DE MONTFORT UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF ART, DESIGN & HUMANITIES LEICESTER SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE ARCH1052 ESSAY Referring to Rafael Moneo’s essays in ‘Theoretical Anxieties of 8 Architects,’ criticise the work of James Stirling and Aldo Rossi in reference to the architectural theories that they were concerned with. P13231555 Session 2014-15 STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY I confirm by submitting this work for assessment that I am its sole author, and that all quotations, summaries or extracts from published sources have been correctly referenced. I confirm that this work, in whole or in part, has not been previously submitted for any other award at this or any other institution.
Transcript
DE MONTFORT UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF ART, DESIGN & HUMANITIES
LEICESTER SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
ARCH1052
ESSAY
Referring to Rafael Moneo’s essays in ‘Theoretical Anxieties of 8 Architects,’ criticise the work of James Stirling and Aldo Rossi in reference to the architectural theories that they were concerned with.
P13231555
Session 2014-15
STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY
I confirm by submitting this work for assessment that I am its sole author, and that all quotations, summaries or extracts from published sources have been correctly referenced. I confirm that this work, in whole or in part, has not been previously submitted
for any other award at this or any other institution.
Referring to Rafael Moneo’s essays in ‘Theoretical Anxieties of 8 Architects,’ criticise the work of James
Sterling and Aldo Rossi in reference to the architectural theories that they were concerned with.
2
ARCH 1052
Architectural History and Philosophy
REFERRING TO RAFAEL MONEO’S ESSAYS IN ‘THEORETICAL ANXIETIES OF 8
ARCHITECTS,’ CRITICISE THE WORK OF JAMES STIRLING AND ALDO ROSSI IN
REFERENCE TO THE ARCHITECTURAL THEORIES THAT THEY WERE CONCERNED
WITH.
By
Leicester School of Architecture
De Montfort University
2015
Referring to Rafael Moneo’s essays in ‘Theoretical Anxieties of 8 Architects,’ criticise the work of James
Sterling and Aldo Rossi in reference to the architectural theories that they were concerned with.
3
Known for his Houston Museum of Fine Art and further work, internationally recognised architect
Rafael Moneo establishes himself as an architectural critic in his ‘Theoretical Anxieties of 8 Architects.’
He remarks on the theoretical perspective and augmentation towards the design of 8 architects; including
James Stirling and Aldo Rossi. Moneo comments ‘it is difficult, little less than impossible even, to think
of another architect whose work illustrates an entire cycle of recent architectural history as eloquently
as his [Stirling]’ demonstrating Stirling’s architectural influence in his short life-span and the theories
which he supported, neglected and questioned.1 Alike Stirling, Moneo commends Aldo Rossi of his
architectural merit and highlights his disdain for the modern movement. Commented on as ‘a poet who
happens to be an architect,’ by Ada Louise Huxtable, Rossi is renowned for his stamp on architectural
philosophy and his addition to the architectural theories that we have today.2 Without the likes of these
two architects, contemporary architecture today would be constructed in an entirely different means with
different purposes and values. Stirling and Rossi’s work both question and enthuse alternating
architectural theories such as modernity, iconography, functionalism, geometry and many more.
