IS A MAJOR CONCERN 4HE QUALITY OF LIFE IN MANY !FRICAN CITIESDETERIORATED DURING THE S ESPECIALLY IN SPONTANEOUS UNPLANNED INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS !IR POLLUTION AND FOUL ODOURS ARE COMMON IN SUCH CASES

)N CONCLUSION THE ENVIRONMENT IN !FRICA IS UNDERGOING VARIOUS TYPES OF DETERIORATION)N ORDER TO CORRECT THE CONTINUING DISASTROUS TREND !FRICAN COUNTRIES MUST ADDRESS THEROOT CAUSES OF THE DETERIORATION )N THIS REGARD ACTION MUST BE TAKING IN FOUR MAJORAREAS 4HESE ARE

s 4RANSFORMING THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR TO MAKE IT MORE PRODUCTIVEs 3AFEGUARDING AND SUSTAINABLY UTILIZING THE NATURAL RESOURCE BASEs 0URSUING ACCELERATED SOCIOECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT TO ERADICATE POVERTY ANDs 2EDUCING THE HIGH RATE OF POPULATION GROWTH

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"ACKGROUND

&OR THE PAST YEARS !FRICA HAS BEEN THE REGION WITH THE HIGHEST POPULATION GROWTHIN THE WORLD 4HE CONTINENT IS ALSO THE POOREST REGION 4HE MAJORITY OF THE PEOPLEESPECIALLY THE RURAL DWELLERS ARE POOR 2ECENT ESTIMATES SHOW THAT NEARLY PER CENTOF THE RURAL POPULATION LIVE BELOW THE ACUTE POVERTY LINE OF 53 PER PERSON PER DAY5RBAN POVERTY IS EQUALLY WIDESPREAD WITH APPROXIMATELY PER CENT OF THE POPULATION LIVING ON LESS THAN 53 PER PERSON PER DAY )N TOTAL THERE ARE ABOUT MILLIONPEOPLE IN SUB3AHARA !FRICA THAT LIVE BELOW THE POVERTY LINE

4HE MAJORITY OF THE PEOPLE DEPEND ON NATURAL RESOURCES FOR THEIR LIVELIHOODS 4HEYARE ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURE BUT BECAUSE OF THE HIGH RATE OF POPULATION GROWTH ARABLELAND IS BECOMING SCARCE )N THE AVERAGE PER CAPITA ARABLE LAND IN !FRICA WAS HAPERSON "Y THIS AMOUNT HAS MORE THAN HALVED DROPPING TO HAPERSON0OVERTY HAS ALSO RENDERED MANY FARMERS INCAPABLE OF UNDERTAKING INTENSIVE AGRICULTURETHAT REQUIRES SIGNIlCANT INPUTS AND CAPITAL INVESTMENTS IN LAND AND FARMLEVEL IMPROVEMENTS 4HUS !FRICAN AGRICULTURE HAS LARGELY REMAINED TRADITIONAL

4HE IMPLICATIONS OF THE ACUTE POVERTY POOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION METHODS AND HIGHPOPULATION GROWTH RATE INCLUDE HIGH ILLITERACY INCREASING STARVATION POOR HEALTH AND ADEGRADED ENVIRONMENT AMONG OTHERS ! POOR AND HUNGRY PEOPLE WILL OFTEN DESTROY THEENVIRONMENT IN THEIR EFFORTS TO SURVIVE 4HROUGH TRADITIONAL CROP AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS THEY CUT DOWN FORESTS ANDOR OVERUSE MARGINAL LANDS IN ORDER TO PRODUCEFOOD THEIR LIVESTOCK OVERGRAZE GRASSLANDS AND BECAUSE OF LACK OF ACCESS TO MORE LANDAS A RESULT OF INCREASES IN THEIR NUMBERS AND OBSTACLES FROM LAND TENURE REGIMES THEYMIGRATE TO CONGESTED CITIES IN GROWING NUMBERS IN SEARCH OF ALTERNATIVE EMPLOYMENT)N THE CITIES THEY ESTABLISH SHANTY DWELLINGS IN SLUMS WHERE THEY DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TOCLEAN WATER AND SANITATION FACILITIES

4HE CUMULATIVE EFFECT OF THIS STATE OF AFFAIRS IS THE CREATION OF A VICIOUS CYCLE IN WHICHTHE POVERTY AND DEPRIVATION INTENSIlES AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION WORSENS4HE TRANSITION FROM A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT TO THE PRESENT CONDITIONS MAY BE TRACEDBACK SEVERAL DECADES

!T INDEPENDENCE IE BETWEEN AND MANY !FRICAN COUNTRIES ACHIEVEDFAST ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE EXPLOITATION OF THE RICH NATURALRESOURCES (OWEVER TOWARDS THE END OF THE S AND IN THE EARLY S THERE WASSEVERE DETERIORATION IN ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE AND A RAPID ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION-ANY COUNTRIES EMBARKED ON STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES WITH THE HOPE OFADDRESSING WIDESPREAD POVERTY AND THE DEBT BURDEN WITHOUT MUCH SUCCESS &ROM SIMILAR EXPERIENCES AROUND THE WORLD IT BECAME OBVIOUS THAT ISSUES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT CANNOT BE SEPARATED FROM ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND THAT THE TWO ARE NOT SEPARATECHALLENGES BUT ARE INTRICATELY LINKED IN A COMPLEX SYSTEM OF CAUSE AND EFFECT

4HIS REALIZATION LED lRST TO THE 3TOCKHOLM #ONFERENCE IN AND SUBSEQUENTLY TOTHE 5NITED .ATIONS #ONFERENCE ON %NVIRONMENT AND $EVELOPMENT 5.#%$ IN 2IO

DE *ANEIRO IN !GENDA SEEN AS THE GUIDELINE TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTWAS ADOPTED DURING 5.#%$ OR THE %ARTH 3UMMIT )N 2IO THERE WAS A lRM CONVICTIONTHAT THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD IN A SPIRIT OF MULTILATERALISM WOULD JOIN HANDS IN THEIMPLEMENTATION OF!GENDA SO AS TO CREATE HARMONY BETWEEN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTAND THE ENVIRONMENT THEREBY ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT !FRICA PARTICIPATEDFULLY IN 5.#%$ WITH GREAT EXPECTATIONS FROM THE NEW IDEA OF GLOBAL COOPERATION FORSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FORGED IN 2IO

4EN YEARS AFTER 2IO AND AS THE WORLD PREPARES TO REVIEW THE PROGRESS OF SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT DURING %ARTH 3UMMIT )) IN *OHANNESBURG MANY !FRICAN COUNTRIES STILLFACE ENORMOUS ECONOMIC PRESSURES AND THE QUALITY OF THE ENVIRONMENT CONTINUES TODETERIORATE 4HE NEED TO RAISE MUCH NEEDED lNANCE TO SERVICE THE INCREASING DEBTBURDEN AND TO ADDRESS ISSUES OF CHRONIC POVERTY IS AS STRONG AS EVER 4HE OVEREXPLOITATION OF THE CONTINENTS RICH NATURAL RESOURCES CONTINUES WHILE SOIL FERTILITY IS DECREASINGAS LAND DEGRADATION AND DESERTIlCATION ARE ON THE INCREASE 3ALINIZATION SOIL COMPACTION OVERGRAZING DEFORESTATION AND AGROCHEMICAL AND ACCUMULATED PESTICIDE POLLUTION ARE ALSO ON THE INCREASE 3O ARE THE DEPLETION OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES AND SOME OFTHE WORLDS RICHEST BIODIVERSITY

'OALS AND /BJECTIVES

4HE GOALS OF THE 3TATE OF THE %NVIRONMENT IN !FRICA REPORT ARE TWO FOLD lRST IT IS AREQUIREMENT UNDER THE 7ORK 0ROGRAMME OF THE &OOD 3ECURITY AND 3USTAINABLE $EVELOPMENT $IVISION &33$$ OF THE 5NITED .ATIONS %CONOMIC #OMMISSION FOR !FRICA5.%#! FOR THE BIENNIUM 4HE INTENTION IS FOR THE #OMMISSION TO PROVIDE SPECIlC !FRICA REGIONAL INPUT INTO THE 'LOBAL %NVIRONMENTAL /UTLOOK REPORT PRODUCED BY THE 5NITED .ATIONS %NVIRONMENT 0ROGRAMME 5.%0 3ECONDLY THE REPORTIS INTENDED AS A RESOURCE MATERIAL ON THE ENVIRONMENT IN !FRICA FOR THE GENERAL PUBLIC4HE REPORT SEEKS TO ACHIEVE THREE OBJECTIVES

s 4O DESCRIBE THE CONTINENTS ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS FOR THE GENERAL PUBLICs 4O HIGHLIGHT THE MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES FACING THE CONTINENT ANDs 4O RECOMMEND STRATEGIC ACTIONS CONCERNING THESE ISSUES

)N THIS REGARD THE REPORT MAY BE A TIMELY AND USEFUL CONTRIBUTION TO THE !FRICANREGIONAL PREPARATIONS TOWARDS THE 7ORLD 3UMMIT ON 3USTAINABLE $EVELOPMENT"ECAUSE OF THE NEXUS DILEMMA OF POPULATION AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT THAT ISPLAGUING THE CONTINENT THIS REPORT ALSO ATTEMPTS TO LINK THE PREVAILING ENVIRONMENTALISSUES TO FOOD SECURITY AND POVERTY 5PDATES MAY BE PRODUCED IN THE FUTURE (OWEVERTHESE WILL DEPEND ON THE AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES AND THE DEMAND FOR REPORTING ON THESTATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT .ONETHELESS COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS ARE INVITED FROMUSERS WITH THE VIEW OF PROVIDING GUIDANCE AND IMPROVEMENTS UPON POSSIBLE FUTURE EDITIONS

/RGANIZATION OF THE 2EPORT

4HE REPORT COMPRISES THREE SECTIONS 4HE lRST SECTION PROVIDES A GENERAL BACKGROUNDTO THE CURRENT STATUS OF THE ENVIRONMENT ! HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF POSTINDEPENDENCEDEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES AND CHOICES IS PROVIDED TO SHOW THE LINK BETWEEN SOME OF!FRICAS PAST DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS AND THE PRESENT STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT SHOWN BYHIGHLIGHTING THE NEXUS OF POPULATION ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

)N SECTION TWO A SYNTHESIS OF VARIOUS CURRENT SECTORAL ISSUES AND FACTS ARE PROVIDED)SSUES RELATED TO THE ATMOSPHERE CLIMATE AND NATURAL DISASTERS LAND RESOURCES FOODPRODUCTION FRESHWATER RESOURCES COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEMS BIODIVERSITY THEURBAN ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH ARE DISCUSSED 4HElNAL SECTION CONTAINS SUGGESTIONS FOR IMMEDIATE ACTION INCLUDING THE SETTING OF PRIORITIES WITH A FOCUS ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

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0HYSICAL #HARACTERISTICS

!FRICA IS THE SECOND LARGEST OF THE WORLDS SEVEN CONTINENTS WITH A LAND AREA OF MILLION KM ABOUT ONElFTH OF THE WORLDS TOTAL LAND AREA 3TRADDLING THE EQUATOR ITSTRETCHES KM FROM THE NORTHERNMOST POINT IN 4UNISIA TO ITS SOUTHERNMOST TIP IN3OUTH !FRICA )T IS KM WIDE MEASURED FROM THE WESTERN TIP IN 3ENEGAL TO THEEASTERN TIP IN 3OMALIA -OUNT +ILIMANJARO IN 4ANZANIA MEASURING M ABOVE SEALEVEL IS THE HIGHEST POINT WHILE THE LOWEST IS ,AKE !SSAL M BELOW SEA LEVEL IN$JIBOUTI

0HYSIOGRAPHIC 2EGIONS -ADE UP OF COUNTRIES THE CONTINENT COMPRISES A VAST ROLLING PLATEAU -UCH OF THE WEST CENTRAL AND NORTHERN !FRICA IS LOWLYING WHILE THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN !FRICA REGIONS ARE DOMINATED BY HIGH ALTITUDES /N THE BASIS OFELEVATION THE CONTINENT MAY BE DIVIDED INTO THREE MAJOR REGIONS

s TAINOUS REGIONS ALONG THE DESERT FRINGES SUCH AS THE !TLAS -OUNTAINS THE &OUTA$JALLON AND THE !DAMAWA -ASSIF

s 4HE #ENTRAL AND 3OUTHERN 0LATEAU AVERAGING M IN HEIGHT ENCOMPASSES WESTCENTRAL AND SOUTHERN !FRICA )T CONTAINS SEVERAL MAJOR DEPRESSIONS NOTABLY THE#ONGO 2IVER "ASIN AND THE +ALAHARI $ESERT 3OUTH OF THIS PLATEAU ARE THE FOLDEDCHAIN OF THE -ALUTI$RAKENSBERG MOUNTAIN RANGE WHICH RUNS SOME KMALONG THE SOUTHEASTERN COAST OF THE CONTINENT

s 4HE %ASTERN (IGHLANDS THE HIGHEST PART OF THE CONTINENT LIE NEAR THE EASTERNCOAST EXTENDING FROM THE 2ED 3EA SOUTHWARDS TO THE :AMBEZI 2IVER ALONG THEFAULT OF THE 2IFT 6ALLEY 4HE AVERAGE ELEVATION IN THIS REGION IS MORE THAN M ABOVE SEA LEVEL AND IT INCLUDES A NUMBER OF TOWERING VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS SUCHAS -OUNT +ILIMANJARO -OUNT +ENYA AND -OUNT %LGON

3OILS !LTHOUGH !FRICAN SOILS VARY WIDELY THEY HAVE MAJOR SIMILARITIES -OST HAVEDEVELOPED LOCALLY PRIMARILY BY WEATHERING ! FEW AREAS HAVE ALLUVIAL SOILS LAID DOWNBY RIVERS OR OCEAN CURRENTS "EING TYPICALLY TROPICAL SOILS MOST ARE RELATIVELY INFERTILELACKING HUMUS AND SUBJECT TO MINERAL LEACHING FROM HEAVY RAINFALL AND HIGH TEMPERATURES !BOUT PER CENT OF THE SOILS ARE DElCIENT IN PHOSPHORUS A KEY NUTRIENT FOR THEPRODUCTION OF BIOMASS 4HE SOILS ALSO HAVE LOW WATER INlLTRATION AND RETENTION CAPACITY DUE TO SURFACE CRUSTING 4HE MOST FERTILE SOILS INCLUDE THE BLACK SOILS OF EASTERN!FRICA AND THE ALlSOLS IN PARTS OF WESTERN AND SOUTHERN !FRICA

!BOUT HALF OF !FRICAS CULTIVABLE LAND IS ARID AND SEMIARID COMPRISED MOSTLY OF DESERTSOILS ARIDISOLS AND ENTISOLS WHICH HAVE THE LEAST ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT 4HEREFOREMOST OF THIS LAND IS DEGRADED!BOUT PER CENT OF CROPLAND AND PER CENT OF THE PASTURELAND IN !FRICA ARE AFFECTED BY DEGRADATION WITH CONSEQUENT DECLINE IN CROP YIELDSAND CHRONIC FOOD INSECURITY )T IS ALSO ESTIMATED THAT PER CENT OF DEGRADED SOIL RESULTFROM VEGETATION REMOVAL PER CENT FROM OVEREXPLOITATION PER CENT FROM OVERGRAZING AND PER CENT FROM AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES 7ORLD 2ESOURCES )NSTITUTE 72)

