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VET EN Cedefop’s monitoring report on vocational education and training policies 2010-14 Stronger VET for better lives ISSN: 1608-7089
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Page 1: Stronger VET for better lives for better lives VETThe Bruges communiqué set the agenda for VET in Europe and encourages action in line with aims of the Europe 2020 and the education

VET

ENEN

Europe 123, 570 01 Thessaloniki (Pylea), GREECE

PO Box 22427, 551 02 Thessaloniki, GREECE

Tel. +30 2310490111, Fax +30 2310490020, E-mail: [email protected]

European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training

Cedefop’s monitoring reporton vocational educationand training policies 2010-14

Stronger VETfor better lives

Stronger VETfor better lives

European countries’ joint work on vocational education and training (VET) shows clear signs of progress but there is more to do. In many countries, the Bruges communiqué of 2010 has inspired systemic reforms focusing on learning-outcomes-oriented standards and curricula. In several cases, these were triggered by the work on qualifications frameworks. In other countries, the main impact of the communiqué is reflected in their work on apprenticeships but there are challenges in securing its quality. The development of national qualifications frameworks (NQFs), measures to reduce early leaving, and policies to promote lifelong learning for low-skilled and other groups at risk have also been high on national policy agendas. Work on the European tools will need to ensure they interact better with and focus more on European citizens and employers to produce the intended benefit. Other challenges include better use of information on labour market outcomes of VET graduates, strengthening efforts to promote creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship in VET, and ensuring professional development opportunities for VET teachers and trainers.

3067 EN – TI-RF-14-001-EN-N – doi:10.2801/8213

ISBN 978-92-896-1660-7

ISSN: 1608-7089

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Page 3: Stronger VET for better lives for better lives VETThe Bruges communiqué set the agenda for VET in Europe and encourages action in line with aims of the Europe 2020 and the education

Cedefop Reference series 98Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2015

Stronger VET for better livesCedefop’s monitoring report on vocationaleducation and training policies 2010-14

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Please cite this publication as:Cedefop (2015). Stronger VET for better lives: Cedefop's monitoring report on vocational education and training policies 2010-14. Luxembourg: Publications Officeof the European Union. Cedefop Reference series; No 98

A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet.It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu).

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2015

ISBN 978-92-896-1660-7ISSN 1608-7089doi:10.2801/8213

Copyright © European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop), 2015All rights reserved.

Layout by [email protected] Printed in the European Union

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The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) is the European Union's

reference centre for vocational education and training. We provide information on and analyses of vocational

education and training systems, policies, research and practice.Cedefop was established in 1975

by Council Regulation (EEC) No 337/75.

Europe 123, 570 01 Thessaloniki (Pylea), GREECEPO Box 22427, 551 02 Thessaloniki, GREECE

Tel. +30 2310490111, Fax +30 2310490020E-mail: [email protected]

www.cedefop.europa.eu

Joachim James Calleja, Director Barbara Dorn, Chair of the Governing Board

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Foreword

‘Cedefop and the European Training Foundation (ETF) should continue,according to their specific mandates, to support policy development andimplementation, to report on progress towards the strategic objectives andthe short-term deliverables (STDs) (of European cooperation in vocationaleducation and training (VET)), and to provide evidence for policy-making inVET’ (Council of the EU and European Commission, 2010, p. 18).

This ‘monitoring’ report illustrates progress achieved in VET in MemberStates and associated and candidate countries in the period 2011-14 towardsthe 2020 objectives set for education and training and ambitions of Europe’soverall 2020 strategy.

Our key conclusion in this report is that the European VET agenda hasprompted a multifaceted process which shows clear signs of progress, butwith more work to do. VET in Europe is responding positively and directly topredictable and unpredictable challenges in the labour market. Work oncommon priorities has had a positive reform effect in several countries and,with already robust VET systems, it is time to move on to higher levels ofachievement.

European citizens as learners are at the heart of this process. On abroader scale, the Europe 2020 agenda, education and training 2020objectives and the Bruges communiqué aim at improving their quality of life.The European Commission, Cedefop and ETF have joined forces to establishthe evidence base and framework to support VET policies that help create aninclusive learning environment which empowers all citizens to tap theirpotential to secure employability and better lives. Hence this report’s title,which reflects two key guiding messages: the need to ensure that Europeanpolicies and tools for VET get stronger and make it more attractive andrelevant to the labour market; and that VET systems in Member States benefitcitizens of all ages, backgrounds and potential. If the Europe 2020 strategy isabout delivering growth that is smart, sustainable and inclusive, then VETshould also be smart, sustainable and inclusive. Long-term investment in VETwith strong emphasis on employability is the recipe for growth,competitiveness and innovation.

Since launch of the Copenhagen process (2002), VET has undergonesignificant transformations. Coupled with the Bologna process (1999), the twotraditionally distinct education sectors have established a two-pillar system ofquality and standards that offer greater transparency, transferability andpermeability. European tools and principles, like European frameworks forqualifications and quality assurance, credit transfer systems, principles forvalidating non-formal and informal learning or Europass, which helps recordpeople’s skills and qualifications and makes them easily understood acrossEurope, have helped portray VET’s value. Initiatives promotingapprenticeships and work-based learning more generally, key competences,adult learning, lifelong guidance and counselling and preventing early leavingfrom education and training – to name just a few – have been instrumental inestablishing VET as a core element in knowledge societies.

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Member States are at different levels of development in VET. But this isonly natural given the variety of systems, their socioeconomic contexts andstarting points in the education and training sector, in which responding to newchallenges and implementation takes years, not months. Overall, however,the report illustrates that VET is making inroads into the way people perceivelearning; that levels of qualifications are progressively moving upwardstowards higher VET and that social partners are regularly engaged instrengthening work-based learning to reinforce VET’s labour marketrelevance. These are positive signs upon which we can build priorities for thenext years.

Through this report we aspire to uncover how VET reform helps renewstructures towards higher standards, quality and labour market relevance ofskills and qualifications. This is the major challenge. With high unemploymentin many European countries and youth unemployment skyrocketing in some,VET in general, and apprenticeship in particular, has become crucial forEuropean Union (EU) and national policy-makers as it is seen as a principleto prepare young people for today’s labour market. In a world of rapidtechnological change, demographic change and economic restructuring, it isa particular challenge for VET to ensure that young people are also preparedfor tomorrow’s work places.

Today’s challenges for VET could not have been foreseen more than adecade ago when, in 2002, in Copenhagen, under the Lisbon strategy andparallel to the Bologna process for higher education, ministers responsible forVET in the EU, European free trade area (EFTA)-European economic area(EEA) and candidate countries, the European Commission and social partnersagreed on a set of overall priorities for VET. The core intentions then were toimprove lifelong learning (LLL) opportunities and mobility across MemberStates in a single European labour market. The coordination process thatfollowed has supported Member State cooperation and become a catalyst formodernising VET systems across Europe.

The Bruges communiqué set the agenda for VET in Europe andencourages action in line with aims of the Europe 2020 and the education andtraining 2020 strategies. With its adoption and unfolding impacts of the crisisin 2010, European cooperation entered a new phase. Strong VET systemsand LLL opportunities increasingly started to be seen as crucial elements indealing with the crisis. At the same time, their importance as preconditions forlong-term growth and competitiveness was increasingly recognised.

In the report readers will find evidence of a structured reawakening ofapprenticeship programmes and other forms of work-based learning: greaterinterest in validation of non-formal and informal learning (VNFIL); setting upqualifications frameworks linked to the European qualifications framework(EQF), thus making education and training outcomes better understood;access to more structured and available guidance and counselling services;more VET qualifications based on a learning outcomes approach; the needto understand and value VET’s potential at all levels to contribute toinnovation, foster an entrepreneurship culture and therefore promote VETexcellence as well as increasing emphasis on VET’s capacity to be inclusivethrough renewed attention for the low-skilled and groups at risk.

These are positive signs that auger well for the future. But we cannot reston our laurels and ignore the need to intensify our efforts. Challenges include:increasing VET funding; engaging social partners in a more structured

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dialogue with education authorities; cooperating with primary and lowersecondary education to help ensure that the basic skills and key competencesthat learners acquire become their bridge to VET; promoting collaborationbetween guidance and counselling services in education and training andemployment sectors and encouraging them to work closely with businessesand emerging employment sectors; making better use of data on transitionand labour market outcomes to inform VET provision; placing qualityassurance, credit systems and VNFIL at the centre of VET systems; andproviding more professional development opportunities for VET teachers andtrainers.

VET at all levels is at the heart of Europe’s response to the economiccrisis, but also addresses long-term trends such as ageing, changing skillneeds across the jobs spectrum and the need for greener economies. Incountries where VET systems still struggle to gain their rightful place in politicalpriorities and budgets, more young people may fall by the wayside of societyas they become inactive, which, in turn, will entail social welfare costs. Citizensexpect speedy policy responses with tangible impacts in the short run.However, in times of tight public budgets this is difficult to achieve andimplementing sustainable measures takes time. Therefore there has been agrowing need in Europe to develop the potential for VET reform and expandpolicy learning. While copy-paste approaches to policy are rarely effective,other models of policy transfer can go a long way in supporting countries’ VETsystems. Encouraging stronger cooperation, for instance within the Europeanalliance for apprenticeship or use of European tools will help to achieve this.Use of European tools and principles could also make a significant change tothe value given to a person’s skills and competences, particularly whenaccessing the labour market.

Where traditional distinctions between vocational, general and highereducation are entrenched in different cultures, VET cannot be seen inisolation: it is part and parcel of developing strong education and trainingsystems in countries. This is because adjusting to labour market needs andavoiding skill mismatches requires flexible education and training opportunitiesthat allow combining different types and levels of learning throughout life.

With the period to implement the STDs agreed in 2010 coming to an end,this report will give readers a comprehensive overview of VET policies andmeasures until early 2014. It uncovers several issues that, once addressed,could strengthen VET nationally and in Europe.

I trust that this report will encourage VET policy-makers at national andEU levels to reflect and discuss future priorities that are smart, sustainableand inclusive and which make VET systems stronger for Europe’s citizens toenjoy a better quality of life.

Joachim James CallejaDirector

Foreword 3

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Acknowledgements

This report is a result of a team effort and reflectscontributions from all working on the project:Cedefop's VET policy and systems team andCedefop experts working on common Europeantools and principles for education and training andstatistics.

Cedefop wishes to acknowledge contributionsand advice from:(a) ReferNet partners who provided much of the

information in response to three extensiveCedefop questionnaires on VET policydevelopments and implementation in theircountries;

(b) Directors General for Vocational Education andTraining (DGVT) and members of the AdvisoryCommittee for Vocational Training (ACVT) andits enlarged Bureau;

(c) the European Commission and Greek andItalian Presidencies;

(d) the ETF team of VET policy analysts, thematicexperts and EU candidate country desks forpromoting and completing the approach andtools, analysing progress and providinginformation on developments in VET in EUcandidate countries.

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Table of contents

Foreword 1Acknowledgements 4Executive summary 10

CHAPTER 1How to indicate progress towards the Bruges priorities 13

1.1. Policy context 131.2. Defining policy options 141.3. Visualising trends in European VET policies 151.4. Understanding progress towards Bruges strategic objectives 16

PART ICHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 19

2.1. Attractive VET 20 2.1.1. Campaigns and skills competitions 21 2.1.2. Acquainting and familiarising young people with VET 22 2.1.3. Bringing work experience to compulsory education 232.2. Fostering quality: implementing EQAVET 24 2.2.1. National quality assurance approach 24 2.2.2. Focusing on VET providers 26 2.2.3. Evaluation 27 2.2.4. Using indicators 28 2.2.5. Supporting EQAVET implementation 282.3. Basic skills and key competences 29 2.3.1. Basic skills 29 2.3.2. Acquiring key competences in and through IVET 30 2.3.3. Promoting foreign language skills 33 2.3.4. Fostering innovative and entrepreneurial skills 33 2.3.5. Making up for deficits and developing key competences further through (C)VET 342.4. Work-based learning 35 2.4.1. Work-based learning in school-based VET 36 2.4.2. Apprenticeship schemes central to EU and national policy agendas 36 2.4.3. Financial incentives for enterprises 37 2.4.4. Involving employers to ensure quality and relevance 382.5. Cooperation with employers and employment services 39 2.5.1. Building partnerships with employers 39 2.5.2. Cooperation between VET, employment services and social partners 402.6. Monitoring employability and transitions, plus feedback to VET provision 41

CHAPTER 3Accessible and open VET: lifelong learning and mobility 45

3.1. Lifelong learning 47 3.1.1. Promoting CVET participation 47 3.1.2. Supporting learners and teachers 493.2. Qualification frameworks 50 3.2.1. From design to operation: more countries have moved to an operational stage 51 3.2.2. Indicating links to the EQF and making it visible 52

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3.3. Validation 55 3.3.1. Validation strategies: comprehensive or a result of different arrangements 55 3.3.2. Outcomes of validation: qualifications, exemptions or access 56 3.3.3. Challenges and take-up of validation 57 3.3.4. Validation in candidate countries 583.4. Guidance in line with labour market needs 58 3.4.1. Towards strategic and coordinated approaches 59 3.4.2. Towards easy access to guidance 60 3.4.3. Empowering people through career management skills 61 3.4.4. Increasing guidance quality 623.5. ECVET 63 3.5.1. Objectives of ECVET 63 3.5.2. ECVET readiness 64 3.5.3. From commitment to testing: building capacity 653.6. Internationalisation and mobility 66 3.6.1. Strategic approaches to internationalising VET 67 3.6.2. Transferring and valuing learning outcomes 68 3.6.3. Financing cross-border mobility 69 3.6.4. Encouraging and supporting mobility initiatives 69

CHAPTER 4Modern VET: creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship 71

4.1. Creativity and innovation 71 4.1.1. Embedding innovation in VET 72 4.1.2. Stimulating innovation through partnerships and clusters 72 4.1.3. Competing to unleash potential 734.2. Using innovative technology effectively 74 4.2.1. Supporting VET teachers 74 4.2.2. Involving enterprises and building networks 754.3. Entrepreneurship 75 4.3.1. Using strategies to promote entrepreneurship 78 4.3.2. Helping VET and business find each other 78 4.3.3. Using funding schemes or incentives 79

CHAPTER 5Inclusive VET: equity, social cohesion and active citizenship 80

5.1. Early leaving from education and training 80 5.1.1. Making VET access and progression easier 82 5.1.2. Giving financial incentives 83 5.1.3. Offering guidance and support and ensuring their quality 835.2. Helping the low-skilled and other at-risk groups learn 845.3. Using ICT to support groups at risk 865.4. Monitor groups at risk to support VET participation 88

PART IICHAPTER 6On track towards 2020: a synthesis 91

6.1. Introduction 916.2. Impact of Copenhagen/Bruges on VET policy at national level 926.3. From ideas to action: implementing VET policies 93 6.3.1. Where to go: focus of national VET policy developments and reforms 93 6.3.2. Who takes the lead? 97

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6.3.3. The role of social partners 98 6.3.4. Approaches to achieving policy aims 996.4. Understanding progress towards Bruges strategic objectives 100 6.4.1. Cluster 1: continuous developers 100 6.4.2. Cluster 2: early developers 104 6.4.3. Cluster 3: recent implementers 105 6.4.4. Cluster 4: modest developers 1076.5. Achievements, challenges and lessons learned 109 6.5.1. Strengthening work-based learning 109 6.5.2. Making VET more inclusive 111 6.5.3. Implementing NQFs and promoting synergies with other European tools

and principles 111 6.5.4. Areas for further development 112 6.5.5. Setting priorities and monitoring progress: lessons of 2010-14 114 6.5.6. Conclusion 114

CHAPTER 7Developments in candidate countries 116

7.1. Introduction 1167.2. The Copenhagen/Bruges process: inspiring national reforms 1167.3. Developing skills 1177.4. Strengthening VET systems 1197.5. Engaging more people in VET 1217.6. Conclusions 123

Acronyms and definitions 125References 127

ANNEXES1. Short overview of NQF developments 204 1342. ECVET coordination points, EQF coordination points, EQAVET national

reference points 140

List of tables, figures and boxes

Tables1. Stages of development for policy options 15

Figures1. State of play and progress towards STD1: VET attractiveness and excellence

(campaigns, competitions) 202. State of play and progress towards STD2: acquainting young people in

compulsory education with VET 233. STD3 state of play and progress towards STD3: implementation

of the EQAVET recommendation 294. State of play and progress towards STD4: key competences and career

management skills in VET 31

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5. State of play and progress towards STD5a: work-based learning, including apprenticeships 35

6. State of play and progress towards STD5b: cooperation between VET institutions and enterprises 39

7. State of play and progress towards STD21: structured cooperation mechanisms between VET sector and employment services 41

8. State of play and progress towards STD5c: feedback on employability of VET graduates for VET institutions 43

9. State of play and progress towards STD6: monitoring systems on transitions from learning to work 44

10. State of play and progress towards STD22: improving EU level data on IVET students 44

11. State of play and progress towards STD7: participation in CVET in line with ET 2020 15% benchmark 47

12. State of play and progress towards STD8: comprehensive NQFs based on learning outcomes linked to EQF 52

13. State of play and progress towards STD11: ECVET implementation in line with the recommendation 65

14. State of play and progress towards STD12: internalisation and mobility in VET 6715. State of play and progress towards STD13: partnerships for creativity

and innovation 7216. State of play and progress towards STD14: effective and innovative,

quality-assured use of technology by all VET providers 7417. State of play and progress towards STD15: entrepreneurship 7718. State of play and progress towards STD16: maximising the contribution

of VET in combating early leaving from education 8119. State of play and progress towards STD17: raising participation of low-skilled

and other at-risk groups in education and training 8520. State of play and progress towards STD18: using ICT to maximise access

to training and promote active learning 8721. State of play and progress towards STD19: using existing monitoring

systems to support participation of at-risk groups in VET 8922. Impact of the Copenhagen/Bruges process on national VET policy and strategy

(number of countries) 9223. Impact of STDs on key national issues requiring reforms (number of countries) 9324. Focus of VET policy reform since 2010 (number of countries) 9525. Use of EQAVET indicators in IVET 9626. Use of EQAVET indicators in CVET 9627. Citizens responding positively (%) to statements on EU tools and

transferability of qualifications (%) 9728. Initiators of VET policies and measures by policy aim (%) 9829. Approaches used to implement VET policies and measures by policy aim (%) 9930. Policy priority profiles for countries in cluster 1: continuous developers, 2010-14 10231. Policy priority profiles for countries in cluster 2: early developers, 2010-14 10432. Policy priority profiles for countries in cluster 3: recent implementers, 2010-14 10633. Policy priority profiles for countries in cluster 4: modest developers, 2010-14 107

Boxes1. STDs on VET quality, efficiency, attractiveness and relevance 202. Engaging young people, adults and enterprises: country highlights 213. Finland: more attractive and better VET through skills competitions 224. Experiencing VET in compulsory education: country highlights 22

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5. Organising work experience prior to VET: country highlights 236. Joining forces to step up quality in company-based training in Austria 267. VET providers in focus: creating trust and building a quality culture in Estonia 278. Sweden’s use of qualitative indicators and monitoring outcomes to inform VET 289. Fit for work and life through key competences in IVET: country highlights 32

10. Key competences within CVET: country highlights 3411. Apprenticeships at all levels and in new areas: country highlights 3712. Work-based learning incentives for enterprises: country highlights 3713. Learning in work settings, support for enterprises and learners: country highlights 3814. Training teachers in enterprise: country highlights 4015. Teaming up with employment services: country highlights 4116. Feedback loops to ensure VET labour market relevance 4217. Tracking labour market outcomes for better VET: country highlights 4318. STDs dealing with LLL and mobility 4519. Strategies to boost CVET: country highlights 4820. CVET: ensuring value and easing progression to higher education attainment:

country highlights 4921. Helping teachers help adult learners: country highlights 5022. Towards a comprehensive framework in Montenegro 5323. Certificates signal parity of esteem between VET and academic higher education 5424. Making NQF/EQF visible and easy to use 5425. The Irish NQF: a first generation framework and lessons that

can be learned from it 5426. Towards comprehensive legal frameworks for validation: country highlights 5627. Candidate countries: stepping stones towards validation strategies 5828. Towards better guidance: country highlights 6229. Taking learning outcomes along and building qualifications at national level:

country highlights 6430. Moving on with ECVET 6631. Off to new horizons with VET: country highlights 6832. Making more mobility possible: country highlights 7033. STDs dealing with creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship 7134. Innovation partnerships and platforms: country highlights 7335. Who is the most innovative: country highlights 7336. ‘Technology in VET’ strategies: country highlights 7437. Networking to ease access to technology: country highlights 7538. Unleashing entrepreneurial spirit: country highlights 7639. Supporting aspiring entrepreneurs: country highlights 7740. Funding and incentives for entrepreneurship: country highlights 7841. STDs dealing with inclusive IVET and CVET 8042. Early-school-leaving strategies: country highlights 8243. Using incentives in the fight against early school leaving: country highlights 8344. Opening doors for less fortunate learners: country highlights 8445. Focusing on key competences to fill the gaps: country highlights 8646. Going digital to help more people learn: country highlights 8647. Helping learners get connected: country highlights 8748. Monitoring at-risk groups: country highlights 8849. ET 2020 objectives and Bruges strategic objectives 9250. Implementing STDs: how do they interact? 9351. Visualising VET reform in policy priority profiles 101

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This report provides a comprehensive overviewof what European countries (EU Member States,Norway, Iceland and candidate countries) havedone to address the priorities set for VET in 2010in the Bruges communiqué. The report follows thecommuniqué’s structure and reflects onachievements towards the 22 short-termdeliverables set for VET, the STDs. Countryexamples complement detailed analysis of eachSTD. Based on trends observed from 2010 to2014, the following main findings emerge.

The Bruges communiqué:inspiration and ‘menu’The Bruges communiqué has inspired nationalVET reforms in more than two thirds of thecountries. In countries with strong VET, thecommuniqué’s influence has been lower than inthose with less developed VET systems. Severalconsidered it a menu from which to choose themost relevant deliverables that would inspiresolutions to their challenges. Work onqualifications frameworks triggered somesystemic reforms focusing on learning-outcomes-oriented standards and curricula. While qualityand attractiveness have also been among theimpact ‘hit-list’, outcome indicators to track qualityare still not frequently used. Where the nationalqualifications framework (NQF) was consideredthe communiqué’s main impact, a trend was touse a step-by-step approach with validation,quality assurance and the European creditsystem for vocational education and training(ECVET) following suit. Most countries lackcomprehensive strategies to communicate theEU tools’ value, which reflects the work on themso far developed as separate initiatives.

In other countries, the main impact of thecommuniqué and its deliverables manifesteditself in their work on apprenticeships. In mostcases, national authorities take the lead in

reforms. Social partners take second place, buttheir role is expanding as they increasinglycontribute to developing VET policies and theirimplementation, especially in countries withstrong social partner involvement in educationand training. The approaches used to implementVET policies and measures vary substantially bypolicy aim: financial incentives are most commonin measures to reduce early leaving while newlaws or regulations dominate actions to promotecontinuing vocational education and training(CVET) and key competences.

Stronger VET …Analysis in this report shows a strong focus ondeveloping and implementing work-basedlearning and apprenticeship, a process that takestime and requires active involvement ofemployers and social partners. Development ofNQFs, measures to reduce early leaving andpolicies to promote LLL for low-skilled and othergroups at risk are other areas that have been highon national policy agendas. Such measures tomake VET more inclusive have not only becomemore prominent, but also more comprehensive.

Making VET more attractive and relevant andencouraging quality and efficiencyCountries have worked a lot on making VET moreattractive, but more could be done to promoteVET in compulsory education. Increasing work-based learning in VET has been a top priority andcooperation between VET and employmentstakeholders has become stronger. Work onqualifications frameworks and validation hasrenewed attention to quality in VET, butchallenges in securing quality in work-basedlearning remain. Key competences and basicskills and opportunities that allow young peopleand adults to acquire them have receivedincreasing attention. Monitoring labour market

Executive summary

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outcomes of VET graduates has become morecommon, but using the information to inform VETprovision remains a challenge in many countries.

Making LLL and mobility a reality in VETPromoting LLL and mobility has been somewhatless prominent than before, partly due to theeconomic crisis and high unemployment whichled to strong focus on young people in transitionto the labour market, but NQFs have been acatalyst for improving access to learning andindividualising learning paths. Few countries,however, have comprehensive strategies orapproaches for validating non-formal learning andit remains a challenge to start using ECVET toease mobility within national VET systems. Thosewho could benefit most from validation are leastaware of the opportunities it offers.Internationalisation in VET has mainly beensupported by EU training programmes rather thannational initiatives. Trends in guidance reflect theincreasing need to encourage people to take upVET and to manage transitions. Supportinglearning by providing adequate timearrangements and delivery methods and givingVET staff professional development opportunitiesare less prominent areas on national policyagendas.

Encouraging creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship in VETOverall, this objective has received less attention.Partnerships for creativity and innovation aredeveloping, but it is a slow process. Networks andpartnerships between providers and business toensure effective and quality-assured technologyin VET or using incentives to achieve this, are notyet common practice in many countries.Entrepreneurship is becoming an underlyingprinciple in VET and links between VET andbusiness are expanding, but support for aspiringentrepreneurs and their teachers and trainerscould still be strengthened.

Making VET more inclusiveCountries have clearly prioritised actions andmeasures that make initial vocational educationand training (IVET) and CVET more inclusive.Reducing early leaving from education andtraining has been a top priority, with incentives forlearners, enterprises and VET institutions

increasingly used to tackle it. There is also a cleartrend towards raising training participation of thelow-skilled and other at-risk groups, but there isscope to invest in more training opportunities thatmeet their learning and practical needs. Thepotential of using information andcommunications technology (ICT) to help at-riskgroups learn has not been fully tapped.Insufficient monitoring of such groups in VET isan obstacle to targeting provision better to theirneeds.

…at different speedsWhile the process since Bruges has promotedreform in a range of countries, addressing manypriorities at the same time in a long lastingeconomic crisis has been a challenge for some,especially where the VET system was not welldeveloped. Countries have had to prioritise andconcentrate their efforts.

Based on overall patterns and stage of VETpolicy implementation in recent years, Cedefophas clustered countries using four categories.This reflects that they started from very differentbaselines in terms of the maturity, competitive -ness and effectiveness of their VET systems.(a) Continuous developers had a good starting

position and have worked in recent years todevelop their VET systems further.

(b) Early developers require continuous efforts tosecure and sustain their well-developed VETsystems.

(c) Recent implementers need to focus oncontinued (successful) implementation, whichrequires persistence and flexible adaptation.

(d) Some modest developers have alreadystarted reforms, while others need to speedthem up in at least one policy area.

…and further efforts neededSeveral challenges have been identified throughthe analysis: better use of information ontransitions; employability and other labour marketoutcomes of graduates for VET provision;strengthening efforts to promote creativity,innovation and entrepreneurship in VET; and

Executive summary 11

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ensuring professional development opportunitiesfor VET teachers and trainers.

Giving more people a chance to get the skillsthey have acquired outside formal educationvalidated, by developing comprehensive andquality-assured approaches, are on the ‘room forimprovement’ list of European tools. The nextstep in the work on quality assurance is to ensurethat frameworks for VET providers do not onlyapply to work-based learning in education andtraining institutions, but also to company-basedlearning that is part of formal VET. To benefitEuropean citizens and help them move easilybetween different types of education and trainingand employment, work on European tools willneed to ensure they interact better and focusmore on end-users.

