Steam power plant 2

STEAM POWER PLANT 151

Following factors should be considered while selecting a suitable combustion equipment for aparticular type of fuel :

(i) Grate area required over which the fuel burns.(ii) Mixing arrangement for air and fuel.

(iii) Amount of primary and secondary air required.(iv) Arrangement to counter the effects of caping in fuel or of low ash fusion temperature.(v) Dependability and easier operation.

(vi) Operating and maintenance cost.

4.5 METHOD OF FUEL FIRING

The solid fuels are fired into the furnace by the following methods :1. Hand firing. 2. Mechanical firing.

4.5.1 HAND FIRING

This is a simple method of firing coal into the furnace. It requires no capital investment. It is usedfor smaller plants. This method of fuel firing is discontinuous process, and there is a limit to the size offurnace which can be efficiently fired by this method. Adjustments are to be made every time for thesupply of air when fresh coal is fed into furnace.

Hand Fired Grates. A hand fired grate is used to support the fuel bed and admit air for combus-tion. While burning coal the total area of air openings varies from 30 to 50% of the total grate area. Thegrate area required for an installation depends upon various factors such as its heating surface, the rating atwhich it is to be operated and the type of fuel burnt by it. The width of air openings varies from 3 to 12 mm.

The construction of the grate should be such that it is kept uniformly cool by incoming air. Itshould allow ash to pass freely. Hand fired grates are made up of cast iron. The various types of handfired grates are shown in Fig. 4.10. In large furnaces vertical shaking grates of circular type are used.

Tuper grate

Common Grate Bar

Sawdust Grate

Fig. 4.10. Various Types of Hand Fired Grates.

152 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

The main characteristic of a grate fired furnaces are the heat liberation per unit of grate area andper unit of volume. The heat liberation per unit area of fire grate area is calculated as follows:

H = (W × C)/Awhere H = Heat liberation per unit of fire grate area

W = Rate of fuel consumption (kg/sec) C = Lower heating value of fuel (kcal/kg) A = Fire grate area (m2)The heat liberation per unit of furnace volume is given by the following expression:

H = (W × C)/V where H = Heat liberation per unit volume

W = Rate of fuel consumption (kg/sec)C = Lower heating value of fuel (kcal/kg)V = Volume of furnace (m3).

These two characteristics depend on the following factors : (i) Grade of fuel (ii) Design of furnace(iii) Method of combustion.

Ash pit

FurnaceSpace

Fig. 4.11. Hand Fire Grate Furnace.

Fig. 4.11 shows a hand fire grate furnace with a stationary fuel bed. The grate divides it into thefurnace space in which the fuel is fired and an ash pit through which the necessary air required for com-bustion is supplied. The grate is arranged horizontally and supports a stationary bed of burning fuel.

The fuel is charged by hand through the fire door. The total space in the grate used for thepassage of air is called its useful section.

In a hand fired furnace the fuel is periodically shovelled on to the fuel bed burning on the grate,and is heated up by the burning fuel and hot masonry of the furnace. The fuel dries, and then evolvesgaseous matter (volatiles combustibles) which rise into the furnace space and mix with air and burnforming a flame. The fuel left on the grate gradually transforms into coke and burns-up. Ash remains onthe grate which drops through it into ash pit from which it is removed at regular intervals. Hand firedfurnaces are simple in design and can burn the fuel successfully but they have some disadvantages alsomentioned below:


(i) The efficiency of a hand fired furnace is low.(ii) Attending to furnace requires hard manual labour.

(iii) Study process of fuel feed is not maintained.Cleaning of hand fired furnaces may be mechanized by use of rocking grate bars as shown in

Fig. 4.12. The grate bars loosen the slag and cause some of it to drop together with the ash into thebunker without disturbing the process of combustion.

Lever

Grate bars

Fig. 4.12. Rocking Grate Bars.

4.5.2 MECHANICAL FIRING (STOKERS)

Mechanical stokers are commonly used to feed solid fuels into the furnace in medium andlarge size power plants.

The various advantages of stoker firing are as follows :(i) Large quantities of fuel can be fed into the furnace. Thus greater combustion capacity is

achieved.(ii) Poorer grades of fuel can be burnt easily.

(iii) Stoker save labour of handling ash and are self-cleaning.(iv) By using stokers better furnace conditions can be maintained by feeding coal at a uni-

form rate.(v) Stokers save coal and increase the efficiency of coal firing. The main disadvantages of

stokers are their more costs of operation and repairing resulting from high furnacetemperatures.

Principles of Stokers. The working of various types of stokers is based on the following twoprinciples:

1. Overfeed Principle. Accordingto this principle (Fig. 4.13) the pri-mary air enters the grate from the bot-tom. The air while moving throughthe grate openings gets heated up andair while moving through the grateopenings gets heated up and the grateis cooled.

Fig. 4.13. Stokers


The hot air that moves through a layer of ash and picks up additional energy. The air then passesthrough a layer of incandescent coke where oxygen reacts with coke to form-C02 and water vapoursaccompanying the air react with incandescent coke to form CO2, CO and free H2. The gases leaving thesurface of fuel bed contain volatile matter of raw fuel and gases like CO2, CO, H2, N2 and H2O. Thenadditional air known as secondary air is supplied to burn the combustible gases. The combustion gasesentering the boiler consist of N2, CO2, O2 and H2O and also CO if the combustion is not complete.

2. Underfeed Principle. Fig. 4.14 shows underfeed principle. In underfeed principle air enter-ing through the holes in the grate comes in contact with the raw coal (green coal).

Fig. 4.14. Underfeed Principle.

Then it passes through the incandescent coke where reactions similar to overfeed system takeplace. The gases produced then passes through a layer of ash. The secondary air is supplied to burn thecombustible gases. Underfeed principle is suitable for burning the semi-bituminous and bituminouscoals.

Types of Stokers. The various types of stokers are as follows:

Stokers

Overfeed Overfeed

ConveyorStoker

SpreaderStoker

Single RetortStoker

Multi-RetortStoker

Chain GrateStoker

Travelling GrateStoker

Fig. 4.15. Various Tyles of Stokers.

Charging of fuel into the furnace is mechanized by means of stokers of various types. They areinstalled above the fire doors underneath the bunkers which supply the fuel. The bunkers receive thefuel from a conveyor.

(i) Chain Grate Stoker. Chain grate stoker and traveling grate stoker differ only in grate con-struction. A chain grate stoker (Fig. 4.16) consists of an endless chain which forms a support for thefuel bed.

Primary air

Secondary air

IncandescentCoke

Green Coal

FlamesAsh


CoalHopper

FrontSprocket

Air Ports

ChainGrate

AirInlets Ash

Fig. 4.16. Chain Grate Stoker.

The chain travels over two sprocket wheels, one at the front and one at the rear of furnace. Thetraveling chain receives coal at its front end through a hopper and carries it into the furnace. The ash istipped from the rear end of chain. The speed of grate (chain) can be adjusted to suit the firing condition.The air required for combustion enters through the air inlets situated below the grate. Stokers are usedfor burning non-coking free burning high volatile high ash coals. Although initial cost of this stoker ishigh but operation and maintenance cost is low.

