Status of Urban Air Quality Management in Asia

Strengthening the air quality management community in Asiawww.cleanairnet.org/caiasia

Urban Air Quality and its Management in Asia:

Status Report 2006

Sustainable Urban Mobility in AsiaA CAI-Asia Program

Regional Dialogue of Air Quality Management Initiatives and Programs in

Asia12 October 2006

Bangkok, Thailand


Outline of Presentation

• Objective: Present an overview of current status of AQM in Asia:– Status of drivers of urban air pollution– Emissions Inventories and Source Apportionment– Relationship Ambient Air Quality Standards with

WHO guideline values, US-EPA and EU standards– Status of urban quality and ambient

Concentration of PM versus the new WHO PM standards

– Status and Trends in controlling emissions from mobile sources

– Status and Trends in controlling emissions from stationary sources


Total Energy Consumption in Asia

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

mill

ion

to

nn

es

oil

eq

uiv

ale

nt

Total Asia China India Indonesia ThailandSource: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006


Energy Mix in Asia 1990-2005

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

mill

ion

to

nn

es

oil

eq

uiv

ale

nt

Hydroelectric 77 95 103 149

Nuclear Energy 65 93 113 125

Coal 767 993 1,041 1,568

Natural Gas 121 171 236 332

Oil 611 801 915 1,049

1990 1995 2000 2005

Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006


0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Elec

trici

ty G

ener

atio

n, T

Wh

Asia Total

China

India

Japan

Indonesia

Thailand

Electricity Generation in Asia



Electricity Generation in Asia and other Regions

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Asia EU (25) OECD Former Soviet Union

Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2006Note: Some countries in the EU are also included in OECD.


Coal Production - Coal Consumption



Coal Consumption, Mtoe

China, P.R. and India

Indonesia and Thailand

0

5

10

15

20

25

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Co

al

Co

ns

um

pti

on

, M

toe

Thailand

Indonesia

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Co

al C

on

sum

pti

on

, M

toe

China

India

• All the countries in Asia exhibited increase in coal consumption from 2004 to 2005

• Generally, the largest increases from 2004 to 2005 coal consumption are in Asia (e.g. China - 10.9%, Pakistan – 14.8%, Phils – 17.7% and Thailand –12.1%)

2005 World Coal Consumption

Other Asia9%

China37%

Total North America

21%

Total S & C America

1%

Total Europe & Eurasia

18%

Total Middle East and

Africa4%

India7%

Australia and other Asia

Pacific3%



Oil Consumption, Million Tonnes

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Oil

Con

sum

ptio

n, M

illio

n to

nnes

China

India

China, P.R. and India

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Oil

Con

sum

ptio

n, M

illio

n T

onne

s

Thailand

Indonesia

Indonesia and Thailand

2005 World Oil Consumption

Total North America

29%

India3%China

9%

Other Asia16%

Middle East and Africa

10%

Total Europe & Eurasia

25%

Total S. & Cent.

America6%

Australia and Other

Asia Pacific2%

• All the countries in Asia except for Hong Kong, India, Malaysia and Philippines exhibited increase in oil consumption from 2004 to 2005.

• % increase in oil consumption are lower than % increase in coal consumption.Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy

2006


Refinery Capacities in Asia

Indonesia

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

thou

sand

s ba

rrel

s da

ily

India

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

tho

us

an

ds

ba

rre

ls d

aily

Thailand

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

tho

us

an

ds

ba

rre

ls d

aily


China

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

tho

us

an

ds

ba

rre

ls d

aily


Natural Gas Consumption, Mtoe

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Na

tura

l G

as

Co

ns

um

pti

on

, M

toe China

India

Indonesia

Thailand

• With the exception of Hong Kong and Singapore, all countries in Asia have increased consumption of natural gas from 2004 to 2005.

• Share of Asia in world natural gas consumption has increased from 8.8% in 1995 to 13.4% in 2005 while share of Europe and North America has decreased for the same period.