Issues of concern and areas of less progresswill feed into setting new priorities. Monitoring andshowcasing developments will also play a majorrole in the next phase of the process. To increaseits policy relevance, the monitoring process willneed to be strengthened.

…for better livesThe Bruges communiqué and the current crisisand employment challenges have put VET highon European and national policy agendas. Inparallel, the notion that VET is a crucial pillar inknowledge economies and a driver ofcompetitiveness, growth and prosperity is beingreinforced. The achievements that countries havemade towards reforming their VET systems withinthe voluntary Bruges framework have made VETin Europe stronger. Although much remains to bedone, the changes set in motion by thecommuniqué can make a difference in the livesof European citizens. VET supports theiremployability through building and recognisingskills and qualifications, and opens upopportunities for further learning and careerdevelopment. To make a real difference in theirlives in the coming years, the further developmentof VET policies, measures, support and toolsshould continue to be informed by a focus onEuropean citizens.

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1.1. Policy contextThe Bruges communiqué (Council of the EU;European Commission, 2010) sets out a globalvision for VET. It aims to make European VETsystems more attractive, relevant, career-oriented, innovative and flexible. It also highlightsthe contribution of VET to excellence and equityin LLL.

The four overall objectives of thecommuniqué correspond to those of the strategicframework for European cooperation in educationand training (ET 2020, Council of the EU, 2009).Both support the EU’s 2020 strategy (EuropeanCommission, 2010a; European Council, 2010a;European Council, 2010b). This strategy placeseducation and training, and VET in particular, atthe core of its policy responses to the economiccrisis which started in 2008.

LLL is a fundamental principle underpinningthe entire framework, which is designed to coverlearning in all contexts – formal, non-formal orinformal – and at all levels: from early childhoodeducation and schools through to highereducation, VET and adult learning.

The communiqué continues the so-calledCopenhagen process. Since 2002 Europeancountries have worked jointly on commonobjectives and priorities for VET (Council of theEU and European Commission, 2002). Inspiredby the Bologna process for higher education, itsmain objectives have been to improve LLL andmobility in Europe and contribute to the making ofa single European labour market. To this end,Member States, EEA/EFTA and candidatecountries at the time, the European Commissionand the social partners have developed:(a) a learning outcomes-based EQF;(b) a reference framework for quality assurance

in VET;(c) the ECVET;(d) common principles for validating non-formal

and informal learning;

(e) common principles for guidance andcounselling.Since 2004, countries have also shared

national priorities. Despite being voluntary, theprocess has become a catalyst for reforming andmodernising VET in many EU Member States.Some of the common tools and principles are notrestricted to VET but apply to LLL in general. As therecent consultation on a European area of skillsand qualifications (EASQ) (European Commission,2014c) confirmed, the learning outcomesapproach, which underpins the European tools, isimportant to help make people’s knowledge, skillsand competences more understandable.

This illustrates that the Copenhagen processhas been an important element of Europeancooperation on education and training, and itsopen method of coordination, from the outset. Itsaims and priorities have contributed to achievingeducation and training objectives to supportEurope’s overall goals: previously those for2010 (1); and now those set out in the ET 2020strategic framework, as stated in the respectiveCouncil conclusions (Council of the EU, 2009).

Prior to 2010, Ministers reviewed andadjusted priorities every two years. These regularreviews kept VET high on national policy agendasirrespective of its status and helped maintain asense of ‘ownership’ and sustained commitmentamong the participants of the Copenhagenprocess. However, the periods were consideredtoo short to implement policy measures and seetheir impact.

The Bruges communiqué combines long-term perspective with a short-term programme foraction to be reviewed in 2014. A total of 11strategic objectives, six of which refer to the fourET 2020 objectives, and five so-called transversalobjectives form the overall framework. For the

CHAPTER 1

How to indicate progress towards the Bruges priorities

(1) The goals of the so-called Lisbon strategy for 2010 (EuropeanCouncil, 2000), the future objectives of the education andtraining system (European Council, 2001) and the educationand training 2010 work programme (European Council, 2002).

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period 2011-14, countries committed themselvesto 22 STDs. The current review is to be seen inthe broader context of the ET 2020 and Europe2020 mid-term evaluations.

In parallel to the Copenhagen process,countries are working on their national reformprogrammes which the European Commissionanalyses annually to follow up their commitmentto the European goals (European semester). TheCommission also examines countries’ youthguarantee implementation plans (Council of theEU, 2013a) and follows up their developments inapprenticeships, a main pillar of the guarantees.Their aim is to ensure that young people underthe age of 25 can either find jobs or continue theireducation and training. The youth guaranteesreinforce elements included in the Brugescommuniqué, the Youth employment package,the Commission staff working document VET forbetter skills, growth and jobs (EuropeanCommission, 2012c) and the European socialpartners’ Framework of actions on youthunemployment (European social partners, 2013).A total of EUR 6 billion have been earmarked forthe period 2014-20, to fund the Youthemployment initiative (European Council, 2013;European Commission, 2013b) and support theyouth guarantees which are also consideredimportant by the G20 labour ministers.

VET and VET-related policies also comeunder scrutiny in the context of economic policycoordination, which may lead to specificrecommendations for Member States (CSRs) inthese fields. In 2014, for instance, 22 MemberStates received VET-related country-specificrecommendations, 14 countries on apprentice shipor work-based learning, and eight on the youthguarantee. These different policy instruments,(Council of the EU, 2013b; European Commissionet al., 2013) and, most recently, the establishmentof a thematic working group on VET whichfocuses on apprenticeship, reinforce the attentionpaid to work-based learning in many countries. Aspreviously, Cedefop and the ETF (for thecandidate countries) have been requested tomonitor progress and analyse developments.Measuring progress towards 22 STDs and takinginto account countries’ different starting points andtheir individual contexts, institutions andgovernance required a new approach tomonitoring and reporting. An interim report after

two years, in 2012, reflected development trendswhereby the situation in 2010 served as abaseline for analysing progress.

As STDs differ in scope and nature, this hasbeen a challenging task. Sometimes they addresscomplex phenomena such as attractive ness, inother cases they relate to more concretemeasures like the European tools. They mayaddress overlapping issues such as keycompetences and entrepreneurship, which is oneof them. Work-based learning, for instance, alsohelps achieve other deliverables. Adult learning/CVET, however, is covered by most of the otherdeliverables and includes measures for specifictarget groups, yet another deliverable. Thisrequires adjusting and fine tuning the approachand will require further adjustments after thepresent report.

1.2. Defining policy optionsComparing and assessing progress countries aremaking towards implementing these STDs is notstraightforward because many STDs areinterlinked and countries work towards them indifferent ways. This makes identifying trendsacross countries a challenging task.

To establish a framework for assessment andcomparisons of national VET policies andinitiatives, Cedefop operationalised STDs byidentifying policy options, which may beunderstood as concrete policies/actions suitablefor each of them.

Cedefop’s policy option approach is based onthe following assumptions:(a) each STD can be achieved by implement ing

a range of different policy options, and mostof the policy options can contribute toachieving several STDs;

(b) national policy measures and initiativesdevelop dynamically and are at differentimplementation stages. As many of the STDsand strategic priorities agreed in Bruges werenot new, the approach must take into accounteach country’s baseline situation in 2010.As a first step, a consistent and

comprehensive list of policy options was to bedefined for each STD. This relied on an extensivereview of studies and scientific work, as well ason EU-level policy documents for VET and related

Stronger VET for better lives14

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areas. The policy options defined for each STDwere fine-tuned following consultation with theEuropean Commission and other stake holders.Consolidation and restructuring followed STDdefinition, and similar policy options identified indifferent STDs were merged. Each policy optionwas also carefully examined and, if needed,reformulated to capture the develop ments indifferent countries. Cedefop then allocated thepolicy options to different STDs. The allocationwas adapted several times afterwards, based onemerging insights and on interim results frommonitoring.

The policy options have been reflected in thequestionnaire sent to ReferNet, Cedefop’snetwork of expertise. As using information fromother sources for some STDs proved harder thanoriginally foreseen, several policy options wereadded to the questionnaire at later stages.

ReferNet completed three rounds of theCedefop policy reporting questionnaire (Cedefop,2013f), which assessed development for eachpredefined policy option: in spring 2012, in early2013 and early 2014. All partners in EU MemberStates contributed except Ireland in 2012,Denmark in 2013 and Greece, as they did nothave a ReferNet partner in place. For Greece, theMinistry of Education provided the input in 2012.In 2013 and 2014, Cedefop collected data incooperation with the ministry. The survey alsocovered Iceland and Norway, which have beenpart of the Copenhagen process from the outset.For countries that did not complete earlierquestionnaire rounds, instructions were given tocapture missing information retroactively.Candidate countries (excluding Iceland) werereviewed by ETF using the Cedefop questionnaireas a base. Croatia joined the EU and Cedefop’sReferNet in 2013.

On top of the information collected byReferNet, progress related to European tools andprinciples (2) has been assessed using Cedefop’sown monitoring and studies, as well as externalsources. Information on European qualityassurance reference framework for vocationaleducation and training (EQAVET) (STD3) ismainly based on the 2013/14 EQAVET survey(EQAVET Secretariat, 2013; 2014). The findings

of Cedefop’s NQF/EQF and ECVET monitoringformed the basis for the sections on thedevelopments in qualification frameworks (STD8)and on the credit system for VET (STD11).Trends in key competences (STD4), guidance(STD10) and internationalisation and mobility inVET (STD12) have been reviewed using varioussources. More information on these sources canbe found in the respective sections.

1.3. Visualising trends inEuropean VET policies

‘Bullet charts’ in Part 1 of the report illustratetrends in progress towards an STD. Two groupsof countries are presented in each bullet chart:EU Member States, Iceland and Norway (EU+),and the four candidate countries (the formerYugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro,Serbia and Turkey). Coloured dots indicate thenumber of countries at any particular stage ofdevelopment (Table 1). Croatia’s accession to theEU in July 2013 explains the difference in bulletcharts between the current report (EU-28+ andfour candidate countries) and Trends in VETpolicy in Europe 2010-12 (EU-27+ and fivecandidate countries) (Cedefop, 2012a).

Table 1. Stages of development for policyoptions

The policy option was already in place by 2010and there have been no changes since 2010

The policy option was already in place by 2010and has been adjusted since 2010

The policy option has been put in place since2010

The policy option was put in place after 2010and has been adjusted since

The policy option has been in preparation butnot yet been put in place (2010-14)

No action on the policy option has beenreported

Source: Cedefop.

CHAPTER 1How to indicate progress towards the Bruges priorities 15

(2) EQF and NQFs, EQAVET, ECVET, VNFIL and guidance.

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Establishing baselines for 2010 andcharacterising progress since then has beendifficult in some cases. Several STDs werealready present in previous Copenhagen reviewsbut others are new, or have only recently gainedmore importance on the policy agenda. Adaptingthe information on European tools and principlesis challenging, as their monitoring differs in termsof timing and approach. Therefore, for someSTDs, bullet charts follow a different logic fromthat described above.

Bullet charts illustrate broad trends. ‘Noaction reported on’ does not automatically meanthat countries are lagging behind in makingprogress towards an STD. As the responsibilityfor VET and VET-related issues may be outsidethe remit of national authorities: ‘no actionreported on’ could simply mean that informationat regional or local level is difficult to capture.Also, as policy options can be alternatives, not allneed to feature in addressing an STD.Nevertheless, when a country has not reportedon any action for all policy options to address aparticular STD, the assumption is that it may needfurther attention.

Within EU Member States, the Flemish- (Fl),French- (Fr) and German-speaking (Dg)communities are analysed separately forBelgium, as are England, Wales, Scotland andNorthern Ireland for the UK. This overview,therefore, reports on developments in 35 VETsystems (3) in 28 EU Member States and in fourcandidate countries. This visual presentation oftrends in VET, together with examples of policies,measures and initiatives taken by countries, ispresented in Part 1 of this report.

1.4. Understanding progresstowards Bruges strategicobjectives

The information from ReferNet questionnairesused to produce overviews of trends inimplementing the STDs also helps to understandbetter the focus of the actions since 2010 in

relation to long-term Bruges strategic objectives.Cedefop’s analysis of the policy options has beenused to give a synthetic overview of wherecountries have focused their policy efforts, the so-called ‘policy priority profiles’. The profiles are notstrict measures of progress or policy impact. Theyare based on the number of policy options thatcountries had in place by 2010, the number ofpolicy options they have implemented since, andthe number of policy options they are preparingto implement (see Section 6.2) (4).

Based on the answers given by ReferNet tothe question of who initiated actions under thepolicy options, the information has been analysedto summarise the role of the different actors.Cedefop has also applied qualitative datatechniques to understand better what types ofapproach countries have used to implement theirpolicies: whether they have passed laws ordeveloped regulations; whether they have madefinancing available or developed incentives; orwhether they have focused on promoting andmarketing VET (Section 6.3).

Monitoring according to policy optionsestablishes a framework to illustrate trends inVET policies in a range of countries that differ interms of education and training system, economicstructure, and socioeconomic conditions; thisoffers a quick view of main developments. Thefocus is on policies, measures and initiativescountries have adopted in VET and related fieldsto address the priorities laid down in the STDs.While policy reforms and measures in 35 VETsystems structured according to more than 100policy options are a wealth of information, theycannot capture all the dimensions of the policyprocess and their context-dependant interaction.

In contrast to previous reporting on theCopenhagen process, this approach takesaccount of countries’ starting points and helpsunderstand the trends and stages of developmentsince 2010 in terms of policy implementation.However, it cannot reflect the quality of theactions, their impact or outcomes.

The approach relies on self-assessment ofrecent national actions. In most cases thesemeasures have not been evaluated, partly

Stronger VET for better lives16

(4) The policy priority profiles consider both the ReferNet inputand information on the implementation of the European toolsand principles for which stages of development are available.

(3) These are referred to as EU+ countries in this report.

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because they are still being piloted or in thepreparation phase or they have only been inplace for a short time; it is also partly becauseevaluation cultures and indicators are not welldeveloped.

Impact analysis for policies and actionstowards 22 STDs in all the countries is seen asnot feasible. Several would require their owncomprehensive reviews, similar to those carriedout for the European tools. Also, VET governancetends to be complex, with responsibilities sharedby different stakeholders, often at regional or locallevel. The impact of VET and VET-relatedmeasures is also closely linked to a country’s orregion’s socioeconomic context and policymeasures in related areas. Understanding thiscontext is a prerequisite to identifying challengesin implementing new initiatives.

Using statistical indicators as proxies forimpact is a challenge, as such indicators arescarce in VET and rely on data that frequentlybecome available with time lags. But even ifbetter or more timely statistical data in VET wereavailable, it would still be challenging to establishcausal relationships between policy actions takenin VET or related domains and (positive)outcomes, as these links are very complex anddepend on contextual conditions. To be able tounderstand cause-effect relationships andmeasure impact would also require comparisonto control groups.

Given such limitations, it is important to keepin mind that this report presents a synthesisedimage of developments in the countries covered.Analysis based on the policy options in this reportsignals broad trends that help understand thefocus of measures in recent years and identifiespossibilities that a range of countries have not yetexplored, which could inspire future work.

Following the Bruges communiqué structure,and thus that of ET 2020, this report is consistentwith the approach taken for the 2012 interimreport (Cedefop, 2012a). However, being limitedto using this structure affects the potential fordiscussing how the different deliverables andobjectives interact and makes it difficult to obtainanalytically sound results in terms of the strategicobjectives.

To address this issue, Part II of the reportcomplements the STD information by providing amore holistic impression of progress and

reflecting on implementation. It builds on theinformation underlying the policy monitoring andcombines it with the views of the mainstakeholders in the Bruges process.

In late 2013, Cedefop organised focusgroups and interviews with members of the ACVT.Government and national social partnerrepresentatives were asked to discuss core VETissues in group sessions moderated by Cedefop.The themes selected for discussion, inconsultation with the ACVT enlarged bureau andthe European Commission, were labour marketrelevance of VET and learning for creativity,innovation and entrepreneurship. ACVT membersdiscussed actions that they had been involved in,highlighted their specific role in thedevelopments, and debated success factors andbottlenecks. ETF conducted focus groupdiscussions with candidate country ACVTrepresentatives.

In late 2013 and early 2014 Cedefopconducted interviews with the DGVTs, theapproach having been agreed with the ACVTenlarged bureau. The interviews focused on themain strategic policy changes in VET since 2010and emerging challenges and issues to beaddressed. They also aimed to deepenunderstanding of the impact at national level ofthe Copenhagen-Bruges process and the STDs,as well as the national reform programme andcountry-specific recommendations. ETF heldinterviews with candidate countries’ DGVTs usingthe same questions.

Cedefop analysed the information from theACVT focus groups and the DGVT interviewsusing qualitative data techniques, focusing onprogress since the Bruges communiqué.Combining the views of different stakeholders ondevelopments in VET helps to understand betterthe impact of the Copenhagen-Bruges process.

This report consists of two parts. Part 1(Chapter 2, 3, 4 and 5) reviews progress towardspriorities requiring immediate action and resultsby 2014, the STDs. Part 2, synthesises thefindings and analyses them in the wider contextof the broader Bruges objectives for VET(Chapter 6 and 7).

CHAPTER 1How to indicate progress towards the Bruges priorities 17

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PART I

Trends in VET in Europe 2010-14

This part of the report maps progress towards the BrugesSTDs in European countries. For each STD bullet charts showwhat policy options countries have used. Stages ofdevelopment help in assessing trends in the implementationof policies and measures across countries. Following thestructure of the Bruges communiqué, Chapters 2 to 5 reviewthe 22 STDs. Each chapter starts with an overview of the ET2020 objectives, the strategic objectives of Bruges and theSTDs that are part of them. For the relevant STDs, eachchapter details the state of play in 2010 and presents ananalysis of developments and trends since then using bulletcharts. Chapter 2 reports on the quality, efficiency,attractiveness and relevance of VET. Chapter 3 describesprogress in developing European tools and principles tosupport LLL and mobility. Creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship in VET are discussed in Chapter 4. Chapter5 looks into measures to make VET more inclusive.Throughout the chapters, country highlights provideillustrations of recent VET reforms and measures.

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This chapter assesses the state of play in 2010and reviews progress that countries have madeduring 2010-14 towards making VET moreattractive and relevant, and encouraging qualityand efficiency. It considers national policy actionsand initiatives taken until early 2014 that addressSTDs 1 to 6 and 21 to 22. The main findings are:(a) while countries have steadily progressed

towards the first deliverable by organisingfairs, skills competitions and campaigns,caution is needed when drawing conclusionson whether they have made VET moreattractive. Impact evaluation is scarce andcause-effect relationships are difficult toestablish. The status of VET is usuallyinfluenced by a complex interplay of differentfactors, including several Brugesdeliverables. As countries’ work on STD 2suggests, more could be done to acquaintyoung people in compulsory education withVET;

(b) increasing options for work-based learning inVET has been a top priority, even before thelaunch of the European alliance forapprenticeship (Council of the EU, 2013b)and the youth guarantee recommendation(Council of the EU, 2013a) but sustainablecooperation arrangements with enterprises tohelp VET teachers stay up to date, remain tobe introduced in many countries;

(c) cooperation between the VET sector andemployment services is generally stronger.Employment authorities and social partnersfrequently participate in committees dealingwith VET (policy) and help implement it whileVET and social partners often contribute toputting employment policy in practice. Insome countries cooperation could improve byintroducing incentives or guidelines;

(d) the work on NQF/EQF, and in particularreflections on integrating non-formallyacquired qualifications, moves attention toVET quality higher up national agendas. Thisrenewed emphasis ‒ after a period ofincreased political attention following theadoption of the EQAVET recommendation in2009 ‒ focuses on the need to ensure thequality of qualifications design andcertification in several countries. While manycountries report that their quality assuranceframeworks for VET providers also apply towork-based learning, the expansion ofapprenticeships requires increasing attentionto the quality of learning that takes place incompanies;

(e) key competences have received increasedattention in recently reformed outcomes-based IVET curricula and standards, and areincluded NQF level descriptors in more thanhalf the countries. Increasingly, countriesinclude the chance for youth and adults tomake up for basic skills deficits in their LLLand VET strategies and their VET offers: ‒this has greater priority in the context of themost recent OECD skills survey (programmefor the international assessment of adultcompetences (PIAAC));

(f) while many countries collect data on thelabour market outcomes for VET graduates,using them to inform and strengthen VETprovision is much less common. As in 2012,EQAVET outcome indicators, which are notyet extensively used, confirm this finding.

CHAPTER 2

Better VET: quality, efficiency,attractiveness, and relevance

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Box 1. STDs on VET quality, efficiency,attractiveness and relevance

ET 2020 objective 2 as adapted for the Brugescommuniqué: improving the quality and efficiencyof VET and enhancing its attractiveness andrelevance (a)

Bruges communiqué strategic objectives (SO)1 and 2SO1 Making IVET an attractive learning option.SO2 Fostering the excellence, quality and

relevance of both initial (IVET) andcontinuing VET (CVET).

STDsSTD1 VET attractiveness and excellence

(campaigns, competitions).STD2 Acquainting young people in compulsory

education with VET.STD3 Implementation EQAVET recommendation.STD4 Key competences and career management

skills in VET.STD5 (a) Work-based learning, including

apprenticeships.(b) Cooperation between VET institutions

and enterprises.(c) Feedback on the employability of VET

graduates for VET institutions.STD6 Monitoring systems on transitions from

learning to work.STD21 (a) Structured cooperation mechanisms be-

tween VET sector and employment services.STD22 (b) Improving EU level data on IVET students.

(a) Original wording in ET 2020 ‘Improving the quality and efficiency ofeducation and training’ (Council of the EU, 2009, p. 3).

(b) Part of the transversal strategic objectives (pp. 7-11) in the Brugescommuniqué.

Source: Council of the EU; European Commission, 2010.

2.1. Attractive VETVET attractiveness is its capacity to encourageindividuals to choose VET and to persuadeemployers to recruit VET graduates. It is alsodetermined by involvement of stakeholders, suchas social partners (Cedefop, 2014b). Eventhough VET has demonstrated considerablebenefits to individuals, enterprises and theeconomy, it still lacks esteem in some countrieswhen compared to general and universityprogrammes (Cedefop, 2014a, p. 1). Favourableoutcomes alone are not sufficient to attractstudents to VET.

Besides demographic and economic trends,labour market conditions and perceptions ofquality, family members and role models areparticularly influential when individuals choosetheir educational pathway. Policies to improveinformation on occupations in demand and provideguidance and counselling are frequently used tohelp reduce the risk of ill-informed education andcareer choices and make VET more attractive.However, as is evident from STD 10 (see Section3.4) and Cedefop’s study on VET attractiveness(Cedefop, 2014a), this requires coordinatedguidance services and well-informed staff.

Many countries already had measures inplace before 2010 to promote VET and itsbenefits, but progress in 2010-14 has also beensignificant (Figure 1). Organising education andcareer fairs has been the most popular measureto promote VET attractiveness: in 2014, they wereorganised in all EU+ and candidate countries,including Croatia, Cyprus, Iceland, Latvia,Portugal and the UK (Wales and Scotland), whichintroduced them recently. Fairs often target young

Stronger VET for better lives20

Figure 1. State of play and progress towards STD1: VET attractiveness and excellence(campaigns, competitions)

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

Education and career fairs with a focus on VET

Campaigns to attract young people to VET

Skills competition(s)

Campaigns to make adults aware of the benefits of VET

Campaigns encouraging enterprises to provide or invest in VET

in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

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people as well as adults. They usually focus oninforming and guiding learners, teachers andparents on learning opportunities in the countryand abroad, but they may also involve interactivecareers and skills events or advice sessions, asin the UK (Wales and Northern Ireland).

2.1.1. Campaigns and skills competitionsTo attract learners to VET, more than half of EU+and all candidate countries already organisedcampaigns for young people before 2010. Withmost EU+ countries expanding or furtherdeveloping them since then, these campaigns areevolving dynamically. While campaigns in theCzech Republic, Greece, Italy and Portugalpromote VET in a general sense, they have amore focused character, targeting specificlearning fields or qualifications in Germany, Italy,the Netherlands and Norway. In France, Austria,Sweden and the UK (England, Wales andScotland) most campaigns promoteapprenticeships. Social partners also organisecampaigns in some countries. In Finland,empirical evidence suggests that campaignshave contributed to making IVET more attractive(Cedefop, 2014a).

Some countries use the media, web andinteractive games (as in Belgium (Fl), Estonia,Spain, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Polandand the UK (Northern Ireland)), while others linktheir campaigns to school open days or festivals(as in Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Iceland,Hungary, Romania and Slovenia).

Campaigns to make adults aware of thebenefits of VET have also gained importance inthe past four years, with 14 countries introducingthem. Developments in Bulgaria, Germany,Ireland, Cyprus, Luxembourg and Romania, havebeen dynamic as these countries introduced newcampaigns after 2010 which they have sinceadapted. Most EU+ countries also havecampaigns to encourage enterprises to invest inVET, in particular apprenticeships, and severalhave started working on them since 2012 (seealso STD 5a, Section 2.4.2 and STD 16, Section5.1.2). Promoting investments in VET byenterprises is not yet common practice in thecandidate countries.

Skills competitions had become an integralpart of making VET attractive before 2010.WorldSkills and EuroSkills have become even

more popular in almost all EU+ countries. Skillscompetitions are also regularly organised in allcandidate countries, often supported by sectoralorganisations and/or donors. Through demon -strating job realities, contests can help changemisconceptions. In 2013, skills competitions in

PART I – CHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 21

Box 2. Engaging young people, adults andenterprises: country highlights

(a) Over the past five years, the Bulgarian Ministry ofEducation has organised an annual VET panoramawhich promotes occupations taught in VET andgives education and training institutions,businesses, young people and parents the chanceto meet. Learners can showcase their skills andcompetences in competitions and businessesrecruit the best.

(b) In Estonia, VET awareness raising events insupermarkets with VET learners coexist withpromotion activities on television, throughFacebook and interactive games.

(c) Activities in candidate countries include thenational campaign ‘vocational is the key’ inMontenegro, ‘career guidance info days’ in Turkey,local and regional ‘education markets’ in Serbia,and a television campaign (2013) promoting VETas an attractive choice after lower secondaryeducation in the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia.

(d) Social partners organise Denmark’s three-year‘hands on’ campaign to encourage companies totake on apprentices and attract more young andadult people to VET.

(e) In Italy, video interviews with local authorities andtrade unions showcase the benefits of VET toadults. These videos also target people with amigrant background and at-risk groups bystressing the importance of acquiring a VETqualification and a basic level of Italian.

( f) Candidate countries promote VET for adults mostlythrough active labour market policy measures (theformer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia), a wideoffer of VET courses and programmes (Turkey) andregular awareness campaigns such as the adulteducation festival in Montenegro.

(g) Extra funding for an existing campaign in the UK(Wales) in 2012 aims to engage more employersin offering apprenticeships.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

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Estonia were merged with a two day VET fairwhile Lithuania approved national skillscompetitions guidelines. On top of raising theprofile of VET, participation in skills competitioncan drive change. In Ireland, for example, takingpart in the WorldSkills competition had a directimpact on upgrading VET curricula. In Finland,national skills competitions act at the same timeas showcase and developer of VET.