The traveling grate stoker also uses an endless chain but differs in that it carries small grate barswhich actually support the fuel fed. It is used to burn lignite, very small sizes of anthracites coke breezeetc.

The stokers are suitable for low ratings because the fuel must be burnt before it reaches the rearof the furnace. With forced draught, rate of combustion is nearly 30 to 50 lb of coal per square foot ofgrate area per hour, for bituminous 20 to 35 pounds per square foot per hour for anthracite.

Refuse Pit AirAir Duct

Over FireAir

CoalHopper

Feeder

Spreader

Fig. 4.17. Spreader Stoker.

(ii) Spreader Stoker. A spreader stoker is shown in Fig. 4.17. In this stoker the coal from thehopper is fed on to a feeder which measures the coal in accordance to the requirements. Feeder is arotating drum fitted with blades. Feeders can be reciprocating rams, endless belts, spiral worms etc.From the feeder the coal drops on to spreader distributor which spread the coal over the furnace. Thespreader system should distribute the coal evenly over the entire grate area. The spreader speed de-pends on the size of coal.


AdvantagesThe various advantages of spreader stoker are as follows :1. Its operation cost is low.2. A wide variety of coal can be burnt easily by this stoker.3. A thin fuel bed on the grate is helpful in meeting the fluctuating loads.4. Ash under the fire is cooled by the incoming air and this minimizes clinkering.5. The fuel burns rapidly and there is little coking with coking fuels.

Disadvantages1. The spreader does not work satisfactorily with varying size of coal.2. In this stoker the coal burns in suspension and due to this fly ash is discharged with flue gases

which requires an efficient dust collecting equipment.

Ash

ForcedAir Duct

PushersWind Box

InletDamper

Extension

TuyeresCoalHopper

StokerRam

Fig. 4.18. Multi-retort Stoker.

(iii) Multi-retort Stoker. A multi-retort stoker is shown in Fig. 4.18. The coal falling from thehopper is pushed forward during the inward stroke of stoker ram. The distributing rams (pushers) thenslowly move the entire coal bed down the length of stoker. The length of stroke of pushers can bevaried as desired. The slope of stroke helps in moving the fuel bed and this fuel bed movement keeps itslightly agitated to break up clinker formation. The primary air enters the fuel bed from main wind boxsituated below the stoker. Partly burnt coal moves on to the extension grate. A thinner fuel bed on theextension grate requires lower air pressure under it. The air entering from the main wind box into theextension grate wind box is regulated by an air damper.

As sufficient amount of coal always remains on the grate, this stoker can be used under largeboilers (upto 500,000 lb per hr capacity) to obtain high rates of combustion. Due to thick fuel bed theair supplied from the main wind box should be at higher pressure.

4.6 AUTOMATIC BOILER CONTROL

By means of automatic combustion control it becomes easy to maintain a constant steam pres-sure and uniform furnace draught and supply of air or fuel can be regulated to meet the changes in


steam demand. The boiler operation becomes more flexible and better efficiency of combustion isachieved. This saves manual labour also.

Hagan system of automatic combustion control is shown in Fig. 4.19. Master relay R1, is sensi-tive to small vanations in steam pressure and is connected to steam pressure gauge.

Boiler

CombustionChamber

Stoker

DraftConnections

Fan Vanes

FanVanes

StokerMotor

Hand RegulatorAir supply

Air supply

Relay

Air supply

MasterRelay

Steam PressureGauge

HandRegulator

SecondaryAir Fan

I. D.Fan

F. D. Fan

R1

Fig. 4.19. Hagan System of Automatic Combustion Control.

A fall in pressure operates the master relay R1 which in turn operates the servomotor coupled tothe vanes of the induced draught (LD) fan to open them slightly and simultaneously the secondary airfan damper gets opened proportionately. By this readjustment of induced draught takes place and stabi-lized conditions in the combustion chamber get changed. These changes operate relay R2 to alter theposition of forced draught fan servo-motor to adjust the position of forced draught fan vanes so thatstable conditions in combustion chamber are maintained. This change causes more air to flow throughpassage which in turn operates relay R3. This causes stoker motor to supply extra fuel into the furnace.In case of an increase of pressure of steam the above process is reversed. Hand regulators are providedto servo motors and master relay for manual control of system.

4.7 PULVERIZED COAL

Coal is pulverized (powdered) to increase its surface exposure thus permitting rapid com-bustion. Efficient use of coal depends greatly on the combustion process employed.

For large scale generation of energy the efficient method of burning coal is confined still topulverized coal combustion. The pulverized coal is obtained by grinding the raw coal in pulverisingmills. The various pulverising mills used are as follows:

(i) Ball mill (ii) Hammer mill(iii) Ball and race mill (iv) Bowl mill.The essential functions of pulverising mills are as follows: (i) Drying of the coal (ii) Grinding(iii) Separation of particles of the desired size.Proper drying of raw coal which may contain moisture is necessary for effective grinding.


The coal pulverising mills reduce coal to powder form by three actions as follows:(i) Impact (ii) Attrition (abrasion) (iii) Crushing.Most of the mills use all the above mentioned all the three actions in varying degrees. In impact

type mills hammers break the coal into smaller pieces whereas in attrition type the coal pieces whichrub against each other or metal surfaces to disintegrate. In crushing type mills coal caught betweenmetal rolling surfaces gets broken into pieces. The crushing mills use steel balls in a container. Theseballs act as crushing elements.

Feeder

Classifiers

Hot Air

ExhausterFan

To Burner

Drum

Fig. 4.20

4.7.1 BALL MILL

A line diagram of ball mill using two classifiers is shown in Fig. 4.21. It consists of a slowlyrotating drum which is partly filled with steel balls. Raw coal from feeders is supplied to the classifiersfrom where it moves to the drum by means of a screw conveyor.

Pulverised Coalto Burners

Rawcoal Feed

RotatingClassifier

Spring

Upperrace

Hot PrimaryAir Supply

LowerRace

Worm

Gear

Hot PrimaryAir Supply

GrindingElements

Ball

Fig. 4.21. Ball Mill.


As the drum rotates the coal gets pulverized due to the combined impact between coal and steelballs. Hot air is introduced into the drum. The powdered coal is picked up by the air and the coal airmixture enters the classifiers, where sharp changes in the direction of the mixture throw out the over-sized coal particles. The over-sized particles are returned to the drum. The coal air mixture from theclassifier moves to the exhauster fan and then it is supplied to the burners.

4.7.2 BALL AND RACE MILL

Fig. 4.22 shows a ball and race mill. In this mill the coal passes between the rotating elementsagain and again until it has been pulverized to desired degree of fineness. The coal is crushed between twomoving surfaces namely balls and races. The upper stationary race and lower rotating race driven by aworm and gear hold the balls between them. The raw coal supplied falls on the inner side of the races. Themoving balls and races catch coal between them to crush it to a powder. The necessary force needed forcrushing is applied with the help of springs. The hot air supplied picks up the coal dust as it flows betweenthe balls and races, and then enters the classifier. Where oversized coal particles are returned for furthergrinding, where as the coal particles of required size are discharged from the top of classifier.