$RAINAGE 3YSTEM 3OME OF THE WORLDS GREATEST RIVERS ARE CONTAINED IN !FRICA )N ALLSIX MAJOR NETWORKS DRAIN THE CONTINENT 4HE 2IVER .ILE DRAINS NORTHEASTERN!FRICA ANDAT KM IS THE LONGEST RIVER IN THE WORLD 4HE 2IVER #ONGO SOME KM LONGDRAINS MUCH OF CENTRAL !FRICA WHILE THE .IGER 2IVER KM LONG IS THE THIRD LONGEST ON THE CONTINENT AND RISING FROM THE &OUTA $JALLON HIGHLANDS IT DRAINS MOSTOF 7EST !FRICA BEFORE EMPTYING INTO THE 'ULF OF 'UINEA 4HE OTHER MAJOR RIVERDRAINAGE SYSTEMS ARE THE :AMBEZI KM THE ,IMPOPO KM AND THE /RANGE2IVERS ALL OF WHICH DRAIN THE SOUTHERN !FRICA REGION 7ITH THE EXCEPTION OF THE ,AKE#HAD BASIN WHICH FORMS THE LARGEST INLAND DRAINAGE SYSTEM ALL THE DRAINAGE NETWORKSHAVE OUTLETS TO THE SEA )T IS ARGUED IN #HAPTER THAT IN SPITE OF ABUNDANT FRESHWATERRESOURCES A LARGE PROPORTION OF THE PEOPLES OF !FRICA ARE WITHOUT ACCESS TO CLEAN WATERDUE TO INADEQUATE DEVELOPMENT IN THE SECTOR

#LIMATE #HANGES IN CLIMATE HAS BEEN EXPERIENCED OVER A LONG PERIOD &ROM YEARS AGO TO ABOUT YEARS AGO DIFFERENT CYCLIC CLIMATIC CONDITIONS OCCURRED RANGING FROM COLD AND ARID TO WARM AND MOIST WITH ASSOCIATED POOR AND LUXURIANT VEGETATION !DAMS 4HE WEATHER HAS ALSO VARIED BETWEEN WET AND DRY DECADES WITHINTERMITTENT DROUGHT AND mOODS (OWEVER EXTREME WEATHER CONDITIONS SEEM TO BEINCREASING IN FREQUENCY IN RECENT YEARS 7ORLD "ANK 0ROPORTIONATELY !FRICAHAS A LARGER AREA IN ARID OR DESERT CLIMATE ZONES THAN ANY OTHER CONTINENT EXCEPT !USTRALIA %ACH OF THESE AREAS THE 3AHARA IN THE NORTH THE (ORN OF !FRICA IN THE EAST ANDTHE +ALAHARI AND .AMIB DESERTS IN THE SOUTHWEST HAS LESS THAN MM OF RAINFALLANNUALLY

0RECIPITATION VARIES FROM ALMOST ZERO OVER THE (ORN OF !FRICA AND THE .AMIB $ESERT TOOVER MILLIMETRES A YEAR IN THE WESTERN EQUATORIAL REGION 5NITED .ATIONS %NVIRONMENT 0ROGRAMME 5.%0 D ! LARGE PROPORTION OF THE CONTINENT HOWEVERIS SEMIARID WITH RAINFALL RANGING FROM TO MILLIMETRES A YEAR ! STUDY OF THERAINFALL PATTERN BETWEEN AND THE S SHOWS A DECLINE IN AMOUNTS SINCE 5.%0

6EGETATION -OST OF THE VEGETATION CAN BE CLASSIlED ACCORDING TO RAINFALL AND CLIMATICZONES ON BASIS OF WHICH SEVEN BROAD VEGETATION ZONES ARE IDENTIlED 4HE TROPICALRAINFOREST ZONE WITH NUMEROUS SPECIES OF TROPICAL HARDWOOD TREES AND DENSE SURFACECOVER IS FOUND WHERE RAINFALL IS MORE THAN MM PER YEAR )N THE MOUNTAIN FORESTZONE THE ANNUAL RAINFALL IS SLIGHTLY LESS THAN IN THE TROPICAL FOREST 4HIS IS FOUND IN THEMOUNTAINS OF #AMEROON !NGOLA EASTERN !FRICA AND PARTS OF %THIOPIA 4HE SAVANNAHWOODLAND ZONE EXPERIENCES ANNUAL RAINFALL OF BETWEEN TO MM )T COVERS VASTAREAS AND IS CHARACTERIZED BY lRERESISTANT SHRUBS DECIDUOUS AND LEGUMINOUS TREES4HE SAVANNAH GRASSLAND ZONE IS FOUND IN AREAS WITH ANNUAL RAINFALLS OF BETWEEN AND MM AND IS COVERED PREDOMINANTLY BY LOW GRASSES AND SHRUBS

4HE REMAINING THREE ZONES OCCUR WHERE THE ANNUAL RAINFALL IS BELOW MM PERANNUM 4HESE ARE THE THORNBUSH ZONE AND MM CHARACTERIZED BY SPARSEGRASS COVER AND A SCATTERING OF SUCCULENT OR SEMISUCCULENT TREES THE SUBDESERT SCRUBZONE TO MM AND THE ZONE OF DESERT VEGETATION BELOW MM 4HESE HAVESPARSE VEGETATION OR NONE AT ALL

0OPULATION

!FRICA IS THE CONTINENT WITH THE HIGHEST POPULATION GROWTH RATE OF PER CENT IN !T THE TURN OF THE TH CENTURY THE REGIONS POPULATION WAS ONLY MILLION BUT BYMID IT HAD REACHED MILLION %VEN THOUGH !FRICAS POPULATION GROWTH RATEHAS STARTED TO SLOW DOWN IT IS ESTIMATED THAT THE TOTAL POPULATION WILL INCREASE TO MILLION BY THE YEAR 4HERE WILL HOWEVER BE REGIONAL DIFFERENCES 4HE GROWTHWILL BE SLIGHTLY FASTER IN CENTRAL !FRICA PER CENT EASTERN !FRICA PER CENT ANDWESTERN !FRICA PER CENT BUT SLOWER IN SOUTHERN !FRICA PER CENT4WO MAIN POPULATION DENSITY TYPES CHARACTERISE THE CONTINENTS POPULATION HIGH VARIABILITY AND LOW ON AVERAGE 4HE AVERAGE POPULATION DENSITY INCREASED FROM INHABITANTS PER KM IN TO IN AND IS PROJECTED TO INCREASE TO IN 4HISIS LOW COMPARED TO OTHER TROPICAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD IN THE #ARIBBEAN INSOUTHERN !SIA IN EASTERN !SIA AND IN 3OUTHEAST !SIA 2EGIONAL DIFFERENCESOCCUR HOWEVER IN THE CONTINENTAL DISTRIBUTION GIVEN RISE TO BOTH VERY LOW AND HIGHDENSELY POPULATED AREAS 4HE HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITIES ARE FOUND IN THE ISLAND STATESOF EASTERN!FRICA WHERE DENSITIES RANGE FROM IN THE 3EYCHELLES TO IN -AURITIUS7HILE SOME OF THE LOWEST POPULATION DENSITIES ARE FOUND IN THE (ORN OF !FRICA FOREXAMPLE 3OMALIA $JIBOUTI AND %RITREA

&ACTORS ACCOUNTING FOR THE GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION OF !FRICAS POPULATION ARE ECOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL !REAS WITH ECOLOGICAL FACTORS CONDUCIVE TO AGRICULTURE HAVE DENSEPOPULATIONS WHILE MOST DRY TROPICS ARE SPARSE (ILLS AND MOUNTAINOUS AREAS ARE NOTOBSTACLES TO HABITATION WHILE RIVERS SCARCELY INmUENCE SETTLEMENT (ISTORICAL FACTORSTHAT CONTRIBUTED IN REDUCING!FRICAS POPULATION INCLUDE SLAVE TRADE DEVASTATED BLOODYCONmICTS AND INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION #OLONIZATION ON THE OTHER HAND ONLY MODIlEDPOPULATION DISTRIBUTION

&UTURE 0OPULATION 4RENDS

0OPULATION PROJECTIONS SHOW A DECLINE IN FERTILITY FROM CHILDREN PER WOMAN IN TO BY 4HIS WILL BE ACCOMPANIED BY A SLOW AND UNEVEN DECLINE IN MORTALITY,IFE EXPECTANCY IS EXPECTED TO INCREASE FROM YEARS BETWEEN AND TO IN 4HERE ARE EXPECTED STRIKING DIFFERENCES )N LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTHCOULD REACH YEARS IN 2EUNION IN -AURITIUS AND IN 3OUTH !FRICA )T WILL PROBABLY NOT RISE MUCH ABOVE YEARS IN COUNTRIES WITH POOR HEALTH SERVICES OR HARDHITBY THE ()6!)$3 EPIDEMIC 4HE ()6!)$3 EPIDEMIC HAS A DElNITE SLOWING EFFECT ONTHE DECLINE IN MORTALITY

5RBANIZATION

4HERE IS A FAST URBANIZATION PROCESS IN!FRICA ALTHOUGH MOST!FRICANS LIVE IN RURAL AREAS)T IS ESTIMATED THAT RURAL POPULATIONS WILL CONTINUE TO GROW FROM MILLION IN TO MILLION IN BUT WILL EVENTUALLY FALL AFTER DROPPING FROM PER CENTIN TO PER CENT IN 5RBAN POPULATION ON THE OTHER HAND IS PROJECTEDTO INCREASE FROM MILLION IN TO MILLION IN THUS JUMPING FROM PER CENT IN TO PER CENT OF THE TOTAL POPULATION IN &ROM TO THE NUMBER OF CITY DWELLERS MULTIPLIED BY A FACTOR OF EIGHT WHILE THE TOTAL POPULATIONINCREASE WAS ONLY THREE FOLDS 3UB3AHARAN!FRICA WHICH HAD ONLY TOWNS WITH MORE

THAN PEOPLE IN HAD AT LEAST TOWNS IN WITH MORE THAN PEOPLE &ACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO URBANIZATION INCLUDE INCREASED ECONOMIC ACTIVITY ANDTHE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE AFTER THE S AND S 4HESE FACTORS HAVEINTENSIlED MIGRATION FROM RURAL TO URBAN AREAS IN SEARCH OF BETTER PROSPECTS

(UMAN (EALTH

!FRICA CONTINUES TO SUFFER FROM PREVENTABLE DISEASES PARTLY DUE TO POVERTY AND THEINTRODUCTION OF USER FEES FOR BASIC SOCIAL SERVICES !LTHOUGH ACCESS TO POTABLE WATERSANITATION AND HEALTH FACILITIES IMPROVED WORLDWIDE SINCE MORE THAN HALF OF!FRICAS POPULATION DO NOT HAVE ACCESS TO POTABLE WATER AND ABOUT PER CENT LACKBASIC SANITARY SERVICES 4HE RESULT IS THAT ALMOST PER CENT OF !FRICANS SUFFER FROMWATERRELATED DISEASES &OR EXAMPLE OF THE COUNTRIES WORLD WIDE IN WHICH SCHISTOSOMIASIS IS ENDEMIC ARE IN !FRICA WHILE OF THE COUNTRIES WHERE GUINEA WORMDISEASE IS PREVALENT ARE ALSO IN !FRICA

-ALARIA AND ()6!)$3 HAVE BECOME MAJOR HEALTH HAZARDS IN !FRICA AND POSE SERIOUSTHREAT TO !FRICAS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT !BOUT MILLION CASES OF MALARIAARE REPORTED ANNUALLY IN SUB3AHARAN !FRICA -ALARIA MORTALITY RANGES BETWEEN MILLION AND MILLION DEATHS ANNUALLY WITH !FRICAN CHILDREN DYING OF MALARIADAILY 4HE ESTIMATED DIRECT AND INDIRECT COST OF MALARIA IN SUB3AHARA !FRICA IN WAS 53 BILLION #ENTRE FOR 3TUDY OF 2ESPONSIVE ,AW )N ABOUT MILLION PEOPLE IN SUB3AHARA !FRICA WERE LIVING WITH ()6!)$3 5.%0 4HISlGURE INCREASED TO MILLION BY $ECEMBER 4HE RAPID INCREASE IN ()6 INFECTION AND ()6!)$3 RELATED DEATHS ARE LIKELY TO ERODE THE MARGINAL GAINS MADE ININCREASING LIFE EXPECTANCY &OR EXAMPLE IT IS PROJECTED THAT :IMBABWES LIFE EXPECTANCY WILL BE CUT TO ONLY YEARS IN A DECADE 5NITED .ATIONS 0ROGRAMME ON ()6!)$3 5.!)$3 7ORLD (EALTH /RGANIZATION 7(/ !NOTHER WORRISOMETREND ASSOCIATED WITH ()6!)$3 IS THE INCREASING NUMBER OF ORPHANS IN SUB3AHARA!FRICA AN ESTIMATED MILLION BY THE END OF A SITUATION THAT HAS TREMENDOUSNEGATIVE IMPACT ON !FRICAN ECONOMIES AND DEVELOPMENT

4HE %CONOMY

!FRICAS PREINDEPENDENT ECONOMY WAS DESIGNED TO SUPPORT THE ECONOMIES OF THECOLONIAL POWERS 4HE SECTORS OF INFRASTRUCTURE EDUCATION HEALTH AND INDUSTRY WERE PURPOSELY MAINTAINED SMALL OR JUST ENOUGH TO SUPPORT THE COLONIAL ECONOMY 2AW MATERIALS WERE EXPORTED AND lNISHED GOODS IMPORTED 4HE S SAW THE BEGINNING OFTHE POLITICAL EMANCIPATION OF !FRICA (OWEVER EVEN AFTER INDEPENDENCE MOST !FRICANCOUNTRIES MAINTAINED THE SAME COLONIAL ECONOMIC STRUCTURES

3INCE THE COLONIAL SYSTEM DID NOT EXPAND AND MODERNISE THE ECONOMIES GOVERNMENTEXPENDITURES WERE LOW AND THIS ENSURED PRICE STABILITY AND POSITIVE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS )N CONTRAST GOVERNMENTS OF THE NEWLY INDEPENDENT !FRICAN STATES CAME UNDERPRESSURE TO EXPAND AND MODERNISE THEIR ECONOMIES SO AS TO ASSURE HIGHER STANDARDS OFLIVING FOR THEIR CITIZENS 0EOPLE NEEDED EDUCATION HEALTH ELECTRICITY WATER AND JOBS4HE STRONG IDEOLOGICAL BATTLE BETWEEN THE COMMUNISTSOCIALIST AND THE MARKETLIBERALECONOMIC BLOCKS INmUENCED THE DEVELOPMENT MODELS ADOPTED BY THE NEWLY INDEPEN

DENT 3TATES 4HE SOCIALIST BLOCK ACHIEVED HIGH ECONOMIC GROWTH WITHIN A SHORT PERIODOF YEARS 4HIS AND THE FACT THAT THE POLITICAL LEADERSHIP DID NOT CHANGE INmUENCEDMOST INDEPENDENT !FRICAN GOVERNMENTS 7ITH THE EXCEPTION OF THE &RANCOPHONE COUNTRIES AND +ENYA ALL ADOPTED THAT MODEL OF POLITICS AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