2.1.2. Acquainting and familiarising youngpeople with VET

To acquaint young people with VET at an earlystage, most EU+ countries include VET elementsin compulsory (general) education; these includeBelgium (Fr and Dg), Bulgaria, Denmark andPortugal, which have recently introduced newarrangements (Figure 2). With adjustments takingplace in 22 EU+ countries since 2010, the volumeand/or content of these familiarisation schemesand initiatives have been changing rapidly.Belgium (Fl), Iceland and Poland plan to includevocational elements in compulsory education. Asin the EU+ countries, there are large differencesin how candidate countries organise the inclusionof VET elements in primary and lower secondaryeducation.

Box 4. Experiencing VET in compulsoryeducation: country highlights

(a) In Denmark, recent reform of compulsoryeducation also aims to forge stronger links withthe business world; regional initiatives introduceVET elements into compulsory schools and bringthe teachers of both sectors together.

(b) The Dutch technology pact (2013) aims atintroducing science and technology classes in allprimary schools by 2020.

(c) In Ireland, the optional transition year thatprovides work experience and focuses on non-academic subjects to prepare students for worklife, has become more popular during the past fiveyears.

(d) In Romania, a new three-year VET programme willbe introduced in compulsory education in2014/15 to offer an alternative qualification pathwith work-based elements.

(e) In Montenegro and Turkey, there is mandatorycareer guidance in lower secondary education; inSerbia, pilot initiatives are increasingly beingdeveloped by individual schools.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

In many European countries, cooperationbetween VET and compulsory (general)education is well established. In most EU+countries it is based on a harmonised/coordinatedlegislative framework or curricula, intertwining

Stronger VET for better lives22

Box 3. Finland: more attractive and betterVET through skills competitions

National skill competitions are part of the Ministry’swider strategy to improve VET attractiveness andquality and ease transitions to the labour market. Theyare a meeting point for schools, learners and workinglife. They enable networking and reflection onperformance, working methods and environments.One of their objectives has been to continuedeveloping skills demonstrations as a means toassess learning outcomes. Competition assignmentsare aligned to national curricula and assessment isrelated to national evaluation criteria.

The contests have helped develop individualisedteaching and learning methods, shape learningmaterials and contributed to teacher development.Research suggests that they help improvecooperation between VET schools and enterprises,and feedback to teachers and trainers. Ministry ofEducation and European social funds (ESFs) havesupported research linked to skills competitions, suchas development of talents and vocational excellenceor how to transfer innovative practice in preparingparticipants to mainstream VET in schools andcompanies. Participation in World- and EuroSkills isalso seen as an opportunity to learn from others inskill areas where Finland may need improving.

Key factors have made skills competitionssuccessful as an initiative to help make VET moreattractive: skills competitions are not stand-aloneevents, but linked to other policies as part of a broaderstrategy; there is a dedicated organisation for nationaland international skills competitions supported by theministry and with key policy-makers on its board; thisorganisation also has the responsibility to ensure thatlessons learned through competitions are transferredto VET schools and companies.

Source: Case study Finland in Cedefop 2014a adapted byauthors.

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VET with compulsory (general) education. InAustria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Finland,Iceland, Poland, Slovenia and Spain, cooperationmainly takes the form of visits and informationsessions for learners. Sharing equipment andfacilities is common in Belgium and Lithuania.

Although some progress is visible, severalcountries could still do more to acquaint youngpeople in compulsory education with VET.Dedicated teacher training, provision of workexperience/tasters, services organising workexperience, and simulated business experiencefor students are areas where several countriesreport no action.

2.1.3. Bringing work experience tocompulsory education

Bringing work experience to the classroom helpscompulsory education learners get acquaintedwith the world of work. Half of EU+ countries haveestablished specific services to help organisework experience within compulsory education. Inmost EU+ countries, including Belgium (Fl andFr), Germany, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta and theUK (Northern Ireland) these services are providedby the ministry, an agency, schools or themunicipality. A total of 15 EU+ countries and thecandidate countries have not established suchservices or not reported on them. The state ofplay in early 2014 is very similar to that in 2012.

Simulated business experience that provideslearners with an understanding of what it means

to run a company is a more common practice,with many countries having long traditions. Since2010, new schemes have been introduced incompulsory (general) education in Belgium (Fr),Greece, Malta and the UK (Wales). Giving younglearners in primary and lower secondaryeducation simulated or real business experienceis not yet a well-established practice in thecandidate countries.

Box 5. Organising work experience prior to VET: country highlights

(a) In France and Austria, professionals and socialpartner organisations help learners and teachersfind relevant work experience.

(b) Work experience in Lithuania and Romania is oftenorganised through projects and cooperationplatforms.

(c) Work experience tasters before VET have beenintroduced in Malta through job-exposure initiativesin the financial, health and ICT sectors.

(d) In Slovakia, a support scheme for entrepreneurialskills development for pupils in grades five to six,in place since the 1990s, has been developedfurther since 2010 by placing more emphasis onnational needs and a learning-by-doing approach.

(e) Student training companies in Lithuania, existingsince 1993, opened their doors to 15 to 16 year-oldstudents from VET and general education in 2010.

Source: ReferNet.

PART I – CHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 23

Figure 2. State of play and progress towards STD2: acquainting young people in compulsoryeducation with VET

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

Education and career fairs with a focus on VET

VET elements in compulsory educationto support education choice

Cooperation between compulsory education and VET

(Simulated) business experience for learnersin compulsory education

Work-experience/‘tasters’ before VET

Training for teachers in compulsory educationto integrate work experience

Services organising work experience within compulsory education

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Teachers play a crucial role in integratingtheory with work experience. This is madepossible in Lithuania and Malta through teachertraining; in Estonia, teacher training curriculainclude entrepreneurship as a core topic. In manyother countries, however, dedicated training forcompulsory education teachers is not yet a realityand progress has been slow. Most countries thathave recently taken steps to introduce training arestill at preparation stage. In Slovakia, for example,a 2013-15 ESF project linked to vocationalguidance foresees support for compulsory schoolteachers to help them integrate work experiencein the school programme. In candidate countries,with the exception of Montenegro, no specificinitiatives to train teachers to integrate workexperience have been reported.

2.2. Fostering quality:implementing EQAVET

High youth unemployment rates and increasingskill mismatch have moved VET centre stage.More and better VET is called for to help driveeconomic growth and offer young people andadults the chance to acquire adequate skills. Theperformance of people with VET background inthe OECD’s adult skills survey (PIAAC) (OECD,2013b) has triggered debate. Quality and labourmarket relevance are key. People are alsoencouraged to use education and training as wellas job opportunities abroad, requiring trust in theskills and qualifications that people acquire indifferent types of education and training andcountries.

Within the Copenhagen process, countrieshave cooperated on quality assurance in VETsince 2002, aiming to build this trust which alsoneeds to underpin the European tools thatsupport mobility and LLL. In 2004 and 2009, theCouncil endorsed the outcomes of this voluntarycollaboration: the common quality assuranceframework (CQAF) for VET (Council of the EU,2004c) and, building on its principles, EQAVET(European Parliament and Council of the EU,2009b). EQAVET serves as a reference base forthe Member States’ work to ensure and improvequality in VET. A European network was set up tosupport their activities.

The Bruges communiqué reiterated thecommitment to implementing the recommend -ation. Countries also agreed to ‘establish atnational level a CQAF for VET providers, whichalso applies to associated workplace learning, byend 2015’ (Council of the EU and EuropeanCommission, 2010, p. 8).

This objective and deliverable is closelyrelated to STD 5 which aims to expand work-based learning (see Section 2.4.1). Even moresignificant is relevance to recent policy initiatives:the youth employment initiative (EuropeanCouncil, 2013, p. 23), and apprenticeships as amain pillar of the youth guarantee (Council of theEU, 2013a), so it is also taken up in the Councilconclusions on quality assurance throughouteducation and training (Council of the EU, 2014).

The Secretariat of the European EQAVETnetwork has carried out regular surveys to follow-up and understand progress in countries’ work toensure quality in VET (5). External evaluation ofEQAVET carried out in 2013 included informationon its implementation at EU level and nationally(ICF International, 2013).

2.2.1. National quality assurance approachWhile the recommendation proposes thatcountries devise a national quality assuranceapproach by 2011, the Bruges communiqué usesthe term framework. After a period of ambiguityabout these terms, they are now usedinterchangeably.

In the 2013/14 EQAVET survey, 28 countriesreported that they had devised a national qualityassurance approach making best use of theEQAVET framework; the figure was 19 in 2011.Montenegro also states it has devised acomprehensive and legally binding framework.Belgium (Fr), the Czech Republic, Croatia,Portugal and Slovakia were in preparation (ascompared to 10 countries in the previous survey).

Stronger VET for better lives24

(5) The information in this chapter is mainly based on data andresults derived from EQAVET surveys in 2011, 2012 and2013/14 (EQAVET Secretariat, 2013; 2014). All EU-28 (i.e. 32VET systems, two out of three in Belgium and four in the UK;for reasons of simplicity this report refers to them as countries),plus Norway and Switzerland participated in the survey.Iceland did not participate. Findings of the external EQAVETevaluation (ICF International, 2013) are also reflected in thischapter. ETF provided information on the candidate countriesunder their remit (ETF, 2014a).

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The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia andTurkey are also preparing their approaches.

However, the way that countries interpret ‘anapproach aiming at improving quality assurancesystems at national level’ differs in terms ofcontent and scope. While all countries coverIVET, only around 75% cover CVET. Severalcountries use the same national qualityassurance approach for IVET and CVET; inothers, different frameworks apply, as the externalevaluation report points out (ICF International,2013).

This makes cross-country comparison ofquality assurance systems difficult. According tothe European Commission, the ‘flexible approachof EQAVET, making available tools for selectionand adjustment, has facilitated its use, but at thesame time has reduced its potential as a commonlanguage and conceptual framework acrosscountries’ (European Commission, 2014b).

A shortcoming, as the external evaluationand the European Commission’s report to theEuropean Parliament (European Commission,2014b) explicitly point out, is that work-basedlearning had not been appropriately addressed by2013. It is important to note, however, that theEQAVET recommendation does not explicitlyrefer to work-based or workplace learning. TheBruges communiqué links quality assurance ofworkplace learning, i.e. learning in an enterprise,to national frameworks for VET providers.

The 2013/14 EQAVET survey investigatedthe issue from different perspectives: it widenedthe issue to work-based learning (6); and, besidesinvestigating whether common provider frame orkscover work-based learning (see Section 2.2.2), italso explored whether national quality assuranceapproaches include this aspect.

According to the survey, among the countriesthat report they have devised nationalapproaches, Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania andRomania state that these do not apply to work-based learning in either IVET or CVET.Approaches in Poland and Slovenia which onlyapply to IVET also exclude work-based learning.In Greece and Croatia, it is covered in IVET, butnot in CVET.

In CVET, work-based learning is covered in14 of 20 countries which stated that their nationalapproaches apply to continuing training: (Belgium(Fl), Bulgaria, Denmark, Germany, Ireland,Greece, France, Croatia, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia,Lithuania, the Netherlands, Romania, Finland,Sweden, and the UK (England, Wales, NorthernIreland, Scotland).

Countries that had already developed qualityassurance approaches around or post 2009 saidthey were inspired by CQAF and EQAVET. Inmore than half, the approach is included inlegislation or has been formally agreed. Somealso report increased attention to qualityassurance in VET. This is likely to be caused byqualifications framework developments (Cedefop,2013c), particularly the reflections on includingqualifications acquired outside formal educationand training.

Since 2010, the candidate countries havebeen working to improve their quality assuranceapproaches using the EQAVET as their frame ofreference. Progress has been achieved butseveral pilots will need mainstreaming. Theformer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,Montenegro and Turkey are members of theEQAVET network.

According to the EQAVET survey, VETproviders and employer and employeeassociations participate in developing nationalquality assurance approaches. In countries suchas Estonia, Ireland, Greece, Romania and the UK(Scotland) (7) national institutions responsible fordeveloping VET qualifications have alsocontributed. In Serbia, stakeholder involvement issupported through different projects.

PART I – CHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 25

(6) The Bruges communiqué refers to workplace learning, i.e.learning that takes place in an enterprise, such as within anapprenticeship or in form of an internship. The EQAVETworking group on this issue takes a wider approach and alsoconsiders work-based learning that takes place in VETschools/centres, for example in on-site workshops, labs,business/industry projects. In the EQAVET survey, work-basedlearning refers to combined school- and work-based learningas defined for the Unesco/OECD/Eurostat data collection, i.e.programmes where less than 75% of the curriculum ispresented in the school environment, see Unesco/OECD/Eurostat data collection manual Section 4.7 available atwww.uis.unesco.org/Library/Documents/uoe-data-collection-education-systems-v1-2013-en.pdf [accessed 14.8.2014].

(7) As this was not an explicit question in the EQAVET survey,other countries may have done so depending on which bodyis responsible for developing VET qualifications.

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Labour market representatives in Belgium(Fl), Germany, Estonia, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania,Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria andFinland, for instance, participated in developingthe national approach and in making IVET moreresponsive to labour market needs. Theircontribution focused more on planning andimplementation and less on evaluation andreview stages. Teachers’ and learners’ roles areless prominent. Similarly, only some countriesinvolve their higher education sector, althoughthis could help build trust and improvepermeability.

2.2.2. Focusing on VET providersThe recommendation underlines that theEQAVET framework should also be applied toVET providers. The Bruges communiqué goes astep further and explicitly states that nationalprovider frameworks should also cover theworkplace learning parts of VET programmes(see Section 2.2). The European Commissionand the Council emphasised the need to addressthe quality of work-based learning in a better way(European Commission, 2014b, Council of theEU, 2014).

All countries except Belgium (Fl, Fr) and theCzech Republic are progressing towardsestablishing national quality assuranceframeworks for VET providers, planning to meetthe objective by 2015 as foreseen. Providerframeworks have been agreed or put in place inabout half of the countries, while Spain, Lithuaniaand Hungary have implemented them partially.Bulgaria, Greece, France, Luxembourg, Finlandand the UK (Scotland), for instance, were still indevelopment stage in 2013. Norway claims itdoes not need a common national approach forVET providers, as they are under the remit of thecounty authorities.

Often, the common provider framework ispart of, or closely linked to, the overall approachthat applies at system level. Most of the providerframeworks are compatible with EQAVET but notbased on it, presumably to suit the national andinstitutional context. As several of the frameworkswere already in place by 2010, this may also bethanks to cooperation at EU level since thesetting up of the European VET quality forum(European Forum on the Quality of VocationalTraining, 2001).

Stronger VET for better lives26

Box 6. Joining forces to step up quality incompany-based training in Austria

A quality management system has been in place inschool-based VET for many years. Different controlmechanisms and quality assurance measures arefound in apprenticeship but no overall comprehensivequality assurance strategy. Building on thesemeasures, the social partners are graduallyintroducing a quality management system forapprenticeship.

The governance of apprenticeship with itsdifferent learning venues, i.e. schools and enterprises,is more complex than that of school-based VET.Enterprise organisational structures and the ways theymanage apprenticeships vary. requiring a differentquality assurance and management approach.

A quality management system for apprenticeshipis data-driven. New methods to analyse statisticaldata, provide apprenticeship offices and the regionaland federal vocational training advisory boards withdisaggregated information and insight into differentaspects such as success or dropout rates. These datahelp the boards, which comprise representatives ofsocial partners and vocational schools for apprentices,respond to (emerging) challenges. A qualitycommittee was established within the federaladvisory board to steer this process and develop andimprove quality-related and branch-specific supportmeasures.

Together with sectoral organisations, the boardsanalyse data from sectors and occupations where notonly participation but also failure of final exams andearly leaving are high, to understand the causes. Thenthey agree on measures to help achieve bettersuccess rates, such as:(a) improved guidance and counselling before young

people choose an apprenticeship;(b) coaching, remedial courses or support to prepare

for exams;(c) providing or revising training manuals, setting up

training networks, training trainers;(d) closer cooperation with the vocational schools;(e) adjustment of training profiles or of the final exam.

Besides this new initiative, dedicated funding isavailable for enterprises related to quality and supportof specific target groups, in addition to basic subsidiesfor apprenticeship training.

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet Austria and information byAustria for practice teasers (Cedefop, 2014h).

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Box 7. VET providers in focus: creating trustand building a quality culture inEstonia

Following an ESF-supported project, a new VETinstitutions act (2014) in Estonia has devised anevaluation and accreditation system with the followingmain principles:(a) its focus is on the teaching/learning process and its

outcomes;(b) fields of study/groups of curricula and cooperation

with interest groups are evaluated;(c) employers have helped design the method and

participate in the evaluation;(d) context-sensitive, rather than unified, check-lists

with pre-set assessment categories are used;(e) an independent committee, which includes sector

representatives and VET experts, conducts theassessment taking account of the internal evaluation.Based on the evaluation, the Ministry of Education

grants, expands or withdraws the right (for three to sixyears) to offer programmes that lead to formalqualifications.

Lessons learned so far:(a) employers/industry representatives are keen on

participating and become more interested incooperation, but they need better understanding ofVET and the way education and training institutionswork;

(b) VET providers’ starting points and understanding oftraining quality and learning processes differ, butthis method supports improvements;

(c) this method helps engage staff in managementprocesses;

(d) much information becomes available in a shortperiod but it cannot really be absorbed;

(e) the strengths of Estonia’s VET are moderninfrastructure, increasing CVET/retraining andincreasing mobility among learners and teachers;

(f) areas that need improving are: teaching methodsand facilities, use of more modern technologies;align work-based learning better to expectedlearning outcomes; encourage partnerships withenterprises more; monitor work-based or workplacelearning better and assess its effectiveness moresystematically; shortage of teachers and trainers,especially younger ones with know-how and work-experience; more opportunities to update their skillsand gather work-experience in enterprises.

Source: ReferNet Estonia.

However, provider frameworks have mostlybeen developed for IVET. Only in countries likeBulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania and Slovenia they donot cover work-based learning (8).

For CVET, 17  countries have commonprovider frameworks. Of these, 13 also coverassociated work-based learning, confirming theneed for improvement as pointed out by theEuropean Commission (European Commission,2014b). As countries are expanding apprentice -ships and other forms of work-based learning toprevent early leaving and put youth guaranteesin place, ensuring their quality becomes key.

2.2.3. EvaluationIn line with the EQAVET recommendation,countries increasingly combine internal andexternal evaluation to improve VET quality. Theevaluation methods they use combine control andsupport with empowering VET providers. Thereis a current shift from input- and process-basedtowards outcomes-based evaluation. More than70% of the national approaches foresee externalreviews for IVET and CVET institutions. InDenmark, Spain, France, Luxembourg, Austriaand Romania this is only the case for IVET.

Quality assurance approaches that combineself-assessment of IVET providers with externalreviews and system level evaluation usingindicators can be found in Denmark, Estonia,Austria, Romania and Finland. In most IVETcontexts relevant, frequently used methods havebeen developed with ESF and Leonardo da Vinciassisted funding. From the candidate countries,currently only Montenegro uses external (since2006) and internal (since 2010) evaluation,applies common indicators and involvesstakeholders.

IVET providers in many countries arerequired to evaluate their activities, as well as thequality and effectiveness of the training they offer.In Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark,Estonia, Hungary, Romania, Slovenia andFinland (9) this includes mandatory self-assessment reports and plans for improvement.

PART I – CHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 27

(8) According to the EQAVET Secretariat, Malta and Poland didnot respond to the corresponding question.

(9) In SIovenia approximately 78% of VET providers aredeveloping quality assurance systems.

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2.2.4. Using indicatorsThe EQAVET framework includes a set ofcommon indicators to measure qualityimprovement. Countries either apply them asthey are or to form their own indicators but theyare not necessarily used and revisedsystematically (European Commission, 2014b).Montenegro and Turkey are also planning to usethe EQAVET indicators; by 2014, Montenegroplans completion of the first phase of harmonisingits national indicators with EQAVET (10).

Box 8. Sweden’s use of qualitativeindicators and monitoring outcomesto inform VET

Sweden has comprehensive, high-quality data onlearners and graduates. They provide information onthe destination of learners after upper secondary andhigher VET and are disaggregated by variables suchas gender, whether or not the learner has a foreignbackground and parental education background.Reports on the destination of VET graduates used tobe published on an ad hoc basis but in 2012, thegovernment decided that the relevant agenciesshould report more systematically and regularly andalso identify how well graduates meet the skillsrequired by the labour market. The reports by theSwedish Agency for Higher VET inform on graduates’labour market outcomes and employability sixmonths, one year and three years after completionof their studies.

The Public Employment Service and StatisticsSweden also conduct regular surveys on labour mar-ket trends and skill needs. Several measures havebeen put in place since 2009 to promote more struc-tured cooperation between VET and the publicemployment service, particularly concerningapprentice ship training in municipal upper secondaryeducation for adults and higher VET. The aim is toensure that learning outcomes reflect labour marketneeds more clearly. So-called competence platforms,launched by the government, enable all relevantactors from different sectors to cooperate and helpensure that regional needs are met.

Source: 2012 EQAVET survey.

The EQAVET survey suggests that of the 17indicators for IVET, on average more than half arealways used. The indicators that are used mostfor IVET relate to participation, completion,unemployment and mechanisms to identifytraining needs in the labour market. Outcomeindicators, such as ‘utilisation of skills at theworkplace’ and ‘share of employed learners at adesignated point in time after completion oftraining’ are less used.

2.2.5. Supporting EQAVET implementationThe recommendation proposed to set up nationalreference points (NRP) to promote the EQAVETframework and support related activities. By2014, apart from Belgium (Fr) and Estonia,31 countries (11) stated that they had an NRP inplace (12) to promote the EQAVET approach andinform stakeholders about relevant develop -ments. Montenegro (2012) and Turkey (2013)have also set up NRPs.

Most NRPs fulfil most of the tasks set out inthe recommendation. But they are less engagedin helping VET providers develop self-evaluationand tend to implement quality assurance systemsin line with the recommendation. Depending ongovernance structures in the countries, NRPsmay also have other responsibilities like externalevaluation (e.g. in Romania) or accrediting VETproviders (e.g. in Portugal).

All NRPs deal with IVET, though notnecessarily with all types of programme. Manyalso support CVET and other forms of adultlearning, an interesting aspect in terms of qualityand trust as a prerequisite to encouraging morecitizens and employers to engage in LLL.However, it is not easy to draw clear conclusionsabout the support provided to the different typesof VET/adult learning, as the categories overlapand terms may have different meanings andconnotations in some countries (13).

Stronger VET for better lives28

(10) Indicators: 1(a), 2(a), 8(a) and 10(b) (ETF, 2014a).

(11) Norway is included; Switzerland also has an NRP but is notcounted here.

(12) In the 2013/14 EQAVET survey only the Flemish- and French-speaking communities participated for Belgium; Iceland didnot participate; the UK counts as four countries.

(13) In Greece, for instance, the term ‘non-formal’ VET is used fortraining programmes that would be part of the formal systemin others; despite offers in formal education and training, CVETis largely non-formal (depending on the country context);informal learning is not organised or structured in terms ofobjectives, time or learning support and often an unintentionalresult of daily activities related to work, family or leisure.

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2.3. Basic skills and keycompetences

Modern labour markets require people to act in aself-directed way, adapting to rapid changes insectors, occupations and at the workplace. Thisrequires the ability to apply and adjust one’sknowledge and skills to new work contexts.Increasingly the jobs available at all skill levels willbe those that cannot easily be outsourced orreplaced by technology or organisational change.These jobs require people to think, be creative,solve problems, communicate, organise anddecide. With fewer jobs-for-life, they need theskills to manage transitions within and betweenjobs and learning. Basic skills of literacy,numeracy and basic maths and science are afundamental requirement for all to copesuccessfully with more complex jobs and workinglives, as well as to be an active citizen in modernsocieties. Therefore, more emphasis on basicskills and key competences is needed, includingin VET and adult learning as Rethinkingeducation (European Commission, 2012)reiterated. Initial education and training shouldhelp all young people to develop these skills andcompetences and adult learning should allowEuropean citizens to cultivate and build on them(European Parliament and Council, 2006).Although the concepts of basic skills and keycompetences partly overlap and have beenaddressed jointly in the EU recommendation onkey competences, the next two sections discussthem separately. A review of basic skills based onPIAAC data focusing on literacy is followed by amore in-depth analysis of key competences.

2.3.1. Basic skillsLack of basic skills early in life can have seriousconsequences for social and labour marketintegration. Good basic skills developed at anearly age are a prerequisite for success in VETand the foundation for LLL and for sustainedemployability in a rapidly changing world, whenjob-specific skills can quickly become outdated.Member States have agreed to work towardsreducing the share of 15 year-olds with lowachievement in reading, maths and science toless than 15% (Council of the EU, 2009). PISA(OECD, 2014a) assesses learners’ performancein mathematics, literacy and science at the ageof 15, usually before learners move to IVET orwhen they have just started.

Overall, PISA 2012 shows slow progress inthe level of reading and science literacy and poorperformance in mathematics. The results of theOECD’s survey of adult skills (PIAAC), whichcollects information on the proficiency of peoplein literacy and numeracy, complement the pictureon the level of basic skills in the EU population.The PIAAC results give an impression of thedifferences in literacy (14) between adults (25 to64 year-olds) with a vocational and a general

PART I – CHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 29

(14) Literacy is defined as the ability to understand, evaluate, useand engage with written texts to participate in society, achieveone’s goals and develop one’s knowledge and potential. Itdoes not include writing. Adults at level 1 or below can, at best,read relatively short texts to locate a single piece ofinformation that is identical to that in the question orinstruction, or understand basic vocabulary. Literacy is dividedinto five proficiency levels and a score up to 500 points. TheOECD regards 275, between levels 2 and 3 as the cut-offpoint. Below 275, people can be considered to have too lowliteracy for modern society and work.

Figure 3. STD3 state of play and progress towards STD3: implementation of the EQAVETrecommendation

Source: Cedefop based on 2013/14 EQAVET survey and ETF.

National reference point (QANRP)

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development stageformally agreedpartially implementedfully implementedno action reported

in place by 2010in place since 2010no action reported

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upper secondary or post-secondary (non-tertiary)education (OECD, 2014b, p. 51).

People with upper secondary VETqualifications generally have lower levels ofliteracy proficiency than people with generalupper secondary education. This is not surprising:the survey measures skills that are emphasisedmore in general programmes than in VETprogrammes; there is a selection bias as peopletend to choose general education rather thanVET as their path towards higher education; andpeople moving to the labour market with uppersecondary VET qualifications will tend to occupyjobs where the use and further developments ofbasic skills may be less emphasised during one’scareer. But these findings, although worrying,should be viewed in relation to labour marketoutcomes. Across OECD countries for which dataare available, 75% of those with a vocationalupper secondary or post-secondary (non-tertiary)qualification are employed, five percentage pointshigher than that among those with general uppersecondary education as their highest qualifi -cation. Unemployment rates are also generallylower among individuals with vocational uppersecondary or post-secondary (non-tertiary)education: 8%, on average, compared with 9%among adults with general upper secondaryeducation (OECD, 2014, p. 107). This suggeststhat, despite lower levels of literacy proficiencyamong adults who have graduated from VET, thisroute may well equip people with job-specific andother key competences valued at work thatprovide them good chances on the labour market.In a way, this can compensate for lower levels ofbasic skills.

Still, the findings signal the importance ofputting stronger emphasis on information-processing skills, like literacy and numeracy, inVET to promote even better the employability ofVET graduates in the labour market.