Energy intensity – BTU per $PPP 1990-2004

Source: Energy Information Administration

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

BTU

per

US

D$

PP

P

United States United KingdomChina Hong KongIndia Japan


0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Average of Asian CountriesChinaIndiaIndonesiaThailand

Energy intensity – BTU per $PPP 1990 - 2004

Source: Energy Information Administration


Motorization Trends in Asia

Registered 2 - 3 wheelers in Asia '000 (1990 to 2003)

-

10,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

50,000

60,000

70,000

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

China, PRIndiaIndonesiaTaipei,ChinaViet Nam


0

100

200

300

400

500

2005 2008 2015 2025 2035

Vehicle Growth Forecast in Asian Countries(in Millions of Vehicles)

Note: Vehicle Population Projection from Segment Y Ltd

China, P.R.

0

100

200

300

400

500

2005 2008 2015 2025 2035

India

0

20

40

60

80

100

2005 2008 2015 2025 2035

Thailand

0

20

40

60

80

100

2005 2008 2015 2025 2035

Indonesia


PM10 and CO2 Forecast for China and India

0

400

800

1200

1600

2005 2008 2015 2025 20350

1000

2000

3000

4000

2005 2008 2015 2025 2035

Thousand Tons of PM10 Million Tons of CO2

China, P.R.India

Source: ADB, 2006

*Projected PM10 and CO2 are based on current plans for emission (Euro) standards and fuel efficiency targets in China and India


Emission Inventories: Scope and Coverage (1)

• Emission inventories remain the weak link in AQM in the majority of Asian countries. Emission inventories are often often conducted as part of donor-funded programs and academic researches, only in few cases it is used for government regulatory purposes such as in PRC and Thailand

• With the exception of China and Hong Kong, EIs are usually partial and not covering all sources. Mostly mobile sources are covered, less often stationary and seldom area sources

• Criteria pollutants (PM, CO, SO2, NOx, HC) are usually covered in the EIs

• Most of the emission inventory studies are ad-hoc meaning that they are not repeated on a regular basis which makes trend analysis difficult

• Important study which was started recently is the India Clean Air Program which is the most comprehensive effort to develop emission inventory in India yet. However, also this project is an ad-hoc effort and not part of a regularly repeated effort.


Emission Inventories: Methodology and Accuracy

• Compiling emission inventories remains a challenge in Asia due to non-standardized source categorization, operating data not systematically tabulated, inaccurate information and no specific reporting requirements

• Most studies have used the WHO and US EPA emission factors, requiring a need to evaluate the applicability and representativeness of these numbers to Asian sources and conditions

• Comparisons of emissions between different base years are difficult to assess due to differences in methodology (e.g., one year based on emission factors and the next on actual source testing)

• Activity data for many categories are usually incomplete and outdated. Most EIs are based on secondary data where erroneous assumptions are taken into consideration thus decreasing reliability of the estimates

• Limited information is available on the quality assurance methods used, except in China and Singapore where validations and evaluation of accuracy/uncertainty are being carried out

• What if there would be an international body to develop and implement internationally accepted methodology and reporting protocols for emission inventories (i.e., IPCC guidelines for GHGI) ?


Trends in Source Apportionment of PM

• Source Apportionment studies are not carried out regularly. Where they are conducted this is mostly by academic institutions and/or institutions outside the Ministries of Environment and the use for policy formulation is limited.

• Fair amount of experience is now available with source-receptor techniques both outside and in Asia, but they are not being applied on a routine basis in Asian countries in support of AQ policy making or the evaluation of AQ policy measures.

• Example is the IAEA PM characterization studies which after years of piloting have not been taken up by regulatory agencies in the countries where implemented.

• The source apportionment studies that are conducted in Asia for PM show large ranges in the sources (mobile, stationary, area, biomass burning). The ranges are so large that they can not be explained by vehicle fleet data.