#ONSEQUENTLY DURING THE DECADE BETWEEN AND THE END OF THE ECONOMIES OFMOST !FRICAN COUNTRIES WERE CHARACTERIZED BY LARGE GOVERNMENT PRESENCE IN ALL SECTORSINCLUDING THE PRODUCTIVE ONES $UE TO SEVERAL FACTORS INCLUDING TERMS OF TRADE DETERIORATION CONTROLLED PRICE REGIMES INCLUDING FOREIGN EXCHANGE INEFlCIENCIES LARGE GOVERNMENTS CORRUPTION AND MILITARY COUPS EVEN COUNTRIES WHOSE ECONOMIES PERFORMEDWELL IN THE S AND EARLY S DETERIORATED "ETWEEN THE LATE S AND MIDS MOST COUNTRIES HAD BALANCE OF PAYMENT DElCITS HIGH RATES OF INmATION OVERVALUED CURRENCIES DETERIORATED INFRASTRUCTURE AND VERY LOW ECONOMIC GROWTH RATES

4ABLE SHOWS THAT ALL THE ECONOMIC INDICATORS GROWTH RATE OF '$0 AGRICULTURE MANUFACTURING OUTPUT SAVINGS INVESTMENT EXPORTS AND IMPORTS FELL FROM THE PERIOD $ESPITE THE GENERALLY POOR ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE THE .ORTH !FRICAN COUNTRIES IN PARTICULAR EXPERIENCED HIGH ECONOMIC GROWTH RATES WITH DIVERSIlED ECONOMIESDUE LARGELY TO INDUSTRIAL GROWTH AND OIL REVENUE .ORTH !FRICA ACCOUNTED FOR PERCENT OF !FRICAS '$0 IN AND

3TRUCTURAL !DJUSTMENT 0ROGRAMMES

!S A RESULT OF POOR ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE MOST !FRICAN COUNTRIES IN THE S UNDERTOOK STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMMES 3!0S WITH THE SUPPORT OF THE 7ORLD "ANKAND THE )NTERNATIONAL -ONETARY &UND )-& 4HE AIMS OF 3!0S WERE TO IMPROVETHE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ENCOURAGE GROWTH REDUCE INmATION BUILD INFRASTRUCTURE ANDENHANCE THE STANDARD OF LIVING OF THE PEOPLE 4HE TYPICAL POLICIES INCLUDED DECONTROLLING INPUT AND OUTPUT PRICES INCREASING USER FEES FOR SOCIAL SERVICES SUCH AS EDUCATION AND HEALTH LIBERALISING TRADE AND PAYMENTS REGIME DIVESTING STATE ENTERPRISES ANDRETRENCHMENTS IN THE STATE SECTOR

!T THE END OF THE SLIGHT ECONOMIC IMPROVEMENTS OCCURRED IN SOME COUNTRIES4HE INDICATORS IN TABLE SHOW THAT THERE WAS A SLIGHT IMPROVEMENT IN ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE BETWEEN THAT SEEMED TO HAVE DETERIORATED BETWEEN AND /N THE WHOLE HOWEVER THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE WAS BELOW THAT OF THE PERIOD 4HERE SEEMS TO BE AN UPTURN IN MOST OF THE INDICATORS IN AND THISCOULD BE A SIGN OF RECOVERY !LTHOUGH!FRICAS PERFORMANCE WAS GENERALLY NOT ENCOURAGING SOME COUNTRIES MADE SLIGHT PROGRESS 4HE .ORTH!FRICAN COUNTRIES CONTINUED TOACHIEVE HIGH GROWTH RATES -AURITIUS AND 3EYCHELLES DID WELL WHILE REFORMING COUNTRIES SUCH AS "OTSWANA 3OUTH !FRICA .AMIBIA ,ESOTHO %QUATORIAL 'UINEA 'ABON'HANA AND #APE 6ERDE ACHIEVED GREATER '$0 GROWTH AND EXPORTS

$ESPITE THE POSITIVE GROWTH RECORDED IN SOME COUNTRIES THERE WAS NO TRANSFORMATION INTHE STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMIES AND DEVELOPMENT LAGGED BEHIND EXPECTATION #OUNTRIESTHAT ACHIEVED EXPORT GROWTH DID SO THROUGH INCREASED EXPLOITATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES4ABLE SHOWS THAT THE AVERAGE MANUFACTURING OUTPUT DECLINED FROM A HIGH OF PERCENT DURING THE PERIOD TO A MERE PER CENT DURING THE PERIOD4HE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS SITUATION AND THE TERMS OF TRADE DETERIORATED FURTHER FOR MOST

!FRICAN COUNTRIES !FRICAS SHARE OF WORLD TRADE DECREASED TO PER CENT IN THE SFROM A HIGH OF PER CENT IN THE S AMOUNTING TO ANNUAL TRADE LOSSES OF 53 BILLION 4HE INTRODUCTION OF USER FEES DEPRIVED MAJORITY OF THE PEOPLE ACCESS TO BASICSOCIAL SERVICES RESULTING IN A REDUCTION IN THE STANDARD OF LIVING 4UTU 0OVERTYBECAME WIDESPREAD ESPECIALLY AMONG RURAL COMMUNITIES

'LOBALLY MORE PEOPLE ENJOY HIGHER STANDARDS OF LIVING TODAY THAN IN (OWEVERIN SUB3AHARAN !FRICA ABOUT PER CENT OF THE PEOPLE LIVE BELOW THE POVERTY LINE OF53 PER PERSON PER DAY WITH AN ESTIMATED MILLION PEOPLE LIVING ON LESS THAN 53 PER PERSON A DAY "ECAUSE THE MAJORITY OF THE PEOPLE ARE POOR THERE IS CONTINUOUSOVEREXPLOITATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES A SITUATION THAT DEEPENS THE DEGRADATION OF THEENVIRONMENT

$EBT "URDEN

!FRICAS EXTERNAL DEBT ALSO PRESENTS A MAJOR BOTTLENECK TO DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 4HE DEBT STOCK STOOD AT 53 BILLION IN 4HIS WASEQUIVALENT TO PER CENT OF THE EXPORT EARNINGS AND PER CENT OF '$0 )N !FRICAS DEBT STOOD AT BILLION -ORE THAN PER CENT OF !FRICAN COUNTRIES AREON THE LIST OF THE WORLDS MOST HEAVILY INDEBTED COUNTRIES IN RELATIVE TERMS 4HE PRESSURE TO SERVICE THESE DEBTS LEADS TO THE EXPLOITATION OF MORE NATURAL RESOURCES WHICHIS THE QUICKEST MEANS OF RAISING MONEY TO MEET !FRICAS OBLIGATIONS IN DEBT SERVICINGAND CAPITAL REPAYMENTS 4HE CONSEQUENCE IS MORE DEPLETION OF NATURAL RESOURCES ANDFURTHER DEGRADATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

4HE %NVIRONMENT !GENDA

4HE NEED FOR !FRICAN GOVERNMENTS TO IMPROVE THE STANDARD OF LIVING OF ITS PEOPLETHROUGH INCREASED ECONOMIC GROWTH TOGETHER WITH THE SERVICING OF THE GROWING DEBTAND EFFORTS TOWARDS POVERTY ERADICATION HAS LED TO SIGNIlCANT ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION NOTABLY LAND DEGRADATION DEFORESTATION DESERTIlCATION BIODIVERSITY LOSS ANDPOLLUTION OF WATER AND AIR QUALITY %NVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IS HEIGHTENED BY THELACK OF TRANSFORMATION IN THE ECONOMIES FROM RESOURCE EXPLOITATION TO MANUFACTURINGAND SERVICE 'LOBAL AND NATIONAL EFFORTS TO ADDRESS THESE ISSUES STARTED WITH THE

).$)#!4/2

0OPULATION GROWTH RATE

'ROWTH RATE OF '$0 AVG

'ROWTH RATE OF AGRICULTURALOUTPUT AVG

'ROWTH RATE OF MANUFACTURINGOUTPUT AVG

'ROWTH RATE OF INVESTMENT AVG

3AVINGS'$0 AVG

'ROWTH RATE OF EXPORTS AVG

'ROWTH RATE OF IMPORTS AVG

4ABLE %CONOMICPERFORMANCEIN !FRICA

3OURCE !FRICAN $EVELOPMENT "ANK

3TOCKHOLM #ONFERENCE LEADING TO THE RATIlCATION OF GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS ESTABLISHMENT OF NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES AND MINISTRIES OF ENVIRONMENTS AND PROMOTION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AGENDAS BY WORLD GOVERNMENTS

'LOBAL %FFORTS TOWARDS 3USTAINABLE $EVELOPMENT

$ISSATISFACTION WITH TRADITIONAL IDEOLOGIES IN %UROPE AND .ORTH !MERICA DURING THES LED TO SEVERE PROTESTS FROM DISENCHANTED YOUTHS AND FROM ACADEMICS 4HE ENVIRONMENT FEATURED STRONGLY 3EVERAL INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS SUCH AS 0RIME -INISTER)NDIRA 'ANDHI AND THE #LUB OF 2OME THAT PUBLISHED 4HE ,IMITS OF 'ROWTH PLAYEDMAJOR ROLES IN BRINGING THE ATTENTION OF WORLD LEADERS TO THE STATE OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT 4HESE EFFORTS CULMINATED INTO THE 5NITED .ATIONS #ONFERENCE ON (UMAN%NVIRONMENT HELD IN *UNE IN 3TOCKHOLM 3WEDEN 4HAT #ONFERENCE MARKED THETURNING POINT ON THE ISSUE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT !MONG THE ACHIEVEMENTS AT 3TOCKHOLM WAS THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 5NITED .ATIONS %NVIRONMENT 0ROGRAMME 5.%0 WHOSE MANDATE IS TO PROVIDE ENVIRONMENT LEADERSHIP ENCOURAGEPARTNERSHIP IN CARING FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF HUMAN LIFE WITHOUT COMPROMISING THAT OF FUTURE GENERATIONS

3INCE SOME -ULTILATERAL %NVIRONMENTAL !GREEMENTS -%!S HAVE BEENSIGNED BOX 4HE -%!S ARE MEANT TO PROTECT NATURAL RESOURCES AND BIODIVERSITYFROM OVEREXPLOITATION AND TO SAFEGUARD THE ENVIRONMENT -ANY !FRICAN COUNTRIESHAVE RATIlED MOST OF THE CONVENTIONS 4HE PROBLEMS FACING COUNTRIES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THESE CONVENTIONS ARE THREEFOLD REPORTING FOR EACH CONVENTION INTEGRATING CONVENTIONS INTO NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES AND LOOKING FOR SYNERGIES ANDLINKAGES AMONG THE CONVENTIONS 4HE REPORTING PROCEDURES NEED TO BE HARMONIZED AND!FRICAN COUNTRIES NEED SUPPORT FROM THEIR DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS IN RELATING IMPACTS OFTHE IMPLEMENTATION OF -%!S TO DEVELOPMENT AND IN EXPLOITING THE SYNERGIES AND LINKAGES AMONG THE -%!S TO IMPROVE UPON THEIR IMPLEMENTATION

4HE "RUNDTLAND #OMMISSION

4HE NEXT MAJOR DEVELOPMENT IN THE AREA OF THE ENVIRONMENT AFTER 3TOCKHOLM WAS THEESTABLISHMENT OF THE "RUNDTLAND #OMMISSION BY THE 5NITED .ATIONS 'ENERAL !SSEMBLY )N THE 7ORLD #OMMISSION ON %NVIRONMENT AND $EVELOPMENT 7#%$ ORTHE "RUNDTLAND #OMMISSION WAS FORMED TO SOLICIT VIEWS AROUND THE WORLD ON ISSUESSUCH AS AGRICULTURE FORESTRY WATER ENERGY TECHNOLOGY AND HOW THEY IMPACT ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN GENERAL 4HE #OMMISSIONS REPORT /UR #OMMON &UTURE FORTHE lRST TIME DElNED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AS hDEVELOPMENT THAT MEETS THE NEEDSOF THE PRESENT GENERATION WITHOUT COMPRISING THE ABILITY OF FUTURE GENERATIONS TO MEETTHEIR OWN NEEDSv 7#%$ 4HE "RUNDTLAND #OMMISSION LAID THE FOUNDATION FORTHE MOST IMPORTANT ENVIRONMENTAL GATHERING OF THE TH #ENTURY THE %ARTH 3UMMIT IN2IO DE *ANEIRO IN

4HE %ARTH 3UMMIT

7HEN TOWARDS THE END OF THE TH CENTURY SOME MILLION PEOPLE WERE BOTH HUNGRYAND ILLITERATE AND MORE THAN BILLION PEOPLE LIVED ON LESS THAN 53 PER PERSONA DAY IT WAS EVIDENT THAT THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT WAS NOT GETTINGFAR 4HIS LED THE 5. TO CONVENE THE #ONFERENCE ON %NVIRONMENT AND $EVELOPMENT5.#%$ IN 2IO DE *ANEIRO IN *UNE 5.#%$ OR THE %ARTH 3UMMIT BROUGHTTOGETHER THE LARGEST GATHERING IN THE AREA OF THE ENVIRONMENT BOX

4HE 2IO PRINCIPLES REAFlRMED THE ISSUES THAT WERE ARTICULATED IN 3TOCKHOLM IN PLACING HUMAN BEINGS AT THE CENTRE OF DEVELOPMENT BY STATING THAT PEOPLE ARE hENTITLEDTO A HEALTHY AND PRODUCTIVE LIFE IN HARMONY WITH NATUREv 4HE SOCALLED !GENDA IS

s #ONVENTION #ONCERNING THE 0ROTECTION OF THE 7ORLD #ULTURAL AND.ATURAL (ERITAGE

s #ONVENTION ON THE 0REVENTION OF -ARINE 0OLLUTION BY $UMPING7ASTES AND /THER -ATTER AS AMENDED

s #ONVENTION ON THE )NTERNATIONAL 4RADE IN %NDANGERED 3PECIES OF7ILD &AUNA AND &LORA #)4%3

s )NTERNATIONAL #ONVENTION FOR THE 0REVENTION OF 0OLLUTION FROM 3HIPSAS AMENDED

s #ONVENTION ON THE 0ROHIBITION OF -ILITARY OR ANY OTHER (OSTILE 5SEOF %NVIRONMENTAL -ODIlCATION 4ECHNIQUES

s #ONVENTION ON THE #ONSERVATION OF -IGRATORY 3PECIES OF 7ILD !NIMALS

s 5NITED .ATIONS #ONVENTION ON THE ,AW OF THE 3EAs 6IENNA #ONVENTION FOR THE 0ROTECTION OF THE /ZONE ,AYER AND THE

-ONTREAL 0ROTOCOL 4HE -ONTREAL 0ROTOCOLs "ASEL #ONVENTION ON THE #ONTROL OF 4RANSBOUNDARY -OVEMENTS OF

(AZARDOUS 7ASTES AND THEIR DISPOSALs )NTERNATIONAL #ONVENTION ON /IL 0OLLUTION 0REPAREDNESS 2ESPONSE

AND #OOPERATIONs 5NITED .ATIONS &RAMEWORK #ONVENTION ON #LIMATE #HANGE AND THE

+YOTO 0ROTOCOLs #ONVENTION ON "IOLOGICAL $IVERSITY AND THE #ARTAGENA 0ROTO

COL ON "IOSAFETYs #ONVENTION ON THE 0ROHIBITION OF THE $EVELOPMENT 0RODUCTION

3TOCKPILING AND USE OF #HEMICAL 7EAPONS AND ON THEIR DESTRUCTIONs 5. #ONVENTION TO #OMBAT $ESERTIlCATION IN THOSE #OUNTRIES %XPE

RIENCING 3ERIOUS $ROUGHT ANDOR $ESERTIlCATION PARTICULARLY IN !FRICAs #ONVENTION ON .UCLEAR 3AFETYs 5. #ONVENTION ON THE ,AW OF THE .ON.AVIGATIONAL 5SES OF )NTER