The overall picture also masks importantdifferences between countries. Among adults witha VET background the share of people with goodliteracy proficiency (level 3 or above) is highest inthe Netherlands, Finland and Sweden; the shareis comparatively low in France, Italy and Poland.In some countries, such as the Netherlands,Finland and Sweden, there are relatively highliteracy scores for adults who have graduatedfrom both VET and general education

programmes. In others, such as Estonia, Spain,France and Poland, graduates from both types ofprogrammes tend to have relatively low scores.The negative literacy proficiency gap betweenpeople with a VET background and those thatfollowed general education is higher in the CzechRepublic, Denmark, Germany, France, theNetherlands and Finland, which partly reflectstheir tradition of separate vocational and generallearning tracks at upper secondary level.

Working adults lacking the most basic skillsshould be a concern. The work environment canhelp maintaining skills, which calls for betterintegration of training and work, but investing inbasic skills through training is also needed, as itis a strong basis for sustainable employability.Policies should also target adults outside thelabour market and whose skills can be very low,as evidence from PIAAC shows. The overallresults indicate the need to step up citizens’ basicskills (15), although there are significantdifferences between countries (and betweenpeople with similar qualifications acrosscountries), which makes it difficult to suggestgeneral policy directions and underlines the needto develop specific national responses.

2.3.2. Acquiring key competences in andthrough IVET

Basic skills are part of the key competencesdefined in the EU recommendation: communica-tion in mother tongue and (two) foreignlanguages; mathematical competence and basiccompetences in science and technology; digitalskills, plus a sense of initiative and entrepreneur-ship (see STD15 and STD13 as being able toinnovate is part of entrepreneurship); culturalawareness; social and civic competences; andlearning to learn skills (European Parliament andCouncil, 2006). In the Bruges communiqué,countries agreed to ‘[…] ensure that key compe-tences and career management skills areadequately integrated in IVET curricula and thatthey can be acquired through training opportuni-ties in CVET’ (Council of the EU and EuropeanCommission, 2010, p. 9).

Stronger VET for better lives30

(15) See http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/articles/22178.aspx[accessed 3.12.2014].

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The specific challenge for VET is providingan adequate skill mix that is specific enough tomeet occupation needs and broad enough to givelearners a basis to adapt to other education oroccupation areas and to progress to furtherlearning. VET also needs to give young peopleand adults the chance to acquire or update basicskills. The importance allocated to keycompetences varies between different occupationgroups and job functions (Cedefop, 2013a). Theheterogeneous target groups and differentqualifications levels indicate the challenge thatVET faces in achieving its double aim ofexcellence and inclusion and in setting upprogrammes that balance labour market needswith educational goals.

LLL strategies and educational developmentplans tend to underline the importance of keycompetences and the need to give adults thechance to acquire or update them (see Section2.3.4). In around half of the countries, thesestrategies have been adjusted since 2010 toplace even more emphasis on key competencesor to introduce or reinforce a particular one, suchas career management skills.

In all countries, key competences are part ofIVET curricula, as subject areas, underlyingprinciples/learning outcomes across subjectareas, or integrated in vocational subjects. They

can also be implicitly integrated through work-based learning and other learning methods.Increasing attention is being paid to careermanagement skills (see Section 3.4.3) toempower young people to make informeddecisions and ease transition to the labourmarket; more than 20 countries reportedadjustments or new initiatives to introduce careermanagement skills in curricula, standards andqualifications. Cedefop’s evidence also suggeststhat work-based learning is increasinglyunderstood as a way to acquire key competences.

Form and extent depend on type and level ofprogrammes and the degree of autonomy thatVET institutions have in shaping or adjustingprogrammes and curricula. In many countries,key competences have been part of VET for along time; school-based VET usually includesmother tongue, maths and science and oftenforeign language learning. In several cases, therecommendation gave a new impetus to reinforcethem in line with the EU framework. In recentyears, the emphasis on learning outcomes, thework on educational and vocational standards,and the revision of curricula have drawn moreattention to key competences (Cedefop, 2012d).

An accompanying document to theCommission communication rethinking educationargued that only a narrow set of skills and

PART I – CHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 31

Figure 4. State of play and progress towards STD4: key competences and career managementskills in VET

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

CVET or LLL strategies promoting the acquisition of key competences

Opportunity to acquire underdeveloped key competences in VET

Key competences in curricula, standards and qualifications

LLL/VET strategy/legislation including career management skills

Learning methods in VET including simulated or real business experience

Creativity and innovation as an underlying principle in VET

Career management skills in curricula, standards and qualifications

Training VET teachers/trainers to help learners acquire entrepreneurship skills

Learning methods in VET promoting the acquisition of key competences

Training VET teachers/trainers to help learners acquire key competencesor career management skills

Cooperation to develop learning methods in VETfostering creativity and innovation

in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

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competences is assessed and advocatedassessment and evaluation frameworks tosupport key competence development (EuropeanCommission, 2012a). Whether they are assessedin VET or not, and in what way, depends on thespecific key competence, the type of programmeand the end qualification. In VET programmesthat give access to higher education, maths,mother tongue and foreign languages, havetraditionally formed part of upper secondaryschool-leaving exams. In other cases, keycompetences, in particular soft skills, may beassessed in a cross-curriculum manner, forexample in the context of occupational skillsdemonstrations, within training firm or projectslearners carry out jointly with or for enterprises(Cedefop, 2012d).

More than 50% of countries have includedkey competences in their NQF level descriptors(see Section 3.2.1). In most, this signals that theycan be acquired in the VET programmes that leadto the respective qualifications. In Estonia, forinstance, VET legislation agreed in 2013 outlinesthe expected learning outcomes in initiative andentrepreneurship in all VET programmes leadingto EQF levels 2 to 5. In the UK, a set of keycompetences has recently become a mandatorypart of the training in apprenticeships. Includingkey competences in NQF level descriptors alsomeans embedding, and, eventually, assessingthem.

Evidence suggests that teacher and trainertraining on key competences is organised whencurricula are revised, but countries do not reportif it is provided regularly, once the curricula areintroduced. In several cases, emphasis is put ona particular type of key competence, for instance,entrepreneurship or career management. Incountries that joined the EU more recently, thistype of training seems to be largely supported byESF. Professional development to help learnersacquire entrepreneurship skills was a reality inalmost half the countries before 2010 as attentionto entrepreneurship was already strong. A total of10 countries have not adjusted since and eightmore have not reported any developments (seeSection 4.3).

As in the Member States, mother tongue,foreign language, maths and science, were partof the secondary VET curriculum in the westernBalkans long before 2010 and have been

reinforced since. The Bruges communiqué hasinspired these countries to pay more attention toentrepreneurship skills, digital competences andlearning to learn. This is also reflected in theirVET strategies (as in the former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia and Serbia). In Turkey, alleight key competences have been included in thenational curriculum as the basis for generaleducation and VET since 2004.

The economic transition of the three westernBalkan countries from industrial to service-basedeconomies, and the post-crisis difficulties inanticipating skill needs, are an even strongerargument for broader skills sets which helppeople switch to other occupation fields orprogress to higher education. Concerns sharedby these countries include effective learning ofkey competences, adequate and good qualitypractical training or innovation (ETF, 2013).

Box 9. Fit for work and life through key competences in IVET: countryhighlights

(a) Entrepreneurial skills, basic digital and mathemat-ical competences are included in Ireland’s VETstrategy. Learning to learn skills are integrated inthe NQF competence strand. Appropriate stan-dards must be met to merit certification. Inaddition to technical skills, proficiency is requiredin teamwork, communication skills and other keycompetences.

(b) The revised core curricula in Poland includecommon learning outcomes in personal and socialskills across all occupations (2012) for placementsin enterprises (organising teams, running abusiness, language skills for occupation purposes).Social and civic competences (such as voluntarywork and peer support) are taken into accountwhen assessing behaviour. Entrepreneurial skillsare also assessed in vocational schools.

(c) In the renewed Slovak curricula (2013) keycompetences are reinforced as transversalobjectives, defined as learning outcomes andgrouped in broad clusters (acting autonomously;communication in languages and digitalcompetence; social skills and ability to cooperate).National (electronic) key competence testing isbeing developed with ESF support (2013-15).

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Regional centres have been set up to cooperatewith teachers developing test assignments.

(d) In Slovenia, key competences, based on nationalstandards, also include learning to learn,intercultural and aesthetic skills, social science,social competence, health protection and care forwellbeing. Only those that are subject areas, suchas maths, mother tongue or foreign language areassessed. However, VET schools are obliged tomonitor progress in all of them. Key competencesare an integrative part of the project work learnershave to carry out for their final exams. Since 2012,a handbook has guided teachers and trainers inusing vocationally oriented approaches to acquirekey competences. Guidelines on how to implementthem also include exam criteria.

(e) In the Czech Republic and the Netherlands centralexams have been introduced in IVET to assesscertain key competences such as English. In theNetherlands, methods to develop key compe-tences include self-directed learning, focus onapplying knowledge, workplace learning, simula-tion enterprises and assignments for companies.In Cyprus, there is a common approach for contin-uous formative assessment.

(f) In Germany, occupational and key competencesare acquired in an integrated way in the workingprocess. The Ministry of Education funds researchto develop skills and competence assessment inVET using a technology-based approach (2011-14). Competence models and measuringinstru ments are developed, tested and analysednationwide in four important occupation fields.

Source: ReferNet.

2.3.3. Promoting foreign language skillsIn 2010, the average number of foreignlanguages learned in upper secondary IVET was1.2, a figure that seems to have remainedconstant throughout several years. In 18 of the 28Member States, learners in upper secondary VETlearned more than one foreign language in2012  (16). The average number of languageslearned is highest in Luxembourg, Poland andRomania. Less than one foreign language, on

average, according to Eurostat data of June2014, was learned in IVET in the EU-28, inBelgium (Fr), Denmark, Germany, Lithuania,Hungary and the Netherlands (17). Only Estoniareported having a foreign language learningstrategy in VET.

As the 2012 European survey on languagecompetences among 16 countries illustrates(European Commission, 2012b), a foreignlanguage was compulsory at least for learners incertain types of VET in all except the UK(England). A national survey in 2012 revealed that68% of employers in the UK were not satisfiedwith young people’s foreign language skills.

School-based IVET usually includes at leastone mandatory foreign language. In somecountries up to three are mandatory, in trainingfor certain sectors (e.g. tourism). In others, oneor more other languages are optional. It is inupper secondary apprenticeship programmesthat language learning occurs to a lesser extent.

There is a trend towards defining standardsfor expected outcomes, with at least half of thecountries applying the levels of the commonEuropean framework of reference for languages(Council of Europe, 2001) (18). Germany andAustria, for instance, also offer their learners theopportunity to acquire international certificates.More and more countries use the languageportfolio. Increasingly, VET programmes combineacquiring occupational and language skills(content and language integrated learning,‘learning through languages’) or offer somebilingual programmes or modules, as in Bulgaria,the Czech Republic, Estonia, Spain, Italy, Latvia,Lithuania, Hungary, Austria, Poland, Slovakia,Finland and Sweden.

2.3.4. Fostering innovative andentrepreneurial skills

Science, technology, engineering and maths(STEM) skills are in high demand and will remainso in the future. Currently, around 30% of uppersecondary VET graduates come from

PART I – CHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 33

(16) Eurostat data were not available for all countries.

(17) Eurostat. Language learning latest update of 24.6.2014extracted on 21.7.2014. No data available for Spain, Finlandand the UK.

(18) For information on the common European framework ofreference for languages CEFR levels see Council of Europe,2001 and Europass, 2014.

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engineering, manufacturing and science, mathsand computing (Cedefop, 2014c) (19). Despiteincreasing ICT skills (20), PIAAC results suggestthat too large a share of Europe’s working agepopulation, regardless of age, is not sufficientlyprepared to face the challenges and reap theadvantages of the digital world (OECD, 2013b).Alongside Germany’s focus on STEM as part ofits high-tech and innovation strategy, only the UK(Northern Ireland) reported having a specificstrategy (in 2011). In the revised IVET curriculain Romania, green skills have been embedded inthe learning outcomes of all qualifications, whileCyprus was focusing on green skills in 2011.

As STD  13 illustrates, creativity andinnovation tend to be cross-curriculum objectivesor underlying principles in VET, closely linked toentrepreneurial skills and attitudes. While theyare more explicit in programmes that prepare forcreative industries, they are an inherent part ofdifferent learning/working methods in other typesof VET. Austria, Denmark, the former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia, France, the Netherlandsand Slovenia for instance, include business/industry projects or assignments in their VETprogrammes. In some cases they are also part ofthe final exams of school-based VET (see alsoSection 4.1).

As well as placements in enterprises,simulated or real business experience has beena common method of promoting entrepreneurshipskills in school-based VET and is beingexpanded, as almost half of all countries haveadjusted existing policies or initiated new onessince 2010. Some countries see development ofentrepreneurial skills as inherent in apprentice -ship training (see also STD15, Section 4.3).However, cooperation to develop learningmethods that promote creativity and innovation inVET remains a challenge, although severalcountries were active in this area before 2010.Belgium (Fl), Spain and Slovenia are among thecountries that have adjusted existing policiessince then or implemented new ones. A third ofall countries, however, have not reported anydevelopments.

2.3.5. Making up for deficits and developingkey competences further through(C)VET

Where learners do not manage to acquire basicskills and/or a broader spectrum of keycompetences before entry into VET, they need tocatch up. Apart from six countries, where themeasures in place in 2010 still apply, develop -ments have been quite dynamic. In 18 countries,opportunities to make up for deficits in keycompetences were in place before 2010 and havebeen adjusted since. They are offered either inIVET or CVET, as boundaries are not clear cut (21)and include adjustment of curricula to learners’needs in ‘mainstream’ VET, ‘bridge programmes’and learner support to make transition into VETeasier (see Sections 5.1 and 5.2).

Most countries with CVET or LLL strategiespromoting key competence development (22)advocate ‘key competences for all’. Information onexplicit policies or objectives for CVET/adultlearning (available in Estonia or the Netherlands,for instance) seems to be less frequent (23). Othersfocus on specific groups, such as learners with amigrant background (e.g. Germany, Austria),disadvantaged people (e.g. Hungary) and the low-or unskilled (e.g. the Czech Republic, Portugal, theUK (England, Scotland)) (see also Section 5.2).

Box 10. Key competences within CVET:country highlights

(a) A recent initiative (2012) in Greece invites socialpartners to set up CVET programmes foremployees and the self-employed in severalareas, including key competences, such asentrepreneurship or career management.

(b) In Slovakia, companies in industry that apply forESF support for CVET (since 2013) are requiredto consider key competence development intheir projects.

Source: Cedefop and ReferNet.

Stronger VET for better lives34

(21) VET for young people and adults rather than IVET and CVETis considered more suitable by Scandinavian countries andthe UK.

(22) Specific language programmes in CVET are not includedhere.

(23) The question to ReferNet related to policy priorities within LLLor VET strategies. The information received, however,frequently referred to specific measures or programmes.

(19) Not all countries are included in the calculations due toproblems with data availability and quality.

(20) See http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/articles/20404.aspx[accessed 3.12.2014].

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2.4. Work-based learningWhile even the most labour-market-relevanteducation and training cannot create sufficientjobs or increase demand, apprenticeships andother forms of work-based learning (24) canprovide high-quality training for young people andhelp match learning outcomes to the skillsrequired. They can provide young people andadults with a mix of job-specific and transversalskills that are difficult to acquire in classroomenvironments.

Evidence confirms better employmentprospects for young people who have had somework experience, in particular apprenticeships(Cedefop, 2012e). Relatively low youthunemployment during the crisis, for example inGermany, the Netherlands and Austria, has beenattributed in part to their apprenticeships

(Cedefop, 2014l). Apprentices of today could alsobe the entrepreneurs of tomorrow.

These schemes have therefore moved highup on national, EU and international policyagendas and are clearly visible in the policydevelopments of recent years, from the Youth onthe move flagship initiative (Council of the EU,2010) to the Youth guarantee (Council of the EU,2013a). Increasing apprenticeship placesrequires a sufficient number of enterprises thatare ready to train and youth who select this path.However, only around a quarter of Europe’senterprises with more than 10 staff take onapprentices and upper secondary VET is largelyschool-based in many countries. Taking a widerapproach to suit different country realities, policy-makers committed themselves in the Brugescommuniqué to ‘maximising work-based learning,including apprenticeships’.

A range of initiatives to support work-basedlearning was in place already by 2010. Sincethen, many countries have adjusted their policiesand measures (Figure 5). As is evident from Part2 of this report (see Sections 6.3.1. and 6.5.1),this deliverable has become a strategic priority innearly half the countries. In the candidatecountries, governments and other stakeholdershave also been paying increasing attention towork-based learning.

PART I – CHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 35

(24) Work-based learning comprises:(a) apprenticeships or similar schemes that alternate learning

in a VET school/institution and in an enterprise (substantialshare);

(b) on-the-job training periods in companies within school-based VET, i.e. internships, work placements ortraineeships (often 25-30% or less of the programme);

(c) learning in workshops, labs and practice firms of VETschools/training centres or in business and industryfacilities.

Figure 5. State of play and progress towards STD5a: work-based learning, includingapprenticeships

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

Work-based learning elements in school-based IVET programmes

Incentives for enterprises to provide training or employment

Apprenticeship or similar programmes

Guidelines providing for work-based learning in VET

Campaigns encouraging enterprises to provide or invest in VET

Services that assist in finding training places forVET learners in enterprises

Strategy to foster VET-enterprise cooperation to ensurequality and relevance

Learning methods in VET including simulatedor real business experience

T

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

C

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in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

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2.4.1. Work-based learning in school-basedVET

Work-based elements have been part of school-based VET for a long time in almost all EU+ andall candidate countries. Hungary and Poland,however, have only recently introduced them. In-company training is the most popular type ofwork-based learning. Other forms includesimulating the workplace in schools or specialisedservices as in Denmark, France, Croatia andMalta.

IVET students can acquire businessexperience through training firms andmanagement of a small scale business in mostcountries. Some recent examples of measuresinclude entrepreneurship camps (Estonia),simulation games (Germany), mini-enterprises(Belgium (Fl and Dg), France and Luxembourg)(see also Sections 2.3.3, 4.1 and 4.3).

Work-based learning has a long tradition inTurkey, where students in vocational andtechnical schools start gaining practical workexperience from the second year of theirschooling onwards. In contrast, in the threewestern Balkan candidate countries the provisionof practical skills predominantly takes place inschool workshops. Guidelines regulating work-based learning are available or being prepared inall EU+ countries, but they are not commonlyavailable in candidate countries.

2.4.2. Apprenticeship schemes central to EUand national policy agendas

Even in the first phase of the Copenhagenprocess, Cedefop identified a trend towardsapprenticeship revival (Cedefop, 2010). Sincethen, many countries have adjusted or adaptedtheir programmes. Several countries have alsoreceived specific recommendations to set up orreinforce their apprenticeship schemes in thecontext of the European semester. Spain,Lithuania and Slovakia for instance, are currentlyactively preparing the launch of newapprenticeship options in their countries.

In countries such as Germany and Austria,apprentices have traditionally been trained in abroad range of occupations, including in newlyemerging fields such as information technologyor the growing care sector. In others, apprentice -ships have traditionally been limited to, or mostcommon in, construction, technical and

manufacturing occupations. As service industriesare becoming more dominant, non-traditionalareas are also starting to train apprentices, asexamples from France and the UK show.

Nevertheless, image problems still prevail,even in countries with high participation. In somecountries, apprenticeships are associated withlow status and low wage sectors andoccupations. In 2012, only 27% of VET learnerswere in programmes where 25% or more of thecurriculum takes place outside the schoolenvironment. In Germany, where about half of thelearners at upper secondary level are in VET, theshare of apprenticeship was around 88%;Belgium, with its high proportion of vocationalstudents, has only 4.3% combining school andwork-based learning. However, there is a lack ofreliable and internationally comparable statisticaldata, as the term apprenticeship is understooddifferently and concepts, models and targetgroups vary across countries.

The youth guarantees and similar initiativesstress the inclusive aspect of apprenticeships,also emphasised at the 2013 Davos WorldEconomic Forum meeting. As evident fromSTD16 and 17, many countries deviseapprenticeship type schemes and other forms ofwork-based learning to prevent youth fromleaving education and training early or to helpyoung people and adults reintegrate and acquirea qualification (see also Section 5.1).

However, countries seem to becomeincreasingly aware that the dual track principlecan contribute to excellence and innovation andalso benefit higher education. This is alsoillustrated by the IMD world competitivenessdatabase (World Economic Forum, 2014), whichexamines whether enough apprenticeships areavailable in the different countries (25).

Analysis of countries’ work on apprenticeshipsand work-based learning generally shows thatpost-secondary or higher education programmesincreasingly include substantial work-basedlearning elements or are inspired by the dualprinciple. This is also confirmed by a Cedefopstudy on programmes leading to qualifications atEQF level 5 and above (Cedefop, 2014f).

Stronger VET for better lives36

(25) The questions are addressed to about 5 000 businessexecutives per year.

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Box 11. Apprenticeships at all levels and in new areas: country highlights

(a) Belgium (Fr) has introduced master degrees basedon alternating work and learning (2011).

(b) Italy has recently overhauled its apprenticeship-type schemes. Besides programmes forminimum15 year-olds leading to initialqualifications at EQF levels 3 and 4 and those thatallow young adults to re(qualify), there are so-called‘higher education and research apprenticeships’.They enable 18 to 29 year-olds to obtainqualifications that are usually offered throughschool-based programmes at secondary, post-secondary and tertiary levels through dual trackstudies (EQF levels 4 to 8, including the doctoraldegree). In the UK, apprenticeships are increasinglyoffered in services industries, as in health andsocial care, business administration, management,customer service and hospitality and catering.Recently, apprenticeships have also beendeveloped in law, accountancy and advancedengineering as an alternative to qualifying for theseprofessions by completing university degrees.

(c) The principles for implementing apprenticeship-type schemes in Spain are set out in legislation of2012 which also encourages enterpriseparticipation in formal IVET. Sectoral agreementsalso aim at motivating chambers and enterprises tohelp develop and implement training programmes.One of the main aims is to improve learners’employability and ease their transition into thelabour market. The programmes are expected tohelp the low-qualified and early leavers return toeducation and training to upgrade their skills. Since2012, regions have developed dual programmesand are piloting them.

(d) Apprenticeship schemes in Turkey which areoutside formal education are delivered through anetwork of vocational training centres.

Source: Cedefop, ReferNet and ETF.

The European Commission launched theEuropean alliance for apprenticeships (Council ofthe EU, 2013b) to boost new initiatives. Thisbuilds on partnerships and peer learning betweencountries and different education and labourmarket actors to develop or strengthenapprenticeships. By the end of 2012, Germany

had arrangements with Greece, Spain, Latvia,Portugal and Slovakia to cooperate in this field.

As the starting points and purpose for settingup apprenticeships differ across countries,context matters in cooperation projects. This isexemplified by the countries that have recentlyasked Cedefop to review their (initiatives to setup) apprenticeships. The focus of the reviewtakes account of national features and priorities.While in Lithuania, the focus is on addressingyouth unemployment and skill mismatch, Maltaaims at integrating apprenticeships, and theresultant qualifications, better into formaleducation and training and the NQF.

2.4.3. Financial incentives for enterprisesGovernments and social partners are striving toincrease the number of apprenticeship places asthe economic crisis has reduced the opportunitiesfor VET learners to find one. Since 2010, newincentives for enterprises to provide training oremployment have been introduced in 10 andadjusted in another 19 EU+ countries. With manynew measures introduced after 2012, recentprogress has been substantial. Subsidies toenterprises are the most popular incentive andcan take the form of a grant and reimbursementof training costs or allowance/wage. Tax benefitsappear less popular. Not all recent developmentshave been positive: in some countries, such asDenmark, financial bonus schemes have beenabolished.

Box 12. Work-based learning incentives forenterprises: country highlights

(a) In 2013 a one-time bonus for companies offeringapprenticeship training was introduced in Austria.Bulgaria is introducing a better regulatedapprenticeship framework that includes supportfor companies that hire apprentices.

(b) In the Czech Republic, legal changes introducedin 2014 allow tax exemptions for employers thatprovide training to learners in IVET.

(c) In Denmark, all employers, both public and pri-vate, pay an amount into a fund called theemployers’ reimbursement scheme (Arbejds-givernes Elevrefusion), regardless of whether or

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not they provide training placements. This fundfinances both IVET and adult vocational (continu-ing) training. In 2012, all employers were obligedto pay an annual contribution of EUR 393 per full-time employee. These funds are then allocated tothe places of work taking in apprentices, so theydo not bear the cost of training alone. Employersreceive wage reimbursement during apprentices’periods of college-based training.

(d) Ireland currently has a pilot direct cash incentiveto encourage private, community, not-for-profitand voluntary sector employers to hire long-termunemployed individuals.

(e) France has a bonus-malus system. Companiesnot reaching the threshold of 4% of staff beingemployee-apprentices or employed undervocational training contracts, pay a contribution.But companies above the threshold are paid abonus of EUR 400 for each learner, up to a limit of6% of the total workforce.

(f) Spain offers a bonus to enterprises that providetraining (2012) within training and learningcontracts: employers’ social security contributionmay be reduced by 75% (companies with 250+workers) or by 100% (others) when hiring, on-the-job training, part-time employment includingtraining for young people under 30 with no workexperience or unemployed for more than 12months.

(g) Swedish employers can receive a grant perapprentice and year, and a kind of bonus if the in-company trainer has completed his/her training.

(h) In Turkey, tax exemptions for companies thatsupport the establishment of private vocationalschools are available.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

2.4.4. Involving employers to ensure qualityand relevance

Since 2010, strategies to foster cooperationbetween VET schools and enterprises to ensurequality and relevance of provision have beenadopted or established in Belgium (Fr), Denmark,France, Italy, Hungary, Malta and Portugal. Twothirds of all existing strategies have beenamended during the past four years. This showsthat countries have been looking to makecooperation arrangements more effective and

adjust them on a regular basis to adapt tochanging circumstances. In candidate countries,cooperation between VET institutions andbusinesses is seen in exchanging staff andorganising enterprise traineeships for teachers,as in, for example, the 2010-14 Montenegrin VETstrategy. However, many cooperation arrange -ments remain to be fully implemented.

Box 13. Learning in work settings, supportfor enterprises and learners:country highlights

(a) Bulgaria is introducing a better regulatedapprenticeship framework that includes supportfor companies that hire apprentices.

(b) In the Czech Republic a national project providesinternship opportunities for one to three monthsfree of charge as an extra-curricular activity. Atraining demand/supply match database has beendeveloped with ESF support (2012).

(c) In Greece, apprenticeship and work-basedlearning schemes have recently been introducedfor a wide range of qualifications in most types ofsecondary VET programmes.

(d) Following an agreement with the government(2011), the Hungarian Chamber of Commerce andIndustry has been in the driving seat of VETreform. Work-based learning has been expandedand, for certain programmes, inspired by the dualprinciple. The chamber monitors contracts andprovides a support network which may also helplearners find training places. Companies’ trainingfund contributions can be used up to a certainceiling for training provided within cooperationagreements between VET institutions andcompanies. Since 2013, per capita paymentreflects training cost by occupation.