Disclosure and Utilization

• Only a few countries such as P.R. China, Philippines and Thailand have published the emissions inventory in full however no information is available on the quality assurance methods being implemented.

• Source apportionment techniques are not being utilized for validation and improvement of the emissions inventory and enhancement of understanding of the linkages between particular emission sources and ambient air quality.

• Turning these data into useful input for decision-making remains an enormous challenge as EIs and SAs are not being utilized in identifying control strategies (rules, enforceability and compliance, voluntary measures, availability of inputs to evaluate control effectiveness).

• Policymaking generally based on no-regret policies and not based on detailed emissions inventories and source apportionment which can effectively focus resources on integrated control measures and requirements for the sources most responsible for the resulting poor air quality. Positive exception is P.R. China where SO2 emission inventories are now being used on a routine basis to formulate SO2 control measures.


• Ambient air quality in Asia is still generally improving despite continued increase in motorization and energy use

• Average ambient TSP, PM10 and SO2 trends are improving

• Average ambient TSP and PM10, however, continue to exceed WHO and USEPA guidelines

• Average ambient SO2 is in compliance with WHO guideline

• NO2 close to guidelines

• Insufficient information on O3 for reliable trend analysis

• It is uncertain whether the observed improvements in air quality will be sustained

Aggregated Annual Ambient AQ Trends, g/m3 (1993 to 2005)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

TSPPM10SO2NO2Linear (TSP)Linear (PM10)Linear (NO2)Linear (SO2)

WHO (1979) TSP guideline, 60-90g/m3

WHO SO2 guideline, 50g/m3

WHO (2005) PM10 guideline, 20g/m3

WHO NO2 guideline, 40g/m3

Status of Urban Air Quality in Asia


Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia

Country Pollutants Remarks

Bangladesh TSP, CO, NOx, and

SO2

1997 standards established for a few pollutants depending on land use category; new standards are pending approval

China TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, Pb

Standards require cities to comply with Class I, II, or III standards. Class I standards more stringent than the WHO and USEPA limits

Hong Kong TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, Pb, O3

Standards less stringent than WHO and USEPA limits

India TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, Pb

Established based on different land-use categories i.e. industrial, residential and sensitive areas.

Indonesia TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, O3, Pb

National and local (Jakarta) standards less stringent that WHO; PM limits less stringent than USEPA

Japan CO, NO2, O3, SO2, TSP Comparable and to some extent more stringent than WHO guidelines with the exception of CO limits for an 8-hour exposure.

Nepal TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, Pb, C6H6

Established only in 2003; standards less stringent than WHO; PM limits less stringent than USEPA

Pakistan No legislated ambient air quality standards

Philippines TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, O3, Pb

based and comparable to WHO and USEPA (for PM10). Standards more lenient, selecting the higher/max allowable limits

Singapore PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, O3

Despite adopting only both WHO guidelines and USEPA limits, Singapore PSI reporting is very efficient

Sri-Lanka TSP, CO, SO2, NO2, O3, Pb

TSP standards twice more lenient than USEPA, No annual standard for SO2, 24-hour limit for SO2, a slightly lenient O3 and NO2 compared with USEPA and WHO, respectively

Thailand TSP, PM10, CO, SO2, NO2, O3, Pb

TSP twice more lenient than USEPA; SO2 and CO almost same as USEPA limit, stringent NO2 compared to WHO

Vietnam TSP, CO, SO2, NO2, O3, Pb

Hourly limits for NO2 and CO are more lenient than WHO, no PM10 standards, the rest of the standards are almost same as WHO


Ambient Air Quality Standards in Asia: PM2.5

• PM2.5 is increasingly acknowledged by WHO, USEPA, and the EU as the major pollutant of concern because of very high correlation with associated health impacts

• In almost all Asian countries, standards for PM2.5 have not been legislated and there seem to be no immediate plans from Asian governments to develop PM 2.5 standards

• Only Singapore and recently Bangladesh have adopted PM2.5 standards based on the old USEPA standards

