Stereotyping

What Are Stereotypes?

• “There is neither time nor opportunity for intimate acquaintances. Instead we notice a trait which marks a well known type and fill in the rest of the picture by means of the stereotypes we carry about in our heads.”

• “Our stereotyped world is not necessarily the world we should like it to be. It is simply the kind of world we expect it to be.”

Walter Lippmann (1922)

Stereotype Components

• Culturally shared beliefs

cognitive component (beliefs)

affective component (feelings)

behavioural component (actions)

• Categorical associations

men are …?

accountants are…?

Italians are…?

How De We Learn Stereotypes?

A Chilling Example!

Children (24-28 months) touch more own sex gender-typed toys (Levy,1999).

Who Should Repair the Car?

• Levy, Sadovsky, & Troseth (2000)

preschoolers (3-4 years) viewed men as more competent than women in male sex-typed jobs and women as more competent

than men in feminine jobs.

Habits of Thought

• What happens if childhood socialization repeatedly furnishes one with stereotype-related beliefs?

• Do stereotypes become habits of mind?

Is Stereotype Activation Inevitable?

““every event has certain marks that serve as a cue to bring the every event has certain marks that serve as a cue to bring the category of prejudgment into action…A person with dark brown category of prejudgment into action…A person with dark brown skin will activate whatever concept of African American is skin will activate whatever concept of African American is dominant in our mind.”dominant in our mind.”

Allport (1954, p. 21)Allport (1954, p. 21)

““the mere presentation of a stimulus person activates certain the mere presentation of a stimulus person activates certain classification processes that occur automatically and without classification processes that occur automatically and without conscious intent.”conscious intent.”

Brewer (1988, p. 5)Brewer (1988, p. 5)

“…“…because the stereotype has been frequently activated in because the stereotype has been frequently activated in the past, it is a well-learned set of associations that is the past, it is a well-learned set of associations that is automatically activated in the presence of a member (or automatically activated in the presence of a member (or symbolic equivalent) of the target group.”symbolic equivalent) of the target group.”

Devine (1989, p. 6)Devine (1989, p. 6)

The Basic Problem!

• On exposure to a target, what gets activated in mind?

Measuring Stereotype Activation:Semantic Priming Tasks

Measuring Stereotype Activation:Semantic Priming Tasks

Forgetful skillful

Automatic Activation:Some Early Evidence

• Dovidio et al. (1986)Dovidio et al. (1986)

stereotypes are knowledge structuresstereotypes are knowledge structures

associative networksassociative networks

semantic priming to access associative knowledgesemantic priming to access associative knowledge

• letter string taskletter string task

doctor/nursedoctor/nurse

doctor/butterdoctor/butter

Dovidio et al’s (1986) Paradigm:Could X ever be true of Y?

Task (verification task)Task (verification task)

participants presented with a priming label (i.e., participants presented with a priming label (i.e., blackblack or or whitewhite) ) followed shortly afterwards by a personality trait (e.g., followed shortly afterwards by a personality trait (e.g., musicalmusical) ) or non-person descriptor (e.g., or non-person descriptor (e.g., metallicmetallic))

Traits

White Black

ambitious musical

practical sensitive

conventional lazy

stubborn imitative

ResultsResults

participants responded more quickly when stereotypic than participants responded more quickly when stereotypic than non-stereotypic items were presentednon-stereotypic items were presented

Problems?Problems?

task demands (triggering category activation)task demands (triggering category activation)

labels (or words and images functionally equivalent?)labels (or words and images functionally equivalent?)

The Invisible Prime:Purdue & Gurtman (1990)

‘‘kind’kind’

is the word favorable or unfavorable?is the word favorable or unfavorable?

• traits preceded by subliminal labels (traits preceded by subliminal labels (oldold or or youngyoung))

• ResultsResults - facilitatory priming observed - facilitatory priming observed

• ProblemsProblems - words, evaluative (rather than semantic) - words, evaluative (rather than semantic) primingpriming

Devine’s (1989) Two-Process Model

• power of childhood socializationpower of childhood socialization

acquiring cultural beliefsacquiring cultural beliefs

societal knowledge vs. personal beliefssocietal knowledge vs. personal beliefs

• individual differences in prejudiceindividual differences in prejudice

high vs. low prejudicehigh vs. low prejudice

• components of stereotypingcomponents of stereotyping

automatic activationautomatic activation

controlled inhibitioncontrolled inhibition

replacing stereotypes with personal beliefsreplacing stereotypes with personal beliefs

Knowledge of Cultural Stereotypes

• Stereotype Contents

bagpipes

booze

stingy

• bigots = humanitarians (Devine, 1989)

Evaluate Donald Paradigm (Devine, 1989)