(e) In Sweden, efforts to strengthen apprenticeshiphave also led to national projects to train in-company trainers. Public funding is increasinglychannelled to support school-company partner -ships and to train trainers through national VETcouncils. One of the challenges is reachingtrainers in enterprises; as a result, participationis low.

(f) In Ireland, several initiatives not only assist finding,but actually provide themselves, training placesfor learners in VET.

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(g) An online internship search assistance service inthe Netherlands (since 2009) addresses learners,schools and enterprises. Links to social media anda smartphone application are available. A total of72% of learners in school-based VET preparingfor the trade sector use the website to findplacements. Some 80% find the tool easy to useand 70% think that the internship offer issatisfactory.

(h) Also Bulgaria, Ireland, France, Luxembourg,Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and the UK (Walesand Scotland), have set up or piloted services thatassist VET learners in finding training places. Thematching service in Wales helps employers andtraining providers find suitable young people whilethe national vacancy handling service in Scotlandhas been expanded to aid young people findapprentice and trainee opportunities. In Bulgaria,France and Romania, online services supportcooperation between providers and companiesand help students find training places.

(i) Since 2011 each Montenegrin VET school has apractical training coordinator.

(j) In the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, acraftspeople law is being drafted to introduce anapprenticeship system in the near future.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

2.5. Cooperation with employersand employment services

2.5.1. Building partnerships with employersVET enterprise cooperation goes beyondarrangements to enable and promote relevantand high quality work-based learning. Employers,as social partners, are involved in developing andupdating VET curricula in many countries. Inworking groups for curriculum development,employers have a decision-making role incountries such as Germany, Spain, theNetherlands and Romania, while they mainlyadvise in countries such as France, Portugal andSlovakia.

Employer involvement in curriculum designcan also take the form of consultation (as inIreland and Finland) or through national, sectorand VET programme councils. STD5b calls forarrangements to improve and extend cooperationbetween VET institutions and enterprises andhighlights the role of VET teacher and trainercontinuing development. Figure 6 shows to whatextent and how VET cooperates with business tosupport teacher development by building strongpartnerships with the world of business. Severalpossible options for this type of cooperationappear underused and overall progress since2010 has been limited, although some countriesmade adjustments to measures that alreadyexisted in 2010.

PART I – CHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 39

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Figure 6. State of play and progress towards STD5b: cooperation between VET institutionsand enterprises

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

Training VET teachers/trainers to help learnersacquire entrepreneurship skills

Guidelines for VET teacher development includingentreprise traineeships

Services that assist VET institutions in finding partnersin the business world

Services that assist in finding training places forVET teachers in enterprises

Guidelines encouraging staff exchange betweenenterprises and VET providers

E

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

C

in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

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Services that assist VET institutions in findingpartners in the business world appear non-existent in many countries and recent progress inestablishing such services is limited. Countriesthat do have these services organise them indifferent ways. They are led by social partners inDenmark, Estonia, Slovenia, and, in some cases,also in Spain. They can also take the form of anagency or office (e.g. Belgium, Finland, Greece,Malta and Norway), web platforms (as inRomania and the UK (Wales)) ornetworks/stakeholder groups (including Germany,France, Latvia, Austria, the UK (England,Scotland and Northern Ireland)).

Similar to the situation in 2010 and 2012,most EU+ and all candidate countries do not havededicated services that help to find training placesfor teachers in enterprises, and many countrieshave no guidelines to encourage staff exchange.Most countries that took action after 2010 (suchas Germany, Lithuania, Norway, Portugal), havenot reached the stage of full implementation.Some countries with staff exchangearrangements in place use practitioners fromenterprises as guest teachers in VET schools (asin Estonia, France, the UK (England)).

By 2010, 17 EU+ countries and all thecandidate countries were training their VETteachers and/or trainers to help learners acquireentrepreneurship skills, a measure that not onlyillustrates VET cooperation, but also supportsentrepreneurship (see Chapter 4). This includes,for example, company management trainingprogrammes (Belgium, Latvia, Luxembourg,Austria, Poland and Sweden), manuals/guidelines (Croatia, Lithuania, Romania andFinland), organised visits to companies (Estonia),and updated teacher training standards(Portugal). Another five EU+ countries arepreparing to introduce new teacher trainingschemes. Several countries have introducedguidelines for VET teacher development thatinclude enterprise traineeships or are planning todo so. While some of the training measures forVET teachers or trainers focus on business set-up skills, most of them aim at stimulating anentrepreneurial mindset in a more general sense.

Box 14. Training teachers in enterprise:country highlights

(a) in Lithuania and Poland, enterprises areencouraged to invest in VET by providing teachertraining opportunities. In both countries, the ESFis added to support development and provision oftraining programmes for VET teachers incooperation with enterprises.

(b) Turkey has adopted regulations for VET teachersto be trained in companies and many teachershave already used this opportunity.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

2.5.2. Cooperation between VET, employmentservices and social partners

STD  21 calls for structured cooperationmechanisms between the VET sector andemployment services as well as social partners.Figure 7 gives an overview of such mechanismsand highlights the main trends since 2010.Operational mechanisms vary from country tocountry, in terms of governance, types and levelsof partnership and degree of formalisation. As theoverall situation in early 2014 is very similar tothat of 2012, progress appears limited recently.

Cooperation between VET and employmentauthorities and social partners can take the formof participation in committees dealing with VETpolicy, a well-established practice in Europeancountries before 2010. In 2014, employmentauthorities cooperated with social partners anddiscussed VET policy in committees or otherforums in all countries. Estonia, Greece, Iceland,Luxembourg, Slovakia, Spain and Sweden haverecently strengthened cooperation arrangements.Strategic cooperation between VET authoritiesand employment authorities is established in allbut five EU+ countries. This type of cooperationoften involves ministries or decision-makersdirectly under their control.

VET authorities participate in councils orboards dealing with employment policies inalmost all EU+ and the candidate countries. Thisoften includes participation in working groups andcommittees on education, qualifications,employment and entrepreneurship issues. It alsoinvolves contributing to development plans andemployment strategies. Such arrangements can

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have a real impact. Examples are new activelabour market policies in the Czech Republic andNorway, new approaches to help youth at risk inGermany’s Länder, and a proposed employmentstrategy (2014-20) in Lithuania. In Bulgaria, VETauthorities participated in reforming employmentand labour market legislation.

In Greece, financial incentives encourageVET providers to cooperate with social partners

but cooperation is not always based on guidelinesor incentives. In about a third of the EU+countries no incentives were reported. In some,incentives are not needed as cooperation isbased on a tradition of social dialogue or informalarrangements within the autonomy of VETproviders and other stakeholders.

Cooperation in candidate countries variesfrom simple consultations to intensivecollaboration and joint production of policypapers, sector strategies or operationaldeliverables such as curricula. Social partners areusually involved in VET policy implementationthrough their participation in consultative andmanagement boards, based on guidelines and inthe context of VET and employment strategies. InTurkey, the major platform for dialogue betweenemployers/social partners and educationinstitutions is via central and provincial vocationaleducation boards.

2.6. Monitoring employability andtransitions, plus feedback toVET provision

Feedback mechanisms are needed to ensure thatVET is relevant to the labour market. Suchmechanisms ensure that labour market trends

PART I – CHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 41

Box 15. Teaming up with employmentservices: country highlights

(a) In the UK (England), to drive economic growth andjob creation, legislation devolves more power tocities/local level, which could entail closercooperation between VET and employmentactors/networks. The country also stimulatescooperation between VET and employmentservices by linking funding to employmentoutcomes.

(b) In Latvia, the government gave a mandate to theeducation and welfare ministries to start a pilot toensure greater involvement of European regionaldevelopment fund (ERDF) supported public VETschools in providing training for the unemployedin 2014.

Source: ReferNet.

Figure 7. State of play and progress towards STD21: structured cooperation mechanismsbetween VET sector and employment services

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

Employment authorities and social partners in committeesdealing with VET (policy)

Strategic cooperation between VET authorities and employment authorities

VET participating in employment policy implementation

Employment services and social partners participatingin VET policy implementation

VET authorities participating in committees dealing with employment policy

Guidelines encouraging cooperation between VET providersand employment services

Incentives for cooperation between VET, employment servicesand social partners

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

C

in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

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and outcomes and the opinion of employers andother relevant stakeholders are taken intoaccount when renewing VET qualifications andcurricula. These mechanisms might be formal orinformal. Formal feedback mechanisms typicallyhave a legal foundation, are permanent, and

comprise two or more actors (such as the state,employer and employee organisations). ACedefop study shows the complexity of theseformal feedback mechanisms between VET andthe labour market, which are embedded innational traditions and differ across and withincountries.

The Bruges communiqué also highlights theimportance of regularly monitoring employabilityand labour market transitions of VET graduatesto inform VET policy development and VETsystem governance. Information on how well VETgraduates perform in the labour market enablesVET institutions, providers and other stakeholdersto identify quality and relevance issues and toaddress them. It also allows policy-makers to takewell-informed decisions on necessaryadjustments to renew VET systems, such asadaptation of programmes and curricula and fine-tuning financial incentives.

Figure 8 shows what countries have beendoing to ensure adequate feedback of VETgraduate employability to VET institutions. As thestate of play in early 2014 is not very differentfrom the situation in 2012, progress towardsimplementing this STD appears slow and mayhave even slowed down in the past two years.This is worrying as feedback from the labourmarket on the employability of VET graduates isone of the fundamental pillars of ensuring therelevance of VET.

Most countries, including all candidatecountries, collect data on the employability andother labour market outcomes of their VETgraduates. However, programmes, standardsand/or curricula take account of transition andemployability data only in half of the EU+countries. Some of the Nordic countries and theNetherlands have systems with strong feedbackloops. In many countries where feedback loopsare weak, this is linked to legal restrictions thatmake it difficult to combine data on learning,labour market entry and career. For example, inIreland, there have been discussions between thekey stakeholders for developing a comprehensivelabour path-tracking system and first steps havebeen taken but, although individuals can beidentified, data protection laws restrict practicalimplementation. In Belgium (Fl), privacylegislation makes it difficult to cross data onlearning pathways with labour market

Stronger VET for better lives42

Box 16. Feedback loops to ensure VETlabour market relevance

Cedefop’s study (Cedefop, 2013g, p. 9) describesdifferent VET governance structures and has identifiedfour main types of feedback mechanism. These fourtypes are:(a) ‘liberal’, characterised by a low degree of

coordination, where feedback between VETproviders and the labour market is mainly left tothe market. This type is most likely to be found incountries where skill formation systems aremarked-led, such as the UK (England) and Ireland.Its features are marginal social partnerinvolvement and more direct communicationbetween VET and the labour market;

(b) ‘statist’, characterised by strong state regulationof education and weak links between educationand the labour market in terms of formalcommunication. Statist feedback mechanisms areprevalent in systems which focus on state-regulated and school-based VET, such as VET inBulgaria, Estonia and Poland, and school-basedVET in Germany, Austria and Sweden. Socialpartners are not involved as formal actors;

(c) ‘participatory’, which allows for the participationof social partners in the processes, but mainly ina consultative role. This type of feedbackmechanism can be found in countries where thestate prescribes a precise role for social partnersin policy-making and in countries where the stateis formally involved in implementing VET. Althoughconcrete arrangements differ between them,France, Hungary, Finland, and Sweden areexamples of countries with participatory feedback;

(d) ‘coordinated’, where social partners are the driversof renewal processes and are active in theirimplementation. This type of feedback is mostlyfound in collective skill formation systems such asthe dual system in Germany and Austria and IVETin Denmark, the Netherlands and Slovenia.

Source: Cedefop, 2013g.

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participation. After 2012, some countries havestarted working on changes in legislation toaddress this.

Other factors that inhibit using information onVET graduate employability are lack of fundingschemes to encourage VET providers to do so(for instance through performance-basedfunding) and missing links between informationon graduate employability and learning methodsand learner support. No countries have reportedon new methods or schemes during 2010-14.

Candidate countries mostly use ad hoc datacollection on VET graduate employability that isnot always being used by VET institutions in asystematic manner. Since 2010 some initiativeshave been taken to fill the data gap.

Tracking VET graduate employability can bepart of monitoring systems for the VET-to-worktransition and is usually carried out using follow-up surveys. Figure 9 shows that most EU+countries collect data on transitions from VET towork. In eight countries, data collection is inpreparation or has been recently launched.Seven countries have indicated that they use theESF to finance data collection or analysis.Examples of ESF cofunded measures aregraduate transition surveys in the CzechRepublic, Poland and Slovakia and studies onVET graduate transitions in Estonia andLithuania. In the candidate countries, monitoringsystems on the transition from learning to workare at various stages of development and aremainly funded through regular public budgets.Although data collection takes place, the

PART I – CHAPTER 2Better VET: quality, efficiency, attractiveness, and relevance 43

Figure 8. State of play and progress towards STD5c: feedback on employability of VETgraduates for VET institutions

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

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Data collection on VET graduates’ employability andother labour market outcomes

Programmes/standards/curricula taking account of transition and employability data

Legislation allowing to combine data on learning,labour market entry and career

Learning methods and support taking account of transitionand employability data

Funding schemes to encourage VET providers to use graduate transition data

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

Box 17. Tracking labour market outcomesfor better VET: country highlights

(a) In Bulgaria, an agreement between the educationand labour ministries foresees combining data onearly school leavers and VET graduates withinformation on transitions to employment. Theoutcome will inform measures to preventunemployment, shape policies to activate earlyschool leavers, and help design schemes toincrease the employability of young people.

(b) A new bill is being prepared by the UK governmentin 2014 to make possible sharing data on learners’destinations with providers; in Wales, destinationsurveys of further education graduates (includingVET) have been published.

(c) Quality improvement funds in the UK (Wales) andperformance-based funding in Finland encourageVET providers to use VET graduate employabilityinformation; for transition programmes, curriculadesign takes account of data on progression toemployment or further learning.

(d) The national action plan for youth (2013-15) in theformer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia includesthe set-up of a tracking system to monitortransition from school to work and employmentoutcomes.

(e) In Montenegro, VET schools are required to collectdata about the destination of graduates within oneyear after programme completion.

(f) The VET centre in Serbia has developedmethodology to monitor labour market transitions.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

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regulatory basis to collect information on theemployment status of VET graduates is often notclearly defined.

To improve EU level data on IVET students,data collection on employability and learningmobility at national level had been agreed by EUMember States in Council conclusions in 2011and 2012 (Council of the EU, 2011b; 2012a).However, collection of such data is still achallenge (Figure 10).

All candidate countries publish statistical data

on VET and provide inputs to EU level datacollection; most have launched advancedsystems for data collection on VET andemployment issues after 2010. Europeancountries use the EU LLL programme’s project-based activities to monitor mobility. It is possible,or foreseen, to use more extensive data gainedthrough various studies or surveys in Austria,Finland, Ireland, Lithuania, the Netherlands,Norway, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden and the UK(see also Section 3.6).

Stronger VET for better lives44

Figure 9. State of play and progress towards STD6: monitoring systems on transitions fromlearning to work

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

Figure 10. State of play and progress towards STD22: improving EU level data on IVETstudents

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

Data collection on graduates’ transitions from VET to work

Funds allocated to research and/or data collection on transitionsfrom VET to work

Laws or regulations to encourage monitoring transitionsfrom VET to work

Legislation allowing to combine data on learning,labour market entry and career

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

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Data collection relevant to the Council conclusionson a benchmark for learning mobility (2011)

Candidatecountries

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This chapter aims to capture the situation in 2010and review progress that countries have madeduring 2010-14 to make LLL and mobility a realitythrough VET. It considers national policy actionsand initiatives taken until early 2014 that addressSTDs 7-12.

Box 18. STDs dealing with LLL and mobility

ET 2020 objective 1: making LLL and mobility a reality

Bruges communiqué strategic objectives (SO) 3 and 4SO3 Enabling flexible access to training and

qualifications.SO4 Developing a strategic approach to the

internationalisation of IVET and CVET andpromoting international mobility.

STDsSTD7 Participation in CVET in line with ET 2020

15% benchmark.STD8 Comprehensive NQFs based on learning

outcomes linked to EQF.STD9 Procedures for the validation of learning

supported by EQF/NQFs.STD10 Integrated guidance services closely

related with labour market needs.STD11 ECVET implementation in line with the

recommendation and participation intesting ECVET.

STD12 Internationalisation and mobility in VET.

Source: Council of the EU and European Commission, 2010.

In this section, discussing progress bydeliverable, as in the other groups, poses severalchallenges:(a) this group exemplifies the complex

interrelation between various deliverables.The STDs on the common European toolsand principles (STDs 8-11) support thestrategic objective, ‘flexible access to training

and qualifications’ and STD on CVET (STD7).Both are also sustained by STD4 (keycompetences) or STD17 (raising participationof low-skilled/at-risk groups). Further, STDs8-11 are interrelated. They need to beunderpinned by quality assurance (STD3)which contributes to making VET (more)relevant, attractive and excellent (SO1, SO2).For a brief discussion on how differentdeliverables interact, see Part 2 of this report;

(b) the common European tools and principleshave their own governance and monitoringprocesses based on different approachesfrom that used for following up the Brugesdeliverables and their own reporting rhythms;all deliverables of the Bruges communiquéalso apply to continuing vocational training;as most non-formal adult learning is job-related, i.e. (linked to) CVET, there is anoverlap with the European agenda for adultlearning (Council of the EU, 2011c), whichwas adopted after Bruges and has its owngovernance process. In line with thecommuniqué, a policy handbook on accessto and participation in CVET is beingpublished (Cedefop, 2014m);

CHAPTER 3

Accessible and open VET: lifelong learning and mobility

Enabling flexibleaccess to training andqualifications.

Developing a strategicapproach tointernationalisingIVET/CVET andpromoting mobility.

Increasing participationin CVET to contributeto achievement of LLLbenchmark.

NQF/EQF validationguidanceECVET

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(c) the labour force survey (which is the sourceused to monitor progress towards the LLLbenchmark) only gives basic information onparticipation in adult learning. The adulteducation (AES2), the continuing vocationaltraining survey (CVTS4) and the first OECDadult skills survey (PIAAC) cannot give apicture of participation in 2014, as data werecollected in 2010, 2011 and in 2011/12. Thismeans that the data do not reflect the impactof Bruges and provide a statistical picturewhich is not coherent across surveys.Considering this background, the main

findings are the following:(a) before 2010, and as a first response to the

economic crisis, attention shifted increasinglyto adult learning/CVET (Cedefop, 2010).Since then, the prime concern has been toaddress youth unemployment and skillmismatch through VET for the young;promoting LLL and mobility has been lessprominent. However, a major step towardsimproving access to further learning andindividualised learning paths has beencountries’ work on establishing NQFs;

(b) EQF level 5 qualifications, which areaccessible to adult and non-traditionallearners, play an important role in providingadvanced technical and managerial skills thatare in high demand. Combining labour-market-relevant training with progressionopportunities to/within higher education, theycontribute to achieving Europe’s highereducation benchmark. In countries wherehigher education is held in greater esteem,EQF level 5 programmes could help raise theimage of VET (Cedefop, 2014g);

(c) the EQF has become an accepted referencepoint for national qualifications. Work onlearning-outcomes-based EQF and NQFshas triggered reflections on how to includenon-formally acquired qualifications, but mostcountries do not yet have a clear link to theirvalidation arrangements. To make sure thatthey benefit citizens, NQFs and the EQFneed to become more visible and betterknown by labour market actors;

(d) validation arrangements, which can helpmake education and training more flexible tosuit individual learner needs, exist in mostcountries, but they tend to relate to specific

parts of education and training. They are stillmost common in VET. Higher educationinstitutions are increasingly opening up tovalidation and should be encouraged tocontinue these efforts. Validation is also usedmore to ease access and grant exemptionsfrom studies rather than to help peopleacquire qualifications. Having differentarrangements for different education sectorsmakes it difficult to achieve an integratednational validation system, as advocated inthe 2012 recommendation. Using differentstandards for awarding qualifications withinformal learning and validation risks that theyare not equally valued. Citizens are still oftenunaware about validation opportunities, inparticular the low-qualified who could benefitmost (Cedefop, 2014k);

(e) most countries see ECVET as an instrumentto ease cross-border mobility of VET learnersrather than a tool that helps them move moreflexibly within their countries’ VET systems.While the majority are developing a policyenvironment that would make using ECVETpossible, many have adopted a ‘wait and see’strategy;

(f) measures to internationalise VET tend tofocus on mobility. Despite several bilateraland multilateral initiatives, the main share ofmobility in VET has been organised within,and supported by, EU education and trainingprogrammes;

(g) guidance is underpinning a range of policymeasures that aim at encouraging youngpeople and adults to take up VET and helpthem manage transitions in education andtraining and in the labour market. Youthguarantees, measures to reduce earlyleaving from education and training, and theneed for more adult learning, reinforce theneed for high quality and individualisedguidance and the development of individuals’career management skills;

(h) adjusting framework conditions in adultlearning (such as time and delivery methods)to suit people’ s needs, along with providingadequate teacher and trainer developmentopportunities, have received less attention onnational policy agendas.

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3.1. Lifelong learningLLL plays a crucial role in the knowledgeeconomy. Although it encompasses learning fromearly childhood until retirement age and beyond(Council of the EU, 2002), the term LLL is oftenused to refer to adult learning. This also appliesto the ET 2020 benchmark: by 2020, the share ofthe population aged 25 to 64 participating inlearning should reach 15%.

After several years of remaining at around9%, data suggest that the EU average increasedto 10.5% in 2013. However, this may be due tomethodological changes in gathering the data (26).While several EU+ countries (Denmark, Finland,Iceland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden andthe UK) had already met the target in 2010, sevenwere still at only 5% or below (Bulgaria, Greece,Croatia, Hungary, Poland, Romania andSlovakia). Candidate countries lag far below theEU average. In 2011, 60% of Europe’ s adults

between 25 and 64 did not take part in formal ornon-formal learning during the 12 monthspreceding the survey (Eurostat, 2011).

Since most non-formal learning is job-relatedand around one third of it is employer-sponsored,CVET plays a major role in bringing LLLparticipation in line with the ET 2020 benchmark(Eurostat, 2011). In 2010, two thirds of the EU’senterprises with 10 or more staff provided training(compared to 60% in 2005) (27).

In the Bruges communiqué, countries haveagreed to promote CVET (STD7) which canrespond flexibly to short-term needs and helpsimprove citizens’ employability and enterprises’competiveness.

3.1.1. Promoting CVET participationPolicy-makers need to understand what preventspeople from taking part in learning and whatimpedes enterprises from providing staff training.In the AES survey, people cited familycommitments, conflicting work and trainingschedules and costs as main reasons. Many donot consider training necessary for their jobs.Enterprises that do not offer CVET considered

PART I – CHAPTER 3Accessible and open VET: lifelong learning and mobility 47

(26) The 2013 EU-28 average is much higher than the EU averagefor 2012 due to a large increase in LLL in France. At the timeof writing this report, it was not clear whether a break in serieswill be indicated or if data revisions will occur. Slovenia hadalso reached the benchmark in 2010, but the share of adultsparticipating in learning has decreased and is slightly below15% in 2013. (Eurostat, 2014a).

(27) The discussion on AES and CVTS data in this section isbased on Cedefop, forthcoming a.

Figure 11. State of play and progress towards STD7: participation in CVET in line with ET 202015% benchmark

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

Education and career fairs with a focus on VET

CVET or LLL strategies promoting the acquisition of key competences

Legal provisions or guidelines improving guidance and counselling for adults

Campaigns to make adults aware of the benefits of VET

Guidelines to ensure that CVET qualifications are valued by E&T/labour market

Guidelines to ensure that labour market training is valued by E&T/labour market

Strategies or guidelines enabling adult learners to access higher VET (EQF level 5+)

Guidelines helping learners to combine (C)VET with family obligations

Guidelines on time arrangements for VET that suits adult learners’ needs

Guidelines on easily accessible learning venues for VET

Training for VET teachers/trainers to work with adults including ‘at risk’ groups

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in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

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their staff’s skills adequate or preferred recruitingnew people (CVTS4) (Cedefop, forthcoming a),an interesting phenomenon in times of increasingskill mismatch and problems in recruiting skilledworkers.

Against this background, it is not surprisingthat targeted campaigns to make adults aware ofVET’s benefits have developed dynamicallyacross countries. They include a range ofmeasures from adult learning awards, tomultimedia campaigns, CVET days, sector opendays, fairs by large CVET providers, and trainingfor specific skills areas (such as training for greenjobs in Belgium). They complement educationand career fairs which, traditionally, haveinformed people about VET opportunities on offerand are now used in all countries (Figure 11).Promotional campaigns and more information onavailable qualifications and programmes havebeen complemented by financial incentives andsupport.

The Bruges communiqué includes a specificdeliverable (STD17) to increase skillsdevelopment opportunities for those normally lesslikely to participate. The information available,however, suggests that countries’ general LLLstrategies, and/or those that foster CVETgenerally, aim at widening access for theunemployed and/or low-skilled while target-group-specific strategies are less frequent (seeSection 5.2). Employment strategies may alsoadvocate continuing training.

These strategies or national legalframeworks may include general rights to trainingand training leave, to receive guidance, or to havetheir skills identified, recorded and validated (seebelow and Sections 3.3 and 3.4). They may alsoemphasise specific aspects like ensuring thatyoung people and adults can acquire, revive orfurther develop their basic skills/key competencesor can progress (more) easily to further/highereducation and training.

Most EU+ countries have one or morestrategies in place. Strategies change frequently:more than half of the countries that had a CVETor LLL strategy promoting key competences inplace by 2010 have updated or replaced it sincethen. Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania andMalta are examples of countries that have new orrenewed strategies. Some strategic measuresinclude second chance programmes promoting

basic skills or curricula that place a strongemphasis on them (see Section 2.3).

Box 19. Strategies to boost CVET: countryhighlights

(a) For a long time, private sector employees inLuxembourg have had the right to 80 days oftraining during their career. In Norway, adults havea right to upper secondary education adapted totheir individual needs. In Portugal, CVET is a legalright of workers and a duty of employers. Since2010, workers in large enterprises in the UK(England, Wales) have had the right to request timefor work-related training.

(b) The 2013-20 Bulgarian employment strategyfocuses on VET quality and attractiveness andforesees measures to increase the participation ofemployed or unemployed adults in VET. VETopportunities for adults offered by the employmentservice are promoted through regional campaigns,conferences and workshops.

(c) The new Croatian education, science andtechnology strategy sets out conditions to includemore adults in LLL and promotes key competences.

(d) Cyprus is putting a new competence-based nationalcurriculum for VET in place to boost CVETparticipation.

(e) Following a pilot started before 2010, Polandcreated the legal basis for establishing distancelearning in VET and has prepared relatedregulations on learning/teaching methods.

(f) In 2014, Turkey adopted a new LLL strategy to boostCVET and adult education.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

Making CVET attractive also requiresensuring the value of qualifications. Severalcountries have parallel qualification systems forformal and non-formal education and training.Guidelines to ensure that qualifications achievedthrough CVET or labour market training arevalued by employers and education and trainingwere already in place in more than half the EU+countries and two candidate countries before2010. Arrangements vary across countries andhave changed since 2010 in many cases. Insome countries (e.g. Denmark and the candidatecountries) CVET qualifications are part of the

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NQF; in others the frameworks are starting to openup to include qualifications acquired through non-formal learning (see also Section 3.2). To ensurethat training provision is aligned to labour marketneeds, and to give learners the best progressionopportunities possible, the UK (Wales) isintroducing a funding model that requires providersto use labour market intelligence when planningtheir activities. Providers are also encouraged toget qualifications recognised for the qualificationsand credit framework (QCF).