NATIONAL 7ATERCOURSESs #ONVENTION ON THE 0RIOR )NFORMED #ONSENT 0ROCEDURE FOR #ERTAIN

(AZARDOUS #HEMICALS AND 0ESTICIDES IN )NTERNATIONAL 4RADEs #ONVENTION ON 0ERSISTENT /RGANIC 0OLLUTANTS

"OX 3OME INTERNATIONAL -%!S ADOPTED SINCE

THE MOST SIGNIlCANT NONBINDING INSTRUMENT IN THE AREA OF THE ENVIRONMENT )T SERVESAS THE GUIDING DOCUMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN MOST COUNTRIES

!GENDA IS THE CHANNEL TO SPEED UP SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF COUNTRIES )T IS ANACTION PROGRAMME PARTIALLY BASED ON A SERIES OF SPECIALISED CONTRIBUTIONS FROM GOVERNMENTS AND INTERNATIONAL BODIES "OX )N THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITYCONVENED A REVIEW SUMMIT IE 2IO IN .EW 9ORK 53! WHERE CONCERNS WEREEXPRESSED ABOUT THE SLOW IMPLEMENTATION OF!GENDA ! MAJOR REVIEW OF!GENDA IS SCHEDULED TO TAKE PLACE IN *OHANNESBURG 3OUTH!FRICA IN 3EPTEMBER &OR THISSUMMIT THE REGIONS OF THE WORLD ARE PREPARING A REVIEW OF !GENDA SINCE 2IO

3OME 3TATES GOVERNMENTS AND (EADS OF 3TATE SOME DELEGATES NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS .'/S AND ABOUT JOURNALISTS ATTENDED THE %ARTH 3UMMIT 4HE 3UMMIT PRODUCED MAJOR OUTPUTSNAMELYs 4HE 2IO $ECLARATION ON %NVIRONMENT AND $EVELOPMENT COMPRISING

PRINCIPLES !GENDA A PAGE GUIDELINE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT INTO THE ST CENTURY

s 4WO MAJOR INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS NAMELY THE 5NITED .ATIONS &RAMEWORK #ONVENTION ON #LIMATE #HANGE 5.## AND THE #ONVENTION ON"IOLOGICAL $IVERSITY #"$

s %STABLISHMENT OF THE #OMMISSION ON 3USTAINABLE $EVELOPMENT5.#3$

s !GREEMENT TO NEGOTIATE A WORLD DESERTIlCATION CONVENTION 5.##$ ANDs 4HE 3TATEMENT OF 0RINCIPLES FOR THE 3USTAINABLE -ANAGEMENT OF &ORESTS

!GENDA CONSIDERS THE THREE MAIN PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT WHICHARE SOCIAL ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENT ISSUES !GENDA HAS CHAPTERSAND ITS ACTIONS ARE DIVIDED INTO FOUR MAIN AREASs 3OCIAL AND %CONOMIC )SSUES )NTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IS BEING SOUGHT

TO ACCELERATE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT BY COMBATING POVERTY CHANGINGCONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION AND DEMOGRAPHIC PATTERNS AND PROTECTINGAND PROMOTING HUMAN HEALTH

s #ONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES FOR DEVELOPMENT 4HE ISSUES INCLUDE THE PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE COMBATINGDEFORESTATION COMBATING DESERTIlCATION AND DROUGHT PROTECTION OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES AND THE OCEANS AND THE SOUND MANAGEMENT OF TOXICCHEMICALS AND HAZARDOUS WASTES

s 3TRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS 4HIS MAINLY CONCENTRATES ONSTRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN SUPPORTING !GENDA 4HEGROUPS INCLUDE WOMEN CHILDREN AND YOUTH INDIGENOUS PEOPLE AND THEIRCOMMUNITIES BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY THE SCIENTIlC AND TECHNOLOGICAL COMMUNITY AND FARMERS

-EANS OF )MPLEMENTATION 4HIS INCLUDES lNANCIAL RESOURCES AND MECHANISMSTRANSFER OF ENVIRONMENTALLYSOUND TECHNOLOGY PROMOTING EDUCATION PUBLICAWARENESS AND TRAINING INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS INTERNATIONALLEGAL INSTRUMENTS AND MECHANISMS AND INFORMATION FOR DECISIONMAKING

"OX /UTLINE COMPOSITION OF !GENDA

$ESPITE TEN YEARS SINCE 2IO AND 3!0S !FRICAN COUNTRIES ARE FAR FROM ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 4HE INCREASED LAND AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION THE CONTINUED EXISTENCE OF PREINDEPENDENT ECONOMIES AND AN INCREASING POVERTY AND DEBTBURDEN SHOW THAT A RETHINKING AND COMMITMENT TO DEVELOPMENT BY GOVERNMENTS MUSTBE ACTIVELY PURSUED

/NGOING )NITIATIVES FOR 3USTAINABLE $EVELOPMENT

4HE TWO MAIN INITIATIVES THAT ARE DESIGNED TO PROPEL !FRICA TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT IN THE ST #ENTURY ARE THE 0OVERTY 2EDUCTION 3TRATEGIES SPEARHEADED BYTHE 7ORLD "ANK AND THE )-& AND THE 0ARTNERSHIP FOR !FRICAN $EVELOPMENT .%0!$.%0!$ WAS BROUGHT ONTO THE DRAWING BOARD BY!FRICAN GOVERNMENTS DURING THE /RGANIZATION OF !FRICAN 5NITY /!5 3UMMIT HELD IN ,USAKA :AMBIA IN *UNE .%0!$ RECOGNIZES THAT A HEALTHY AND PRODUCTIVE ENVIRONMENT IS A PREREQUISITE FOR THESUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF !FRICA

4HE REVIEW OF IMPLEMENTATION OF !GENDA AND THE 7ORLD 3UMMIT ON 3OCIAL $EVELOPMENT 733$ IN *OHANNESBURG 3OUTH!FRICA IN WILL BE A ROUNDTABLE AT WHICHTHESE INITIATIVES MAY BE SCRUTINIZED WITHIN THE SCOPE OF !GENDA 4HE CONCURRENCEOF THE REVIEW OF THESE DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVES AT THE WORLD MEETING OFFERS HOPE FORPLACING !FRICA ON A SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT COURSE4HE GLOBAL INITIATIVES HAVE HAD POSITIVE IMPACTS ON !FRICA IN TERMS OF ESTABLISHMENT OFAGENCIES AND MINISTRIES OF ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY MAKING !LSO 5.%0WAS ESTABLISHED OUT OF THESE INITIATIVES 4HE VARIOUS NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS HAVE ENACTEDENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PLANS TO ADDRESS ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION 3EVERAL 3TRATEGIESAND 0LANS HAVE BEEN FORMULATED IN COUNTRIES INCLUDING NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIONPLANS FORESTRY MANAGEMENT PLANS BIODIVERSITY PLANS COASTAL MANAGEMENT PLANS ANDWETLAND CONSERVATION STRATEGIES 4HERE ARE ALSO ATTEMPTS TO ADDRESS RELEVANT MULTILATERAL ENVIRONMENT AGREEMENTS !LTHOUGH THESE PLANS AND ACTIONS HAVE NOT ACHIEVED THEDESIRED RESULTS EFFORTS ARE BEING MADE TO ADDRESS THE SHORTCOMINGS 3OME OF THE DIFlCULTIES INCLUDE LACK OF CAPACITY LACK OF lNANCIAL RESOURCES AND INABILITY TO EXPLOIT THELINKAGES AMONG -%!S &INALLY THE INABILITY OF COUNTRIES TO MAINSTREAM ENVIRONMENTINTO NATIONAL POLICIES HAS RESULTED IN THIS LIMITED SUCCESS

3%#4)/.47/34!4% /&4(% %.6)2/.-%.4

))) !4-/30(%2% !.$ #,)-!4%

)NTRODUCTION

4HE ATMOSPHERE IS THE ESSENTIAL PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT FOR LANDBASEDLIFE INCLUDING A SIGNIlCANT PROPORTION OF THE BIOSPHERE ON WHICH HUMAN LIFE DEPENDS#HANGES ANTHROPOGENIC OR OTHERWISE TO THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THEATMOSPHERE HAVE THE POTENTIAL OF AFFECTING DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY THE QUALITY OF LIFE ANDEVEN THE VERY EXISTENCE OF SOME FORMS OF LIFE 7ORLD -ETEOROLOGICAL /RGANIZATION 7-/ )NDEED THE PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN MEETING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES HAS BEEN ADEQUATELY ARTICULATED IN #HAPTER OF!GENDA 5.#%$

4HE CLIMATE OF ANY AREA IS DElNED AS THE STATISTICAL AGGREGATION OF LOCAL WEATHERRECORDS INCLUDING INFORMATION ABOUT EXTREME EVENTS 7-/ #LIMATE SHAPESHUMAN CULTURES LOCATION OF MANY SETTLEMENTS AND ALL LANDSCAPES IT LARGELY DETERMINESFOOD PRODUCTION AND ITS VARIABILITY CAN CAUSE FAMINE #LIMATE VARIABILITY IS CAUSED BYINTERNAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN THE OCEANS THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE LAND SURFACE %XTERNAL FORCES OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY INCLUDE CHANGED SOLAR LUMINOSITY EARTH ORBITAL ELEMENTS OR HUMAN ACTIVITY 7-/

!DAMS TRACED CHANGES IN THE CLIMATE OF !FRICA FROM TO ABOUT YEARS AGO /VER THIS PERIOD ALMOST ALL TYPES OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS HAVE BEEN EXPERIENCED IN THE CONTINENT AND THESE CHANGES HAVE BEEN ALMOST CYCLIC IE COLD AND ARIDWARM AND MOIST POOR VEGETATION AND LUSH VEGETATION COVER 4HESE CHANGES WERELARGELY ATTRIBUTED TO NATURAL CAUSES HOWEVER CLIMATE VARIABILITY DUE TO HUMAN ACTIVITIESHAS BECOME INCREASINGLY SIGNIlCANT IN RECENT TIMES

4HE ISSUE OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING HAS BEEN A SUBJECT FOR DEBATE INTHE S S THROUGH TO THE S AND CULMINATED IN THE 5NITED .ATIONS &RAMEWORK #ONVENTION ON #LIMATE #HANGE 5.## IN %VEN THOUGH !FRICASRELATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS TO GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE IS NOT SIGNIlCANT THE CONTINENT IS CONSIDERED MOST SUSCEPTIBLE TO THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE )N RECENT YEARS !FRICA HASEXPERIENCED VARIOUS CLIMATERELATED CONDITIONS AND DISASTERS SUCH AS DROUGHT mOODSCYCLONES AND BUSHlRES THAT HAVE BEEN MAJOR SETBACKS IN THE ROAD TO SOCIOECONOMICDEVELOPMENT

!FRICAS VULNERABILITY TO CLIMATE CHANGE IS DUE TO THE FACT THAT IT DOES NOT HAVE THERESOURCES OR TECHNOLOGY TO ADAPT TO THE CONDITIONS THAT WOULD BE IMPOSED BY CLIMATECHANGE 'IVEN THIS SITUATION !FRICA SHOULD TACKLE CLIMATE CHANGE ISSUES WITHIN THECONTEXT OF POVERTY ERADICATION 4HE DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFER OF ENVIRONMENTALLYSOUND TECHNOLOGIES IN !FRICA SHOULD BE SEEN AS KEY

4HE #LIMATE OF !FRICA IN THE 4WENTIETH #ENTURY

,IKE OTHER REGIONS OF THE WORLD THE CLIMATE IN !FRICA IS INmUENCED BY GLOBAL CIRCULATION AND OCEAN INTERACTIONS 4HE SOUTHERN OSCILLATION 3/ IS THE IRREGULAR mUCTUA

TION OF THE SEA LEVEL PRESSURE 3,0 lELD BETWEEN THE WESTERN TROPICAL 0ACIlC EASTERN)NDIAN /CEAN REGION AND THE SOUTHEASTERN TROPICAL 0ACIlC 4HE 3/ GIVES RISE TO CONDITIONS CHARACTERISED AS %L .INO3/ %.3/ WHICH INmUENCE THE WEATHER IN THE SOUTHERN AND EASTERN PARTS OF !FRICA !NOTHER NAME FOR %.3/ IS h0ACIlC 7ARM %PISODEv%L .INO HAS BEEN ASSOCIATED WITH DROUGHT IN %ASTERN !FRICA AND SEVERE STORMS ANDmOODING IN 3OUTHERN !FRICA 4HE OPPOSITE CONDITIONS OF %.3/ ARE KNOWN AS h0ACIlC#OLD %PISODEv OR h,A .INAv $UE TO THESE CONDITIONS IE %L .INO AND ,A .INABELOWNORMAL PRECIPITATION AND WETTERTHANNORMAL EPISODES HAVE BEEN OBSERVED INSOUTHERN !FRICA 7-/ #ONVERSELY ,A .INA CONDITIONS CONTRIBUTE TO BELOWNORMAL PRECIPITATION OVER EQUATORIAL %AST !FRICA 7-/

4HE .ORTH !TLANTIC OSCILLATION .!/ IS A PROMINENT MODE OF LOWFREQUENCY ATMOSPHERIC VARIABILITY OVER THE EXTRATROPICAL !TLANTIC 4HE .!/ INmUENCES WEATHERCONDITIONS AND CLIMATE IN NORTHERN PARTS OF !FRICA &OR EXAMPLE DEPENDING ON THECIRCULATION PATTERNS OF THE .!/ CLIMATE CONDITIONS HAVE VARIED FROM BELOW NORMALWIND SPEEDS ABOVE NORMAL JET STREAM WINDS DROUGHT AND ABNORMALLY WET AND WARMCONDITIONS IN .ORTHERN !FRICA 7-/

#LIMATE 6ARIABLES

4EMPERATURE !CCORDING TO THE lNDINGS OF THE )NTERNATIONAL 0ANEL ON #LIMATE #HANGE)0## THE GLOBAL AVERAGE SURFACE TEMPERATURE RELATIVE TO IS PROJECTED TO INCREASEBY ABOUT # BY HTTPWWWWMOCHCLIMATEWMOSTATEMENT 3INCECOMPARABLE RECORDS BEGAN IN THE S WERE GLOBALLY THE WARMEST DECADE2ECENT SCIENTIlC EVIDENCE ALSO INDICATES THAT THE S WERE THE WARMEST CENTURYDURING THE LAST YEARS 4HE TEN WARMEST YEARS HAVE ALL OCCURRED SINCE 4HEFOUR WARMEST YEARS WERE # ABOVE NORMAL AND HTTPWWWWMOCLIMATE ,IKE MOST OTHER REGIONS OF THEWORLD THE TEMPERATURE SERIES IN !FRICA SHOW LONGTERM WARMING 4HE WARMTH OF THELAST CENTURY IS NEAR RECORD LEVEL IN SOUTHERN !FRICA 7-/

4EMPERATURE RECORDS GENERALLY CORRELATES WELL WITH PRECIPITATION )N THE NORTHEAST ANDNORTHWESTERN REGIONS OF !FRICA SURFACE TEMPERATURE ANOMALIES WERE ABOVE AVERAGEIN 4HIS CORRELATED WELL WITH BELOW AVERAGE PRECIPITATION OBSERVED IN THESEREGIONS AND CORRESPONDED WITH OBSERVED DROUGHT CONDITIONS )N CONTRAST TEMPERATURES WERE COOLER THAN THE AVERAGES ACROSS INTERIOR SECTIONS OF3OUTH !FRICA 4HIS COMPARED WELL WITH THE ABOVE AVERAGE WETNESS OBSERVED AT THESURFACE AND WIDESPREAD mOODING THAT DEVASTATED THE REGION ESPECIALLY IN -OZAMBIQUEHTTPWWWNCDCNOAAGOVOCLIMATERESEARCH