‘Modernus,’ the Latin form of ‘modern’ was first used in the late 5th
century in order to distinguish the
present era according to Hans Robert Jauss; who has conducted extensive research into the history of the
modern. It has been misleadingly known for the concept of modernity to be confined to the Renaissance,
yet there is evidence that it was recognised during the reign of Charles the Great, 12th
century in addition
to the 17th
century in France.3 German newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung criticises
‘Postmodernity definitely presents itself as Antimodernity,’ which recognises the shift in architectural
patterns in recent years and by extension the birth of new theories of postmodernity.4 The modernist
movement was ‘bent on defining norms’ and categorically the design style evolved alongside the
progressive development of the world’s industry and technology. In many ways the movement benefited
architecture as it forced designers to reject traditional precedents to become more innovative with their
new context. In his article published in May 1965, Stirling comments ‘the [Liverpool] School of
Architecture was in tremendous ferment as the revolution of modern architecture had just hit it second
hand and rather late,’ which, despite his lack of encouragement from his University, Stirling maintained
‘a deep conviction of the moral rightness of the New Architecture,’ particularly in Le Corbusier’s work
which influenced his early career. Stirling’s Woolton House, 1954, is an example of modernity in a more
positive light as Moneo comments that it is a ‘more sophisticated project’ due to the recognisable
‘receptiveness to stimuli.’ It is evident that the Woolton House brought together a range of elements
which originated in rural constructions; which contribute to the design significantly. Moneo makes a
contrast with the 1951 Core and Crosswall House as it consists of prominently abstract volumetry which
Referring to Rafael Moneo’s essays in ‘Theoretical Anxieties of 8 Architects,’ criticise the work of James
Sterling and Aldo Rossi in reference to the architectural theories that they were concerned with.
4
did not react to its environment as effectively, nor address building tradition which became significant of
the beginnings of the criticism against the modern movement. Stirling ‘proudly proclaimed himself a
Modernist’ and this is evident through his work, particularly in his early life.5
Once considered by Stirling to be ‘Europe’s greatest architect,’ Le Corbusier has been accredited on
several occasions by Stirling to be his biggest influence in the early development of his career and
studies.6 A consistency can be noted between the attitude of Stirling towards Le Corbusier and its
applicability to the context of modern architectural dissertation and Stirling’s own style. Much to
Stirling’s dismay, as time progressed, it became apparent to the architect that Le Corbusier’s relevance
abated and he was forced to put his hero aside and develop a style of his own. Despite this turn of
events, Le Corbusier’s influence benefitted him as an architect incredibly as his volumes of Ouvre
Complete were a vital learning tool for Stirling and his peers as their exposure to these helped broaden
their architectural vocabulary and deposited a database of contemporary influences to last them a life
time. In 1955 and 1956 articles which were published in the Architectural Review, Stirling still retains
his respect and youthful adoration of the modernist architect, yet he also demonstrates his knew beliefs
that Le Corbusier’s work lacked significant innovation. This moment is significant of Stirling’s turning
away from the architectural theory of modernity.
According to Moneo, Aldo Rossi was ‘alert to the first criticisms of modern tradition that were being
formulated at the time,’ and therefore the happenings of his youth became a great influence on him and
his work. In particular, Rossi reacted strongly to the historians of the era whom were documenting the
changes and development of the modernist movement; including Bruno Zevi. Zevi was known for being
a contentious critic in the forties and fifties of Italian architecture. He further enthused a modern
movement with ‘intentions of sociological progressivism coincided with a continuous evolution in
purely visual and figurative terms,’ as he made known his favouritism towards the development and
progression of the collaboration between architecture and external artistic projects. His approach brought
him to believe that architecture’s history could only reach its full potential through the modernist
movement as it was in this that he believed space excelled. Rossi however, opposed Zevi’s beliefs as he
did not express interest in connecting architecture with further arts, yet rather an interest in finding a
specific base for architecture on its own. Since the beginning of his architectural career, Rossi has
always favoured the scientific approach to architecture and believed that it should not be seen as an art
to be removed from science, which provided him the life time problem of destroying the ‘traditional
attachment to the artistic.’ In his 1996 L’Architecture della citta, he attempted to provide a scientific
view of the city by defining the architectural concepts which could attribute to his desired outcome. His
writing became extremely influential when it was published and led to theoretical concepts becoming a
Referring to Rafael Moneo’s essays in ‘Theoretical Anxieties of 8 Architects,’ criticise the work of James
Sterling and Aldo Rossi in reference to the architectural theories that they were concerned with.
5
part of daily language, i.e. ‘place.’ In 1976, Rossi took a trip to American which became a trip that
resulted in his deviation from his scientific devotion and his recognition that images were the only
means to work with when designing architecture.