• As a consequence, PM2.5 is not regularly monitored by Asian governments and only ad-hoc monitoring from project-based studies are available

• This poses a serious challenge for assessing health impacts of PM2.5 and the formulation and implementation of PM 2.5 control strategies


Air Quality Monitoring

• With the exception of few countries, most Asian countries do not have immediate and clear plans to expand or upgrade existing AQ monitoring systems– Pakistan has indicated its plans to establish continuous

AQ monitoring stations in five major cities in 2007– CPCB in India has established real-time continuous

monitoring of pollutants in four locations in Delhi and is now considering expansion of AQ monitoring capacity

• The number and location of existing monitoring stations are generally not representative of the population

• Programs to ensure the sustainability of operations of AQ monitoring stations and regular maintenance of equipment have caused degradation and inoperability of several AQ monitoring stations in Asian countries such as Indonesia


Air Quality Reporting

• In China, the government is continuing its drive to expand the coverage of its AQ monitoring stations but there is no indication of plans to report actual ambient AQ data instead of APIs

• After more than five years of not reporting AQ information, Malaysia is now releasing AQ data to the public in the form of APIs

• More cities and countries are starting to publish AQ data on websites and in media


0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Bangladesh

China

Hong Kong

India

Indonesia*

Japan*

Nepal*

Philippines

Singapore

Thailand

Vietnam

concentrations in µg/m3

WHO 2005

USEPA

WHO

2005 IT-

1

WHO 2005 IT-2

WHO 2005 IT-3

EU *No annual ambient air quality standards, only 24-hour limits

Annual Ambient Air Quality Standards for PM10


PM10 Annual Ambient Concentrations in Asian Cities (2005) (1)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Bangk

ok

Beijing

Chiang

Mai

Colom

bo

Dhaka

Ho Chi

Minh

Hong

Kong

Kathm

andu

Kolkat

a

Mum

bai

New D

elhi

Shang

hai

Singap

ore

Surab

aya

Taipei,

China

Xi'an

conc

entr

atio

ns in

µg/

m3

WHO 2005 Guideline Value for Annual Average of PM10 = 20 µg/m3



0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Bangk

ok

Beijing

Chiang

Mai

Colom

bo

Dhaka

Ho Chi

Minh

Hong

Kong

Kathm

andu

Kolkat

a

Mum

bai

New D

elhi

Shang

hai

Singap

ore

Surab

aya

Taipei,

China

Xi'an

conc

entr

atio

ns in

µg/

m3

WHO 2005 PM10 Interim Target – 1 = 30 µg/m3



0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Bangk

ok

Beijing

Chiang

Mai

Colom

bo

Dhaka

Ho Chi

Minh

Hong

Kong

Kathm

andu

Kolkat

a

Mum

bai

New D

elhi

Shang

hai

Singap

ore

Surab

aya

Taipei,

China

Xi'an

conc

entr

atio

ns in

µg/

m3




0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Bangk

ok

Beijing

Chiang

Mai

Colom

bo

Dhaka

Ho Chi

Minh

Hong

Kong

Kathm

andu

Kolkat

a

Mum

bai

New D

elhi

Shang

hai

Singap

ore

Surab

aya

Taipei,

China

Xi'an

conc

entr

atio

ns in

µg/

m3



Roadside Air Pollution and Health Impacts

U Fine, Black Carbon, CO peak near roadways (Los Angeles)

(PM 2.5 consistent) (Zhu et al 2003)

PM mass

Particle numbers


0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005

conc

entr

atio

ns in

µg/

m3

Roadside SPMAmbient SPMRoadside PM10Ambient PM10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

con

cen

tra

tion

s in

µg

/m3

Ambient PM10

Roadside PM10

Hong Kong

Bangkok • Roadside particulate

levels are always higher than ambient confirming that vehicles are major PM source