0RECIPITATION AND $ROUGHT 4HE CONTINENT HAS A LONG HISTORY OF RAINFALL mUCTUATIONS OFVARYING LENGTHS AND INTENSITIES )N SOME PARTS OF !FRICA DROUGHTS ARE ROOTED IN THEGLOBAL OCEANATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION VARIATIONS SOME OF WHICH OCCUR DRAMATICALLY INASSOCIATION WITH %.3/ EPISODES &OR EXAMPLE THE WARM EPISODE OF %.3/ HAS BEENSHOWN TO BE ASSOCIATED WITH DROUGHTS IN SOUTHERN!FRICA (OWEVER IN 3AHELIAN!FRICADROUGHTS ARE NOT WELL CORRELATED WITH %.3/ EVENTS 7-/

4HE WORST DROUGHTS WERE THOSE AROUND WHICH AFFECTED %AST AND 7EST !FRICAALIKE )NCREASING RAINFALL AMOUNTS GENERALLY FOLLOWED THOSE YEARS BUT NEGATIVE TRENDS

WERE OBSERVED AGAIN FROM ONWARDS CULMINATING IN THE 7EST !FRICAN DROUGHT IN 'OMMES AND 0ETRASI

%VEN ALLOWING FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COUNTRIES IN INDIVIDUAL YEARS THE PERIOD SAW WIDELY DIFFERENT CONDITIONS FROM YEAR TO YEAR 4HE YEARS FROM TO WERE AMONG THE WETTEST OF THE PERIOD WHILE LOWER RAINFALLS WERE RECORDED FOR THES AND S 4HE DOWNWARD TREND FROM S AFFECTED THE WHOLE CONTINENT BUTRESULTED IN NEGATIVE IMPACT ON FOOD PRODUCTION ONLY IN THE LOWRAINFALL AREAS

4HE WORSE DROUGHT YEARS WERE AND WHILE AND TO A LESSER EXTENT WERE REMARKABLE YEARS IN THAT ALMOST THE WHOLE CONTINENT EXPERIENCED ABOVEAVERAGE CONDITIONS 4HE YEAR WAS INTERESTING IN THAT IT CONSTITUTED THE lRST POORYEAR AFTER A RUN OF GOOD YEARS !S SUCH IT CAUGHT MOST COUNTRIES UNPREPARED )N CONTRAST THE IMPACT OF THE DROUGHT OF WHICH WAS MORE SEVERE THAN THAT OF INCLIMATOLOGICAL TERMS WAS RELATIVELY LESS SERIOUS AS MANY COUNTRIES ESPECIALLY IN THE3AHEL REGION WERE BETTER PREPARED TO COPE WITH SUCH EXTREME SITUATIONS

)N AND LESS SO IN ALMOST ALL !FRICAN COUNTRIES SUFFERED .ORTH AND 3OUTHALIKE )N CONTRAST THE SOUTHERN !FRICAN DROUGHT WAS RELATIVELY LIMITED IN SPACESINCE THE 3AHEL HAD ONE OF ITS GOOD hAFTER v YEARS WITH AVERAGE OR ABOVE AVERAGERAINFALL CONDITIONS

2EGIONAL 0ATTERNS

)N DISCUSSING RAINFALL VARIABILITY AND DROUGHT IN SUB3AHARAN !FRICA 'OMMES AND0ETRASI CLASSIlED COUNTRIES IN THE REGION INTO EIGHT GROUPS BASED ON RAINFALL PATTERNS SINCE

'ROUP ) THE 3AHEL AND THE 3UDAN THE GROUP COMPRISE "URKINA &ASO #APE 6ERDE#HAD 'AMBIA 'UINEA"ISSAU -ALI -AURITANIA .IGER 3ENEGAL AND 3UDAN 4HEGROUP IS CHARACTERIZED BY A DOWNWARD TREND OF RAINFALL UNTIL FOLLOWED BY SERIESOF ABOVE AVERAGE YEARS 7ORST DROUGHT YEARS CORRESPOND TO AND BUT SEVEREDROUGHTS WERE ALSO RECORDED IN AND )N DROUGHT SEVERELYAFFECTED ALL COUNTRIES FROM -AURITANIA TO %THIOPIA INCLUDING SEVERAL BORDERING COUNTRIES ON THE SOUTHERNEND OF THE 3AHEL -ALI AND .IGER WERE AFFECTED MORE SERIOUSLYTHAN THE OTHER COUNTRIES IN

'ROUP )) SOUTHERNCENTRAL !FRICA REGION AND -ADAGASCAR THE GROUP COMPRISES -ADAGASCAR -ALAWI -OZAMBIQUE .AMIBIA :AMBIA AND :IMBABWE 4HE RAINFALL PATTERNSIN THIS GROUP ARE NOT CORRELATED WITH THAT IN THE 3AHEL REGION 4OTAL AMOUNTS ARE SLIGHTLYHIGHER AND THE INTERANNUAL VARIABILITY IS SOMEWHAT LESS 4HERE IS ALSO NO MARKEDNEGATIVE TREND IN RAINFALL ALTHOUGH THE YEARS AFTER AND PARTICULARLY AFTER HAVE BEEN CHARACTERISED BY MARKED PSEUDOPERIODIC mUCTUATIONS WITH PEAKS IN AND AND LOWS IN AND -OST OF THE AREA HAD NOT EXPERIENCED SERIOUSDROUGHT SINCE EXCEPT IN UNTIL IT WAS HIT BY THE DROUGHT WHICHAFFECTED THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE SUMMERCROPPING SEASON 4HE DROUGHTMOST SERIOUSLY AFFECTED THE CENTRE OF THE GROUP WHILE .AMIBIA AND -ADAGASCAR WERERELATIVELY LESS AFFECTED

'ROUP ))) THE SOUTHERN !FRICA REGION THIS GROUP COMPRISES "OTSWANA ,ESOTHO 3OUTH!FRICA AND 3WAZILAND 4HE 3OUTHERN !FRICAN GROUP HAS A RELATIVELY LOW RAINFALL INDEXAND A VARIABILITY THAT EXCEEDS THAT OF THE 3AHEL 4HERE ARE SOME COMMON FEATURESBETWEEN THIS GROUP AND THE 3OUTHERN#ENTRAL !FRICA GROUP &OR EXAMPLE THIS GROUPHAD DRY YEARS IN AND 4HE TWO GROUPS HOWEVER HAVE NOTABLE DIFFERENCES FOR INSTANCE IN AND 4HE COUNTRIES IN THIS GROUP WERE SEVERELYAFFECTED BY THE DROUGHT WHICH WAS THE MOST SEVERE AFTER THE DROUGHTS THE LATTER YEARS HAVING BEEN THE WORST SINCE THE S

'ROUP )6 CENTRAL 'ULF OF 'UINEA COUNTRIES AND 4ANZANIA THIS GROUP COMPRISES "ENIN#TE D)VOIRE 'HANA 4ANZANIA AND 4OGO 4HE BEHAVIOUR OF RAINFALL IN THIS GROUPIS SIMILAR TO WHAT WAS OBSERVED IN THE 3AHEL WITH A SLIGHT DOWNWARD TREND AND ATENDENCY TOWARDS RUNS OF DRY YEARS 4HE LOWEST RAINFALL INDEX WAS RECORDED IN WHICH ALSO AFFECTED THE 3AHEL FOLLOWED BY 4HE GREATEST DIFFERENCES HOWEVER WERE OBSERVED DURING THE S WHEN 'ROUP ))) EXPERIENCED SEVERAL WELL ABOVENORMAL RAINFALL YEARS

'ROUP6 %AST AND7EST 'ULF OF 'UINEA THE GROUP COMPRISES #AMEROON #ENTRAL !FRICAN 2EPUBLIC %QUATORIAL 'UINEA 'ABON 'UINEA ,IBERIA .IGERIA AND 3IERRA ,EONE4HIS IS THE WETTEST 2AINFALL INDEX MM AND ONE OF THE LEAST VARIABLE GROUPSOF COUNTRIES IN THE CONTINENT 4HE NORTHERN HALF OF SEVERAL OF THE COUNTRIES HAS 3AHELIAN FEATURES IN PARTICULAR THE DOWNWARD TREND OR RAINFALL (OWEVER IN CONTRAST TO THE3AHEL THE %AST AND 7EST 'ULF OF 'UINEA COUNTRIES UNDERWENT LESS IRREGULAR RAINFALLALBEIT BELOW NORMAL THAN THE 3AHEL 4HE COUNTRIES IN THIS GROUP DO NOT SUFFER SO SERIOUSLY AS THE ARID COUNTRIES FROM A COMPARABLE REDUCTION IN PRECIPITATION )N THIS GROUPPERIODS OF GOOD AND BAD YEARS TEND TO BE LONGER THAN IN THE 3AHEL

'ROUP6) CENTRALWEST!FRICA THE GROUP IS MADE UP OF!NGOLA #ONGO AND :AIRE 4HISIS THE SECOND WETTEST GROUP RAINFALL INDEX MM 4HE GROUP HAS SHOWN A VERYhSMOOTHv BEHAVIOUR BETWEEN AND WITH A SLIGHT POSITIVE RAINFALLTREND DUE TO A RUN OF WET AND VERY VARIABLE YEARS FROM TO

'ROUP 6)) THE (ORN OF !FRICA AND +ENYA COUNTRIES IN THIS GROUP ARE $JIBOUTI %THIOPIA +ENYA AND 3OMALIA 4HIS AREA INCLUDES SOME OF THE DRIEST PLACES IN THE WORLD4HE TIME SERIES THAT DESCRIBES THE GROUP IS ALMOST UNCORRELATED WITH ANY OF THE ABOVEMENTIONED GROUPS BUT CORRELATES SLIGHTLY WITH NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES OF THE 'REAT,AKES ,OW RAINFALL AND A HIGH VARIABILITY CHARACTERIZE THE GROUP 4HE TIME SERIESDISPLAYS A TYPICAL PSEUDOPERIODIC BEHAVIOUR WITH A CYCLE OF FOUR TO lVE YEARS 4HEREGION AS A WHOLE EXPERIENCED GOOD RAINFALL IN BUT THE LAST RUN OF GOOD YEARS GOESBACK TO "AD YEARS TEND TO HAVE LESS NEGATIVE EFFECT AT THE HIGH ELEVATIONSWHICH CHARACTERIZE CENTRAL %THIOPIA AND PARTS OF +ENYA 4HE YEARS AND WEREPOOR ONES IN PARTS OF THE REGION 3OME PARTS HAVE MORE THAN ONE CROPPING SEASON ANDDROUGHT DOES TYPICALLY AFFECT ONE OF THEM MORE SERIOUSLY THAN THE OTHER 3INCE THE LATES DROUGHT CONDITIONS HAVE CONTINUED TO WORSEN WITH FAMINE REPORTED ACROSS PORTIONS OF +ENYA AND %THIOPIA HTTPWWWNCDCNOAAGOVCLIMATERESEARCH

'ROUP 6))) THE 'REAT ,AKES COUNTRIES 4HESE ARE "URUNDI 2WANDA AND 5GANDA )NTHIS GROUP RAINFALL INDICES ARE HIGH AND NOT VERY VARIABLE 4HE RAINFALL PATTERNS HAVESOME SIMILARITY TO THOSE IN THE (ORN OF!FRICA WITH AN ALMOSTSIGNIlCANT CYCLE OF ABOUT

SEVEN YEARS 4HE REGION RECORDED SOME VERY WET YEARS IN THE EARLY S AND A RUN OFLOW RAINFALL YEARS STARTING IN

#LIMATE #HANGE

4HE ISSUE OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE GAINED PROMINENCE AFTER SCIENTISTS BEGAN OBSERVING A FEW DECADES AGO THAT GREENHOUSE GASES PARTICULARLY CARBON DIOXIDE #/HAD BEEN ACCUMULATING IN THE ATMOSPHERE AS A RESULT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES )T WAS ALSOOBSERVED THAT THE GLOBAL MEAN TEMPERATURE HAD FOR SOME TIME BEEN STEADILY INCREASING AND IS NOW HIGHER THAN THE LATTER PART OF THE LAST CENTURY WHEN OBSERVATIONS BEGAN'LOBAL CONCERN ON THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE WAS TRANSLATED TO INTERNATIONAL ACTIONSTHAT LED TO THE ADOPTION OF THE 5NITED .ATIONS &RAMEWORK #ONVENTION ON #LIMATE#HANGE 5.## AT 5.#%$ HTTPWWWWMOCHCLIMATESGSTATE!GENDA

-ETHANE IS ANOTHER PRINCIPAL GREENHOUSE GAS (ALOCARBONS SUCH AS CHLOROmOUROCARBONS #S AND NITROGEN OXIDES ALSO HAVE GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL %MISSIONSOF GREENHOUSE GASES AND AEROSOLS CONTINUE TO ALTER THE ATMOSPHERE IN WAYS THAT AREEXPECTED TO AFFECT THE CLIMATE 4HE ATMOSPHERIC CONCENTRATION OF #/ HAS INCREASEDBY PER CENT SINCE !BOUT THREE QUARTERS OF THE ANTHROPOGENIC EMISSIONS OF#/ TO THE ATMOSPHERE DURING THE PAST YEARS IS DUE TO FOSSIL FUEL BURNING 4HE RESTIS PREDOMINANTLY DUE TO LAND USE CHANGE ESPECIALLY DEFORESTATION 7-/

!FRICAS FOSSILFUEL #/ EMISSIONS ARE LOW IN BOTH ABSOLUTE AND PER CAPITA TERMS 4OTALEMISSIONS FOR !FRICA HAVE INCREASED BY A FACTOR OF EIGHT SINCE REACHING MILLION METRIC TONS OF CARBON IN STILL LESS THAN THE EMISSIONS FOR SOME SINGLE INDUSTRIAL NATIONS INCLUDING #HINA 'ERMANY )NDIA *APAN 2USSIA AND THE 5NITED 3TATES OF!MERICA !LTHOUGH PER CAPITA EMISSIONS OF METRIC TONS OF CARBON IN WERE TIMES THOSE IN THEY WERE STILL ONLY PER CENT OF THE COMPARABLE VALUE FOR.ORTH !MERICA 3OLID AND LIQUID FUELS CONTRIBUTE ABOUT EQUALLY AND GAS FUELS ACCOUNTFOR ONLY PER CENT OF THE EMISSIONS

/NLY lVE NATIONS ARE LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR !FRICAS REGIONAL EMISSIONS FROM FOSSILFUELS AND CEMENT 3OUTH !FRICA ACCOUNTS FOR PER CENT OF THE CONTINENTAL TOTAL ANDANOTHER PER CENT OF THE #/ COME FROM !LGERIA %GYPT ,IBYA AND .IGERIA COMBINED 4HESE ARE THE ONLY!FRICAN COUNTRIES WITH ANNUAL #/ EMISSIONS IN EXCESS OF MILLION METRIC TONS OF CARBON /NLY ,IBYA METRIC TONS AND 3OUTH !FRICA METRIC TONS HAVE PER CAPITA #/ EMISSIONS HIGHER THAN THE GLOBAL AVERAGE OF METRIC TONS OF CARBON PER YEAR "ASED ON PER CAPITA EMISSION RATES OF THE !FRICAN NATIONS HAVE PER CAPITA EMISSIONS BELOW METRIC TON OF CARBON PER PERSONPER YEAR -ARLAND ET AL