Rossi first came to find his theories in his work on Casabella while he was still an architecture
student studying at the Poliecnico di Milano. Before he later became an editor of the magazine in 1955,
he worked under E. N. Rogers who became a vital part to the promotion of the idea that historical
context plays a role in architectural style and the acceptance of neo-rationalism.7 Rossi himself is widely
recognised as the ‘father’ of neo- rationalism, also known as Tendenza of the 1960s and 1970s. Neo-
rationalism is the Italian movement which was opposed to the doctrine of International Modernism and
the prevalent habit to regard architecture as a mere commodity, presented as a means to salvage the
contemporary city. It did, however, impose the importance of the autonomy of architecture and the need
to redefine it in terms of typology with additional rules for the rational combination of all components.
Neo-rationalism further rejected the view point that architecture is engulfed by technology as it insisted
on the social and cultural importance of existing urban structures. Important texts to the neo-rationalism
movement became Rossi’s Architettura della citta in addition to Grassi’s La costruzione logica
dell’architettura and Gregotti’s Il territorio dell’architettura. While neo-rationalism was a refreshing
opposition at the time, it failed to provide sufficient expression while post-war urbanization commenced.
There was an incredulous economic growth imminent after the Second World War, however, in the
1960s the economy took a great hit and left Italy in a state of despair with housing scarce and a city
unable to find its ‘cultural footing’ in the modernist movement.8 This worked to Rossi’s advantage as it
was in this stage where his theoretical development excelled while at Casabella magazine and later
utilised his experience by writing about the Italian urban disturbance.9 Rossi’s Modena Cemetery
became recognised as the movement’s most celebrated work, as the theme of a ‘city of the dead’ allows
the themes of the cemetery and the issues of presentation and language to become more resonant.
Further work of Rossi and his accomplices, such as Grassi, present numerous paradoxes in reference to
contemporary urban design. The example of the capacity of an essentially personal conception as a
repository of public expression, combines the difference between Rossi’s prominent writing and design
work; with the relationship between the ‘intention and the realization.’10
Iconography is the theory of the study of identification, description and the interpretation of context in
art and architecture. Aldo Rossi became very much involved in this and is demonstrated through his
Piazzetta Croce Rossa which was completed in 1988; a small urban space situated in central Milan on
Via Manzon’s major thoroughfare. The main focus of this is on a symmetrically arranged area where the
Monument to Sandro Pertini sits on the axis and makes use of identical pink and grey candoglia marble
Referring to Rafael Moneo’s essays in ‘Theoretical Anxieties of 8 Architects,’ criticise the work of James
Sterling and Aldo Rossi in reference to the architectural theories that they were concerned with.
6
that is also seen on the duomo of Milan in a cubic shape. The elements of this monument highlight
Rossi’s personal iconography extraordinarily and therefore by extent his traditional demonstration of
typology as seen in his previous work. Analysing the issue of permanence in architectural typology,
Rossi provided the idea that architecture should stand separate from the fluid tide of history and
therefore reliant for its superiority on the qualities of its geometry and accretion of patina through its
life-span. There was therefore great emphasis placed on the cumulative experience of the city and as a
result then diminished the individualising tendencies of the unique monument. Critics often compare the
cube to the Modena Cemetery, which is in the form of a cubic sanctuary without a roof or floor, and its
further affiliation with steps to the Resistance at Cuneo monument, 1962. The enduring marble steps are
typically recognizable to most Italian citizens today due to the formation of the Vittorio Emanuele
Monument, that is situated in Rome and is the national shrine, yet also due to the spectre which
frequented Italian twentieth century architecture. Its ‘daughter’ monument is found in Milan, much
smaller in scale, having been stripped of its iconography and with its steps to be unfolded for a typically
more mundane urban drama. In Rossi’s view, each architectural style is representative of particular
building types which are the iconic arrangement in certain cities to contribute towards the city image.