Since 2010, several countries (includingDenmark, Estonia, the Netherlands and Finland)have introduced strategies or guidelines tosupport adult learner access to higher VETleading to qualifications at EQF level 5+, allowingfor more flexible education and training routes.Ireland, Croatia, Cyprus, Latvia, Poland andRomania, are planning to introduce guidelines. Inthe candidate countries, strategies and policydocuments highlight possibilities for adults toaccess higher VET, but specific measures toencourage this are not yet in place. EQF level 5qualifications appeal to learners as they open upemployment, career advancement prospects andfurther learning. Their focus on advancedtechnical and managerial skills also makes themvaluable to employers.

EQF level 5 qualifications can be acquired inshort-cycle higher education programmes, informal VET, outside formal education and trainingor in several of these learning venues. In manycountries, access to programmes andqualifications at EQF level 5 is also possiblethrough validation of work experience. Theflexibility and diversity from focusing onoutcomes, rather than the institution where thequalifications are acquired, allows wider groupsof learners to progress to higher educationqualifications, contributing to the 40% EU targetfor tertiary education attainment. By offeringspecialisation geared to the labour market, theyalso attract people with higher education degrees,as in Denmark. This illustrates that progression isnot a one-way street and education and trainingcareers are not necessarily linear (Cedefop,2014g).

3.1.2. Supporting learners and teachersTo strengthen guidance and counselling foradults, legal provisions or guidelines are in placein 28 EU+ countries, while the others (Belgium-Fr), Bulgaria, Estonia, France, Italy, Romania andSlovenia) are preparing for their implementation.In some countries, guidance and counsellingservices for adults have a long-standing tradition.Malta has services available in all educationalinstitutions. Legislation in Romania forapprenticeship provides for mandatorycounselling, career guidance and mentoring andallows for flexible time arrangements that suitadult learners’ needs. While mentoring for adult

PART I – CHAPTER 3Accessible and open VET: lifelong learning and mobility 49

Box 20. CVET: ensuring value and easingprogression to higher educationattainment: country highlights

(a) In Estonia, VET providers train the unemployedand learners receive the same diplomas orcertificates as other graduates.

(b) In Greece, labour market training for theunemployed is provided by the public employmentservice based on guidelines that definemandatory skills to be acquired.

(c) Agriculture skills training for job seekers of allages in France is coupled with advice fromprofessionals based on an agreement (2011)between the government and social partners fromthe sector.

(d) Legislation for accrediting work experiencesupports access to higher VET in France. Peoplehave the right to progress at least one level ofqualification during their professional life.

(e) The Danish growth plan includes a VET reformproposal (2013) that broadens access to higherprogrammes leading to EQF level 5 and beyondfor VET students and making stronger efforts tosupport recognition of prior learning in CVET.

(f) Although there is no strategy in Ireland thatenables adult learners to access higher VET, linksbetween colleges, institutes of technology anduniversities have existed for many years to enablelearners to progress to higher education; thecoexistence of VET and academic qualifications atEQF level 5 described in learning outcomes hasmade higher education providers more open tovocational graduates progressing to programmesleading to a higher NQF level.

Source: Cedefop, ReferNet and Cedefop (2014g).

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learners has been organised in the formerYugoslav Republic of Macedonia, legal provisionsor guidelines for guidance and counselling are notyet a reality in any of the candidate countries;employment services guidance for theunemployed has also limited capacity (see alsoSection 3.4).

Box 21. Helping teachers help adultlearners: country highlights

(a) In Denmark, VET teachers must have diplomalevel pedagogical education, including andragogyand catering for groups at risk.

(b) In 2013, Spain introduced mandatory formaltraining for trainers working in VET under theremit of the employment authorities to help themsupport adult learning. Compulsory masterdegrees for teachers in the education system (forVET, secondary and adult education) wereintroduced in 2007.

(c) Since 2010, most trainers in Ireland have beenrequired to undergo continuing professionaldevelopment. This helps trainers in communitytraining centres support adults by giving them theskills to integrate literacy and numeracy educationinto the mainstream curriculum.

(d) ESF projects supported the development ofmodularised training programmes for CVETtrainers in Slovakia and help Maltese trainerssupport vulnerable students at risk of notcompleting their studies.

(e) Training teachers and trainers to work with adultshas been a priority in Montenegro. The country’sadult education law prescribes such training andthe VET centre has organised it.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

Although there is no specific deliverable forthe countries on initial and continuing training ofVET teachers and trainers, well-trained staff is aprerequisite for high quality adult learning/CVET.They are important agents in increasingparticipation rates in adult learning (EuropeanCommission and Cedefop, 2014). Given theirincreasing roles and tasks, improvingcompetence and professional development of in-company trainers has been on the EU policyagenda for some years. There are very few

programmes and initiatives that specificallyaddress training needs of employees who alsoact as trainers in small and medium-sizedenterprises (SMEs) (European Commission andCedefop, 2013). With seven countries reportingno measures at national level, and little activitysince 2012 in general, teacher and trainerdevelopment to work with adults is likely to be anarea of limited progress.

Another area where more work remains to bedone is making learning arrangements suitable tothe needs of learners, by making learning venueseasily accessible, creating suitable timearrangements for learning, and through measureseasing the combination of CVET with familyobligations. The candidate countries face similarchallenges. While the former Yugoslav Republicof Macedonia, Serbia and Turkey have madearrangements for training outside regular workinghours, easing the combination of CVET andfamily obligations has not been a clear priority inthe candidate countries.

3.2. Qualification frameworksThe creation of NQFs across Europe is one of themain and most tangible outcomes of theCopenhagen process (28). It was triggered by thelaunch of the EQF in 2008 (European Parliamentand Council of the EU, 2008). Prior to 2008,NQFs based on learning outcomes only existedin Ireland, France and the UK.

The EQF was developed to assist LLL andmobility by making qualifications from differentcountries easier to understand and recognise; itis not limited to VET. The levels span the full scaleof qualifications, from basic education todoctorates. Its purpose is to help translate alltypes and levels of qualifications that people canacquire in various learning settings throughouttheir lives (Council of the EU, 2002). The design

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(28) The information on this STD is based on NQF/EQF monitoring(Cedefop, 2013e; countries’ referencing reports informing onhow they are linking up their qualifications to EQF and theanalysis of these reports (European Commission andCedefop, 2014). It also draws on Cedefop’s analyses of NQFlevel descriptors (Cedefop, 2013d) and qualifications at EQFlevel 5 (Cedefop, 2014f; 2014g). The ETF provided additionalinformation on the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey.

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of the eight level EQF, which takes account of thecommon degree structure in higher education(qualifications framework-European highereducation area (EHEA)) (29), is based onextensive conceptual work supported by Cedefopand collaboration between the EU and thecountries.

In the Bruges communiqué, countriesreconfirmed their commitment to linking their NQFto the EQF and, in addition to those that alreadyhad one, most countries decided to developNQFs. At the time of writing, 36 countries (30) areworking together to implement the EQF: the EU-28 Member States plus the former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia, Iceland, Liechtenstein,Montenegro, Norway, Serbia, Switzerland andTurkey.

3.2.1. From design to operation: more countries have moved to anoperational stage

Developing an NQF focusing on learningoutcomes often meant a new departure andextensive discussions among stakeholders aboutthe relationship between different qualificationsand their value. In several countries, this hasinfluenced how qualifications are classified.

Work on NQFs usually develops in differentstages which may overlap (design/development,formal adoption, operational stage, review). Bythe beginning of 2010, most of the countries werestill in the design and development phase,discussing rationale, policy objectives andarchitecture of their NQF. By mid-2014, most ofthe 36 countries had agreed on the overallstructure. In 29 countries NQFs have eight levels,while the others have 5, 7, 9, 10 and 12. Some(such as Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic

of Macedonia, Montenegro, the Netherlands) alsohave sublevels. A total of 30 countries areworking on comprehensive frameworks that coverall types and levels of qualifications but, in six, theNQFs currently only include a limited range.

Some countries, such as Estonia, Portugaland Romania, use EQF level descriptors; othershave adjusted them to suit their respectivenational contexts, complexities and priorities.Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Poland andSweden, for instance, broadened the descriptors.In particular, the ‘competence’ pillar has beenreshaped, as this term is interpreted in manydifferent ways: from general competence(Norway) to social competence (Poland), tocompetence as a holistic concept embracing anentire range of knowledge, skills and attitudes(e.g. Belgium, Germany, Hungary and theNetherlands). Countries that have engaged awide range of stakeholders, including socialpartners and research communities, tend to havebroader descriptors.

In more than half of the NQFs, leveldescriptors include key competences. Analytical/problem-solving, communicative and/or socialskills are included in Austria, Belgium (Dg, Fl),Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark,Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Ireland,Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Spain, the Netherlands,Poland, Portugal, Slovenia and the UK (Scotland)(see also Section 2.3.1).

To put NQFs in practice requires some formof formal adoption. This could be done throughlegislation which focuses on or includes NQF, orsome other formal agreement. By mid-2014, 23countries had at least reached this stage, themost recent among them Croatia, the formerYugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Romania.Belgium (Fr), Finland, Poland, Slovenia, Spain,Sweden and Turkey were preparing for formaladoption. Finland, which was advanced in earlieryears, exemplifies that introducing NQFs is notjust a technical process but also requires politicalsupport.

The next stage of implementation focuses onpractical arrangements. These include definingstakeholder roles and responsibilities anddeveloping criteria and procedures for allocatingqualifications to NQF levels. In 12 countries theNQFs were in this operational stage by June2014: Belgium (Fl, Dg), Croatia, Estonia,

PART I – CHAPTER 3Accessible and open VET: lifelong learning and mobility 51

(29) Qualifications framework in the EHEA, established by theMinisters for Higher Education participating in the Bolognaprocess. http://www.ehea.info/article-details.aspx?ArticleId=65[accessed 5.7.2014].

(30) This refers to EU-28+: Member States plus EEA countries, inthis case Iceland and Norway (also candidate country statusbut accession negotiations currently on hold); plus fourcandidate countries: the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey; plusLiechtenstein and Switzerland (currently not participating inthe meetings of the advisory group).NB: during the reporting period, the number of Member

States increased from 27 to 28, as Croatia joined the EUon 1 July 2013.

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Germany, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,Montenegro, the Netherlands, Norway andPortugal.

NQFs have achieved an advancedoperational stage when they are used as areference point by public administrations, theprivate sector and individual citizens. This is thecase in Denmark, Ireland, France, Malta and theUK. However, once countries reach this stage,work does not stop. NQFs require continuouscooperation, review and further development.Early experiences in Ireland, France and the UKsuggest that developing and implementing anNQF is a continuous circle of improvement. Therecent review of the QCFs in the UK illustrates this.

Considering the different starting points inindividual countries, the wide range ofqualifications to be covered and the need tobalance diverse stakeholder interests, NQFshave developed dynamically. So far, most of theNQFs are education- and training-led and arebuilt on formal qualifications. The next step is toinclude qualifications awarded outside formaleducation and training, for instance in continuingtraining offered by the private sector and in activelabour market measures (see also Section 3.3).One third of the 36 countries intend to do so.Denmark, Ireland, France, the Netherlands andSweden, for instance, have already moved in this

direction while Austria, Germany and Norway areexploring the issue.

3.2.2. Indicating links to the EQF and makingit visible

By mid-2012, 15 countries had linked theirNQFs (31) or qualifications to the EQF. By mid-2014, the total was 23: Austria, Belgium (Fl, Fr),Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark,Estonia, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Italy,Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, theNetherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Sloveniaand the UK (England, Northern Ireland, Scotlandand Wales). These countries have presentedreports explaining how they relate theirqualifications to the EQF to the advisory groupwhich was set up to ensure that the way countrieslink their qualifications levels to the EQF is clearand coherent (32). Several of these reports are stillwork in progress.

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(31) Belgium is developing separate frameworks for the Flemish-,French- and German-speaking communities and hadsubmitted two reports by mid-2014. In the UK, England,Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland have their ownframeworks but provided only one report.

(32) This advisory group is jointly steered by the EuropeanCommission and Cedefop and comprises representatives ofMember States, ETF, the Council of Europe, candidatecountries, European social partners and other stakeholders.

Figure 12. State of play and progress towards STD8: comprehensive NQFs based on learningoutcomes linked to EQF

NB: In this bullet chart every NQF is treated as a country for the sake of simplicity.Source: Cedefop and ETF.

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Spain, Hungary, Slovakia and Sweden areexpected to present their reports in autumn 2014or in spring 2015. From the candidate countries,Montenegro and Turkey are closest to thisobjective. The other countries will follow within thenext year. This may be perceived as aconsiderable delay, as all countries should havecompleted this work by 2010 according to theCouncil recommendation. While this deadlinewas ambitious, it was an impetus to moveforward. This also applies to the candidatecountries.

Box 22. Towards a comprehensiveframework in Montenegro

Montenegro has developed a comprehensive NQF forLLL based on learning outcomes (legislation adoptedin 2010). Its purpose is to make the different pathsthat lead to a qualification visible, show how they areinterlinked and help develop and comparequalifications. Its eight levels and sublevels compriseall qualifications from general education to VET andhigher education. It also includes professionalqualifications which can be acquired throughvalidation of non-formal learning.

Establishing the NQF and aligning it to EQF are apolitical priority. The shift to learning outcomes is anessential part of this work. Qualifications andprogrammes are being reviewed accordingly. Overallresponsibility lies with a national qualifications council,set up in 2011, comprising representatives from theMinistry of Education, other public authorities, socialpartners and universities. Its main tasks are to decideon inclusion and classification of qualifications in theNQF and propose the development of newqualifications. The Council has also set up 15 sectoralcommittees. All revised and new qualificationsdeveloped are compatible with the EQF.

Source: ETF and Cedefop.

To make use of the EQF as easy as possiblefor education and training institutions andemployers and, ultimately, to benefit citizens, allcertificates, diplomas and Europass documentsshould indicate the corresponding EQF levels(originally by 2012). This is already (partly) thecase in the Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany,Estonia, Ireland, France, Lithuania and Malta.

The Netherlands and Portugal have started thelegislation process to do so. In the UK (Englandand Northern Ireland), where awarding bodiesare free to decide whether to refer to thecorresponding EQF levels or not, there has beensome – albeit slow – progress. Where and forwhich qualifications the references are madevaries: in the Czech Republic and France, theVET qualifications included in the nationalregisters indicate the respective NQF/EQF levels.In the Czech Republic and France, they have alsobeen included on all Europass certificatesupplements since 2012; in Denmark they arealso on the diploma supplements. This is alsoplanned in Slovenia and has been formallyagreed in Italy. In Portugal, the reference featureson qualifications levels 1 to 4. In Malta theNQF/EQF levels are shown on all general,vocational and higher education qualificationsawarded by public institutions and on newly-developed and accredited qualifications fromprivate providers.

Indicating the EQF level on certificates canbe a way to signal parity of esteem between VETand academic higher education, as the exampleof Germany shows. While Germany attributes itsmaster craftsperson qualifications to EQF level6 (33), France, Croatia and Luxembourg relate itto level 5 and Slovenia to level 4. Althoughlearning outcomes may vary across countries,these differences show that EQF implementationis an iterative process. Further evidence anddiscussion among the countries concerned will beneeded to ensure that the allocation of levels isclearly understood and can be trusted. Anotherexample is the upper secondary school leavingcertificate from general education. This is linkedto EQF level 4 as it traditionally allowsprogression to higher education across Europeand (potential) allocation to other levels causedlively debates across countries.

Country reports explaining the allocation toEQF levels followed a set of agreed criteria. In thediscussions of these reports, it has becomeevident that some of the criteria need deepeningand reports need revising to ensure that EQF isused in a coherent and consistent manner. This

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(33) Austria’s master craftsperson qualifications have provisionallyalso been assigned to level 6.

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is also necessary, as national systems andqualifications are not static.

The recent NQF evaluation in Denmarkshows that Danish stakeholders are familiar withthe framework (70% of respondents to anexternal evaluation said they knew it well).

Box 23. Certificates signal parity of esteembetween VET and academic highereducation

Since the beginning of 2014, German mastercraftsperson certificates show the corresponding NQFand EQF level. Like the bachelor degree, they arerelated to level 6. From an education and training policyperspective, this is considered a milestone. Theallocation to level and the reference on the certificatessignal the high value and quality of this qualification.In Germany, VET qualifications are placed on nearly allNQF/EQF levels with three year apprenticeships leadingto level 4.

Source: BMBF, 2014.

Box 24. Making NQF/EQF visible and easy touse

Denmark adopted a comprehensive NQF (eight levels)in 2009 and completed referencing to the EQF in 2011.The Danish NQF can now be considered operationaland is becoming more visible to learners. In January2013, Denmark started issuing VET qualifications withan explicit reference to national and European levels.Since spring 2014, this reference is also included inthe Europass certificate and diploma supplements. TheNQF is a reference point for designing qualifications,in both vocational and higher education. NQF levels arealso being used to structure national databases onqualifications, making the learning outcomes approachmore widely understood. By 2013, nationalstakeholders were familiar with the framework (70%of respondents to an external evaluation ‘know it well’).

Source: Cedefop (2013e).

In other countries, however, learners,workers, education and training providers,employers and other organisations do not alwaysknow that NQF and EQF exist. Earlier studies inIreland indicated increased awareness among

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Box 25. The Irish NQF: a first generationframework and lessons that can belearned from it

Launched in 2003 and linked to the EQF since 2009,the Irish NFQ is comprehensive and has 10 levels. Itcovers all types and levels of qualifications availablethrough formal education and training and is open tothose awarded by professional and internationalorganisations. There are four categories ofqualifications to capture all kinds of learning.

The NFQ is at an advanced operational stage, butprogressing at different speeds in different parts ofeducation and training. It has promoted the use oflearning outcomes, especially in VET/further andhigher education, and acts as a reference point forcurriculum development as well as a tool for otherreforms. It also has a strong external dimensionthrough collaboration and research with non-Europeancountries.

The process was strongly supported by majorstakeholders. Since 2012, through the setup of onesingle national qualification and quality assurancebody (Quality and Qualifications Ireland), coordinationof qualifications has been further reinforced. The NFQhas become widely known, also outside the educationand training environment. EQF and NFQ levels areindicated on Europass certificate supplements.

Lessons that can be learned from the Irish NQFimplementation:(a) putting an NFQ in place and using it relies on step-

by-step development, broad partnerships andstrong support of different stakeholders;

(b) understanding concepts and promoting culturalchange takes time;

(c) stakeholder involvement throughout all stages iskey to a sense of ownership;

(d) developing an NQF is an iterative process wherebythe education and training system and theframework are progressively aligned with eachother;

(e) implementation within subsystems and cross-system developments need balancing out;

(f) an NQF needs to be broad enough to includedifferent types of learning;

(g) NQFs need to be aligned with institutionalrequirements and supporting policies, enablingchange.

Source: Cedefop, forthcoming h and National QualificationsAuthority of Ireland, 2009.

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the general public, but pointed to the need tomake the NQF more visible to labour marketactors. Informing citizens and other stakeholdersis one of the main tasks of the nationalcoordination points. These activities arecofinanced by European grants.

3.3. ValidationComprehensive strategies and arrangements torecognise learning that occurs on the job, throughvolunteering, in family life or other situations,benefit people and employers alike. People maybe more motivated to take up learning, couldacquire formal qualifications without or savingstudy time, and progress or return more easily toeducation and training. This may help them findor change jobs or advance in their careers.Employers can benefit from validation forrecruitment, personnel development and careerprogression. Validating the skills that people haveacquired outside formal education and training,irrespective of their formal qualification levels,contributes to promoting LLL and mobility andmay help address early leaving from educationand training, skill mismatch and unemployment.

For more than a decade, work at EU levelhas aimed to support Member States in devisingpolicies and schemes to validate people’s non-formally and informally acquired knowledge andskills, to use their full potential for learning andwork. In the first phase of the Copenhagenprocess, this was done by an expert workinggroup, inventories of validation practices(European Commission et al., 2010; 2014b), a setof common principles for validating non-formaland informal learning (Council of the EU, 2004a)and guidelines for policy-makers and practitioners(Cedefop, 2009).

Nevertheless, by 2010 only Finland, France,the Netherlands, Norway and Portugal had ahighly developed validation system. Denmark,Germany, Spain, Luxembourg, Romania,Sweden and the UK had well established butpartial systems, for instance within specificeducation and training subsystems, or a nationalone that was still in its initial phase. Greece,Cyprus and Hungary offered hardly anyopportunities for validating non-formal andinformal learning.

While the Bruges communiqué confirmedreadiness to take the work on validation furthermore generally, the 2012 recommendation(Council of the EU, 2012b, p. 3) asks MemberStates to:(a) have validation arrangements in place by

2018, whereby they may prioritise certainareas and/or sectors in line with their needs;

(b) make it possible for people to obtain full orpartial qualifications by validation (34).To support implementation, it foresees

different reporting activities. These includeregular reviews of the European guidelines(Cedefop, 2009) and the European inventory. Itsfirst update after the recommendation is due tobe published in autumn 2014 (35).

3.3.1. Validation strategies: comprehensiveor a result of different arrangements

Taking the recommendation as a starting point,all countries have some sort of validationarrangement in place. However, there are widedifferences in the ways validation is approached,the range of qualifications that are covered, andin the level of up-take. Evidence from the 2014inventory update (36) suggests that politicalcommitment in creating comprehensive nationalvalidation strategies is increasing (from 5 to 13countries since 2010). Comprehensive nationalvalidation strategies include:(a) comprehensive arrangements covering all

education sectors and establishing good linksbetween them;

(b) good connections between validation in thepublic, private and the youth and voluntarysectors;

(c) having measures in place that ensure thequality of validation procedures;

(d) activities to promote take-up.

PART I – CHAPTER 3Accessible and open VET: lifelong learning and mobility 55

(34) Unless the qualifications are subject of Directive 2013/55/EU(European Parliament and Council of the EU, 2013b).

(35) The information in this chapter draws on that gathered for the2014 inventory update (European Commission et al., 2014b).;see also footnote 37); Cedefop’s analyses of NQFdevelopments, EQF/NQF referencing reports as well as workin the EQF advisory group; information provided by ETF onthe candidate countries under their remit.

(36) The inventory covers the EU-28 plus Iceland, Liechtenstein,Norway, Switzerland and Turkey through 36 country reports,as the UK includes three reports (England/Northern Ireland,Scotland, Wales) and Belgium two (Fl, Fr). Each report istreated as a ‘country’ for the sake of simplicity.

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In 2010, only France, Portugal and Finlandwere considered to be in this category, while in2014 Spain was also included. Portugal wasredesigning its system at the time of drafting theinventory. Of the 36 countries that participate inthe inventory update, 11 have a strategy but donot cover all elements described above. Linksbetween different education sectors are not wellestablished and those to the private or thirdsector (37) are lacking in most countries. Evencountries with highly developed validationsystems do not necessarily have an overallstrategy in place.

A total of 13 countries are developing astrategy, versus five in 2010. Nine, in comparisonto 17 in 2010, reported not to have a nationalstrategy. However, these countries may havedecentralised validation arrangements for specificeducation and training subsystems, the privateand or third sectors. Social partners play anactive role in setting up national validationsystems and in defining standards in more thanhalf the countries.

Box 26. Towards comprehensive legalframeworks for validation: countryhighlights

(a) Recent legislation in Italy (2012, 2013) defines anational comprehensive framework for validation,bringing together all regions to agree on a commonapproach.

(b) Lithuania, Romania and Switzerland have legalframeworks for specific sectors and are planning todevelop them into more comprehensive ones.Greece and Croatia are also in the process ofdeveloping such approaches.

(c) In Belgium (Fl) separate measures are in place toencourage the take-up of validation and ensure thequality of validation procedures in most sectors.Belgium (Fl) is currently working on an integratedapproach for all sectors, apart from sports andsociocultural.

Source: Cedefop and ReferNet.

Decentralised arrangements often meandifferent coexisting legal frameworks forvalidation. Only France, Malta and Turkey statedthey had a single legal framework in place in2014. However, in the Czech Republic, Estonia,Spain, Latvia, the Netherlands, Poland, Finlandand Sweden the different frameworks are clearlylinked.

The legal framework for validation may alsobe connected to other initiatives, increasingly tothe NQF. The Bruges communiqué advocatedthat NQFs should support the use of validation.In most cases, NQF work has first focused onqualifications that are awarded in formaleducation and training. Where these can beacquired through validation, there is an implicitlink between these tools. Work on the NQFs has,however, also raised the question of how tointegrate qualifications acquired outside formaleducation and training and how to link validationschemes (better) to NQFs. This is also evident inthe candidate countries. Countries’ work onvalidation reflects the different stages of NQFdevelopment (see also Sections 3.1, 3.2, Part 2and Annex 2). By entrusting the EQF advisorygroup with follow-up of the validationrecommendation, the Council set a strong signalfor linking these ‘tools’.

3.3.2. Outcomes of validation: qualifications,exemptions or access

This discussion also draws more attention to thequestion of whether people can acquire fullqualifications through validation and which statusthey have, i.e. if they are the same as thoseobtained in formal education and training. In2014, 25 countries reported that awarding fullqualifications of the same or equivalent standardas those obtained through formal education ispossible, at least in some sectors. In 11 countriesthis is not possible. However, there may be otherqualifications that are not regarded as ‘formal’(e.g. the qualifications awarded by the HumanResource Development Authority in Cyprus) thatcan be obtained through validation.

In Belgium (Fl), the Czech Republic, Ireland,Slovakia, Slovenia, Turkey and the UK (Wales) itis possible to award qualifications throughvalidation, but standards may differ from those offormal qualifications. In Belgium (Fr), for example,validation of CVET leads to skill certificates which

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(37) I.e. youth sector, volunteering.

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are not equivalent to VET degrees. The situationis similar in the Czech Republic and SIovenia,where the qualifications obtained throughvalidation are different from those obtainedthrough formal VET. Few qualifications can beobtained fully through validation and requiretaking the final exam of the corresponding formalprogrammes. Partial qualifications can beobtained in about two thirds of the countries, withsome restricting validation to this type of award.

Overall, validation is still more common in VETand for qualifications closer to the labour marketthan for those awarded in general education.Higher education institutions increasingly seem tobe opening up to validation practices but not foracquiring full degrees. Qualifications granted bypublic employment authorities (such as VETcertificates in the Czech Republic, certificados deprofesionalidad in Spain, or the Human ResourceDevelopment Authority qualifications in Cyprus) orqualifications that entitle people to perform certainoccupations normally make more use of validation.Despite the increasing debate on how to connectthese to the formal qualifications and how tointegrate them into the NQFs, few countries havearrived at this stage. A main concern in this contextis to ensure the quality of the certificationprocesses in validation.

Two thirds of the countries state that thequalifications that can be acquired throughvalidation are the same as those awarded informal education and training (Austria, Bulgaria,Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy,Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg,Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,Romania, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK(England, Scotland, Wales)). In a third, the qualityassurance process is the same for both ways ofobtaining a qualification.

Institutions awarding the qualifications areoften the same as those used for formaleducation. Quality assurance measures may alsoapply to specific education and trainingsubsystems or be decentralised to the respectiveinstitutions. In France there is no single qualityassurance framework but each awarding body isresponsible for developing its own qualityassurance system, most of the time, through legalprovisions. None of the countries covered by the2014 update has a national quality assuranceframework exclusively for validation.