.ATIONAL GREENHOUSE GAS '(' STUDIES CARRIED OUT IN 'HANA +ENYA -ALI AND :IMBABWE DURING THE PERIOD TO REVEALED THAT ALL OF THESE COUNTRIES ARE '('SINKS AND THE RESULTS CONlRMED THE LOW LEVEL OF '(' EMISSIONS OF !FRICAN COUNTRIES%.$! 4HE FORESTRY SECTOR HAD AN ABSORPTION CAPACITY GREATLY SUPERIOR TO THEEMISSIONS FROM ALL THE OTHER SECTORS THIS WAS THE CASE IN ALL THE COUNTRIES STUDIED(OWEVER IT WAS NOTED THAT THE AGRICULTURE SECTOR IN 'HANA AND +ENYA WAS A MAJOR

EMITTER ALONGSIDE THE ENERGY SECTOR IN -ALI AND :IMBABWE -ETHANE WAS THE SECONDMOST COMMON GAS EMITTED IN ALL THE COUNTRIES

#LEAN $EVELOPMENT -ECHANISM

)T IS RECOGNIZED THAT THE PRIMARY MEANS OF ACHIEVING THE OBJECTIVES OF THE 5.##AND ITS +YOTO 0ROTOCOL IS THROUGH ACTIVITIES TO REDUCE EMISSIONS IN THE ENERGY SECTOR)N PRINCIPLE IT IS ACCEPTED THAT INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES CAN ENTER INTO AGREEMENT WITHDEVELOPING COUNTRIES TO IMPLEMENT PROJECTS ON CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM #$-4HE MODALITIES OF THE #$- ARE STILL BEING NEGOTIATED BUT !FRICAN COUNTRIES ARE GENERALLY OF THE VIEW THAT THE PRIMARY MEANS FOR INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES TO ACHIEVE EMISSIONREDUCTION COMMITMENTS UNDER THE +YOTO 0ROTOCOL SHOULD BE THROUGH DOMESTIC ACTION)T SHOULD THEREFORE BE ENSURED THAT PROJECTS PURSUED UNDER THE #$-MUST ASSIST DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN ACHIEVING THEIR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES 0OVERTY IN!FRICA IS A MAJOR HINDRANCE TO THE CONTINENTS ABILITY TO MITIGATE THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATECHANGE AND TO BE ABLE TO IMPLEMENT ADAPTATION MEASURES 0OVERTY REDUCTION THROUGHDEVELOPMENT AND THE TRANSFER AND ADAPTATION OF ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND TECHNOLOGIES TO!FRICA SHOULD THEREFORE BE SEEN AS A KEY OBJECTIVE

3TRATOSPHERIC /ZONE

4HE OZONE LAYER PRESENT IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE PROTECTS MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENTFROM THE HARMFUL EFFECTS OF THE SUNS ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION 4HE HUMAN INDUCED DESTRUCTION OF THE PROTECTIVE OZONE LAYER ALLOWS HARMFUL ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION TO REACH THESURFACE OF THE %ARTH WITH SERIOUS EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH INCLUDING AN INCREASE INEYE CATARACTS AND NONMELANOMA SKIN CANCERS DAMAGE TO THE GENETIC $.! AND SUPPRESSION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM 4HESE CONCERNS LED TO INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS THAT CULMINATED IN THE ADOPTION OF THE #ONVENTION ON THE 0ROTECTION OF THE /ZONE ,AYER IN6IENNA !USTRIA IN ITS -ONTREAL 0ROTOCOL IN AND LATER AMENDMENTS TOTHE 0ROTOCOL IN ,ONDON 5+ IN AND #OPENHAGEN $ENMARK IN /ZONEDEPLETION IS CLOSELY LINKED TO CLIMATE CHANGE MANY OF THE SAME GASES THAT CAUSE OZONEDEPLETION ALSO CONTRIBUTE TO CLIMATE CHANGE ! MAJOR ISSUE IS THAT THE STRATOSPHERE WILLMOST PROBABLY COOL IN RESPONSE TO ACTIONS RELATED TO CLIMATE CHANGE THEREFORE PRESERVING OVER A LONGERTIME PERIOD THE CONDITIONS THAT PROMOTE CHLORINECAUSED OZONEDEPLETION IN THE LOWER STRATOSPHERE PARTICULARLY IN POLAR REGIONS 7-/

4HE OBSERVATION OF HIGHLY ELEVATED LEVELS OF TROPOSPHERIC OZONE / IN SOME TROPICALREGIONS PARTICULARLY OVER THE SOUTHERN TROPICAL !TLANTIC /CEAN BETWEEN 3OUTH!MERICAAND!FRICA LED TO THE HYPOTHESIS THAT BIOMASS BURNING EMISSIONS AND SUBSEQUENT PHOTOCHEMICAL PROCESSES MAY PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY OVER A LARGEREGION OF THE %ARTH 4HIS WAS SUPPORTED BY SPACEBORNE OBSERVATIONS WHICH SHOWEDTHE OBSERVED OZONE ENRICHMENT TO COINCIDE GEOGRAPHICALLY WITH REGIONS OF ELEVATEDCARBON MONOXIDE #/ CONCENTRATIONS SUCH AS 3OUTH !FRICA WHERE SAVANNAH lRES AREFREQUENT )NTERNATIONAL &OREST &IRE .EWS )&&.

)MPACTS6ULNERABILITY AND !DAPTATION TO #LIMATE #HANGE

)MPACTS AND 6ULNERABILITY

4HE NOTION OF CLIMATE CHANGE CAN BE EQUATED TO CHANGES IN THE FREQUENCY LOCATION ANDINTENSITY OF WEATHERRELATED DISASTERS 3TUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT CLIMATE CHANGE IS LIKELYTO DECREASE STREAM mOW AND GROUNDWATER RECHARGE IN MANY WATERSTRESSED COUNTRIES IN3OUTHERN!FRICA AND AROUND THE -EDITERRANEAN 3EA -OST STUDIES SUGGEST THAT INCREASEOF A FEW DEGREES CENTIGRADE WOULD CAUSE FOOD PRICES TO INCREASE LOWER THE INCOMES OFVULNERABLE POPULATIONS INCREASE THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE AT RISK OF HUNGER AND POSSIBLYWORSEN FOOD SECURITY IN!FRICA .ATURAL SYSTEMS SUCH AS CORALS MANGROVES FORESTS ANDNATURAL GRASSLANDS ARE AT RISK FROM CLIMATE CHANGE

3OCIETIES IN!FRICA HAVE BEEN ADVERSELY AFFECTED BY REDUCTION IN CROP YIELDS DECREASEDWATER AVAILABILITY GREATER EXPOSURE TO VECTOR AND WATER BORNE DISEASES AND INCREASEDmOODING !DVERSE CHANGES IN SEASONAL RIVER mOWS mOODS AND DROUGHTS FOOD SECURITYlSHERIES HEALTH EFFECTS AND LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY ARE AMONG THE MAJOR REGIONAL VULNERABILITIES AND CONCERNS OF !FRICA 7-/ 4HE ABILITY TO COPE WITH THE CONSEQUENCES WILL RELY HEAVILY ON THE ABILITY TO ASSESS HOW AND WHERE WEATHER AND CLIMATEPATTERNS ARE LIKELY TO CHANGE TO PREDICT THE CONTINUOUS mUCTUATIONS IN RISK AND VULNERABILITY TO COMMUNITIES AND TO DEVELOP ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES THAT WILL INCREASE COMMUNITY RESILIENCE 7-/ *ANUARY

!LL REGIONS ARE LIKELY TO EXPERIENCE THE ADVERSE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE BUT SMALLISLAND SWATHES AND LOWLYING COASTAL AREAS ARE PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE #OASTAL SETTLEMENTS IN FOR EXAMPLE THE 'ULF OF 'UINEA 3ENEGAL AND %GYPT AND ALONG THE %AST AND3OUTHERN !FRICAN COAST WOULD BE ADVERSELY AFFECTED BY SEALEVEL RISE THROUGH mOODINGAND COASTAL EROSION 0!.! )T IS BELIEVED THAT THERE MAY BE SIGNIlCANT EXTINCTION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN !FRICA DURING THE NEW CENTURY AS A RESULT OF GLOBAL WARMING WHICH WILL INCREASE POVERTY BY IMPACTING ON RURAL LIVELIHOODS AND TOURISM 0!.!

%XAMPLES OF )NNOVATIONS TO !DAPT TO #LIMATE #HANGE

4HE ESTABLISHMENT OF IMPROVED EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS AND THE TRANSFER OF NEW ANDIMPROVED TECHNOLOGIES COULD HELP!FRICA BETTER ADAPT TO THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE3OLAR WIND AND BIOGAS ENERGY ARE BEING USED IN SMALLSCALE PROJECTS CONTINENTWIDEWITH PROMISING RESULTS &OR EXAMPLE IN RURAL :IMBABWE BIOGAS UNITS USING CATTLE DUNGARE PRODUCING FUEL FOR NEARBY COMMUNITIES

$ESERTIlCATION HAS SPARKED A RANGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND FORESTRY MANAGEMENT CHANGESIN .IGER FARMERS WITH ACCESS TO CREDIT ARE SETTING UP LOWCOST TECHNOLOGIES TO COMBATWIND EROSION INCLUDING WIND BREAKERS MULCHING AND ROCK BONDS )N 3ENEGAL AND"URKINA &ASO LOCALS HAVE IMPROVED THEIR REGIONAL CLIMATES BY USING TRADITIONAL PRUNING AND FERTILISING TECHNIQUES TO DOUBLE TREE DENSITIES IN SEMIARID AREAS 4HESE HELPIN HOLDING SOILS TOGETHER AND REVERSING DESERTIlCATION 3IMILAR COMMUNITY INITIATEDPROJECTS IN -ADAGASCAR AND :IMBABWE HAVE BEEN ACCLAIMED SUCCESSES

2EGIONAL SCALE COOPERATION SUCH AS SHARED WATERCOURSES IS IMPORTANT 3EVERAL AGREEMENTS HAVE BEEN NEGOTIATED AND SOME ARE ALREADY WORKING /THER COOPERATIVE mOODPLANNING ENVISAGES USING ONE COUNTRY TO STORE SOME OF A RIVERS mOODWATERS REDUCINGTHE mOOD PEAK AND POTENTIAL DISASTERS IN COUNTRIES DOWNSTREAM 0!.!

)6 .!452!, $)3!34%23

)NTRODUCTION

4HE GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF SOME COMMUNITIES MAKES THEM MORE VULNERABLE TOEXTREME WEATHER AND CLIMATE EVENTS (OWEVER THE EXTENT TO WHICH AN EXTREME EVENTRESULTS IN DISASTROUS EVENTS DEPENDS ON THE COMMUNITYS ABILITY TO PLAN AND TAKE PROTECTIVE MEASURES !FRICA BEING A POOR CONTINENT IS VERY VULNERABLE TO CLIMATE AND WEATHEREXTREMES THAT MORE OFTEN THAN NOT RESULT IN DISASTROUS EVENTS

$ROUGHT

$ISASTERS CAUSED BY DROUGHT ARE EXACERBATED BY DIVERSE FACTORS SUCH AS POOR AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES INCREASE IN POPULATION DENSITY AND A COUNTRYS INABILITY TO PROVIDEALTERNATIVE SUPPLIES OF FOOD WATER AND EMPLOYMENT (OWEVER THE DEVELOPMENT OFLONGLEAD SEASONAL CLIMATE FORECASTS CAN IMPROVE EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS SO THAT THEOCCURRENCE OF DROUGHT WILL NOT BE SUCH A SHOCK TO COMMUNITIES )N !FRICA WHEREECONOMIES ARE MAINLY TIED TO AGRICULTURE DROUGHT OCCURRENCES HAVE RESULTED IN MASSSTARVATION FAMINE AND HAVE SEVERELY AFFECTED ECONOMIC ACTIVITY 7-/

$ROUGHT STRUCK NORTHWESTERN!FRICA AND THE -IDDLE %AST DURING )N THE NORTHWESTOF !FRICA WELLBELOWNORMAL RAINFALL WAS RECORDED ACROSS THE REGION DURING THE PERIODS FROM *ANUARY TO EARLY &EBRUARY AND FROM LATE -ARCH TO -AY ADDING TO LONGTERMMOISTURE DElCITS THROUGHOUT MUCH OF -OROCCO !LGERIA AND 4UNISIA THAT HAD STARTED IN.OVEMBER "Y MID&EBRUARY DAMS IN -OROCCO HELD ONLY PER CENT OFCAPACITY ,ESS THAN PER CENT OF NORMAL PRECIPITATION WAS MEASURED FROM .OVEMBER TO *UNE ACROSS NORTHERN AND WESTERN -OROCCO CENTRAL 4UNISIA ANDMUCH OF CENTRAL AND NORTHEASTERN!LGERIA ,ONGTERM SHORTAGES REMAINED UNTIL SURPLUS.OVEMBER AND $ECEMBER PRECIPITATION FELL OVER MOST OF THE REGION 7-/ #ASABLANCA -OROCCO RECEIVED MM COMPARED TO NORMAL ANNUAL VALUES OF MM AND MM RESPECTIVELY (OWEVER IN DROUGHT IN -OROCCO LEFT THE COUNTRYS RESERVOIRS AT HALF THEIR NORMAL CAPACITY

3INCE THE DROUGHT THAT WREAKED HAVOC WITH MOST ECONOMIES OF SOUTHERN!FRICA RECOVERY HAS BEEN RATHER SLOW !FTER A SHORT RESPITE DURING THE RAINYSEASON THERE HAS BEEN A VIRTUAL PERSISTENCE OF DROUGHT IN SYMPATHY WITH %.3/ &ORINSTANCE THERE WAS A PER CENT FALL IN THE CORN HARVEST IN COMPARED TOTHE SEASON YIELD AS MOST COUNTRIES IN THE REGION SUFFERED A CLIMATICALLYUNFAVOURABLE GROWING SEASON 4HE DROUGHT RETURNED IN EARNEST IN THE RAINYSEASON 3EVERAL RAINFALL DElCITS OVER MOST OF THE SUBREGION RESULTED IN EXTENSIVECROP FAILURES IN 3WAZILAND SOUTHERN :AMBIA AND PARTS OF :IMBABWE AND 3OUTH !FRICA#ONSEQUENTLY NATIONAL DROUGHT EMERGENCIES WERE DECLARED IN ,ESOTHO "OTSWANA.AMIBIA 3WAZILAND :AMBIA AND :IMBABWE 4HE DROUGHT RELENTED IN THE SEASON EXCEPT IN PARTS OF .AMIBIA 'OOD RAINS STARTED IN NORTHERN AND EASTERN 3OUTH!FRICA 3WAZILAND ,ESOTHO PARTS OF "OTSWANA AND :IMBABWE IN $ECEMBER PROGRESSING NORTHWARDS TO REACH %THIOPIA IN -ARCH !S A RESULT THERE WAS A TREMENDOUS RECOVERY IN GRAIN OUTPUT ACROSS MOST OF SOUTHERN !FRICA 7-/