Stirling’s work very much draws parallels between himself and the architectural theme of
functionalism. In his article ‘The Functional Tradition and Expression,’ Stirling depicts his thoughts in
1959 and emphasises the role of structure as he believes it defines true functionalism. He continues to
promote and explain the validity of volumetric hierarchy and the necessity of researching the context of
a site or building before conducting the design stages. Many critics have been known to divide Stirling’s
career into two sections; one dedicated towards modernism, the other towards post-modernism. His
article explains the notable change of style half way through his career, as he grows to provide a deeper
and more mature comprehension of the functional ethos which has allowed him, in his opinion, to
develop as an architect positively. Throughout his career, he had many supporters of his tendencies
towards functionalism, including the Churchill Cottage and University of Sheffield which conducted
projects in the form of competitions to encourage their students to recognise how structure should be
tailored to the specific requirements of the site and how the site itself can influence their decisions.
Stirling himself, alongside his partner Gowan, entered into the Churchill College competition with a
design that articulated their understanding of the functional credo. Stirling and Gowan ‘pushed
functionalism to its formal limits’ and further present this understanding with their Ham Common Flats
which make use of materials and an assertive structure to create a sense of theoretical security.11
Whilst
New Brutalists searched for integral architecture, Stirling endeavoured towards true functionalism
before he became partners with Gowan. Stirling continued to focus on the mechanics of functionalism in
Referring to Rafael Moneo’s essays in ‘Theoretical Anxieties of 8 Architects,’ criticise the work of James
Sterling and Aldo Rossi in reference to the architectural theories that they were concerned with.
7
contrast to Le Corbusier who also had a strong belief in functionalism, yet strayed from the scientific or
rationalist functionalism to instead primitivism which began focused on criticising modernity. Stirling’s
questioning of mechanics and how a building could respond appropriately to twentieth century demands
which is further demonstrated in his Leicester University building as Norman Foster praises it as ‘having
a drama which was borne out of everyday ingredients of materials and function.’ This demonstrates
Stirling’s efforts of conveying functionalism and his belief in the theory that materials and structure
reinforce the ‘message’ of the building.
Rossi’s approach towards functionalism was extremely contrasting to that of Stirling as he favoured
other architectural theories in his work. He believed that the hollow delusions regarding functionalism
should be put aside so that architecture can return to a different form of order in the hope of finding a
morphological relationship. This relationship being defined by the theoretical relationship of
‘architecture is a small city and the city is a big building.’ Rossi was not known for focusing on
evaluating the forms of buildings, nor the regular precedents of modern architecture, yet he frequently
commented on the indifference and massacre of ‘people’s collective memory.’ To some degree, Rossi
attacked what the theory of functionalism stood for, and by extent the modern movement. However, he
also attempted to reinstate compositional techniques to become the sole study method of architectural
research which somewhat contradicts his own distain for functionalism. Rossi puts to question the
alteration of functionalism for urban artifacts. This change potentially obstructs the transfer of culture
where the city itself is a vital element. Urban artifacts are not the attributes of consumption for the city
until it is considered in the realm of architectural and moral beliefs. If they are studied from the urban
artefact view point, typology and functionality are contradicted and therefore the functionalism of the
structure in time is then investigated. Ultimately, Rossi was not a supporter of the functionalism
movement and did not hold great respect for the theory of architecture.
After the Second World War, the backbone of modernism became the personal expression of
architects and artists alike throughout the 1960s. Creative shape-making and geometry grew to
distinguish itself, particularly with the likes of Stirling, I.M. Pei and Paul Rudolph practising the theory
in their own work. The purpose of geometry was to provide architecture with innovative, three-
dimensional sculptured buildings in comparison to previous opinions that architecture should solve
functional requirements rather than aesthetic. In the 1960s, many architects rebounded to more robust
rectilinear geometry as opposed to expressionists in the 1940s and 1950s who dabbled with curvilinear
and plastic forms. An example of the theory of geometry is Paul Rudolph’s Art and Architecture
Building, 1963, built at Yale University. The building elucidated the priority of a visual formalism over
a functional formalism through presenting a new image in architecture to date. Critics find it surprising
Referring to Rafael Moneo’s essays in ‘Theoretical Anxieties of 8 Architects,’ criticise the work of James
Sterling and Aldo Rossi in reference to the architectural theories that they were concerned with.