TasksTasks

Phase 1Phase 1: : parafoveal vigilance task (Negroes, lazy, blues, parafoveal vigilance task (Negroes, lazy, blues, Blacks, Africa, basketball)Blacks, Africa, basketball)

Phase 2Phase 2: : person evaluation (Donald - Srull & Wyer, person evaluation (Donald - Srull & Wyer, 1979) - ambiguously hostile behaviours1979) - ambiguously hostile behaviours

Results:Results: high-P participants rated Donald to be more high-P participants rated Donald to be more hostile than did low-P participants hostile than did low-P participants

Automatic Stereotyping:A Slight Modification

• Lepore & Brown (1997)Lepore & Brown (1997)

categories vs. traits (Blacks vs. lazy) - what activates the categories vs. traits (Blacks vs. lazy) - what activates the

stereotype?stereotype?

• category primes: category primes: only high-P participants activate the stereotypeonly high-P participants activate the stereotype

• trait primes:trait primes: both high-P and low-P participants activate theboth high-P and low-P participants activate the

stereotypestereotype

• individual differences in stereotype activation (Locke et al., 1994; individual differences in stereotype activation (Locke et al., 1994; Wittenbrink et al., 1997)Wittenbrink et al., 1997)

Challenging Orthodoxy:Is Stereotype Activation Really Inevitable?

• triggering stereotype activation (are images and words triggering stereotype activation (are images and words equivalent?)equivalent?)

Belly Dancer

Determinants of Stereotype Activation: Target Salience

• frequency of occurrencefrequency of occurrence

are you unusual?are you unusual?

• immediate contextimmediate context

are you contextually distinctive?are you contextually distinctive?

• processing goalsprocessing goals

are you relevant to my current processing concerns?are you relevant to my current processing concerns?

Statistical Frequency:Langer et al. (1976)

Solo or Token Status:Taylor & Fiske (1978)

Processing Goals

• chronic states of the person (Moskowitz et al. 2004)chronic states of the person (Moskowitz et al. 2004)

traits, motives, goalstraits, motives, goals

• transitory factors (Macrae et al., 1997)transitory factors (Macrae et al., 1997)

temporary goalstemporary goals

Stereotype Activation:Always or Sometimes?

Stereotypes as Mental Tools:Gilbert & Hixon (1991)

““anyone who has ever lent a socket wrench to a forgetful anyone who has ever lent a socket wrench to a forgetful neighbor knows that a tool is useful only if one can find it. neighbor knows that a tool is useful only if one can find it. Stereotypes are forms of information and, as such, are Stereotypes are forms of information and, as such, are thought to be stored in memory in a dormant state until thought to be stored in memory in a dormant state until they are activated for use.”they are activated for use.”

Gilbert & Hixon (1991, p. Gilbert & Hixon (1991, p. 510)510)

• attention and stereotypingattention and stereotyping

Gilbert & Hixon (1991):Busyness and Stereotyping

TaskTask

participants observe a woman (Caucasian or Asian) turning over cards with a participants observe a woman (Caucasian or Asian) turning over cards with a single word fragment written on each card.single word fragment written on each card.

POLI_EPOLI_E

complete the fragment with the first word that comes to mind (SHY, complete the fragment with the first word that comes to mind (SHY, SHORT, RICE) - participants busy (digit rehearsal) or non-busy (control)SHORT, RICE) - participants busy (digit rehearsal) or non-busy (control)

Results:Results: only non-busy participants activate the stereotype (i.e., only non-busy participants activate the stereotype (i.e.,

conditional automaticity)conditional automaticity)

Processing Goals:The Inattentive Shopper (Macrae et al. 1997)

Processing Goals

ambitious(emotional)(flubitorso)

3 Tasks: animacy (conceptual)dot (perceptual)detection

Category Accessibility

Macrae et al. (1997)

Accessing Stereotypical Knowledge

• Macrae et al. (1997) in ‘spot’ of botherMacrae et al. (1997) in ‘spot’ of bother

““beyond the hopeful implication that dermatologists are beyond the hopeful implication that dermatologists are unlikely to stereotype their patients, what is the real-world unlikely to stereotype their patients, what is the real-world relevance of studies involving such pre-semantic processing relevance of studies involving such pre-semantic processing goals?”goals?”

Bargh (1999)Bargh (1999)

Context and Stereotype Activation:Wittenbrink et al. (2001)

In an evaluative priming task, activation of African-American stereotype was moderated by the context in which targets were located.

Lecture 4:Stereotype Application

Why Do People Apply Stereotypes?