In this mill coal is pulverized by a combination of' crushing, impact and attrition between thegrinding surfaces. The advantages of this mill are as follows :

(i) Lower capital cost (ii) Lower power consumption(iii) Lower space required (iv) Lower weight.However in this mill there is greater wear as compared to other pulverizes.The use of pulverized coal has now become the standard method of firing in the large boilers.

The pulverized coal burns with some advantages that result in economic and flexible operation ofsteam boilers.

Preparation of pulverized fuel with an intermediate bunker is shown in Fig. 4.22. The fuelmoves to the automatic balance and then to the feeder and ball mill through which hot air is blown. Itdries the pulverized coal and carries it from the mill to separator.

Fig. 4.22. Ball and Race Mill.

The air fed to the ball mill is heated in the air heater. In the separator dust (fine pulverized coal)is separated from large coal particles which are returned to the ball mill for regrinding. The dust movesto the cyclone. Most of the dust (about 90%) from cyclone moves to bunker. The remaining dust ismixed with air and fed to the burner.

Separator CycloneIntermediate Bunker

Burner

Bunker

AutomaticBalance

Feeder

Ball MillAir Heater

Blower


Coal is generally ground in low speed ball tube mill. It is filled to 20-35% of its volume. Withsteel balls having diameter varying from 30-60 mm. The steel balls crush and ground the lumps of coal.The average speed of rotation of tube or drum is about 18-20 r.p.m. [Fig. 4.23].

Fig. 4.23

AdvantagesThe advantages of using pulverized coal are as follows :1. It becomes easy to burn wide variety of coal. Low grade coal can be burnt easily.2. Powdered coal has more heating surface area. They permits rapids and high rates of combus-

tion.3. Pulverized coal firing requires low percentage of excess air.4. By using pulverized coal, rate of combustion can be adjusted easily to meet the varying load.5. The system is free from clinker troubles.6. It can utilize highly preheated air (of the order of 700°F) successfully which promotes rapid

flame propagation.7. As the fuel pulverising equipment is located outside the furnace, therefore it can be repaired

without cooling the unit down.8. High temperature can be produced in furnace.

Disadvantages1. It requires additional equipment to pulverize the coal. The initial and maintenance cost of the

equipment is high.2. Pulverized coal firing produces fly ash (fine dust) which requires a separate fly ash removal

equipment.3. The furnace for this type of firing has to be carefully designed to withstand for burning the

pulverized fuel because combustion takes place while the fuel is in suspension.4. The flame temperatures are high and conventional types of refractory lined furnaces are inad-

equate. It is desirable to provide water cooled walls for the safety of the furnaces.5. There are more chances of explosion as coal burns like a gas.6. Pulverized fuel fired furnaces designed to burn a particular type of coal can not be used to any

other type of coal with same efficiency.7. The size of coal is limited. The particle size of coal used in pulverized coal furnace is limited

to 70 to 100 microns.

Fuel In

Hot AirDust Out

Armour


4.7.3 SHAFT MILL

Fig. 4.24 shows fuel pulverization with a shaft mill. The fuel from bunker is moved to feeder viaautomatic balance. Then from duct fuel goes to mill where it is crushed by beaters secured on thespindle of the mill rotor.

Bunker

Automaticbalance

Feeder

Duct

Shaft

Mill

Air duct

Hole

Fig. 4.24. Pulverization with a Shaft Mill.

The pulverised fuel is dried up and then blown into shaft by hot air. Secondary air is deliveredinto the furnace through holes to burn the fuel completely.

4.8 PULVERISED COAL FIRING

Pulverised coal firing is done by two system :(i) Unit System or Direct System.(ii) Bin or Central System.Unit System. In this system (Fig. 4.25) the raw coal from the coal bunker drops on to the feeder.

Raw CoalBanker

Feeder

Hot AirFan

PulverisingMill

Burner

Secondary AirPrimary Air

Coal

Furnace

Fig. 4.25. Unit or Direct System.


Insulating ConcreteExpanded Metal LathHigh Temp Plastic

InsulationMagnesia BlockCasing

Touching tubes

CastRefractory BrickInsulation

BlanketInsulation

Casing

Half radiant cast refrectory

Tubes

Flat refractoryTileHigh Temperature

Insulating Brick

Magnesia Block

Casing

Tangent tubes-flat files.

Fig. 4.32. Various Water Walls Arrangement.

The tubes are attached with the refractory materials on the inside or partially embedded into it.Fig. 4.32 shows the various water walls arrangement.

4.11 ASH DISPOSAL

A large quantity of ash is, produced in steam power plants using coal. Ash produced in about 10to 20% of the total coal burnt in the furnace. Handling of ash is a problem because ash coming out ofthe furnace is too hot, it is dusty and irritating to handle and is accompanied by some poisonous gases.It is desirable to quench the ash before handling due to following reasons:

1. Quenching reduces the temperature of ash.2. It reduces the corrosive action of ash.3. Ash forms clinkers by fusing in large lumps and by quenching clinkers will disintegrate.4. Quenching reduces the dust accompanying the ash.Handling of ash includes its removal from the furnace, loading on the conveyors and delivered

to the fill from where it can be disposed off.


4.11.1 ASH HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Mechanical means are required for the disposal of ash. The handling equipment should performthe following functions:

(1) Capital investment, operating and maintenance charges of the equipment should be low.(2) It should be able to handle large quantities of ash.(3) Clinkers, soot, dust etc. create troubles, the equipment should be able to handle them smoothly.(4) The equipment used should remove the ash from the furnace, load it to the conveying system

to deliver the ash to a dumping site or storage and finally it should have means to dispose of the storedash.

(5) The equipment should be corrosion and wear resistant.Fig. 4.33 shows a general layout of ash handling and dust collection system. The commonly

used ash handling systems are as follows :

Ash

AshHandlingSystems

FurnaceChimney

I DFan

Dust, Soot,Fly Ash

Collector

Ash DischargeEquipment

Fig. 4.33. Ash Handling and Dust Collections System.

(i) Hydraulic system (ii) pneumatic system(iii) Mechanical system.The commonly used ash discharge equipment is as follows: (i) Rail road cars (ii) Motor truck(iii) Barge.The various methods used for the disposal of ash are as follows :(i) Hydraulic System. In this system, ash from the furnace grate falls into a system of water

possessing high velocity and is carried to the sumps. It is generally used in large power plants. Hydrau-lic system is of two types namely low pressure hydraulic system used for continuous removal of ashand high pressure system which is used for intermittent ash disposal. Fig. 4.34 shows hydraulic system.


Boilers

Water

Boilers

Sumps

Fig. 4.34. Hydraulic System.

In this method water at sufficient pressure is used to take away the ash to sump. Where waterand ash are separated. The ash is then transferred to the dump site in wagons, rail cars or trucks. Theloading of ash may be through a belt conveyor, grab buckets. If there is an ash basement with ashhopper the ash can fall, directly in ash car or conveying system.

(ii) Water Jetting. Water jetting of ash is shown in Fig. 4.35. In this method a low pressure jetof water coming out of the quenching nozzle is used to cool the ash. The ash falls into a trough and isthen removed.