• Increased number of policies on mobile sources (e.g. fuel quality and stricter emission standards) can help to close the gap between ambient and roadside levels

Roadside versus Ambient Particulate Matter Concentrations


Benchmarking Air Quality Management Capabilities in Asia

AQM Capability

AQM Capability Scoring

Cities Level of Economic Development/

Trends of Air Pollution

Excellent I 91-100 Hong Kong, Singapore, Taipei, Tokyo

• High technology applied• Low air pollution

Excellent II 81-90 Bangkok, Seoul, Shanghai

Good I 71-80 Beijing, Busan • Maturing of cleaner processes, use of cleaner fuels and mature emission controls.

• Further improvement of air quality

Good II 61-70 New Delhi

Moderate I 51-60 Ho Chi Minh, Jakarta, Kolkata, Manila, Mumbai

• Cleaner processes developed. Systematic AQM procedures developed

• Air pollution decreasing from high levels

Moderate II 41-50 Colombo

Limited I 31-40 Hanoi, Surabaya • Urbanisation, industrialisation and mobilisation continued. Initial systematic AQM procedures applied

• High but stabilising levels of air pollution. Serious health and environmental impacts

Limited II 21-30 Dhaka, Kathmandu

Minimal 0-20 - • Increased urbanisation, mobilization and industrialisation. Only ad hoc AQM.

• Deterioration of air quality through rising levels of air pollution

•The Benchmarking study involved 20 cities in Asia representing various economic levels and geographic coverage.

•The cities were categorized according to four AQM capability indices – 1) AQ measurement; 2) data availability and assessment; 3) emission estimates; and 4) AQ management enabling capacity.

•Cities with high levels of economic development tend to have well-developed AQM systems

•Benchmarking of AQM capability can assist cities in setting priorities and developing strategies for strengthening their AQM capability


• Compared to five years ago, more Asian countries have now adopted or have legislated plans to adopt stricter vehicle emissions standards as well as fuel standards

• Emphasis has been on institutionalizing new vehicle emissions standards and not enough attention has been given in addressing emissions from in-use vehicles

• More attention has been given as well to light-duty vehicles compared to heavy duty vehicles

• One of the most pressing problem of Asian countries is the rapid increase in the motorcycle fleet but not enough attention has been given towards appropriate regulatory measures to control the associated emissions

Vehicle Emissions Standards


Vehicle Emissions Standards(new light duty vehicles)

Source: CAI-Asia, 2006

Country 95 96 97 98 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10

European Union

Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5

Bangladesha Euro 2

Bangladeshb Euro 1

Hong Kong, China

Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4f

Indiac Euro 1 Euro 2 E3

Indiad E1 Euro 2 Euro 3

Indonesia Euro 2

Malaysia Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 4

Nepal Euro 1

Pakistan

Philippines Euro 1 Euro 2 E4

PRCa Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 E4

PRCe Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Beijing only

Singaporea Euro 1 Euro 2

Singaporeb Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 4

Sri Lanka Euro 1

Taipei,China US Tier 1 US Tier 2 for dieselg

Thailand Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 E4

Viet Nam Euro 2 E4

Italics – under discussiona – gasolineb – dieselc – Entire countryd – Delhi and other cities; Euro 2 introduced in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai in 2001; Euro 2 in Bangalore, Hyderabad, Khampur, Pune and Ahmedabad in 2003, Euro 3 to be introducede – Beijing and Guangzhou (as of 01 September 2006) have adopted Euro 3 standards; Shanghai has requested the approval of the State Council for implementation of Euro 3 f – Euro 4 for gasoline vehicles and California ULEV standards for diesel vehiclesg – Gasoline vehicles under consideration


Land-use Planning and Transportation

• Land-use planning, perhaps the most powerful regulatory tool that can be used to address vehicular emissions, is still seldom used by most Asian countries

• Governments and development institutions have started to place an increasing emphasis on urban transportation issues, particularly on public transportation