• ‘personality’ approaches

• ‘socio-cultural’ accounts

• ‘cognitive’ perspective

Applying Stereotypes:Possessing a ‘Dodgy’ Personality

• authoritarian personality (Adorno et al., 1950)

intra-psychic conflict from childhood (internalized values of the father) is projected to other people (members of minority groups – ethnic, relgious, political) - societal scapegoating.

Applying Stereotypes:Learning to Discriminate

• socio-cultural approaches (e.g., realistic conflict theory, Sherif & Sherif, 1953)

stereotypes are conceptualized as negative beliefs about a

group that serve to legitimize the existing social structure (i.e., system justification)

Applying Stereotypes:Cognitive Efficiency

• cognitive perspective (Hamilton, 1981)

stereotyping is a product of category activation and basic cognitive limitations.

Applying Stereotypes:Basic Paradox

• perils of stereotypical thinking

discrimination

prejudice

legal sanctions

• benefits of stereotypical thinking

cognitive efficiency

What Can Stereotyping Do For You?

• content-related effects

• structural effects (processing consequences)

perception

memory

attention

Accessing Stereotype Contents:Target Enrichment

• semantic knowledge (Fiske & Neuberg, 1990)

traits

behaviours

opinions

lifestyle

• ‘indirect’ person knowledge

Stereotypes and Information Processing:Perceptual Effects

• does stereotype application moderate the ease with which people can detect information in the world?

• if so, which type of information is most facilitated?

Activating Social Stereotypes:A Functional Analysis

• stereotypical thinking is functional (Allport, 1954)stereotypical thinking is functional (Allport, 1954)

• reducing the information-processing burdenreducing the information-processing burdenease of detectionease of detectionperceptual identificationperceptual identification

• measurement issues - climbing inside the headmeasurement issues - climbing inside the head

The Need For Speed:Categorical Person Perception is Efficient

• perils of a cluttered mindperils of a cluttered mind

enter the cognitive miserenter the cognitive miser

target simplification/elaborationtarget simplification/elaboration

• some cognitive benefitssome cognitive benefits

stimulus locationstimulus location

stimulus identificationstimulus identification

• category primingcategory priming

Find the Word (Stereotype Priming):Congruent vs. Irrelevant

QQ HH AA PP PP YY TT VV

DD PP VV MM NN II OO BB

AA EE LL QQ BB YY VV TT

RR NN MM KK VV RR EE AA

II PP MM II VV WW MM LL

NN CC CC NN YY TT AA LL

GG MM LL DD YY TT VV RR

GG SS HH NN LL RR II OO

Find the Words

Macrae et al. (1994).

Num

ber

of W

ords

Stimulus Identification

• repeated presentation of degraded wordsrepeated presentation of degraded words

dot density maskdot density mask

• what’s the word?what’s the word?

number of trials takennumber of trials taken

v

Identify the WordN

umbe

r of

Pre

sent

atio

ns

Macrae et al. (1994)

Stereotypes and Information Processing:Attentional Effects

• does stereotype application preserve valuable attentional resources?

• if so, when does this take place?

Person Impressions:With and Without Stereotypes

NigelNigel JulianJulian

(doctor)(doctor) (artist)(artist)caringcaring creativecreative

honesthonest temperamentaltemperamental

reliablereliable sensitivesensitive

responsibleresponsible unconventionalunconventional

upstandingupstanding individualisticindividualistic

unluckyunlucky fearlessfearless

forgetfulforgetful activeactive

passivepassive cordialcordial

clumsyclumsy progressiveprogressive

enthusiasticenthusiastic generousgenerous

Person Memory

Macrae et al. (1994)

Knowledge about Indonesia?

Macrae et al. (1994)

Efficiency and Automaticity

• stereotypical efficiency - conscious or unconscious?stereotypical efficiency - conscious or unconscious?

• overt or covert allocation of attention?overt or covert allocation of attention?

• probe-reaction tasksprobe-reaction tasks

turn off the soundturn off the sound

Person Impressions:With and Without Visible and Invisible Stereotypes

NigelNigel JulianJulian

(doctor)(doctor) (artist)(artist)caringcaring creativecreative

honesthonest temperamentaltemperamental

reliablereliable sensitivesensitive

responsibleresponsible unconventionalunconventional

upstandingupstanding individualisticindividualistic

unluckyunlucky fearlessfearless

forgetfulforgetful activeactive

passivepassive cordialcordial

clumsyclumsy progressiveprogressive

enthusiasticenthusiastic generousgenerous

3 conditions:

(i)category-supraliminal(ii)category-subliminal(iii)no category

Auditory Probe Reaction Task

How Quickly Can You Turn Off the Sound?