(iii) Ash Sluice Ways and Ash Sump System. This system shown diagrammatically in Fig.4.36 used high pressure (H.P. ) pump to supply high pressure (H.P.) water-jets which carry ash from thefurnace bottom through ash sluices (channels) constructed in basement floor to ash sump fitted withscreen. The screen divides the ash sump into compartments for coarse and fine ash. The fine ash passesthrough the screen and moves into the dust sump (D.S. ). Dust slurry pump (D.S. pump) carries the dustthrough dust pump (D.P), suction pipe and dust delivery (D.D.) pipe to the disposal site. Overheadcrane having grab bucket is used to remove coarse ash. A.F.N represents ash feeding nozzle and S.B.N.represents sub way booster nozzle and D.A. means draining apron.

(iv) Pneumatic system. In this system (Fig. 4.37) ash from the boiler furnace outlet falls into acrusher where larger ash particles are crushed to small sizes. The ash is then carried by a high velocityair or steam to the point of delivery. Air leaving the ash separator is passed through filter to remove dustetc. so that the exhauster handles clean air which will protect the blades of the exhauster.

Furnace

Stoker

Quenching Nozzle

Ash

T. RoughWater Jetting

Fig. 4.35. Water Jetting of Ash.


D. P. SuctionPipe

Ash SumpAsh SluiceWay

S. B. N.

H. P. Pump

H. P. Water Piping

BraHopper

Overhead Crane

D. D. Pipe

D. S. Pump

Dust FromPrecipitator

Overflow

D. A.

G. B.

A.F.N.Screen

D.S.

Fig. 4.36. Ash Sump System.

(v) Mechanical ash handling system. Fig. 4.38 shows a mechanical ash handling system. Inthis system ash cooled by water seal falls on the belt conveyor and is carried out continuously to thebunker. The ash is then removed to the dumping site from the ash bunker with the help of trucks.

Filter Exhauster

AshSeparators

Ash Hopper

Boilers

Chrusher

BoilerFurnaces

Belt Conveyor

Water TroughAsh

Bunker

Truck

Fig. 4.37. Pneumatic System. Fig. 4.38. Mechanical Ash Handling.


Efficient Combustion of Coal. The factors which affect the efficient combustion of coal are asfollows :

1. Type of coal. The important factors which are considered for the selection of coal are asfollows :

(i) Sizing (ii) Caking(iii) Swelling properties(iv) Ash fusion temperature. The characteristics which control the selection of coal for a particular combustion equipment

are as follows :(i) Size of coal

(ii) Ultimate and proximate analysis(iii) Resistance of degradation(iv) Grindability(v) Caking characteristics

(vi) Slagging characteristics(vii) Deterioration during storage

(viii) Corrosive characteristics(ix) Ash Content.The average ash content in Indian coal is about 20%. It is therefore desirable to design the

furnace in such a way as to burn the coal of high ash content. The high ash content in coal has thefollowing:

(i) It reduces thermal efficiency of the boiler as loss of heat through unburnt carbon, ex-cessive clinker formation and heat in ashes is considerably high.

(ii) There is difficulty of hot ash disposal.(iii) It increases size of plant.(iv) It increases transportation cost of fuel per unit of heat produced.(v) It makes the control difficult due to irregular combustion. High as content fuels can be

used more economically in pulverised form. Pulverised fuel burning increases the ther-mal efficiency as high as 90% and controls can be simplified by just adjusting theposition of burners in pulverised fuel boilers. The recent steam power plants in Indiaare generally designed to use the pulverised coal.

2. Type of Combustion equipment. It includes the following:(i) Type of furnace

(ii) Method of coal firing such as :(a) Hand firing(b) Stoker firing(c) Pulverised fuel firing.

(iii) Method of air supply to the furnace. It is necessary to provide adequate quantity ofsecondary air with sufficient turbulence.


(iv) Type of burners used.(v) Mixing arrangement of fuel and air.

The flames over the bed are due to the burning of volatile gases, lower the volatile content in thecoal, shorter will be the flame. If the volatiles burn up intensely high temperature is generated over thefurnace bed and helps to burn the carbon completely and vice versa.

For complete burning of volatiles and prevent unburnt carbon going with ash adequate quantityof secondary air with sufficient turbulence should be provided.

4.12 SMOKE AND DUST REMOVAL

In coal fed furnaces the products of combustion contain particles of solid matter floating insuspension. This may be smoke or dust. The production of smoke indicates that combustion conditionsare faulty and amount of smoke produced can be reduced by improving the furnace design.

In spreader stokers and pulverised coal fired furnaces the coal is burnt in suspension and dueto this dust in the form of fly ash is produced. The size of dust particles is designated in microns (1 =0.001 mm). Dust particles are mainly ash particles called fly ash intermixed with some quantity ofcarbon ash material called cinders. Gas borne particles larger than 1 in diameter are called dust andwhen such particles become greater in size than 100p they are called cinders. Smoke is produced due tothe incomplete combustion of fuels, smoke particles are less than 10p in size.

The disposal smoke to the atmosphere is not desirable due to the following reasons :1. A smoky atmosphere is less healthful than smoke free air.2. Smoke is produced due to incomplete combustion of coal. This will create a big economic

loss due to loss of heating value of coal.3. In a smoky atmosphere lower standards of cleanliness are prevalent. Buildings, clothings,

furniture etc. becomes dirty due to smoke. Smoke corrodes the metals and darkens the paints.To avoid smoke nuisance the coal should be completely burnt in the furnace.The presence of dense smoke indicates poor furnace conditions and a loss in efficiency and

capacity of a boiler plant. A small amount of smoke leaving chimney shows good furnace conditionswhereas smokeless chimney does not necessarily mean a better efficiency in the boiler room.

To avoid the atmospheric pollution the fly ash must be removed from the gaseous products ofcombustion before they leaves the chimney.

The removal of dust and cinders from the flue gas is usually effected by commercial dust collec-tors which are installed between the boiler outlet and chimney usually in the chimney side of air preheater.

4.13 TYPES OF DUST COLLECTORS

The various types of dust collectors are as follows :1. Mechanical dust collectors.2. Electrical dust collectors.Mechanical dust collectors. Mechanical dust collectors are sub-divided into wet and dry types.

In wet type collectors also known as scrubbers water sprays are used to wash dust from the air. Thebasic principles of mechanical dust collectors are shown in Fig. 4.38. As shown in Fig. 4.39(a) byincreasing the cross-sectional area of duct through which dust laden gases are passing, the velocity of


gases is reduced and causes heavier dust particles to fall down. Changing the direction of flow[Fig. 4.39(b)] of flue gases causes the heavier particles of settle out. Sometime baffles are provided asshown in Fig. 4.39(c) to separate the heavier particles.

Mechanical dust collectors may be wet type or dry type. Wet type dust collectors called scrub-bers make use of water sprays to wash the dust from flue gases.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.39. Mechanical Dust Collector.

Dry type dust collectors include gravitational, cyclone, louvred and baffle dust collectors.A cyclone dust collector uses a downward flowing vortex for dust laden gases along the inner

walls. The clean gas leaves from an inner upward flowing vortex. The dust particles fall to the bottomdue to centrifuging action.