• International organizations have acknowledged the direct relationship between climate change mitigation and the promotion of public transportation and have initiated several projects on this

• Several countries in Asia have now started to develop sustainable urban transportation policies promoting public transportation, i.e. Bus-rapid transit

• In China, the Vice Minister of Construction, Qui Baoxing, has ordered city authorities to improve and maintain cycling facilities and in to order to restore the country’s title as the "kingdom of bicycles"


The 6-lane Cheonggyecheon highway will soon be transformed into a riverscape

Paradigm shift in urban & transportation planning (1)

Seoul - Asia’s Big Dig


• Nihonbashi, one of the main historic areas in Tokyo sits oppressed under an eight-lane expressway

• It was once the point from which distances in Japan were measured

• A government project is now looking at ways to restore Nihonbashi’s old look

• The recommendation is to transfer 2km of the Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway underground and create space along the river for waterside life

• The committee looking at this issue believe that restoring the Nihonbashi area's cityscape to its original state serves as a basic guideline for urban renewal plans to be put together in the future

Paradigm shift in urban & transportation planning (2)


Bus Rapid Transit in Asia

Akita, JapanAnkara, TurkeyBeijing, ChinaFukuoka, JapanGifu, JapanHangzhou, China

Jakarta, Indonesia Kanazuwa, JapanKunming, China Miyazaki, JapanNagaoka, JapanNagoya, Japan

Nigata, JapanSeoul, South KoreaShijiazhuang, China Taipei,China

Systems in operation (16):

Systems in planning or under construction (25):Ahmedabad, India Bangalore, IndiaBangkok, Thailand Chengdu, China Chongqing, ChinaColombo, Sri-LankaDelhi, IndiaGuangzhou, China

Huai’an, ChinaHyderabad, IndiaIncheon, South Korea Jinan, ChinaKarachi, PakistanMakati City, PhilippinesMetro Manila, PhilippinesPune, India Shanghai, China

Shengyan, ChinaSurabaya, IndonesiaT’aichung, ChinaT’ainan, China Tienjing, ChinaWuhan, ChinaXi’an, ChinaXiamen, China

“Overall, more cities are now planning or building BRT systems in Asia than cities planning or constructing subway or light rail lines”

Note: List as of October 2006


China and India Urban Transportation Policy

• Both China, P.R. and India have developed policies that call for the integration of transport system plans with urban development, equitable allocation of road space and increased investments on public transportation, including BRT, rail and non-motorized transportation:– The National Development and Reform Commission

(NDRC) Guideline states that the 11th Five-Year Plan of China, P.R. which started in 2006 will prioritize the development of public transportation with mass rapid transit (MRT) as a key transport mode in mega cities.

– The 2006 Indian National Urban Transport Policy vision is to “recognize that people occupy center-stage in our (Indian) cities and all plans would be for their common benefit and well being” i.e., invest on more on transport systems that encourage greater use of public transport and non-motorized modes instead of personal motor vehicles


Retrofitting Buses

• Seoul has implemented a comprehensive project on retrofitting all its buses with after-treatment devices in Seoul, Incheon and Gyeonggi – In 2005, over 29,000 vehicles were fitted with either

diesel particulate filters or DOCs, according to the class of vehicle.

– The scheme has now entered its Main Program phase, and in 2006 a further 83,000 vehicles will be fitted with after-treatment devices

• In Tokyo, a program which started in 1999 has paved the way for the wide circulation of low sulfur diesel fuel and continuous regeneration DPFs

• Several cities like Beijing, Bangkok, and Pune have pursued pilot projects on retrofitting


2-Stroke Gasoline Rickshaws

• Several Asian cities have a big problem with emissions from 2-stroke gasoline three-wheelers

• A trend has emerged on the complete ban of 2-stroke three-wheelers in several Asian cities:– In Delhi, 2-stroke rickshaws have

been banned in favor of 4-stroke rickshaws that run on CNG and is now 100% free from 2-stroke gasoline rickshaws

– In Kathmandu, a similar ban has been effected and prohibits the operations of such vehicles in the valley

– Dhaka no longer allows the operations of 2-stroke rickshaws in the city

– In Lahore start has been made in banning 2-stroke rickshaws and Karachi is considering it

• Jakarta has introduced CNG bajajs in the city and have started to ban 2-stroke rickshaws


Electric bikes in China, P.R.