)N THE GREATER (ORN OF !FRICA THE YEAR WAS THE THIRD CONSECUTIVE YEAR OF BELOWNORMAL RAINFALL 4HIS AGGRAVATED EXISTING DROUGHT CONDITIONS OVER MUCH OF THE AREARESULTING IN SEVERE FOOD SHORTAGES 4ENS OF MILLIONS OF PEOPLE WERE AFFECTED BY THISDROUGHT %SPECIALLY HARD HIT WERE %THIOPIA PARTS OF $JIBOUTI %RITREA +ENYA 3OMALIAAND 4ANZANIA 7-/ 4HE FAILURE OF THE RAINS IN THE -ARCH -AY PERIODWAS ASSOCIATED WITH ,A .INA CONDITIONS AND CYCLONE ACTIVITY IN THE )NDIAN /CEAN0ARTS OF EASTERN %THIOPIA NORTHERN AND SOUTHWESTERN +ENYA AS WELL AS THE NORTHWESTOF 4ANZANIA EXPERIENCED THE DRIEST CONDITIONS ON RECORD SINCE DURING THE USUALPEAK RAINFALL MONTH OF !PRIL 3IMILARLY SOME PARTS OF SOUTHERN %THIOPIA EXPERIENCEDTHE DRIEST CONDITIONS ON RECORD SINCE DURING THE *UNE!UGUST PERIOD 7-/

$ROUGHT 0REPAREDNESS AND -ITIGATION

)N THE PAST THE RESPONSE OF GOVERNMENTS AND THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY TO A DROUGHTHAS BEEN TO PROVIDE FOOD AID AND FAMINE RELIEF (OWEVER IT IS NOW BELIEVED THAT THEMOST EFFECTIVE WAY OF MANAGING DROUGHT IS TO STRENGTHEN THE CAPACITY OF LOCAL COMMUNITIES TO PLAN DEVELOP AND MANAGE THEIR OWN DROUGHT RESPONSE STRATEGIES BY DEVELOPING DROUGHT PREPAREDNESS AND MITIGATION PROGRAMMES )T IS ESSENTIAL TO DECENTRALIZETHESE PROGRAMMES FOR A RAPID RESPONSE 'REATER COORDINATION AND COHERENCE IS THEREFORE REQUIRED AT LOCAL DISTRICT NATIONAL AND REGIONAL LEVELS HTTPWWWUNDPORGSEEDUNSOPROG

7-/ AND THE /FlCE TO #OMBAT $ESERTIlCATION AND $ROUGHT 5.3/ 5.$0 HAVEJOINTLY SPONSORED TRAINING SEMINARS ON DROUGHT PREPAREDNESS AND MANAGEMENT IN7EST!FRICA AND IN THE -AGHREB REGION .ATIONAL DROUGHT MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES HAVEBEEN DEVELOPED FOR EXAMPLE IN %THIOPIA +ENYA :IMBABWE AND ,ESOTHO AND INITIATEDIN -OZAMBIQUE AND 3WAZILAND !T THE SUBREGIONAL LEVEL DISASTER MITIGATION STRATEGYIS BEING PREPARED FOR %AST!FRICA AND 3OUTH!FRICAN $EVELOPMENT #OMMUNITY 3!$#WILL ALSO BE DEVELOPING A DROUGHT PREPAREDNESS STRATEGY FOR THE REGION WITH SUPPORT OF5.3/

4HE INTEGRATION OF DROUGHT PREPAREDNESS ANDMITIGATION $0- PROGRAMMES IN NATIONALACTION PLANS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE 5.##$ IS ALSO BEING SUPPORTED BY 5.3/5.$0 AND 7-/ 5.$0 !T TWO SEPARATE MEETINGS HELD IN RELATED TOCOPING WITH DROUGHT IN!FRICA PARTICIPANTS INCLUDING FARMER REPRESENTATIVES AND POLICYMAKERS AGREED ON THE NEED TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY TIMELINESS AND RELEVANCE OF CLIMATEINFORMATION PRODUCTS FOR USE BY FARMERS 4HE NEED TO BASE CLIMATE INFORMATION ONUSER NEEDS WAS STRESSED AS WELL AS THE NEED TO PROVIDE THE INFORMATION IN FORMS ANDLANGUAGE UNDERSTANDABLE TO ENDUSERS 5.$0

$ROUGHT MONITORING CENTRES SUPPORTED BY 7-/ IN +ENYA AND :IMBABWE PROVIDESTIMELY WARNINGS AND GUIDANCE TO DECISIONMAKERS AND FARMERS 4HE !FRICAN #ENTREOF -ETEOROLOGICAL !PPLICATIONS FOR $EVELOPMENT !'(29-%4 IN .IAMEY .IGERMONITORS THE DROUGHT SITUATION IN !FRICA AND ISSUES TIMELY ADVICE TO ASSIST GOVERNMENTS IN HELPING THE AFFECTED POPULATIONS HTTPWWWWMOCHCLIMATEWMODROUGHTDESERTIlCATIONPRESS

)N ORDER TO MITIGATE THE EFFECTS OF DROUGHTS BROUGHT ABOUT BY %L .INO PHENOMENA IN GOVERNMENTS IN 3OUTHERN !FRICA ENCOURAGED FARMERS TO PLANT DROUGHTRESISTANTCROPS AS EARLY AS POSSIBLE AND TO ADOPT BETTER WATER CONSERVATION METHODS /THER CONTINGENCY PLANS INCLUDED THE DISTRIBUTION OF SEED PACKS AND INPUTS AND CONSERVATION OFFOOD STOCKS &OOD AND !GRICULTURE /RGANIZATION &!/

)N .AMIBIA A DROUGHT MANAGEMENT PLAN WAS PREPARED FOR THE LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR INORDER TO MITIGATE THE EFFECTS OF %L .INO 4HE PLAN INCLUDED ANTICIPATORY MANAGEMENTDROUGHT CRISIS MANAGEMENT AND DROUGHT AFTERCARE 7ITH REGARDS TO ANTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT HEEDING EARLY WARNING SERVICES WAS CONSIDERED VERY IMPORTANT $ESTOCKINGGRAZING LIVESTOCK IS CONSIDERED AN EFlCIENT WAY OF MANAGING DROUGHT CRISIS HTTPWWWGEOCITIESCOMAGRDROUGHT

3TORMS AND &LOOD (AZARDS

3TORMS OF ALL SCALES ABSORB AND CONVERT HUGE AMOUNTS OF ENERGY AND MOISTURE WHICHCAN HAVE SIGNIlCANT CONSEQUENCES 4HESE CAN BE BENElCIAL FOR EXAMPLE THE DELIVERYOF RAINFALL TO END A DROUGHT OR THE REMOVAL OF HIGHLY POLLUTED AIR (OWEVER THEY AREMORE DETRIMENTAL TO SOCIETY

4HE SOUTHERN PORTION OF THE )NDIAN /CEAN EXPERIENCED NOT LESS THAN lVE TROPICAL STORMSTHAT CAUSED DEVASTATING mOODS IN THE EASTERN PARTS OF THE SOUTHERN!FRICA REGION IN ALONE "OX /F ALL NATURAL DISASTERS mOODS PRODUCE SOME OF THE HIGHEST DEATH TOLLSAND MATERIAL DAMAGE 'LOBALLY DURING mOODS COMPRISED ABOUT PER CENTOF THE MAJOR NATURAL DISASTERS KILLING MORE THAN PEOPLE AND CAUSING NEARLY 53 MILLION WORTH OF DAMAGE

&LOODS ARE CAUSED BY A VARIETY OF FACTORS NOT ALL OF WHICH ARE METEOROLOGICAL 4OPOGRAPHY AND THE HYDROLOGICAL CAPACITY OF THE SUBSOIL HAVE CONSIDERABLE INmUENCE )NMANY CASES ANTHROPOGENIC CHANGES TO THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS DEFORESTATIONBUILDING OF DAMS AND DIKES OR STRENGTHENING OF RIVERS AGGRAVATES THE EFFECTS 3OMETIMES mOODING IS INDUCED BY STORM SURGES FROM THE SEAS WHICH WHEN ENTERINGLOWLYING COASTAL REGIONS ARE EXTREMELY DESTRUCTIVE ESPECIALLY WHERE THESE REGIONSARE DENSELY POPULATED &LOODING IS OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH CYCLONES HURRICANES ANDTYPHOONS OR LONG PERIODS OF CONTINUOUS HEAVY MONSOONAL RAIN

-ANY PARTS OF 3OUTH !FRICA AS WELL AS 3WAZILAND ,ESOTHO 3OUTHERN "OTSWANA #ENTRAL :IMBABWE .ORTHERN -OZAMBIQUE AND 3OUTHERN -ALAWI RECEIVED TORRENTIAL RAINS TO MM IN ONE WEEK DURING $ECEMBER ,OCALLY SEVERE mOODS PLAGUEDTHE REGION (EAVY RAINS OVER +WAZULU.ATAL ESPECIALLY IN THE THREE DAYS PRECEDING#HRISTMAS OF CONTRIBUTED TO THE 5MSUNDUZE 2IVER BURSTING ITS BANKS IN A mASHmOOD ON #HRISTMAS %VE !T LEAST PEOPLE DROWNED WHEN SETTLEMENTS IN LOWLYINGAREAS NEAR 0IETERMARITZBURG WERE SWEPT AWAY

)N HEAVY mOODING WAS AGAIN REPORTED IN +WAZULU.ATAL 4HE mOODING RESULTEDIN SOME DEATHS AND THE DISRUPTION OF HARBOUR AND AIRPORT OPERATIONS AND TELEVISIONRECEPTION HTTPWWWSOUTHAFRICACOZADAILY?NEWSOCTOBER

)N PARTS OF THE REGION FROM -ADAGASCAR INTO -OZAMBIQUE AND :IMBABWE SOUTHWARD INTO NORTHEASTERN 3OUTH !FRICA HAD HEAVY RAINFALL FROM SEVERAL TROPICAL SYSTEMS4HE STORMS BROUGHT HEAVY mOODING TO PARTS OF THE AREA HTTPWWWNCDCNOAAGOVCLIMATERESEARCH )N :IMBABWE AT LEAST PEOPLE WERE KILLED AND WERELEFT HOMELESS HTTPWWWMGCOZMGNEWSFEB ,OSS OF LIFE DISPLACEMENT OFPEOPLE AND EXTENSIVE DAMAGE TO INFRASTRUCTURE AND AGRICULTURE WERE ALSO RECORDED FOR-OZAMBIQUE "OTSWANA 3WAZILAND AND 3OUTH!FRICA HTTPWWWFAOORG7!)#%.4FAOINFOECONOMICGIEWS )N &EBRUARY HEAVY mOODS RESULTED IN THE DISPLACEMENTOF AT LEAST PEOPLE IN -ALAWI AND IN -OZAMBIQUE SOME TOWNS ALONG THE :AMBEZI 2IVER VALLEY WERE CUT OFF BY THE mOODWATER !LL TOGETHER NEARLY A MILLION PEOPLEHAVE HAD THEIR LIVES DISRUPTED BY SEVERE mOODS IN THE SOUTHERN !FRICA REGION &!/

"ETWEEN &EBRUARY TO !PRIL RAINFALL TOTALS WERE NEARLY DOUBLE THE NORMAL IN EASTERN %THIOPIA SOUTHERN +ENYA SOUTHERN 5GANDA AND NORTHERN 4ANZANIA 4HE WORSTmOODS IN YEARS OCCURRED IN THIS REGION DURING THE AND %L .INO PERIOD)N SOME PARTS OF +ENYA RAINFALL TOTALS MM ABOVE NORMAL WERE OBSERVED FOR EXAMPLE THE SWOLLEN 4ANA 2IVER LEFT THOUSANDS HOMELESS DISRUPTED TRANSPORTATIONAND CAUSED EXTENSIVE PROPERTY DAMAGE IN EASTERN +ENYA -AJOR mOODING IN SOUTHERN3OMALIA ALONG THE *UBA AND 3HABELE 2IVERS CLAIMED AN ESTIMATED LIVES AND FORCEDHUNDREDS OF THOUSANDS OF INHABITANTS FROM THEIR HOMES HTTPWWWWMOCHCLIMATE

$URING EARLY THE SOUTHWESTERN PORTION OF THE )NDIAN /CEAN WAS A VERYACTIVE REGION OF lVE TROPICAL CYCLONES THAT BROUGHT UNTOLD HARDSHIPS TO -ADAGASCAR AND SEVERAL SOUTHERN !FRICA STATES #YCLONES $AISY MID*ANUARY AND'ERALDA EARLY &EBRUARY TRAVERSED THE SOUTHERN AND CENTRAL PORTIONS OF -ADAGASCAR 4HE LATTER CYCLONE REPORTEDLY LEFT A HALF MILLION HOMELESS AND CAUSEDTHE LOSS OF MORE THAN LIVES MM OF RAIN FELL AND WINDS REACHED KMH 'ERALDA WAS DESCRIBED AS THE hCYCLONE OF THE #ENTURYv BECAUSE OF THEEXTREME DEVASTATION IT EXERTED ON THE %AST COAST )N -ARCH #YCLONE .ADIAWITH SUSTAINED WINDS OF KMH CLAIMED A DOZEN LIVES AS IT CROSSED THENORTHERN TIP OF THE ISLAND !FTER CROSSING THE -OZAMBIQUE #HANNEL .ADIA WENTINTO NORTHERN -OZAMBIQUE WHERE MORE THAN LIVES WERE LOST AND MORE THANA MILLION PEOPLE WERE LEFT HOMELESS 4HE INTENSE RAINS ASSOCIATED WITH THE lVETROPICAL SYSTEMS TOTALLED PERCENT OF NORMAL FOR THE *ANUARY TO -ARCHPERIOD THROUGHOUT MUCH OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN -ADAGASCAR

$URING THE SAME YEAR .OVEMBER SOME %GYPTIAN HARBOURS WERE CLOSEDAND CONVOYS IN THE 3UEZ #ANAL DELAYED DUE TO A SERIES OF STORMS THAT MOVEDACROSS THE -IDDLE %AST

)N OTHER DEVASTATING CYCLONES SUCH AS %LINE 'LORIA AND (UDAH AGAINSTRUCK -ADAGASCAR AND THIS TIME -OZAMBIQUE AND PARTS OF SOUTHERN !FRICACAUSING SEVERE mOODING AND LOSS OF LIFE BETWEEN &EBRUARY AND !PRIL 7-/ )N :IMBABWE POWER AND PHONE LINES WERE CUT AND CROPS AND VILLAGEGRANARIES WASHED AWAY4HE ,IMPOPO 2IVER WAS AT ITS HIGHEST LEVEL IN YEARSHTTPWWWMGCOZAMGNEWSFEB

"OX %XAMPLES OF DEVASTATIONS FROM CYCLONES AND STORMS

WMOSTATEMENT HTTPWWWWMOORGCLIMATE%L.INO !FTER EXPERIENCING RECORDDROUGHT CONDITIONS IN THE EARLY PART OF FROM /CTOBER TO $ECEMBER THERE WASHEAVY RAINFALL IN THE WEST AND SOME PARTS OF EASTERN 5GANDA AND THE SOUTHERN PART OF4ANZANIA HAD THE WETTEST CONDITIONS ON RECORD SINCE FOR THE MONTHS OF /CTOBERAND $ECEMBER 4HIS SPILLED OVER TO *ANUARY WITH PARTS OF SOUTHERN CENTRAL ANDWESTERN +ENYA AS WELL AS 5GANDA EXPERIENCING mOODING 7-/