Electrostatic Precipitators. It has two sets of electrodes, insulated from each other that main-tain an electrostatic field between them at high voltage. The flue gases are made to pass between thesetwo sets of electrodes. The electric field ionises the dust particle; that pass through it attracting them tothe electrode of opposite charge. The other electrode is maintained at a negative potential of 30,000 to60,000 volts. The dust particles are removed from the collecting electrode by rapping the electrodeperiodically. The electrostatic precipitator is costly but has low maintenance cost and is frequentlyemployed with pulverised coal fired power stations for its effectiveness on very fine ash particles and issuperior to that of any other type.

The principal characteristics of an ash collector is the degree of collection.η = Degree of collection

= 1 2

1

(G G )G−

= 1 2

1

(C C )C−

whereGl = Quantity of ash entering an ash collector per unit time (kg/s)G2 = Quantity of uncollected ash passing through the collector per unit time (kg/s)Cl = Concentration of ash in the gases at the inlet to the ash collector (kg/m3)C2 = Ash concentration at the exist (kg/m3).


Depending on the type of fuel and the power of bailer the ash collection in industrial boilers andthermal power stations can be effected by mechanical ash collectors, fly ash scrubbers and electros-tatic precipitators.

For fly ash scrubbers of large importance is the content of free lime (CaO) in the ash. With ahigh concentration of CaO the ash can be cemented and impair the operation of a scrubber.

The efficiency of operation of gas cleaning devices depends largely on the physico-chemicalproperties of the collected ash and of the entering waste gases.

Following are the principal characteristics of the fly ash: (i) Density(ii) Dispersity (Particle size)(iii) Electric resistance (For electrostatic precipitators) (iv) Coalescence of ash particles.Due to increasing boiler size and low sulphur high ash content coal the problem of collecting fly

ash is becoming increasingly complex. Fly ash can range from very fine to very coarse size dependingon the source. Particles colour varies from light tan to grey to black. Tan colour indicates presence ofion oxide while dark shades indicate presence of unburnt carbon. Fly ash particles size varies be-tween 1. micron (l ) to 300 . Fly ash concentration in flue gases depends upon mainly the follow-ing factors :

(i) Coal composition.(ii) Boiler design and capacity.Percentage of ash in coal directly contributes to fly ash emission while boiler design and opera-

tion determine the percentage retained in the furnace as bottom ash and fly ash carried away by fluegas. Fly ash concentration widely varies around 20-90 g/mm3 depending on coal and boiler design. Flyash particle size distribution depends primarily on the type of boiler such as pulverised coal fired boilertypically produces coarser particles then cyclone type boilers. Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is quitecommonly used for removal of fly ash from flue gases.

4.13.1 FLY ASH SCRUBBER

Fig. 4.40 shows a fly wash centrifugal scrub-ber. It is similar to a mechanical ash collector buthas a flowing water film on its inner walls. Due tothis film, the collected ash is removed more rapidlyfrom the apparatus to the bin and there is less pos-sibility for secondary. Capture of collected dust par-ticles by the gas flow. The degree of ash collectionin scrubbers varies from 0.82 to 0.90. The dust ladengas enters through the inlet pipe.

Cinder Catcher. Cinder catcher is used toremove dust and cinders from the gas. In this catcherthe dust laden gas is made to strike a series of verti-cal baffles that change its direction and reduce its velocity. The separated dust and cinders fall to thehopper for removal. Cinder catchers are ordinarily used with stoker firing.

Baffles

Clean GasDust

LaddenGas

Dust Hopper

Dust

Fig. 4.40


4.13.2 FLUIDISED BED COMBUSTION (FBC)

Burning of pulverised coal has some problems such as particle size of coal used in pulver-ised firing is limited to 70-100 microns, the pulverised fuel fired furnances designed to burn a particu-lar can not be used other type of coal with same efficiency, the generation of high temp. about (1650 C)in the furnace creates number of problems like slag formation on super heater, evaporation of alkalimetals in ash and its deposition on heat transfer surfaces, formation of SO2 and NOX in large amount.

Fluidised Bed combustion system can burn any fuel including low grade coals (even containing70% ash), oil, gas or municipal waste. Improved desulphurisation and low NOX emission are its maincharacteristics. Fig. 4.41 shows basic principle of Fluidised bed combustion (FBC) system. The fueland inert material dolomite are fed on a distribution plate and air is supplied from the bottom of distri-bution plate. The air is supplied at high velocity so that solid feed material remains in suspensioncondition during burning. The heat produced is used to heat water flowing through the tube and convertwater into steam: During burning SO2 formed is absorbed by the dolomite and thus prevents its escapewith the exhaust gases. The molten slag is tapped from the top surface of the bed. The bed temperatureis nearly 800-900’C which is ideal for sulphur retention addition of limestone or dolomite to the bedbrings down SO2 emission level to about 15% of that in conventional firing methods.

Air

DistributorPlate

Fuel andDolomite

Steam

Flue Gases

Wall

Ash

Tubes

Water

Fig. 4.41

The amount of NOX is produced is also reduced because of low temperature of bed and lowexcess air as compared to pulverised fuel firing.

The inert material should be resistant to heat and disintegra-tion and should have similar densityas that of coal. Limestone, or dolomite, fused alumina, sintered ash are commonly used as inert materi-als.

Various advantages of FBC system are as follows:(i) FBC system can use any type of low grade fuel including municipal wastes and therefore is

a cheaper method of power generation.(ii) It is easier to control the amount of SO2 and NOX, formed during burning. Low emission of

SO2 and NOX. will help in controlling the undesirable effects of SO2 and NOX. during com-bustion. SO2 emission is nearly 15% of that in conventional firing methods.

(iii) There is a saving of about 10% in operating cost and 15% in the capital cost of the powerplant.


(iii) Ability to burn coal especially of high ash content, and inferior coals.(iv) Reduced environmental impact in terms of air pollution.(v) Reduced water requirement.

(vi) Higher reliability and availability.

4.3 COAL HANDLING

Coal delivery equipment is one of the major components of plant cost. The various steps in-volved in coal handling are as follows : (Fig. 4.2)

(i) Coal delivery (ii) Unloading(iii) Preparation (iv) Transfer(v) Outdoor storage (vi) Covered storage

(vii) In plant handling (viii) Weighing and measuring(ix) Feeding the coal into furnace.

Coal Delivery

Unloading

Preparation

Transfer

Outdoor Storage(Dead Storage)

Covered Storage(Live Storage)

Weighingand

Measuring

Furnace

In Plant Handling

Fig. 4.2. Steps in Coal Handling.

(i) Coal Delivery. The coal from supply points is delivered by ships or boats to power stationssituated near to sea or river whereas coal is supplied by rail or trucks to the power stations which aresituated away from sea or river. The transportation of coal by trucks is used if the railway facilities arenot available.

(ii) Unloading. The type of equipment to be used for unloading the coal received at the powerstation depends on how coal is received at the power station. If coal is delivered by trucks, there is no


need of unloading device as the trucks may dump the coal to the outdoor storage. Coal is easily handledif the lift trucks with scoop are used. In case the coal is brought by railway wagons, ships or boats, theunloading may be done by car shakes, rotary car dumpers, cranes, grab buckets and coal accelerators.Rotary car dumpers although costly are quite efficient for unloading closed wagons.

(iii) Preparation. When the coal delivered is in the form of big lumps and it is not of proper size,the preparation (sizing) of coal can be achieved by crushers, breakers, sizers driers and magnetic sepa-rators.