•Electric bikes in China increased from only 40,000 in 1998 to 10 million in 2005

•Sales increased from about 7.5 million units in in 2004 to 10 million units in 2005

•This dramatic growth has been largely due to legislation banning gasoline fuelled scooters and bicycles, introduced from 1996 onwards in several major Chinese cities

•The most problematic issue with electric bikes is the use of lead acid batteries that have high lead loss rates during the production, manufacturing and recycling processes

Sources: ADB, 2006; Cherry, 2006; Weinert, 2006


Natural Gas Vehicles

• Emphasis have been on gasoline vehicle conversions to run on CNG in the past

• A trend towards replacing diesel-fed public transportation modes with CNG is being adopted by several Asian countries

• Several Asian countries, like Pakistan, India, and Indonesia have aggressively adopted measures to convert their existing 2-stroke rickshaws to CNG

Country Total Cars Buses Trucks

Pakistan 1,000,000

India 248,000 207,000

10,146

China 127,120 66,440 32,369 100

Bangladesh

42,178 22,178 1023 3

Japan 27,605 10,984 1,205 14,507

Malaysia 18,300 18,300

Thailand 14,796 14,433 140 223

Number of NGVs in selected

Asian countries

Source: Asian NGV Communications, Vol 1 Num 6, August 2006


Biofuels

Ethanol• China and India are now the world’s third and fourth

producers of ethanol in the world and accounted for a combined 5.4 billion liters in 2004

• As of July 2006, gasohol use in Thailand (E10) reached 3.5 million liters daily and available at 3,000 pump stations nationwide– a government mandate in 2007 will require the complete replacement of benzene octane 95 (petrol 95) with E10 and E20 blend will be introduced in 2009

• The Philippines is considering to mandate E5 gasoline by 2007 and to E10 by 2010

Biodiesel• Biodiesel production have increased in Asia, particularly in

Southeast Asia in the past years, with Malaysia and Indonesia leading the production of palm oils worldwide

• The Philippines and Thailand have adopted policies that could lead to mandating as much as 10% of biodiesel blend in marketed fuel

• The Philippines have already mandated a 1% blend of coco-methyl ester in diesel for government vehiclesSources: ADB, 2006; and http://thailand.prd.go.th/the_pm_view.php?id=1621


Stationary Sources: Standards• Although countries in Asia have Industrial Emission Standards in

place, their implementation and monitoring is generally weak and needs to be strengthened

• Compliance to stationary standards is hindered by lack of access to resources allowing for investments in pollution control, low level of technology, non-availability of trained personnel, and the unwillingness of management to invest in environmental protection

• Many countries have substantial number of small and medium-sized industries interspersed in residential areas making it more difficult to monitor and regulate these sources

The Philippine Outsourcing Sampling Project showed:

• 49% of the 795 stacks reported failed the CAA standard for at least one parameter

• Sources firing heavy bunker fuel oil are exceeding the SO2 and PM emission limits

• Gensets (compression engines) are exceeding the NOx emission limit

• Solid fuel-fired units are exceeding the CO emission limit

PM28.8%

CO14.8%

NOX

5%

SO2

51%

Pb0.2%

% distribution of parameters failed by the sources sampled


• While international roadmaps for vehicular emissions are in place, stationary sources standards are not readily available for comparison thus absence of roadmaps makes it difficult to promote stricter standards.