%XTREME RAINFALL ALSO OCCURRED IN .IGER "ENIN AND %THIOPIA IN !UGUST CAUSINGmASH mOODS WITH HIGH LOSSES 3TORMY WEATHER AND HEAVY RAIN HIT MANY AREAS IN %GYPTTHE 3INAI 0ENINSULA AND 3OMALIA IN .OVEMBER &OR THESE ARID AREAS WHERE THEMEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION TOTALS AMOUNT TO TO MM AND MOST YEARS ARE COMPLETELYDRY THIS WAS AN EXCEPTIONAL EVENT -ORE THAN PEOPLE DIED WHEN LARGE AREAS WEREINUNDATED &LOOD SURGES MENACED THE ANCIENT TOMBS IN ,UXOR &LASH mOODS AND DEVASTATING MUDSLIDES WERE REPORTED FROM BOTH 3OUTHERN 'HANA AND SOUTHWESTERN -OROCCOAFTER TORRENTIAL RAIN IN *ULY AND !UGUST .EAR !mOU NORTHERN !LGERIA PEOPLEDIED WHEN A BRIDGE COLLAPSED ON /CTOBER AFTER HEAVY RAINS 7-/

)N THE 3AHELIAN REGION AS A WHOLE RAINFALL APPEARED TO RETURN TO NEAR NORMAL AFTER A LONGPERIOD OF SUBNORMAL VALUES )N 7EST !FRICA THE WET SEASON RECEIVED THE HIGHESTAMOUNT OF RAINFALL IN YEARS WITH mOODING IN .IGER LEAVING MORE THAN HOMELESS 7-/ 4HIS PATTERN CONTINUED TO THE END OF THE S $URING AND %L .INOENHANCED TORRENTIAL RAINS CAUSED SIGNIlCANT mOODS 4HE RAINY SEASON INTHE 3AHEL BEGAN LATE BUT ENDED WITH HIGHERTHANNORMAL RAINFALL ACROSS MUCH OF THEREGION AND mOODS WERE ALSO RECORDED IN 3UDAN )N THE *ULY TO /CTOBER RAINY SEASONPERIOD HEAVY RAINS AND mASH mOODS WREAKED HAVOC IN PARTS OF WESTERN !FRICA 4HOUSANDS WERE LEFT HOMELESS HUNDREDS DEAD AND THERE WAS EXTENSIVE PROPERTY DAMAGEACROSS LARGE AREAS HTTPWWWWMOCLIMATE )N *ULY HEAVY RAINS IN THECOASTAL AREAS OF 'HANA INCLUDING THE CAPITAL !CCRA PROVOKED mOODS AND WATER LOGGING PEOPLE WERE AFFECTED AND SERIOUSLY SO AND WERE TEMPORALLY DISPLACED3OME ROADS AND BRIDGES WERE DAMAGED AND DUE TO LACK OF CLEAN WATER SOURCES mOODPOSED HEALTH THREATS SUCH AS CHOLERA DIARRHOEA AND TYPHOID "Y THE TIME WEATHER CONDITIONS IMPROVED PEOPLE WERE REPORTED DEAD HTTPWWWCIDIORGDISASTER

&OREST AND7ILD &IRES

"USH lRES ARE MOSTLY DUE TO HUMAN ACTIVITIES BUT ARE TO A LESSER EXTENT CAUSED BY LIGHTNING "URNING OF BUSH IS AN AGEOLD PRACTICE EMPLOYED BY MAN TO BOOST YIELDS IN THECROP AND LIVESTOCK SUBSECTORS AS WELL AS IN GAME HUNTING &ARMERS USE SLASH AND BURNTECHNIQUES WHICH THEY CONSIDER ESSENTIAL FOR A GOOD CROP WITH MINIMUM LABOUR (ERDERS SET lRE TO BUSH BECAUSE IT IS BELIEVED THAT THE REGROWTH OR YOUNG OFFSHOOTS ARE MOREPALATABLE AND CONTAIN MORE NUTRIENTS (UNTERS SET lRES TO DRIVE OUT GAME TO MORE OPENAREAS SO THAT THEY BECOME EASY TARGETS )&&.

#LIMATIC FACTORS ESPECIALLY RAINFALL VEGETATION AND WIND SPEED PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLEIN BUSH BURNING 7EATHER EXTREMES AND RAINFALL VARIABILITY MAKE THE NATURAL VEGETATIONVULNERABLE TO WILDlRES 7HERE THE WET SEASON IS SHORT AND WHERE POTENTIAL EVAPORATION EXCEEDS RAINFALL FOR MOST OF THE YEAR THE NATURAL VEGETATION BECOMES VULNERABLETO BUSHlRES /THER CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDE HIGH WIND SPEED AND HIGH DEMAND FOR GRAZ

ING LAND 4HE NEED FOR FRESH GREEN GRASS IS AN INCENTIVE FOR HERDERS TO BURN OFF DRYGRASS FOR MORE PALATABLE PASTURE )&&. 4HUS BUSH lRES ARE MORE EXTENSIVE INTHE 3AHEL AND SAVANNAH REGIONS )&&. )N 3AHELIAN COUNTRIES THE TIMING OFlRES COINCIDES WITH THE (ARMATTAN WINDS WHICH CARRY HOT DRY CONTINENTAL AIR FROM THE3AHARA DESERT AND WHICH DRY OUT THE HERBACEOUS VEGETATION LAYER THEREBY SUPPLYING AREADY SOURCE OF FUEL

)N 3OUTH !FRICA APART FROM HUMAN INDUCED lRES DUE TO AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES UNCONTROLLED lRES HAVE LARGELY BEEN ATTRIBUTED TO ARSON 3EVERAL MAJOR FOREST lRES AND BUSHlRES OCCUR IN 3OUTH !FRICA "ETWEEN AND BUSHlRES BROKE OUT REPEATEDLYAND PARTICULARLY IN WHEN A MASSIVE LOSS OF LIVESTOCK WAS REPORTED IN ADDITIONTO CONSIDERABLE PROPERTY DAMAGE 7-/ )N lRES DESTROYED ABOUT HA OF PLANTATIONS IN THE PROCESS DESTROYING A WHOLE RURAL SETTLEMENT )&&. )N,ESOTHO ON THE OTHER HAND BUSHlRES ARE GENERALLY CHARACTERIZED BY LOW INTENSITY 4HEREASON BEING THAT THE INTENSITY OF GRAZING BY LIVESTOCK IS SO HIGH THAT GERMINATED VEGETATION IS BROWSED IMMEDIATELY AND NO ACCUMULATION OF MATERIAL TAKES PLACE 4HEREFORE BECAUSE OF LACK OF FUELS EXTENSIVE lRES ARE NOT POSSIBLE )&&.

)N 'HANA SERIOUS BUSHlRES WERE EXPERIENCED DURING THE 3AHELIAN DROUGHT OF AND AGAIN IN THE PERIOD !VAILABLE DATA ON THE BUSHlRESIN ALL THE COUNTRYS ECOLOGICAL ZONES SHOWED THAT THE 'UINEA AND 3UDAN SAVANNAH AREASUFFERED THE MOST IN TERMS OF LOSS OF VEGETATION STANDING CROPS FARMS WILDLIFE HABITAT HUMAN LIVES AND PROPERTY )&&. )N #OTE D)VOIRE THE GOVERNMENT REGARDSBUSHlRE AND FOREST lRES AS A SERIOUS NATIONAL DISASTER SINCE THE DROUGHT OF )NTHAT YEAR WILDlRES DESTROYED MORE THAN HA OF FORESTS AND HA OF COFFEEAND COCOA PLANTATIONS "ETWEEN AND WILDlRES DESTROYED HOMES OF MORETHAN PEOPLE AND KILLED PEOPLE )&&. )N THE #ENTRAL !FRICAN 2EPUBLIC SOIL EROSION ON THE HILLS AROUND THE CAPITAL "ANGUI HAS BEEN LINKED TO CULTIVATIONAND INTENSIVE BURNING 4HE DEPOSITION OF ACID RAIN OVER THE FORESTS DOWNWIND OF THECOUNTRYS SAVANNAHS HAS ALSO BEEN LINKED TO BURNING )&&.

)N ORDER TO PREVENT THE DETRIMENTAL ECOLOGICAL SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF BUSHlRES MOST GOVERNMENTS IN !FRICA HAVE TAKEN A NUMBER OF MEASURES TO PREVENT ANDMANAGE BUSHlRES 4HESE INCLUDE ENACTMENT OF ANTIBUSHlRE LEGISLATION SETTING UPBUSHlRE MANAGEMENT COMMITTEES EDUCATION AND SENSITISATION CAMPAIGNS TRAINING ANDCAPACITYBUILDING PROGRAMMES FOR PROFESSIONALS AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES )&&.

%ARLY WARNING SYSTEMS ARE USED IN A NUMBER OF COUNTRIES FOR EXAMPLE 3ENEGAL TOALERT GOVERNMENT AUTHORITIES AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF BUSHlRES FORAPPROPRIATE AND TIMELY INTERVENTIONS )&&. ! COMPUTERISED lRE DETECTIONSYSTEM CONTROLLED BY A HUMAN OPERATOR WAS INTRODUCED IN 3OUTH !FRICA IN 4HESYSTEM WAS DESIGNED TO BE INSTALLED IN REMOTE AREAS FOR EARLY DETECTION OF FOREST WIRESTO ENSURE TIMELY RESPONSE

3UBREGIONAL COOPERATION IS EQUALLY IMPORTANT IN PREVENTING AND MANAGING BUSHlRESESPECIALLY FOR COUNTRIES THAT SHARE THE SAME BASIN )N THE CONTEXT OF SHARED BASINS#ENTRE 3UIVI %COLOGIQUE #3% IN 3ENEGAL AND &OREST AUTHORITIES 'UINEA HAVE BEENENGAGED IN A TRIAL PROGRAMME AIMED AT RAISING AWARENESS OF THE PROBLEMS POSED BY

BUSHlRES )&&. )N THE 3!$# REGION A PROPOSAL ON COOPERATIVE lRE MANAGEMENT WAS MADE AND RECOMMENDATIONS AND PROJECT PROPOSALS FOR OPERATIONALIZATION OFA REGIONAL FOREST lRE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM WERE DRAWN UP IN

6OLCANIC $ISASTERS

6OLCANOES IN !FRICA ARE MOSTLY FOUND IN THE EASTERN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN REGIONS ANDAS WELL AS SURROUNDING ISLANDS HTTPVOLCANOUNDNODAKEDUVWDOCSVOLC?IMAGESAFRICA 6OLCANOES ARE WELL KNOWN AS PRODUCERS OF POISONOUS OR ASPHYXIATING GASESAND IN SOME INSTANCES THESE GASES KILL PEOPLE CAUGHT IN THE VOLCANIC PLUMESHTTPPERSOWANADOOFRMHALBNYOSNYOSHTM

/NLY THREE LAKES IN THE WORLD ARE KNOWN TO CONTAIN HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF DISSOLVEDGAS IN THEIR BOTTOM WATERS 4HESE ARE LAKES .YOS AND -ONOUN IN #AMEROUN AND ,AKE+IVU IN %AST !FRICA /N TH !UGUST GAS #/ RELEASE AT ,AKE -ONOUN KILLED PEOPLE /N ST !UGUST ANOTHER GAS #/ RELEASE OCCURRED AT ,AKE .YOSCAUSING AT LEAST FATALITIES 4HE EMISSIONS OF ,AKE -ANOUN AND .YOS WERE ATTRIBUTED TO OVERTURN OF STRATIlED LAKE WATERS AS A RESULT OF A NONVOLCANIC PROCESS OR TOPHREATIC EXPLOSIONS OR INJECTIONS OF HOT GAS INTO THE LAKE HTTPVULCANWRUSGSGOVGLOSSARYLAKESDESCRIPTION?VOLCANIC HTTPPERSOWANADOOFRMHALBNYOSNYOSHTM

)N ORDER TO AVERT SUCH DISASTERS RECURRING SCIENTISTS BEGAN INVESTIGATIONS ON HOW BESTTO CONTROL THE RELEASES TERMED AS hLIMBIC ERUPTIONSv )NSPIRED BY THE METHANE AND #/EXTRACTING UNIT WHICH HAD BEEN OPERATING IN 2WANDA ON THE SHORE OF ,AKE +IVU SCIENTISTS BEGAN TRIAL PROJECTS TO DEGAS ,AKES -ANOUN AND .YOS 4HE TRIALS HAVING BEENSUCCESSFUL PAVED THE WAY FOR A FULLYmEDGED EXPERIMENT AT ,AKE .YOS BEGINNING IN*ANUARY

6 ,!.$ !.$ &//$

)NTRODUCTION

,AND AND FOOD ARE TWO IMPORTANT RESOURCES UPON WHICH !FRICAS ECONOMIES ARE BASED,AND IS USED TO PRODUCE FOOD RAW MATERIALS FOR INDUSTRIES AND FOR EXPORT MINERALSTIMBER AND SEVERAL ECONOMIC RESOURCES IN !FRICA $ESPITE THE RICH STORE OF LANDRESOURCES !FRICA STILL REMAINS THE ONLY CONTINENT THAT IS VERY POOR AND POVERTY ISEXPECTED TO INCREASE HIGHLY INDEBTED UNINDUSTRIALIZED AND WITH A MALNOURISHEDGROWING POPULATION )N!FRICA ESPECIALLY IN RURAL AREAS POVERTY IS GENERALLY PERCEIVEDAS A STATE OF DEPRIVATION WITH REFERENCE lRST TO FOOD AND THEN TO HOUSING CLOTHING ANDHEALTH 0OVERTY IS LARGELY PERCEIVED AS A STATE OF FOOD INSECURITY 7ORLD "ANK )NSTITUTE

7") 0OVERTY IS ENDEMIC IN !FRICA ESPECIALLY IN SUB3AHARAN !FRICA h7ITHMORE THAN PER CENT OF THE POPULATION ABOUT MILLION PEOPLE LIVING ON LESS THAN 53 A DAY SUB3AHARAN!FRICA REMAINS DESPITE RECENT FAVOURABLE TRENDS IN INCOMEPOVERTY ONE OF THE REGIONS MOST AFFECTED BY POVERTYv 7ORLD "ANK -OREOVER OF !FRICANS LIVE IN RURAL AREAS AND THE RURAL POOR ACCOUNT FOR PER CENT OF !FRICANPOVERTY 7ORLD "ANK 7")

4HE CHALLENGE FACING !FRICA RESTS IN MANAGING LAND RESOURCES IN AN ENVIRONMENTALLYSUSTAINABLE MANNER SUCH THAT FOOD SECURITY AND POVERTY ERADICATION CAN BE ACHIEVED4O ACHIEVE THIS WOULD REQUIRE PRAGMATIC AND PARTICIPATORY MACROECONOMIC SOCIAL ANDSECTIONAL POLICIES THAT RECOGNIZE THE ADVANTAGES OF REGIONAL COOPERATION AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE

2ESOURCE AND 5SES

!FRICA HAS SIGNIlCANT LAND RESOURCES OF CONTRASTS AND EXTREMES VARYING FROM DESERTSTO THE EVERGREEN TROPICAL FORESTS ,AND RESOURCES ARE THE BASES UPON WHICH !FRICANECONOMIES LARGELY DEPEND 4HE MAIN LAND USE CATEGORIES IN !FRICA ARE AGRICULTURERANGELANDS SETTLEMENT AND WILDLIFE !BOUT PER CENT OF !FRICAN SOILS ARE DElCIENTIN PHOSPHORUS A KEY NUTRIENT IN THE PRODUCTION OF BIOMASS 4HE SOILS ALSO HAVE LOWCONTENT OF ORGANIC MATTER AND LOW INlLTRATION AND RETENTION CAPACITY DUE TO SURFACECRUSTING -OREOVER ABOUT HALF THE CULTIVABLE LAND IS UNDER ARID