(iv) Transfer. After preparation coal is transferred to the dead storage by means of the followingsystems :

1. Belt conveyors. 2. Screw conveyors.3. Bucket elevators. 4. Grab bucket elevators.5. Skip hoists. 6. Flight conveyor.

CoalBelt

Coal

Roller

Fig. 4.3. Belt Conveyor.

1. Belt conveyor. Fig. 4.3 shows a belt conveyor. It consists of an endless belt. moving over apair of end drums (rollers). At some distance a supporting roller is provided at the center. The belt ismade, up of rubber or canvas. Belt conveyor is suitable for the transfer of coal over long distances. It isused in medium and large power plants. The initial cost of the system is not high and power consump-tion is also low. The inclination at which coal can be successfully elevated by belt conveyor is about 20.Average speed of belt conveyors varies between 200-300 r.p.m. This conveyor is preferred than othertypes.Advantages of belt conveyor

1. Its operation is smooth and clean.2. It requires less power as compared to other types of systems.3. Large quantities of coal can be discharged quickly and continuously.4. Material can be transported on moderates inclines.2. Screw conveyor. It consists of an endless helicoid screw fitted to a shaft (Fig. 4.4). The screw

while rotating in a trough transfers the coal from feeding end to the discharge end.This system is suitable, where coal is to be transferred over shorter distance and space limitations

exist. The initial cost of the system is low. It suffers from the drawbacks that the power consumption ishigh and there is considerable wear of screw. Rotation of screw varies between 75-125 r.p.m.


3. Bucket elevator. It consists of buckets fixed to a chain (Fig. 4.5). The chain moves over twowheels. The coal is carried by the buckets from bottom and discharged at the top.

Coal Inlet

Discharge End

Outlet

Coal Inlet

Fig. 4.4. Screw Conveyor. Fig. 4.5. Bucket Elevator.

4. Grab bucket elevator. It lifts and transfers coal on a single rail or track from one point to theother. The coal lifted by grab buckets is transferred to overhead bunker or storage. This system requiresless power for operation and requires minimum maintenance.

The grab bucket conveyor can be used with crane or tower as shown in Fig. 4.6. Although theinitial cost of this system is high but operating cost is less.

Crane

GrabBucket

Fig. 4.6. Grab Bucket Elevator.

5. Skip hoist. It consists of a vertical or inclined hoistway a bucket or a car guided by a frame anda cable for hoisting the bucket. The bucket is held in up right position. It is simple and compact methodof elevating coal or ash. Fig. 4.7 shows a skip hoist.

6. Flight conveyor. It consists of one or two strands of chain to which steel scraper or flights areattached’. which scrap the coal through a trough having identical shape. This coal is discharged in thebottom of trough. It is low in first cost but has large energy consumption. There is considerable wear.

Skip hoist and bucket elevators lift the coal vertically while Belts and flight conveyors move thecoal horizontally or on inclines.

Fig. 4.8 shows a flight conveyor. Flight conveyors possess the following advantages.(i) They can be used to transfer coal as well as ash.


(ii) The speed of conveyor can be regulated easily.(iii) They have a rugged construction.(iv) They need little operational care.Disadvantages. Various disadvantages of flight conveyors are as follows :(i) There is more wear due to dragging action.(ii) Power consumption is more.

Bunker

HoistHouse

Skip HoistLoading

Ash car

Coal

Roller Chain

Scrapper

Fig. 4.7. Skip Hoist. Fig. 4.8. Flight Conveyor.

(iii) Maintenance cost is high.(iv) Due to abrasive nature of material handled the speed of conveyors is low (10 to 30 m/min).(v) Storage of coal. It is desirable that sufficient quantity of coal should be stored. Storage of coal

gives protection against the interruption of coal supplies when there is delay in transportation of coal ordue to strikes in coal mines. Also when the prices are low, the coal can be purchased and stored forfuture use. The amount of coal to be stored depends on the availability of space for storage, transporta-tion facilities, the amount of coal that will whether away and nearness to coal mines of the power station.

Usually coal required for one month operation of power plant is stored in case of power stationssituated at longer distance from the collieries whereas coal need for about 15 days is stored in case ofpower station situated near to collieries. Storage of coal for longer periods is not advantageous becauseit blocks the capital and results in deterioration of the quality of coal.

The coal received at the power station is stored in dead storage in the form of piles laid directlyon the ground.

The coal stored has the tendency to whether (to combine with oxygen of air) and during thisprocess coal loss some of its heating value and ignition quality. Due to low oxidation the coal may ignitespontaneously. This is avoided by storing coal in the form of piles which consist of thick and compactlayers of coal so that air cannot pass through the coal piles. This will minimize the reaction between coaland oxygen. The other alternative is to allow the air to pass through layers of coal so that air may removethe heat of reaction and avoid burning. In case the coal is to be stored for longer periods the outer surfaceof piles may be sealed with asphalt or fine coal.

The coal is stored by the following methods :(i) Stocking the coal in heats. The coal is piled on the ground up to 10-12 m height. The pile top

should be given a slope in the direction in which the rain may be drained off.


The sealing of stored pile is desirable in order to avoid the oxidation ofcoal after packing an air tight layer of coal.

Asphalt, fine coal dust and bituminous coating are the materials com-monly used for this purpose.

(ii) Under water storage. The possibility of slow oxidation and sponta-neous combustion can be completely eliminated by storing the coal underwater.

Coal should be stored at a site located on solid ground, well drained, freeof standing water preferably on high ground not subjected to flooding.

Fig. 4.9. Cylindrical Bucket.

(vi) In Plant Handling. From the dead storage the coal is brought to covered storage (Live stor-age) (bins or bunkers). A cylindrical bunker shown in Fig. 4.9. In plant handling may include the equip-ment such as belt conveyors, screw conveyors, bucket elevators etc. to transfer the coal. Weigh lorrieshoppers and automatic scales are used to record the quantity of coal delivered to the furnace.

(vii) Coal weighing methods. Weigh lorries, hoppers and automatic scales are used to weigh thequantity coal. The commonly used methods to weigh the coal are as follows:

(i) Mechanical (ii) Pneumatic (iii) Electronic.The Mechanical method works on a suitable lever system mounted on knife edges and bearings

connected to a resistance in the form of a spring of pendulum. The pneumatic weighters use a pneumatictransmitter weight head and the corresponding air pressure determined by the load applied. The elec-tronic weighing machines make use of load cells that produce voltage signals proportional to the loadapplied.

The important factor considered in selecting fuel handling systems are as follows:(i) Plant flue rate(ii) Plant location in respect to fuel shipping(iii) Storage area available.

4.3.1 DEWATERING OF COAL

Excessive surface moisture of coal reduces and heating value of coal and creates handling prob-lems. The coal should therefore be dewatered to produce clean coal. Cleaning of coal has the followingadvantages:

(i) Improved heating value.(ii) Easier crushing and pulverising

(iii) Improved boiler performance(iv) Less ash to handle.(v) Easier handling.

(vi) Reduced transportation cost.