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Pro

be R

eact

ion

Tim

es (

ms)

supraliminalstereotype

subliminalstereotype

control

Macrae et al. (1994)

Stereotyping is Efficient

• Stereotypes

(i) guide perception

(ii) organize memories

(iii) preserve attention

• Is stereotyping Intentional?

awareness

consent

When are Stereotypes Most Likely to Be Deployed?

• Stereotypes save people the ‘trouble of thinking’ (Gilbert & Hixon, 1991)

• Stereotypes as judgmental heuristics

motivation (e.g., involvement)

speed (e.g., times pressures)

attention (e.g., competing tasks)

Stereotype Application:A Brief Review

• Task Complexity

simple vs. complex judgments (Bodenhausen & Lichtenstein, 1987)

information overload (Bodenhausen & Wyer, 1985)

• Time Pressures

Dijker & Koomen (1996)

• Dual Tasking

cognitive load (Gilbert & Hixon, 1991)

• Involvement with Target

outcome dependence (Neuberg & Fiske, 1987)

accountability (Tetlock, 1983)

Are You A Morning Person?Bodenhausen (1990)

Reaching Your Peak

• attention and stereotypingattention and stereotyping

stereotypes as heuristicsstereotypes as heuristics

• laboratory manipulationslaboratory manipulations

• naturalistic factorsnaturalistic factors

circadian variationscircadian variations

morning vs. evening peoplemorning vs. evening people

Meeting Linda

• Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.

• Which of the following is more likely to be true?Which of the following is more likely to be true?

Linda is a bank teller.Linda is a bank teller.

Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement.movement.

Conjunction Fallacy

• the erroneous belief that the joint probability of two events the erroneous belief that the joint probability of two events is greater than the probability of either of the constituent is greater than the probability of either of the constituent events separately.events separately.

Committing the Conjunction Fallacy

Bodenhausen (1990)

Unresolved Issues:So What Exactly Gets Activated?

The Problem of Multiple Construal

• categorical competitioncategorical competition

• the winner takes it allthe winner takes it all

but where do the losers go?but where do the losers go?

• consequences of category dominanceconsequences of category dominance

A Wee Digression - Is That My Beer?The Case of Competing Actions

Is That My (Car) Parking Space?The Case of Competing Memories

What Does It Mean?Linguistic Ambiguity

• Under cover of darkness, Brian slipped into the port.Under cover of darkness, Brian slipped into the port.

• It can be fun playing with your hair.It can be fun playing with your hair.

• It happened at the bank.It happened at the bank.

Resolving Mental Conflict:Inhibition

• evolved solutionsevolved solutions

cognitive inhibitioncognitive inhibition

dampening competing representationsdampening competing representations

conflict resolutionconflict resolution

• inhibition and category activationinhibition and category activation

The Case of the Asian Woman:Macrae et al. (1995)

Priming Categories

• dynamics of multiple construaldynamics of multiple construal

• priming categoriespriming categories

winners & loserswinners & losers

are the losers inhibited?are the losers inhibited?

Experiment 1:Parafoveal Priming

• Phase 1Phase 1 - parafoveal priming (women or Chinese) - parafoveal priming (women or Chinese)

• Phase 2Phase 2 - view videotape (Chinese woman reading a book) - view videotape (Chinese woman reading a book)

• Phase 3Phase 3 - lexical decision task (category accessibility) - lexical decision task (category accessibility)

Stereotype Accessibility

Macrae et al. (1995)

Priming Through Behavior

Experiment 2

• Phase 1 - view videotapePhase 1 - view videotape

eating with chopsticks vs. applying cosmeticseating with chopsticks vs. applying cosmetics

• Phase 2 - lexical decision task (category accessibility)Phase 2 - lexical decision task (category accessibility)

Stereotype Accessibility

Macrae et al. (1995)

Inhibition and Category Selection

• dealing with conflictdealing with conflict

cognitive inhibitioncognitive inhibition

• nature of inhibitionnature of inhibition

lateral vs. strategiclateral vs. strategic

• role of processing goalsrole of processing goals

Sinclair & Kunda (1999)Sinclair & Kunda (1999)

Motivation and Inhibition:Sinclair & Kunda (1999)

Favorable feedback - activate doctor, inhibit Black

Unfavorable feedback - activate Black, inhibit doctor

Consequences of Category Activation

• identity salienceidentity salience

which identity dominateswhich identity dominates

behavioral consequencesbehavioral consequences

• stereotype threatstereotype threat

scholastic performance (Steele & Aronson, 1995)scholastic performance (Steele & Aronson, 1995)

math test, diagnostic of abilitiesmath test, diagnostic of abilities

• competing identitiescompeting identities

performance conflictsperformance conflicts

Math Test:Shih et al. (1999)

American & Canadian samples

Asian vs. female identity

Task Performance