• With the exception of the UNEP GERIAP (which has ended), there are very few regional initiatives and programs on stationary sources compared to mobile sources which have resulted in lesser exchanges and policy-dialogues

• Reduction of air pollution from stationary sources in Asia are still mostly "end-of-pipe" treatments: – tightening emission standards for stationary sources, – Mandatory use of clean fuel – Monitoring and inspection systems – Relocation of polluting industries

• There is no comprehensive policy on fuels for stationary sources but there is an emerging trend on use of low-sulfur coal, specifically in China, but actions to reduce sulfur content of bunker oil are still largely absent and there are few regulatory or financial incentives for industry to invest in sulfur-emissions abatement

Stationary Sources: Control Strategies (1)


• Emissions trading – pilot projects have been implemented in China but there are no indications that this will be a major control instruments for stationary sources in the next 5-10 years in Asia

• The availability of carbon financing through the CDM has created especially in for stationary sources a new opportunity to accelerate industries’ acceptance of efficiency investments. This has sparked off:– Improved (base-line) monitoring of emissions– Structural shifts to new, less energy-intensive industrial

products – Reducing the energy intensity of existing industrial production

through process changes and optimizing industrial energy systems.

• Although China, India, Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia all increasingly rely on coal and oil for electricity, they have also all established national goals to increase renewable energy and improve energy efficiency.

Stationary Sources: Control Strategies (2)


SO2 Control in China, P.R.• In the 11th Five-year plan, SO2 emission reduction is the emphasis of

air pollution prevention and control and states that the emissions of sulfur dioxide should be reduced by 10% by 2010

• The three principal components of existing SO2 emissions control policy are:– Pollution Levy System (PLS), which is based on the polluter pays

principle– Two Control Areas (TCA), is not an instrument like the pollution

levy for affecting abatement behavior, but rather a means for prioritizing SO2 control efforts, designating the standards, and identifying cities and regions that should receive extra attention and resources from the national government

– Total Emissions Control (TEC) limits the polluters to discharge under a specified level and levies the charge when any pollution is discharged

• China has been engaged in sweeping energy policy reforms over the last two decades to promote energy efficiency and conservation. Measures taken include the following: reductions in fossil fuel subsidies; research, development and demonstration projects; a national information network with efficiency service and training centers; tax reforms; equipment standards; and special loan programs, among other initiatives. These measures represent emission savings equal to nearly the entire U.S. transportation sector, about 400 million tons per year.


Cobenefits Approach to AQM and GHG Mitigation

• There are promising areas for application of cobenefits in Asia (e.g. power generation, industrial energy use, sustainable transport and household energy use)

• Countries have started to acknowledge that the cobenefits approach to urban air quality management and climate change mitigation will provide substantial local and global benefits in the long and short-term

• There is an emerging consortium of organization working on cobenefits – (e.g. IGES, OECC, USEPA, CARB, etc) and develop joint programs and activities to further develop and apply the co-benefits framework in Asia


Finally: …….Court Case in Lahore for AQ Improvement

Process • A public interest environmental litigation was filed against

vehicular air pollution at the Lahore High Court in 1997 and in 2003, the case was re-opened by Justice Sair Ali of the Lahore High Court and took it as a high priority concern

• The LAHORE CLEAN AIR COMMISSION (LCAC) was subsequently created, composed of lawyers, EPD, City Government, Punjab Government, City Mayor (Nazim), environmental scientists and civil society members, and tasked to prepare a report to control emissions from mobile sources

• A national workshop on UAQM was organized in December 2004 that included international experts from all over the world to assist in the formulation of the solutions and measures called for by the Court

Impact • The set of measures identified in the workshop was submitted

to the High Court and scheduled for implementation• 2-stroke rickshaws have now been banned in several areas in

the city and air quality is reported to have improved • Diesel fuelled public transport vehicles are to be banned


Conclusions (2)

Contacts:

Glynda Bathan, [email protected]

Cornie Huizenga, [email protected]

www.cleanairnet.org/caiasia

Date post:	11-Nov-2014
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Status of Urban Air Quality Management in Asia

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