STEAM GENERATOR 189

2. The draught loss is minimum compared with other boilers.3. The defective tubes can be replaced easily.4. The entire boiler rests over an iron structure, independent of brick work, so that the boiler may

expand or contract freely. The brick walls which form the surroundings of the boiler are only to enclosethe furnace and the hot gases.

5.7 INDUSTRIAL BOILERS

The boilers are generally required in chemical industries, paper industries, pharmaceutical indus-tries and many others. Efficiency, reliability and cost are major factors in the design of industrial boilerssimilar to central stations. Boiler’s capacity varies from 100 to 400 tons of steam per hour. Industrialcompanies in foreign countries with large steam demands have considerable interest in cogeneration,the simultaneous production of steam and electricity because of federal legislation. High temperatureand high pressure boilers 350°C and 75 ata) are now-a-days used even though high pressure and tem-perature are rarely, needed to. process requirement but they are used to generate electricity to surgingprices of the oil, most of the industrial boilers are designed to use wood, municipal - pulverized coal,industrial solid waste and refinery gas few industrial boilers which are in common use are discussedbelow.

Packaged Water-tube Boilers. The boilers having a capacity of 50 tons/hr are generally designedwith water cooled furnaces. Advantages of this design include minimum weight and maintenance aswell rigidity and safety. Presently the boilers are also designed to burn coal, wood and process wastealso. The much larger furnace volumes required in units designed for solid fuels restrict the capacity ofpackaged units to about 40 tons/hr or about one-third of a oil-gas fired unit that can be shipped byrailroad.

5.8 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF WATER TUBE BOILERS OVER FIRE TUBE BOILERS MERITS

1. Generation of steam is much quicker due to small ratio of water content to steam content.This also helps in reaching the steaming temperature in short time.

2. Its evaporative capacity is considerably larger and the steam pressure range is also high-200bar.

3. Heating surfaces are more effective as the hot gases travel at right angles to the direction ofwater flow.

4. The combustion efficiency is higher because complete combustion of fuel is possible as thecombustion space is much larger.

5. The thermal stresses in the boiler parts are less as different parts of the boiler remain atuniform temperature due to quick circulation of water.

6. The boiler can be easily transported and erected as its different parts can be separated.7. Damage due to the bursting of water tube is less serious. Therefore, water tube boilers are

sometimes called safety boilers.8. All parts of the water tube boilers are easily accessible for cleaning, inspecting and repairing.9. The water tube boiler's furnace area can be easily altered to meet the fuel requirements.


Demerits :1. It is less suitable for impure and sedimentary water, as a small deposit of scale may cause the

overheating and bursting of tube. Therefore, use of pure feed water is essential.2. They require careful attention. The maintenance costs are higher.3. Failure in feed water supply even for short period is liable to make the boiler over-heated.

5.9 REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD BOILER

A good boiler must possess the following qualities :1. The boiler should be capable to generate steam at the required pressure and quantity as quickly

as possible with minimum fuel consumption.2. The initial cost, installation cost and the maintenance cost should be as low as possible.3. The boiler should be light in weight, and should occupy small floor area.4. The boiler must be able to meet the fluctuating demands without pressure fluctuations.5. All the parts of the boiler should be easily approachable for cleaning and inspection.6. The boiler should have a minimum of joints to avoid leaks which may occur due to expansion

and contraction.7. The boiler should be erected at site within a reasonable time and with minimum labour.8. The water and flue gas velocities should be high for high heat transfer rates with minimum

pressure drop through the system.9. There should be no deposition of mud and foreign materials on the inside surface and soot

deposition on the outer surface of the heat transferring parts.10. The boiler should conform to the safety regulations as laid down in the Boiler Act.

5.10 HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS

In all modern power plants, high pressure boilers (> 100 bar) are universally used as they offerthe following advantages.

In order to obtain efficient operation and high capacity, forced circulation of water through boilertubes is found helpful. Some special types of boilers operating at super critical pressures and usingforced circulations are described in this chapter.

I . The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced quantity of steam isrequired for the same power generation if high pressure steam is used.

2. The forced circulation of water through boiler tubes provides freedom in the arrangement offurnace and water walls, in addition to the reduction in the heat exchange area.

3. The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water.4. The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated.5. The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the possibil-

ity of gas and air leakages.6. Some special types of high pressure supercritical boilers are described in this chapter.

STEAM GENERATOR 191

5.10.1 LA MONT BOILER

A forced circulation boiler was first introduced in 1925 by La Mont. The arrangement of watercirculation and different components are shown in Fig. 5.5.

The feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage and separating drum (boiler) through theeconomizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed water passing through the economizer. Apump circulates the water at a rate 8 to 10 times the mass of steam evaporated. This water is circulatedthrough the evaporator tubes and the part of the vapour is separated in the separator drum. The largequantity of water circulated (10 times that of evaporation) prevents the tubes from being overheated.

Fig. 5.5. La Mont Boiler.

The centrifugal pump delivers the water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar above the drumpressure. The distribution headers distribute the water through the nozzle into the evaporator.

The steam separated in the boiler is further passed through the super-heater.Secure a uniform flow of feed water through each of the parallel boiler circuits a choke is fitted

entrance to each circuit.These boilers have been built to generate 45 to 50 tonnes of superheated steam at a pressure of

120 bar and temperature of 500°C. Recently forced circulation has been introduced in large capacitypower ?

5.10.2 BENSON BOILER

The main difficulty experienced in the La Mont boiler is the formation and attachment of bubbleson the inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached bubbles reduce the heat flow and steam genera-tion as it offers higher thermal resistance compared to water film

1. Benson in 1922 argued that if the boiler pressure was raised to critical pressure (225 atm.), thesteam and water would have the same density and therefore the danger of bubble formation can becompletely

2. Natural circulation boilers require expansion joints but these are not required for Benson asthe pipes are welded. The erection of Benson boiler is easier and quicker as all the parts are welded atsite and workshop job of tube expansion is altogether avoided.

Air

Fan

Chimney

Air preheaterFeed water

Feedwater

Storageand

Separatordrum

Downcomer

Circulatingpump

Distributingheader

Ash pan

Fire gateFuel

Combustionchamber

Hot

gas

EconomiserSuperheater

Mainsteam

Evaporator(convective)

Preheatedair

Evaporator(radiant)


3. The transport of Benson boiler parts is easy as no drums are required and majority of the partsare carried to the site without pre-assembly.

4. The Benson boiler can be erected in a comparatively smaller floor area. The space problemdoes not control the size of Benson boiler used.

5. The furnace walls of the boiler can be more efficiently protected by using small diameter andclose pitched tubes.

6. The superheater in the Benson boiler is an integral part of forced circulation system, thereforeno special starting arrangement for superheater is required.

7. The Benson boiler can be started very quickly because of welded joints.8. The Benson boiler can be operated most economically by varying the temperature and pres-

sure at partial loads and overloads. The desired temperature can also be maintained constant at anypressure.

9. Sudden fall of demand creates circulation problems due to bubble formation in the naturalcirculation boiler which never occurs in Benson boiler. This feature of insensitiveness to load fluctua-tions makes it more suitable for grid power station as it has better adaptive capacity to meet sudden loadfluctuations.