Many validation arrangements focus onsupporting access and progression to educationand training programmes, for instance throughexemptions, or admission to exams that awardofficial qualifications. Exemptions for parts offormal programmes are possible in about twothirds of the countries. Higher educationinstitutions, which can generally decide on theirvalidation procedures, seem to be increasinglyallowing this option. In 18 countries, people canobtain European credit transfer and accumulationsystem (ECTS) credits via validation.

A total of 20 countries provide accessthrough validation to formal education, 16 ofthese to higher education. In most cases, peopleneed to be already entitled to access highereducation or need to acquire ‒ through validation‒ the desired admission requirements. In arounda third of the countries, validation is used todetermine the training needs for obtaining a fullqualification.

3.3.3. Challenges and take-up of validationWhile the inventory does not explicitly examinewhether people and the labour market considerqualifications obtained through validationequivalent to those acquired in formal education,it shows that some countries do not apply thesame standards to both (see above) (38). Thispractice does not encourage parity of esteem,one of the objectives of validation.

Employees should also get the chance to usetheir validated skills for further education andtraining and new jobs outside their currentworking environment. So far, however, validationsystems used in enterprises to assess and recordcompetences of employees and recruits, rarelyinteract with those of the public sector (Cedefop,2014d).

As is evident from the above, countries donot have quality assurance frameworksexclusively dedicated to validation. Whether thequality assurance systems and procedures thatare used can ensure reliable, valid and credibleassessment is not really clear. Assessment informal education is different from assessing non-formal or informal learning and a qualification forvalidation practitioners would be useful.

PART I – CHAPTER 3Accessible and open VET: lifelong learning and mobility 57

(38) The information in this subsection is based on Cedefop,2014k.

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Education and training institution financingschemes, based on the number of learners at anygiven time, may be a disincentive for validation.As granting exemptions to formal requirementsshortens the time learners spend in formaleducation, validation would lead to reducedfinancial resources. Cost and red tape may alsobe a barrier to (further) implementation, especiallyfor SMEs.

In France, Ireland and Norway, for instance,people have the legal right to have their non-formally and informally acquired knowledge, skillsand competence validated. But if this regulationis not binding, procedures differ, or people aresimply not aware of the opportunities, take-up willbe limited. Information on take-up and outcomesof validation is patchy. Where data exist, theymay not be available nationally. Information onthe shares of qualifications acquired throughvalidation is not publicly available. Nevertheless,among the countries where information isavailable or inferences can be made, most haveseen an increase in use of validation. In eight,take-up has remained the same, including inFrance and the Netherlands, or has experiencedcontrasting trends in different sectors.

According to the survey, citizens are still oftenunaware about validation opportunities, which ispartly due to the fragmentation of practices. Themost disadvantaged, such as migrant women, areoften those least aware of how validation canbenefit their personal and professionaldevelopment. They need to be convinced of itsvalue, which requires better counselling. As low-qualified people are the main target group ofvalidation initiatives throughout Europe, there is aneed for countries in times of high unemploymentto focus on whether and how people use theopportunities provided. Better data on who needsand who uses validation would also allowauthorities to demonstrate to citizens, companiesand institutions that validation is a cost-effectiveway of acquiring qualifications.

3.3.4. Validation in candidate countriesThe concept of non-formal and informal learningis still fairly new in the candidate countries, asmost adult learning has traditionally taken placein formal education and training. Validation isgenerally at an early stage of development andnone of the countries yet has a national strategy.

Box 27. Candidate countries: steppingstones towards validation strategies

(a) The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia aimsto support non-formal and adult education policiesand structures; legislation, procedures andpractices for validation are not yet in place.

(b) In Serbia, validation features in strategicdocuments and adult education legislationadopted in 2013; procedures still needdeveloping.

(c) Legal conditions are in place in Montenegro.Validation is described in the legislation fornational vocational qualifications (NVQ).Qualifications acquired through validation can beused to access further education. The NQFwebsite informs on certification institutions,examiners, exam dates and appeal procedures.Practice is still at an early stage.

(d) Turkey’s 2014-18 LLL strategy reflects the needto value non-formal and informal learning. Avalidation system is being developed. Somecentres are already operational, among themsector organisations (employer-led, trade union-led or bipartite), chamber affiliated centres andsome universities. There is an accreditationprocess for each individual qualification. Anetwork of validation experts in higher educationexists, but acquiring degrees through validationis not possible.

Source: ETF.

3.4. Guidance in line with labourmarket needs 

‘Lifelong guidance can be seen as being akin tomortar in masonry, binding together differentelements of the ‘Youth guarantee’ programmesand allowing young people to have a coherentrange of experiences, to explore their owninterests, skills and attitudes, and to build up theirown career portfolios’ (ELGPN, 2013). If youthguarantees are to succeed, guidance is pivotal.To reduce Europe’s high shares of youth who arenot in education, employment or training (NEETs),anyone younger than 25 should receive a good-quality job offer, a traineeship, an apprenticeship

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or another education and training option; and thiswithin four months of leaving formal educationand training or becoming jobless (Council of theEU, 2013a, p. 3).

Europe’s skill mismatch challenge is partlycaused by ill-informed education choices(Cedefop, 2014e). Current and emerging skillsshortages require that Europe also taps thepotential of its older population, residents, newlyarriving people and those who are inactive orwhose skills are underused. Managing severaltransitions between formal and non-formallearning, jobs, voluntary work, spells ofunemployment and time-out periods is becomingthe norm.

People may want to find a placement for anapprenticeship, internship or traineeship, chooseonline education and training offers, make use ofmobility opportunities, or may be interested inbecoming entrepreneurs: all this requiresreinforced guidance and counselling services thatare coordinated, coherent and consistent. Moreemphasis is needed on career management skillsto help people shape their learning and careerpaths.

Even in the first phase of the Copenhagenprocess, guidance and counselling was like agolden thread running through the policies toaddress different priorities. Confirming thisfinding, the analysis of the 2012-14 Brugesdeliverables and countries’ policy responses pointto the specific role of information, guidance andadvice/counselling in developing flexible learningand career pathways (39).

The Bruges communiqué aims to ‘provideintegrated (education, training and employment)guidance services which are closely related withlabour market needs’ (Council of the EU andEuropean Commission, 2010, p. 12). It builds onthe preceding Council resolution (Council of theEU, 2008) which called on Member States toensure cooperation and coordination amongstakeholders, easy access to guidance, andbetter quality, and promote career management

skills. An ELGPN set up in 2007 (40) assistscountries in these efforts and supportscooperation at EU level. It collaborates with theEuroguidance network, established in the 1990sto inform on mobility opportunities, which targetsguidance practitioners and policy-makers,promotes cooperation among the differentstakeholders and provides information onguidance systems and practices in Europe.

3.4.1. Towards strategic and coordinatedapproaches

People mainly use career guidance andcounselling while they are in education andtraining (61%), but less so when they are lookingfor a job (36%) and/or additional education andtraining opportunities (23%), as a recentEurobarometer survey confirms (EuropeanCommission, 2014a) (41). Education and traininginstitutions, where teachers often act ascounsellors and the employment sector ‒ in mostcases employment services ‒ tend to be the mainproviders.

However, it is not just two guidance worldsthat people are dealing with. Depending on thecountry, there may be a wide range of national,regional and/or local actors. These may includesocial partner organisations (for instance inGermany and Austria), enterprises, and servicesthat cater for different target groups such asyouth, employees, people with migrantbackground or older workers. An increasingrange of web-based services is also available.However, increased information and guidanceservices do not necessarily mean that people arewell informed. If not well coordinated, provisionrisks being fragmented and without adequatesupport; people may feel overwhelmed and findit difficult to identify a solution that fits their needs.

In line with the Council resolutions (Councilof the EU, 2004b; 2008), nearly all countries have

PART I – CHAPTER 3Accessible and open VET: lifelong learning and mobility 59

(39) This section includes information available through ReferNetand the European lifelong guidance policy network (ELGPN).ETF provided the information on the candidate countriesunder their remit. The structure of this section reflects the mainthemes included in the Council resolution.

(40) At the time of writing, the ELGPN comprised 31 countries, i.e.EU-28 plus Iceland, Norway and Turkey. Kosovo (*) andSerbia are associated countries, Switzerland has observerstatus.(*) This designation is without prejudice to positions on status

and is in line with UNSCR 1244 and the ICJ Opinion onthe Kosovo declaration of independence.

(41) There were six possible responses to the question ‘when haveyou used career guidance service’. The shares exceed 100%,as multiple replies were possible.

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set up national lifelong guidance forums or similarplatforms to help coordinate policies and theactivities of different providers. These include, forexample, a strategic forum for careerdevelopment in Wales and a providerindependent guidance network in Austria. Thelatter aims to inform adults about learning/CVETopportunities and issues related to accessrequirements, qualifications, validation within thedifferent regions and across the country. Someregions in France are piloting a regional networkscheme for a public lifelong guidance servicebased on common objectives. A morecomprehensive national approach has beendeveloped in Portugal to support guidanceactivities in schools, VET centres, employmentservices and companies. Despite this rise instakeholder cooperation, only a few countries,such as France, the Netherlands and Finland,seem to be moving towards a holistic approachto guidance and counselling.

A trend towards reinforced cooperationbetween education and training and employmentservices has become evident in the candidatecountries, where guidance has moved up on thepolicy agenda again since the previous peakbefore 2010. This has led to new strategies(Montenegro, Serbia) and action plans and/ornew centres and services (the former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia, Montenegro)complementing or replacing the initiativeslaunched at that time.

To help policy-makers and other actorsreview lifelong guidance provision, the ELGPNhas developed a European glossary to harmoniseguidance concepts and a resource kit (42). Thisoffers policy advice and examples of practice inimproving policy coordination. Since 2012,Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Spain,France, Croatia, Austria and the UK (England),for instance, have made this kit availablenationally and/or started to use it. The ELGPN’swork on guidelines for lifelong guidance policiesand systems development is in progress.

3.4.2. Towards easy access to guidance

Guidance services should be available for allcitizens and easily accessible during and beyondtheir education and training and career paths. Bysupporting validation of non-formal and informallearning (VNFIL), guidance helps people shapeindividualised and flexible learning paths wherepossible (see also Section 3.3). Therecommendation on validation (Council of the EU,2012b) also proposes skills audits forunemployed or people who risk becomingjobless. Skills audits and personalised guidanceare among the key components to make theyouth guarantee work.

As the analysis of national measures toaddress STDs 2, 16 and 17 shows (see Chapters2 and 5), they have focused on offeringpersonalised and multidisciplinary services toyoung people when they move into VET or thelabour market or help them stay in or reintegrate.The number of countries offering some sort ofmentoring is increasing. Denmark and someGerman programmes, for instance, also includeskills assessment. The Maison d’orientation inLuxembourg and youth centres in Denmark arebased on the one-stop-shop approach.

Many countries have a wide range of web-based portals and services for different targetgroups, such as youth or adults, which oftenmirror the variety of providers. Those set up since2010 comprise self-help tools, in particular self-assessment, e-guidance and social media (as inBulgaria, Denmark, Ireland, Latvia, Norway,Romania). In Germany, the Netherlands andPortugal, for instance, the portal includes anonline portfolio. The Portuguese portfolio can beshared with firms or schools. In some cases,these services have been created with ESFsupport. As ICT tools may not be suitable for all,or useful at all times, services that combinedifferent information and communicationchannels such as those in Denmark and the UK(England) may be more helpful.

Guidance for specific groups (theunemployed, low-qualified, people with specialneeds, migrants and ethnic minorities, youngpeople, women) exists only in around a third ofthe countries. Although employment servicesincreasingly address older workers, specificactivities for this target group remain limited, are

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(42) The kit also comprises access to guidance and counsellingincluding validation of non-formal or informal learning, qualityassurance and development of career management skills(see ELGPN, 2012).

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often self-help tools or part of active labourmarket measures (Cedefop, 2015). Guidanceservices have a key role to play in helpingforeigners integrate in their host countries throughclear information about local labour marketdemand, opportunities to get qualificationsrecognised and skills validated and about suitableeducation and training (Cedefop, 2014j).Germany, Austria, Sweden, the UK andLuxembourg are examples of countries whichhave reported on dedicated counselling forpeople with migrant background. In Denmark,France, Iceland, Latvia and Sweden, access toinformation and guidance is a legal right. VETinstitutions are often obliged to provide educationand career guidance, in some countries not onlyto young people but also to adults. Nevertheless,the use of guidance services varies widely acrossEurope, with take up being highest in northernEurope.

The 2014 Eurobarometer survey suggeststhat lack of access is the main reason why peopledo not use guidance. In particular, people inBulgaria, Greece, Italy, Portugal and Slovakiaconsider that career guidance services are noteasily accessible. Getting information oninternships, traineeships or apprenticeships,turned out to be difficult for around a third of thepeople who needed it (see also Section 2.4).

While the Eurobarometer data are based onsmall samples, can only give a snapshot, andmay not take account of recent reforms, they maypoint to issues that need attention. One suchissue is that people who are likely to needguidance and counselling most, i.e. the lowerqualified, older generations and those who thinkthey are on a lower step of the social ladders,found it most difficult to get what they werelooking for.

3.4.3. Empowering people through careermanagement skills

Choosing suitable learning and career paths isnot easy. It requires gathering and analysinginformation about the skills that are/will be indemand on the labour market, education andtraining opportunities, occupations, benefits andjob realities. But this is not enough.Understanding one’s own interests, talents andlearning needs is crucial. Young people needopportunities to acquire these so-called career

management skills (43) and adults need to be ableto develop them further.

Career management skills tend to be part ofthe guidance support in active labour market andyouth guarantee measures. Alternative or bridgeprogrammes for the young who have not found atraining place embrace them as one of their keyfeatures (as in the Czech Republic, Germany,Luxembourg, Austria, Romania and the UK).Increasingly, they are also included inmainstream education and training, morespecifically in the years before learners need tochoose between general education and VET andthen in VET. This is also evident from the analysisof STD4, key competences in VET in 2012 (seeSection 2.3).

In VET provision, career management skillsare usually an integral part of curricula (Cyprus,Denmark, the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Malta,Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and the UK) andeither subject-based (as in Austria, France, Malta,Turkey), cross-curricular (the Czech Republic,Estonia), or both (Finland, Sweden). In Finland’sVET, they support learning to learn skills andtranslate into credit points. In some cases, (suchas Bulgaria, Estonia and Lithuania) careermanagement and entrepreneurship skills arecombined in one subject area, as career planningmay include becoming an entrepreneur and this,in turn, includes career planning. Both requireautonomy and sense of initiative.

Sweden has integrated career managementskills in adult education/training, within guidanceto support accreditation of prior learning. InPortuguese companies that undergo restruct -uring, guidance staff help workers improve careermanagement skills based on competence-assessment. Increasingly, they are also includedin apprenticeship support services (as in Belgiumand Germany).

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(43) According to the ELGPN toolkit (ELGPN, 2012), careermanagement skills refer to a range of competences whichprovide structured ways for individuals and groups to gather,analyse, synthesise and organise self, educational andoccupational information, as well as the skills to make andimplement decisions and transitions.

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3.4.4. Increasing guidance qualityEven before 2010, ELGPN initiated discussionson evidence-based guidance policy and systemdevelopment to make guidance more effectiveand efficient. By 2010 (44) work on quality

assurance in guidance comprised a variety ofinitiatives: quantitative approaches; quality

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(44) This information was based on Cedefop’s guidance policyreview (Cedefop, 2011a).

Box 28. Towards better guidance: country highlights

Source: ELGPN, 2013, ReferNet and ETF.

(a) Danish youth guidance centres reach out to dropoutsand have to assess their skills to identify suitableeducation and training. A youth data base system (oneducation/employment status) helps devise targetedmeasures. Similar to the model used for accountmanagers in banks, counsellors monitor and manage agroup of learners, assessing risk and intervening whenneeded.

(b) In Greece, web services have been developed whichinclude: a forum for guidance staff; a new adult careerdevelopment portal and a database on learning andtraining opportunities, as well as an interactive guidanceportal for youth.

(c) Latvia is planning to adopt a lifelong guidance system in2014, following postponement due to the economiccrisis. VET schools that aim to obtain the status ofcompetence centre must prove career education.

(d) Career guidance in VET is available in Lithuania. VETinstitutions have employed career coordinators and areto offer adult guidance services. A quality monitoringsystem for guidance in (VET) schools has been adopted.Standards and methods for the guidance of unemployedadults and the occupational profile for guidance staffhave been approved. A portal accessible to people withspecial needs has been developed. A national frameworkfor career management skills exists.

(e) Guidance for young learners and adults is included insectoral plans agreed between the Dutch governmentand social partners and cofinanced by the state. Theamended VET law puts emphasis on guidance andforesees a careers education framework for (VET)schools. An assessment tool for quality in careerseducation, partly inspired by the ELGPN framework(balanced score card type of tool), is being piloted.

(f) The VET strategy (2013-20) of the former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia addresses guidance in a LLLperspective and foresees career guidance at all levels ofeducation. Many VET schools have set up centres whichare gradually developing into a network. The EducationMinistry regulates the certification of career advisors,whose training is being developed. Private employment

agencies help young people prepare for recruitmentinterviews.

(g) In Montenegro, career orientation is to become part ofschool curricula. Centres for career information andcounselling set up by employment services are alsoopen to learners. Additional training for school staff andadvisors is foreseen.

(h) A reference document aims to improve guidanceprovision in Portugal. Centres for qualification andvocational education have been set up jointly by thedifferent ministries. They build on the previous newopportunities centres and are to bridge the worlds ofeducation, training and employment. Their tasks includeguidance, validation and certification of skills acquiredin informal and non-formal learning. A guide for usingLLL standards is available to the centres. An e-guidanceportal supports their work. Most qualifications includecareer management skills in their training standards/modules.

(i) In Slovakia, a national forum for guidance policy is in theplanning stage. The development of a CVET qualificationssystem is to be supported by guidance and counselling.Work on further education and counselling for adults(ESF project) aims to help improve access to and qualityof guidance to increase participation in CVET/LLL.Counselling centres have been set up.

(j) Schools and colleges in the UK (England) have to givetheir learners access to independent and impartial careerinformation, advice and guidance. ICT is seen as aneffective means to provide equal access to guidance. Anational career service for youth and adults is in place(phone, online and face-to-face). The e-guidance portaloffers online career management skills training.Measures tend to focus on easing transition of youngpeople into further education/apprenticeship or intowork. A new enterprise loan scheme for training andmentoring of young people has been piloted. The qualityframework for guidance was revised, leading toaccreditation against standards. There are initiatives tostrengthen the UK careers profession (national registerof career practitioners).

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assurance frameworks, self-evaluation; externalevaluation; support to practitioners; someresearch and longitudinal analyses on quality andimpact of guidance services. In the period 2011-12, countries took these approaches forward.

Later developments include new guidelinesfor guidance and counselling which emphasisecareer management skills in Sweden and a newquality development framework and standards inGermany. A blueprint career management skillsframework that will eventually underlie all careerseducation and guidance under its responsibility isin use at the Portuguese Ministry of Education.Luxembourg has also worked to improve itscareer management skills framework. The Czechgovernment has reconsidered reorganising theemployment services of 2010-12 by outsourcingguidance and counselling to become more cost-effective. Resources of the Irish employmentservice have been increased by redeploying stafffrom other government departments.

As demand for high-quality services isincreasing, and counsellors’ roles are becomingmore complex, their competences are receivingmore attention. Even before 2010, severalcountries focused on qualifications, standards forand certification of guidance staff working inemployment services, and teachers acting ascounsellors. Work since 2010 in Finland,Hungary, Norway, Romania, the UK and thecandidate countries, confirms this trend. Hungaryhas developed a national competence matrix forguidance practitioners. The Netherlands, Norwayand Sweden have been working on introducingmasters for guidance counsellors in the past fewyears. In Lithuania, Malta and Slovenia, forinstance, ESF initiatives have supported trainingfor guidance staff and/or career guidanceteachers. This has recently also been the case inSlovakia.

3.5. ECVETEducation and training needs to encourage andsupport lifelong and life wide learning as rapidchanges challenge the traditional ʻjob for lifemodelʼ. People should also get the chance tobenefit from education or training offers, work-experience and job opportunities abroad. Thisrequires flexible, individualised learning paths

where people can ‘take learning along’.The European Commission, countries and

the European social partners agreed in theCopenhagen declaration (Council of the EU andEuropean Commission, 2002) to work on asystem that would make it possible to transferlearning in VET. Following cooperation at expertlevel, Member States were recommended in2009 to promote an ECVET and to apply itgradually to VET qualifications at all EQF levelsfrom 2012 onwards (European Parliament andCouncil of the EU, 2009a) (45). In the Brugescommuniqué, countries agreed to follow therecommendation and test ECVET for mobility.

3.5.1. Objectives of ECVETECVET aims to:(a) help transfer and recognise learning that has

taken place during a stay abroad (see alsoSection 3.6);

(b) support LLL by allowing people to transferand accumulate knowledge and skills fromdifferent contexts within their country to buildup recognised qualifications, update orupgrade them.This section will focus on the second

objective, credit transfer within a country.One of the prerequisites is that qualifications

are described in terms of learning outcomes. Therecommendation distinguishes between thecomponents of VET qualifications or units oflearning outcomes and the components of aformal programme, commonly known asmodules. However, the two terms are often usedinterchangeably and units may translate into‘credits’. Combined, they help acquire a full orpartial qualification. They also help understandwhich learning outcomes different VETqualifications have in common.

Assessing and validating a person’s non-formal or informal learning against single units of

PART I – CHAPTER 3Accessible and open VET: lifelong learning and mobility 63

(45) This section in based on Cedefop’s 2013 ECVET monitoringreport (Cedefop, 2014i) and the respective briefing note(Cedefop, 2013b). The monitoring exercise covered38 countries/regions (EU-28 plus Iceland, the former Republicof Macedonia, Liechtenstein, Montenegro, Norway, Serbia(since 2002-03), Switzerland, Turkey. Belgium is counted asthree countries (Dg, Fl, Fr), but the UK only as one contraryto other chapters. In this case, 2009 formed the baseline, thedata were collected in the period March-September 2013).ETF provided additional information on the candidatecountries under their remit.

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formal learning outcomes, may improve thechance to access a formal education and trainingprogramme, lead to exemption from some of itsparts, or to partial certification. Non-formal andinformal learning may also be validated ascredits. However, the role of ECVET in supportingVNFIL needs to be made more explicit. (For moreinformation on validation see Section 3.3).

3.5.2. ECVET readinessCedefop’s 2013 monitoring (Cedefop, 2014i, p.20) confirmed that units or modules arewidespread in CVET but they are also used inIVET. By 2009, 19 countries/regions already hadmodules or units in place in IVET: Belgium (Dg),Croatia, Estonia, Finland, France, Hungary,Iceland, Ireland (VET qualifications under thecommon awards system, excludingapprenticeship), Luxembourg, the Netherlands,Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia,Spain, Sweden, Turkey and the UK.

The other 19 do not make use of units and/ormodules in IVET. Of these, in 2013 six were eithergradually introducing units or modules or pilotingthem: Belgium (Fr), Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania,Malta and Montenegro were piloting or starting tointroduce units or modules in 2013.

In most of the countries that have units ormodules, IVET is mainly school-based, whileseveral without modules or units have strongapprenticeship strands (Austria  (46), Denmark,Germany (47), Liechtenstein, Norway andSwitzerland) (48).

As Box 29 shows, in countries withunits/modules, VET tends to be flexible andtransfer is generally possible. However, this doesnot necessarily guarantee that qualifications canbe acquired by accumulating them. In mostcountries, awarding a qualification is based on afinal exam. Iceland and Slovenia, for instance,

which have units/modules and credit transfersystems, do not support accumulation. Incountries without units or modules, transferopportunities within their education and trainingsystem vary.

Box 29. Taking learning outcomes along andbuilding qualifications at nationallevel: country highlights

In countries with modules or units:(a) taking learning along is possible through a credit

transfer system in Finland, Iceland, Ireland(excluding apprenticeship), Luxembourg,Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and the UK;

(b) accumulating units/modules that are assessedand certified separately is possible in Ireland,Spain, Luxembourg, Finland, Sweden, the UK,though Spain and Luxembourg do not use credits;

(c) award on final assessment (final exam) takesplace in Belgium (Dg), Estonia, France, Hungary,Iceland, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal,Romania, Slovenia; Iceland, Romania and Sloveniahave a credit transfer system.

In countries without modules or units:(a) transfer is possible, for example in the Czech

Republic, Denmark, Norway;(b) transfer is difficult or not possible, for instance in

Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Switzerland.

Source: Cedefop, 2014i.

Transfer is technically possible in most of thecountries. Among the major obstacles to learningtransfer, lack of procedures and no use of learningoutcomes are cited by only one fifth of therespondents to the 2013 ECVET monitoringsurvey. For the majority, the main barriers are theheterogeneous nature of VET and theapprenticeship structure and the holistic compe -tence it leads to. Assessment quality and lowdemand from learners are also frequently cited. Incountries that have strong apprenticeship strands,employers seem to show little interest in unitisedqualifications.

Further, funding arrangements for providersbased on learner completion of modules and/orunits are perceived as inhibitive. Providers thatmay be reluctant to support flexible pathways as

Stronger VET for better lives64

(46) In Austria, school-based VET and apprenticeship are bothstrong (in year 10 about half the VET learners are in mainlyschool-based programmes and the other half inapprenticeships); in apprenticeship, around 4% of theprogrammes have been modularised, but they do not followthe ECVET philosophy.

(47) DECVET (development of a credit system for VET inGermany) is a pilot initiative to test the principles for credittransfer for the purposes of permeability between thedifference VET subsystems in Germany (2007-10).

(48) In Ireland, which has a credit system with units and modules,the apprenticeship system is not modularised.

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an exemption from a unit or module will reducethe funding they receive (Cedefop, forthcoming b).

National views on the benefits of ECVET forincreasing progression opportunities within theirown education and training systems vary.Countries that already have credit transfersystems for VET tend not to attach particularvalue to ECVET for ‘internal purposes’; those withmore holistic structures (no units, modules) seethe benefits in applying ECVET. Future testingmay bring more countries from different startingpoints to acknowledge ECVET’s benefits.

Belgium (Fr) and Finland illustrate thispossibility. Belgium (Fr) has decided to develop acredit system for geographic mobility and LLL(based on a cooperation agreement between thethree governments). Some qualifications havebeen divided into units as a direct result of theECVET recommendation and have credit pointsattached. The system is tested through Europeanand national projects. Finland, which already hada credit system in place, used to see internationalmobility as the main added value of its ECVETapproach. Years of testing have shown thebenefits for its competence-based approach andrecognition of prior learning for mobility within thesystem.

Developing ECVET and NQF are linked, asthe focus on learning outcomes is at the core ofboth. Most countries have prioritised establishingNQFs and validation procedures, and have notyet committed themselves to putting ECVET inplace. Like Belgium (Fl) and Bulgaria, severalother countries considered having an NQF in

place as a prerequisite for ECVET. However,most countries with a formal commitment todevelop ECVET within their national educationand training systems say they will do it in parallelto NQF.

Although countries are becoming moreECVET-ready, this does not necessarily translateinto rapid progress towards implementation.ECVET is mainly seen as a toolbox and supportby national authorities is still mixed. Nearly halfthe respondents to the 2013 survey see ECVET’svalue mostly in its use for implementing thelearning outcomes approach. While ECVETreceives mixed support in the context of nationalVET reforms, its role in cross-country mobility iswidely acknowledged, despite concerns that itmay entail red tape and increased workload foreducation and training providers (see Section3.6.2).