8
Rudolph studied under Gropius while he was at Harvard University, as he publicly dismissed Gropius’
concept of functionalism and the architecture team.12
Stirling’s own extension, with his partner Michael
Wilford, to the Staatsgalerie at Stuttgart known as Oeuvre’s relevance is fourfold; a more earnest
precedent study of history, a refreshed interest in urban context, a subversion of the previous
‘functionalist’ position and an attentive exhibition of irony. His commitment in the design of German
Museums surfaced in 1975 where he took part in a controlled competition for Dusseldorf where his
submission did not receive a recognisable ranking. However, he contributed to a second competition in
1977 which he received international commendation for in 1984. These three projects are noted as theme
and variations. For Dusseldorf, they already encompassed the central additives of Stuttgart, especially
the main drum as mainstay for the arrangement and the innovation for a public through route which has
been designed to pass through the site without having to go through the building itself. This
demonstrates that already there was a complex of alternatively shaped buildings that were redistributed
in relation to the site’s geometry. It sought continuity with the enclosing city as opposed to the object-
like status. This advancement to the city refined the Smithsons’ treatment to the Economist, yet was
more promptly contributing to influences from a bright young assistant and an old guide. The use of
geometry became a tool which Stirling very much threw him-self into as he developed more innovative
and creative shapes in his work in his later career.
Having conducted extensive research to contribute towards and prepare myself for this essay, I can
conclude that I have gained a much deeper understanding and a refined appreciation for architectural
theories and their role in the history and philosophy of architecture. Before this task was set, I had a very
limited knowledge of both Aldo Rossi and James Stirling. Having looked into each of their work and
background, I now feel that I can relate to each of them to some degree and found it particularly intriguing
that there is in fact a Stirling building in Leicester which I took the liberty to visit. Whilst I may not agree
with all of the philosophy that each of these architects champion, I have an appreciation and a respect for
their reasoning and the outcome of their work. With both architects flourishing at similar times in
architectural history, I found it particularly interesting how the culture of their time has influenced them
both in different ways despite imposing the same general views on them publically. I feel that having
noticed this, I will be more observant in any future architect or precedent studies that I conduct as I will be
able to look into and perhaps notice hints of the architectural theories presenting themselves. As Rossi
quotes, ‘we should pay attention to urban geography, urban topography, architecture and other
disciplines,’ I too will pay attention to architectural theories of past, present and future architecture.
Referring to Rafael Moneo’s essays in ‘Theoretical Anxieties of 8 Architects,’ criticise the work of James
Sterling and Aldo Rossi in reference to the architectural theories that they were concerned with.
9
Word Count: 3,017
1. Jose Rafael Moneo, Theoretical Anxiety and Design Strategies in the work of 8 Contemporary Architects,
Illustrated edn (US: MIT Press in association with Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2004).
2. Andrew Galloway, ‘Happy Birthday Aldo Rossi’, ArchDaily, (May 2014), in
http://www.archdaily.com/367400/happy-birthday-aldo-rossi/ [assessed Jan 2015]
3. Jurgen Habermas, Habermas and the Unfinished Project of Modernity: Critical Essays on The Philosophical
Disource of Modernity, ed. By Maurizo Passerin d’Entreves, Sayla Benhabib, Reprint edn (US: MIT Press,
1997).
4. Jurgen Habermas and Seyla Ben-Habib, ‘Modernity versus Postmodernity’, New German Critique, No.22
Special Issue on Modernism, (Winter 1981), in <http://www.jstor.org/stable/487859> [assessed 30
November 2008]
5. Mark Girouard, Big Jim: The Life and Work of James Stirling, Illustrated edn (Great Britain: Pimlico, 2000)
p. 49.
6. Caroline Choi, ‘Stirling’s Coming of Age: The Development of James Stirling’s Style in Reaction to the