10. The blow-down losses of Benson boiler are hardly 4% of natural circulation boilers of samecapacity.

11. Explosion hazards are not at all severe as it consists of only tubes of small diameter and hasvery little storage capacity compared to drum type boiler.

During starting, the water is passed through the economiser, evaporator, superheater and back tothe feed line via starting valve A. During starting the valve B is closed. As the steam generation startsand it becomes superheated, the valve A is closed and the valve B is opened.

During starting, first circulating pumps are started and then the burners are started to avoid theoverheating of evaporator and superheater tubes.

5.10.3. LOEFFLER BOILER

The major difficulty experienced in Benson boiler is the deposition of salt and sediment on theinner surfaces of the water tubes. The deposition reduced the heat transfer and ultimately the generatingcapacity. This further increased the danger of overheating the tubes due to salt deposition as it has highthermal resistance.

The difficulty was solved in Loeffler boiler by preventing the flow of water into the boiler tubes.Most of the steam is generated outside from the feedwater using part of the superheated steam comingout from the boiler.

The pressure feed pump draws the water through the economiser and delivers it into the evapora-tor drum as shown in the figure. About 65% of the steam coming out of superheater is passed throughthe evaporator drum in order to evaporate the feed water coming from economiser.

The steam circulating pump draws the saturated steam from the evaporator drum and is passedthrough the radiant superheater and then connective superheater. About 35% of the steam coming outfrom the superheater is supplied to the H.P. steam turbine. The steam coming out from H.P. turbine ispassed through reheater before supplying to L.P. turbine as shown in the figure.

The amount of steam generated in the evaporator drum is equal to the steam tapped (65%) fromthe superheater. The nozzles which distribute the superheated steam through the water into the evapora-tor drum are of special design to avoid priming and noise.

STEAM GENERATOR 193

This boiler can carry higher salt concentration than any other type and is more compact thanindirectly heated boilers having natural circulation. These qualities fit it for land or sea transport powergeneration. Loeffler boilers with generating capacity of 94.5 tonnes/hr and operating at 140 bar havealready been commissioned.

5.10.4. SCHMIDT-HARTMANN BOILER

The operation of the boiler is similar to an electric transformer. Two pressures are used to effectan interchange of energy.

In the primary circuit, the steam at 100 bar is produced from distilled water. This steam is passedthrough a submerged heating coil which is located in an evaporator drum as shown in the figure. Thehigh pressure steam in this coil possesses sufficient thermal potential and steam at 60 bar with a heattransfer rate of 2.5 kW/m2-°C is generated in the evaporator drum.

The steam produced in the evporator drums from impure water is further passed through 'thesuperheater and then supplied to the prime-mover. The high pressure condensate formed in the sub-merged heating coil is circulated through a low pressure feed heater on its way to raise the feed watertemperature to its saturation temperature. Therefore, only latent heat is supplied in the evaporator drum.

Natural circulation is used in the primary circuit and this is sufficient to effect the desired rate ofheat transfer and to overcome the thermo-siphon head of about 2 m to 10 m.

In normal circumstances, the replenishment of distilled water in the primary circuit is not re-quired as every care is taken in design and construction to prevent leakage. But as a safeguard againstleakage, a pressure gauge and safety valve are fitted in the circuit.

Advantages1. There is rare chance of overheating or burning the highly heated components of the primary

circuit as there is no danger of salt deposition as well as there is no chance of interruption to the circulationeither by rust or any other material. The highly heated parts run very safe throughout the life of the boiler.

2. The salt deposited in the evaporator drum due to the circulation of impure water can be easilybrushed off just by removing the submerged coil from the drum or by blowing off the water.

3. The wide fluctuations of load are easily taken by this boiler without undue priming or abnor-mal increase in the primary pressure due to high thermal and water capacity of the boiler.

4. The absence of water risers in the drum, and moderate temperature difference across the heat-ing coil allow evaporation to proceed without priming.

5.10.5. VELOX-BOILER

Now, it is known fact that when the gas velocity exceeds the sound-velocity, the heat is trans-ferred from the gas at a much higher rate than rates achieved with sub-sonic flow. The advantages of thistheory are taken to effect the large heat transfer from a smaller surface area in this boiler.

Air is compressed to 2.5 bar with an help of a compressor run by gas turbine before supplying tothe combusion chamber to get the supersonic velocity of the gases passing through the combustionchamber and gas tubes and high heat release rates (40 MW/m3). The burned gases in the combustionchamber are passed through the annulus of the tubes as shown in figure. The heat is transferred fromgases to water while passing through the annulus to generate the steam. The mixture of water and steamthus formed then passes into a separator which is so designed that the mixture enters with a spiral flow.The centrifugal force thus produced causes the heavier water particles to be thrown outward on the


walls. This effect separates the steam from water. The separated steam is further passed to superheaterand then supplied to the prime-mover. The water removed from steam in the separator is again passedinto the water tubes with the help of a pump.

The gases coming out from the annulus at the top are further passed over the superheater whereits heat is used-for superheating the steam. The gases coming out of superheater are used to run a gasturbine as they carry sufficient kinetic energy. The power output of the gas turbine is used to run the air-compressor. The exhaust gases coming out from the gas turbine are passed through the economiser toutilise the remaining heat of the gases. The extra power required to run the compressor is supplied withthe help of electric motor. Feed water of 10 to 20 times the weight of steam generated is circulatedthrough the tubes with the help of water circulating pump. This prevents the overheating of metal walls.

The size of the velox boiler is limited to 100 tons per hour because 400 KW is required to run theair compressor at this output. The power developed by the gas turbine is not sufficient to run the com-pressor and therefore some power from external source must be supplied as mentioned above.

Advantages1. Very high combustion rates are possible as 40 MJ/m3 of combustion chamber volume.2. Low excess air is required as the pressurised air is used and the problem of draught is simplified.3. It is very compact generating unit and has greater flexibility.4. It can be quickly started even though the separator has a storage capacity of about 10% of the

maximum hourly output.

EXERCISES

1. State how the boilers are classified ?2. Explain the principle of fire tube and water tube boilers.3. Describe with a neat sketch the working of Cochran boiler. Show the position of different

mountings and explain the function of each.4. Describe, giving neat sketches, the construction and working of a Lancashire boiler. Show

the positions of different mountings and accessories.5. Sketch and describe the working of a Locomotive boiler. Show the positions of fusible plug,

blow off cock, feed check valve and superheater. Mention the function of each. Describe themethod of obtaining draught in this boiler.

6. Give an outline sketch showing the arrangement of water tubes and furnace of a Babcock andWilcox boiler. Indicate on it the path of the flue gases and water circulation. Show the posi-tions of fusible plug, blow off cock and superheater. Mention the function of each.

7. Explain why the superheater tubes are flooded with water at the starting of the boilers ?8. Mention the chief advantages and disadvantages of fire tube boilers over water tube boilers.9. Discuss the chief advantages of water tube boilers over fire tube boilers.

10. What are the considerations which would guide you in selecting the type of boiler to beadopted for a specific purpose ?

11. Distinguish between water-tube and fire-tube boilers and state under what circumstanceseach type would be desirable.

Date post:	06-May-2015
Category:	Engineering
Upload:	yogendra-sharma
View:	1,289 times
Download:	14 times

Steam power plant 2

Engineering