3.5.3. From commitment to testing: buildingcapacity

According to Cedefop’s monitoring report(Cedefop, 2014i), ECVET is on hold in 17countries, eight are testing it and 13 have alreadyformalised a policy commitment to implement itas part of national VET reforms.

Necessity and value of a European pointsystem for VET are still debated. Credit pointstend to be valued in systems that already had acredit transfer system for VET before the ECVETrecommendation, as well as in most of those thatare developing one. Others, where transfer oflearning outcomes and recognition has worked so

PART I – CHAPTER 3Accessible and open VET: lifelong learning and mobility 65

Figure 13. State of play and progress towards STD11: ECVET implementation in line with therecommendation

Source: Based on Cedefop, 2014i.

on hold

testing

policy decision taken

Stages of development of ECVET (by 2013)

Implementation progress of ECVET in countries were policy decision is taken (by 2013)

gradual implementation started

testing on pilot qualifications

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Stages of developmentof ECVET (by 2013)

ECVET implementation(by 2013)

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

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far without credit points, are less convinced.National systems tend to allocate credit

points based on a combination of learning inputsand outcomes (as in Denmark, Slovenia, Finlandand the UK) and transnational mobility in VET isoften too short to be assigned points according tothe procedure indicated in the recommendation.Another challenge is the link to ECTS. In manycountries, VET qualifications at tertiary level areincluded in the qualifications framework-EHEAand use ECTS or credit systems that arecompatible. However, apart from the UK(Scotland, Wales), national VET credit systemsare usually not linked to ECTS.

Box 30. Moving on with ECVET

Most of those that keep ECVET on hold either havenational credit transfer systems in place – prior toECVET – or their IVET system has a strong apprentice -ship strand. The main reason seems to be the need toreorganise the qualification system and the concernthat the changes may result in heavier administrativeburdens on systems that seem to work well.

By 2013, gradual implementation had started insix countries (Belgium (Fr), Estonia, Hungary, Malta,Poland and Romania) while Finland was planning todo so in 2014. Latvia and Lithuania were still in thepiloting phase. Despite a formal policy commitment,no activity was reported for Greece, Croatia, Italy andSlovakia. Six countries (Bulgaria, France, Germany,Montenegro, Portugal and Turkey) were running testson formal VET qualifications. The Czech Republic andNorway were testing ECVET in the context of non-formal and informal learning, while Austria andSweden were considering such pilots.

In Romania, it was the recommendation thatinitiated the work on a credit system. The othercountries had developed their credit systems beforeor independently of the Council recommendation.While Finland has decided to align its credit system toECVET, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Slovenia, Spain,Sweden and the UK consider that their systems workwell and are in line with the ECVET philosophy.

Source: Cedefop, 2014i.

Real commitment to ECVET requirescooperation between all partners involved indefining qualifications, standards, programmes,

delivering education and training, and assessingand certifying learning outcomes. In most cases,education ministries are leading the work onECVET. As was already evident in the 2012interim Bruges review (Cedefop, 2012a), severalcountries had set up steering or working groupswith other relevant ministries, qualificationauthorities, other institutions with VETresponsibilities and social partners.

Countries have also taken the initiative to setup national contact points (from 15 in 2011 to 26in 2012 to 28 in 2014). In many cases, the contactpoints are located within the authoritiesresponsible for NQFs or EQAVET, which cansupport the efforts to create synergy between thetools at least at institutional level (see alsoSection 2.2 and Annex 2).

3.6. Internationalisation andmobility

Learning or work placements abroad may laterencourage people to take jobs or furthereducation and training opportunities in othercountries. Stays abroad signal their willingness toadapt to different environments and ways ofworking; this may improve their chances on thejob market. Experience and interculturalcompetences gathered abroad may help theminnovate, succeed in multinational environments,and engage in international cooperation.

The Bruges communiqué aims to enablemore VET learners to benefit from internationalcooperation and spend time abroad.

This deliverable is multidimensional, coveringquantitative, administrative and content issues.Mobility in VET also puts its quality to the test, anissue that the question of recognition and credittransfer illustrates (see Sections 3.5.2 and 3.6.2).Through their work on the EU tools and thecorresponding Bruges deliverables, countries aremaking learning outcomes more visible and easierto compare, paving the way for easier recognitionof the skills and qualifications people obtain indifferent countries. They also agreed to address(other) obstacles to mobility in VET, including lackof foreign language skills, depending on countries,sectors and programmes (see Section 2.3.2), andthe need to assist host and sending organisations.

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The overall aim of the different subdeliverables isto promote internationalisation strategies for IVETand CVET (49).

Europe’s flagship initiative Youth on the move(European Commission, 2010b), the Councilrecommendation on learning mobility (Council ofthe EU, 2011a) and the European benchmarksset the policy framework for mobility in alleducation and training sectors. For VET, at least6% of Europe’s 18 to 34 year-olds with an initialqualification should have spent a minimum twoweeks of VET-related study or work experienceabroad or less, if documented by Europass(Council of the EU, 2011b) (see Section 2.6).

The recommendation reiterated the need tosupport learning mobility for apprentices.Subsequently, Erasmus+ (European Parliamentand Council of the EU, 2013a) has set theframework for giving around 650  000  VETlearners the chance to spend some time abroad.The EU’s measures to tackle youthunemployment, which is particularly high inGreece, Spain, Croatia, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania,Portugal and Slovakia, also include initiatives thatoffer young people apprenticeships abroad. Bypromoting bilateral cooperation among countries

to reinforce and expand work-based learningwithin the framework of the European alliance forapprenticeships (Council of the EU, 2013b),which started in 2013, a further step has beenmade at EU level towards internationalising VET.

3.6.1. Strategic approaches tointernationalising VET

Denmark, the Netherlands and Norway alreadyhad internationalisation strategies for VET inplace by 2010 (Cedefop, 2010). Internationa -lisation was also part of VET development plansin Germany, Finland and Sweden and long-standing cooperation initiatives in France andAustria, for instance. Since then, more countrieshave integrated international dimensions in theirVET development plans, including Belgium (Fr,Dg), Bulgaria, Croatia, Estonia, the formerYugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Latvia,Lithuania, Poland, Slovenia and Spain. In Spainand Italy internationalisation is promoted as partof regional VET development while in Malta andthe UK this happens at provider level.

Where national strategies and policies exist,mobility initiatives are at their core with a focus onIVET and on outgoing mobility. Only Greece,Croatia, Lithuania and Slovenia refer to mobilityin CVET or for adults. Few countries, such asGermany, Lithuania and Finland, have specificnational targets to increase mobility. Whilestrategies to promote internationalisation and amobility culture seem to have developeddynamically, Cedefop’s 2013 ECVET monitoring(Cedefop, 2014i) provided a less optimistic

PART I – CHAPTER 3Accessible and open VET: lifelong learning and mobility 67

(49) Some of the aspects included in the Council recommendationon mobility (Council of the EU, 2011a), which covers the wholeeducation and training spectrum for young people, form partof other STDs, for instance STD4-key competences, STD8-EQF/NQF, STD11-ECVET. The information in this section onlyrelates to mobility policies and measures devised at nationallevel; regional, local, institutional or virtual mobility is outsidethe scope of this report.

Figure 14. State of play and progress towards STD12: internalisation and mobility in VET

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

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Campaigns, information and/or guidance on learning mobility opportunities

Use of EU tools and principles to support mobility

Strategies/regulations to promote internationalisationand a mobility culture in VET

Incentives/support for cross-border cooperation & transnational mobilityof VET institutions/enterprises/staff

Strategies to ensure quality of mobility

Reduce administrative and financial barriers to encourage transnational mobility

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

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picture. It concluded that more than two thirds ofthe countries surveyed did not considergeographic mobility a priority, correlating this tolacking mobility culture and limited financialresources (see also Section 3.6.3).

Bilateral and multilateral agreements such asNordplus for the Scandinavian and Balticcountries have existed for a long time. There arealso partnerships between regions and/ormunicipalities. Schemes may extend beyondEurope to include Canada, China, India or theUS. Institutional twinning and joint educationprojects and programmes also contribute tointernationalising VET.

Evidence available for Cedefop’s 2012review indicated that learners in VET schoolswere still the main beneficiaries. Nationallyreinforced work on work-based learning maydraw more attention to mobility in apprentice -ships. In decentralised education and trainingsystems, however, information and data on theseinitiatives are difficult to obtain. Analyses orsurveys, like those on internationalisation inFinnish adult education or on mobility inGermany, are scarce. The latter revealed thataround 7% of companies send apprenticesabroad, more than two thirds from SMEs.

Apart from Turkey, VET transnational mobilityin the candidate countries is still lacking a relevantlegal and administrative basis and appropriatefinancial resources. Where mobility initiativesexist, they are mainly based on bilateralagreements. Progressive participation ofcandidate countries in Erasmus+ is seen as themost relevant lever for developing transnationalmobility in VET.

3.6.2. Transferring and valuing learningoutcomes

Lack of recognition for qualifications is commonlyquoted as one of the main obstacles to mobility,though this is not confirmed by Cedefop’s 2013ECVET survey (Cedefop, 2014i) nor by a recentEurobarometer. Only around a quarter of therespondents think that their qualifications wouldnot be recognised abroad. Danish and Swedishrespondents seem most optimistic. Among thepeople with medium-level VET qualifications,more than 60% share this view. Around two thirdsof those who have already studied or workedabroad said such experiences would be

Stronger VET for better lives68

Box 31. Off to new horizons with VET:country highlights

(a) Promoting cross-border competences andqualifications is part of VET policies and strategiesin Belgium (Dg) (Euregio MaasRhein and regionSaarLorLux). There are agreements with Germanyon dual certification in apprenticeship and mastercraftsmen training.

(b) The Danish Education Ministry promotes workplacements abroad through campaigns andcompetitions. Trade committees and VET collegesare required to set up targets for learners’international competences. ECVET tools help tounderstand and recognise competences whenorganising VET study or work placements abroad.The long-standing ‘work placement abroad’ scheme(since 1992 which, since 2008, also operatesbeyond the EU and the EEA) includes recognition oflearning outcomes as part of the qualification thepeople acquire.

(c) Within the review of its apprenticeship system, theIrish training and employment authority hasconsidered placing apprentices abroad incooperation with governments of other MemberStates. In the context of setting up apprenticeships,Spain has concluded bilateral agreements withGermany, Portugal and the UK for work placementsabroad.

(d) To increase competitiveness, foreign companies(subsidiaries) in Slovakia cooperate with VET schoolsand support placements abroad, in particular withtheir ‘mother’ countries. Increasing mobility in VETis also part of the memorandum of understandingthat Slovakia signed with Germany at the end of2012 and which is expected to receive supportthrough the European alliance for apprenticeships.

(e) The German Ministry of Labour launched aprogramme for the period 2013-16 that offerstraining places to 18 to 35 year-olds from other EUMember States. The programme includes tuition inGerman, learning support, financial aid andassistance with social issues. An office forinternational cooperation in VET was set up in 2013to support the government through a platform forinformation exchange. The Portuguese employmentservice acts as partner in mobility projects. Itpromotes information sessions and interviews bycounsellors with young people (aged 18 to 35) whowant to take up VET offered in Germany which willlast up to three years and may cover variousoccupations.

Source: ReferNet.

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recognised in their own countries. Traineeshipsand internships were considered less likely to berecognised (just over half of the respondents)(European Commission, 2014a) (see alsoSection 3.5).

Legislative or regulatory frameworks inseveral countries allow recognition of mobilityexperiences (as in Germany, Lithuania,Luxembourg, Hungary, Austria, Portugal,Romania and the UK). In some cases this mainlyrelates to work-placements. There seems to be atrend towards making transfer of learningexperience acquired abroad possible, in particularwhere it is part of a VET programme (such asin Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Norway, Slovenia,Sweden) or based on bilateral agreements(Spain). This also applies to work placements thatare a prerequisite for completing a programme oraccessing higher level training (as in Bulgaria,Lithuania, Malta). Whether transfer is possible ornot, depends on the VET system structure, theduration of the stay, trust in the quality of thelearning and quality assurance regulations in thehome country. Learning experience from abroadtends to be included in the overall assessment ofthe respective units, modules or programmes(Cedefop, 2014i, see also Section 3.5.2).

Since the 2012 review, guidelines andtraining have become available to VET teachersand trainers as well as companies that intend touse or are testing ECVET (e.g. Belgium (Fr), theCzech Republic, Germany, Estonia, France, Italy,Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Finland). Thissupport is provided by ECVET experts (includingin Greece, Croatia, Italy, Hungary, Austria,Sweden). They help develop memoranda ofunderstanding for mobility partnerships andlearning agreements. The memoranda outline theresponsibilities of the partner institutions, thecooperation principles and the conditions forvalidating and recognising credits. Theagreements, which are based on EQAVET qualitycircles, define what participants will learn withinspecific mobility activities and how the (units of)learning outcomes can be transferred andrecognised at home.

Together with their partners abroad, VETproviders develop units of learning outcomes anddefine assessment criteria for cross-countrymobility. This helps overcome quality concernsand ensure that the home institution takes

account of the learning abroad to avoid repeatingwhat has already been learned and to include itin the assessment of the units/module orprogramme. Currently, ECVET does not fulfil itscredit transfer and accumulation function. Itspotential to transfer learning transnationally risksremaining limited in the near future. Obstaclesinclude national regulations that may not allowassessing and certifying units and/or modulesand the duration of VET mobility, which tends tobe shorter than a national unit/module.

3.6.3. Financing cross-border mobilityThe EU LLL programme, in particular Leonardoda Vinci, has been the main source of funding formost VET-related mobility initiatives. The 2012Bruges review found that higher shares of theLeonardo da Vinci funding were earmarked toencourage mobility among apprentices (e.g.  inNorway, Romania). Stays abroad have also beensupported by the EU structural funds (as inBelgium (Dg), the Czech Republic, Ireland, Italy,Latvia, Poland, Romania, the UK (NorthernIreland and Wales)) and Youth in action (Belgium,Italy, Malta, Slovakia and the UK). In the Nordicand Baltic countries financial aid for VET-relatedstays abroad is also available through theNordplus programme (e.g. Iceland, Lithuania,Norway, Sweden). Host country grants, supportthrough bilateral agreements and various fundsare also used.

Several countries have national, regional,local or sectoral funds. VET institutions also(co)finance mobility activities, for instance inFinland and Lithuania. Nevertheless, severalsources throughout the years suggest that limitedfinances are among the main mobility obstaclesin VET, for instance the Eurobarometer in 2011(European Commission, 2011b) and Cedefopevidence collected in 2013 (Cedefop, 2014i). Inthe Netherlands, budgetary constraints maymake private funding even more important in thefuture.

3.6.4. Encouraging and supporting mobilityinitiatives

Activities to promote mobility are usually alsoorganised within the framework of EUprogrammes and by the respective nationalagencies. Conventional ways of encouragingVET institutions, companies and learners to

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engage in cross-country mobility include targetedevents, information within education and trainingfairs, information about available support orsuccessful initiatives through different channels,national and EU web platforms and social media.Some countries also have incentives and supportmeasures suited to their particular situations andneeds. To ensure the quality of mobility, mostcountries rely on the criteria that apply withinLeonardo da Vinci and on learning agreements(see Section 3.6.2). Quality strategies that alsocover mobility taking place outside the LLLprogramme seem to be lacking.

Europass mobility, which helps record workplacements or stays in (VET) institutions abroad,is issued by most countries. Some, like Bulgariaand Austria, make it mandatory. In decentralisedsystems, like in the UK, its use is at the discretionof the VET institutions. So far, it is the mostfrequently cited EU tool used for mobility.Countries also referred to using the ECVET tools(see above) and the Erasmus+ quality charter.Some explicitly mentioned the reference to EQFlevels in qualifications databases and/or oncertificates and Europass documents (seeSection 3.2.2) while others pointed moregenerally to NQFs as a mobility tool.

Cedefop evidence suggests that the mainobstacle to mobility in VET is the diversity of VETsystems (Cedefop, 2014i). The strategy inBulgaria, the Czech Republic, Cyprus and theNetherlands to promote mobility through the useof the European tools could help reduce thischallenge and understand how learners canbenefit from the similarities and differences.

Some countries address the issue ofbureaucracy and limited human resources bylightening administration procedures andimproving support structures for institutions andenterprises. Others provide incentives for VETinstitutions, staff, specific target groups andenterprises. There is, however, no clear trendacross countries and most of the measures werelaunched or in place by 2012.

Box 32. Making more mobility possible:country highlights

(a) In Germany, mobility advisors at economicchambers (with ESF assistance) support workplacements for apprentices in SMEs abroad. VETschools have taken over administrative issues tomake procedures easier for companies. Spanishchambers of commerce support hostorganisations and/or companies.

(b) Accreditation of workplaces abroad has beenlegally required in the Netherlands since 2012.Centres of expertise, which are sectorallyorganised institutions, have been assigned thetask to run the process and assess the quality ofthe work placement abroad.

(c) Austrian companies have been able to get wagesubsidies for apprentices abroad through nationalfunds since 2011. Financial incentives are alsoavailable to enterprises in France. French teachersreceive financial support to participate in year-long mobility programmes while IVET teachersand trainers in Cyprus can get paid leave.Incentives for sending organisations are also inplace there. Incentives supporting VET providers,companies and local/regional authorities toparticipate in cross-border mobility are in place inRomania.

(d) Belgium (Fr), Germany, Ireland, Lithuania,Hungary, Romania, Slovenia and Slovakia areamong the countries that have given or are givingspecific support or priority to disadvantagedgroups.

(e) As poor language skills frequently hampermobility, Romania has devised incentives topromote language learning through cross-bordercooperation for teachers and learners. Aworkplace training regulation in the Basquevocational training plan 2011-13 includes a grantto improve language skills. The Netherlandsexpect the centralised English exams introducedin 2013 to help improve VET learners’ mobility.

Source: ReferNet.

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This chapter assesses the state of play in 2010and reviews progress that countries have madeduring 2010-14 in creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship in VET. It considers nationalpolicy actions and initiatives taken until early 2014that address STDs 13 to 15. The main findingsare:(a) in most countries, modernising VET by

stimulating creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship has been less prominent inshaping national policies than the otherBruges strategic objectives, as the policypriority profiles in the second part of thisreport show;

(b) partnerships for creativity and innovation aredeveloping, but the process is slow;

(c) setting up networks and partnershipsbetween providers and business to ensureeffective, innovative and quality-assuredtechnology in VET or introducing incentivesto establish them is not yet common practicein many countries;

(d) while entrepreneurship is increasinglybecoming an underlying principle in VET andVET business links are expanding, trainingfor VET teachers and trainers to help learnersacquire entrepreneurship skills and supportfor aspiring entrepreneurs could bestrengthened in several countries.

Box 33. STDs dealing with creativity,innovation and entrepreneurship

ET 2020 objective 4: enhancing creativity,innovation and entrepreneurship

Bruges communiqué strategic objectives (SO) 5SO5 Fostering innovation, creativity and

entrepreneurship, as well as the use of ICT(in both IVET and CVET).

STDsSTD13 Partnerships for creativity and innovation.STD14 Effective and innovative, quality-assured

use of technology by all VET providers.STD15 Entrepreneurship.

Source: Council of the EU and European Commission, 2010.

4.1. Creativity and innovationNational policies for innovation and competitive -ness related to education and training, along withinternational innovation monitors andscoreboards, have traditionally focused on highereducation (Dehmel and van Loo, 2014). Thepotential of VET at all levels as a crucial factorcontributing to innovation has been neglected.Apart from preparing learners for occupationswhere creativity is a must, VET can foster skillsto innovate and be creative and drive new ideasin business and industry. It also supportscompetitiveness through the development anddiffusion of new technologies, processes, andservices and ultimately impacts on growth andprosperity (Cedefop, 2012b) (see also Section2.3). Figure 15 presents an overview of trends innational policies and measures to help learnersdevelop their skills to be creative and innovate.

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4.1.1. Embedding innovation in VETEven before 2010, creativity and innovation,integral to entrepreneurial skills, was anunderlying principle in VET in half of the EU+countries and all candidate countries (see alsoSection 4.3). In the EU+ since then, eightcountries have adapted or improved their policiesand several have prepared or fully implementednew policies. Two candidate countriesimplemented new measures.

In contrast, innovation strategies includedVET only in eight EU+ countries and in onecandidate country before 2010. Since then, 10EU+ countries and two candidate countries haveintroduced innovation strategies that include VET,and several have done so after 2012. In Belgiumthis has resulted in integrating environmentalissues in VET and new VET programmes forgreen jobs in the building sector. Strategies forsmart specialisation (Cyprus, Slovakia) refer tothe potential of VET. The types/levels of VETincluded in strategies varies across countries.Romania’s research and innovation strategy, forexample, focuses on VET at tertiary level, whilethe Swedish innovation strategy sees VET at alllevels as a driving force for innovation.

4.1.2. Stimulating innovation throughpartnerships and clusters

Several EU+ countries have also introducedincentives to encourage innovation and creativitypartnerships or have started preparations to doso. Using EU funds, the Croatian VET and adulteducation agency supports partnerships betweenVET providers and other stakeholders toencourage innovation in VET. Cyprus introduceda scheme encouraging enterprises to implementinnovative ways of training staff. Cooperation withemployers is an important part of the nationalcompetition to promote quality and effectivenessin VET schools in Poland. Some measuresexplicitly target SMEs. In Bulgaria, ESF-fundedinnovation projects in SMEs include (higher) VETinstitutions.

Clusters (50) and knowledge exchangeplatforms for business, education and trainingand research involving VET providers are not yetcommon in both the EU+ and the candidatecountries. Several countries have plans toestablish clusters or have them only in particularsectors. Five EU+ countries have introducedknowledge exchange platforms since 2010.

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(50) Clusters can be defined as a group of firms, related economicactors, and institutions that are located near one another andhave reached a sufficient scale to develop specialisedexpertise, services, resources, suppliers and skills.http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/innovation/glossary/index_en.htm [accessed 10.9.2014].

Figure 15. State of play and progress towards STD13: partnerships for creativity and innovation

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

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Skills competition(s)

Creativity and innovation competitions open to VET learners and institutions

Creativity and innovation as an underlying principle in VET

Innovation strategy including VET

Guidelines encouraging partnerships for creativity and innovation in VET

Innovation or creativity clusters involving VET providers

Incentives for creativity and innovation partnerships including VET providers

Knowledge exchange platforms for creativity and innovationinvolving VET providers

Cooperation to develop learning methods in VET fosteringcreativity and innovation

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

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Several recent measures focus on improvingthe quality of teaching. Denmark introduced adigital platform to help VET teachers and trainersbring innovation in the classroom. France set upan observatory to share best practices inentrepreneurship education.

With a range of countries implementing newmeasures or adapting existing ones, there aresigns that the role of VET in innovation isincreasingly acknowledged. Innovation strategiesincluding VET, innovation or creativity clustersand corresponding incentives, or cooperation todevelop learning methods that foster creativityand innovation are becoming more popular, butthe process is slow. There is scope for moreaction in the coming years: around half thecountries have not yet (fully) implemented thesemeasures.

Box 34. Innovation partnerships andplatforms: country highlights

(a) Based on successful pilots, Italy adopted newlegislation to set up networks of different types ofupper secondary and higher education VETinstitutions and enterprises in the regions, tostimulate technical and scientific mindsets andpromote employability among young people.

(b) Financed by the Ministry of Education, localcommunities and companies, intercompanytraining centres act as knowledge exchangeplatforms in Slovenia and increase the capacity totrain students, workers and VET teachers.

(c) The German funding programme for innovativeSMEs, which supports cooperation networks, wasextended until end 2014; public-private scienceand industry partnerships for innovation thatinclude CVET can be subsidised.

(d) Together with the German association forinternational cooperation, the MontenegrinEducation Ministry and VET centre have organisedextensive innovative teaching methods training forVET teachers.

(e) Romania established a platform in 2013 linkingeducation with the business world to promoteinnovation by sharing knowledge and promotingpartnerships. As a result, 16 sectoral innovationclusters involving VET schools have been set-up.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

4.1.3. Competing to unleash potentialCreativity and innovation contests organised for,or open to, VET learners or institutions werealready quite common before 2010 and more arebeing introduced. More than half the EU+countries and all the candidate countries that hadcompetitions in place by 2010 have adapted,improved or changed them during 2010-14.

Box 35. Who is the most innovative: countryhighlights

(a) Examples of innovation contests launched since2010 are a national competition for innovativeteaching and teaching materials in the CzechRepublic, the ‘innovation in education’ competitionin Latvia and a new competition for VET providersto stimulate cooperation with innovative businessin the UK (Wales).

(b) In Hungary, there are different types ofcompetitions to demonstrate creativity andinnovation skills. National competitions organisedby ministries exempt successful participants fromexam modules or give them extra points towardshigher education entrance exams.

(c) Some candidate countries also organise creativityand innovation contests open to VET learners orinstitutions, such as the robot competition inTurkey and the young inventor/researchercompetitions in Montenegro.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

By stimulating new ideas to perform better,traditional skills competitions can also contributeto creativity and innovation. Recent changes inthe regulation, organisation, set-up or use of skillscompetitions illustrate national efforts to capitaliseon innovation potential. In the Netherlands, therewere discussions on setting up regional skillscompetitions while Sweden piloted VETcompetitions at school level. Norway aims toincrease the use of skill competitions as a learningmethod. Skills competitions in candidate countriesare becoming increasingly international, withTurkey hosting international skills competitionssince 2013 and Montenegro joining the EuroSkillsAssociation in 2014.

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Box 36. ‘Technology in VET’ strategies:country highlights

(a) Bulgaria’s new LLL strategy 2014-20 envisagesusing more modern technologies in VET and LLLsuch as e-textbooks, up-to-date equipment andICT.

(b) Amendments to the Latvian VET modernisationstrategy aim to update training infrastructure byincreasing funding from the ERDF formodernisation projects while rationalising thenumber of VET schools.

(c) The Turkish Ministry of Education strategic planfor 2010-14 includes strategies for the use oftechnology in VET.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

4.2. Using innovative technologyeffectively

Using innovative technology in VET servesmultiple purposes. It stimulates creativity andinnovation, supports the labour market relevanceof VET, and ensures its quality. Countries canimplement various policies and measures toensure that VET providers use effective,innovative and quality-assured technology.Figure 16 gives an overview of the situation in2010 and the developments since then.

Strategies to ensure that VET providers usestate-of-the-art technology were already commonbefore 2010, with two out of three EU+ countrieshaving them. Such strategies tend to be dynamic;since 2010, about half of the countries haverevised their strategies. With three countriesintroducing them since 2010, most strategicmeasures to ensure state of the art technology inthe candidate countries are recent. Severalcountries did not change or introduce an explicitstrategy, but their arrangements achieve thesame aims. Extensive communication betweensocial partners in VET councils and authoritieshelps uncover the need for changes in VETprogrammes in Norway. Slovenia combined VETschools into VET centres to ensure cost-effectiveuse of equipment.

4.2.1. Supporting VET teachersPolicies or measures to ensure that VET teacherscan use modern technology and learningmethods were in place in half of all EU+ countriesand three candidate countries by 2010. Severalcountries have worked to improve or adaptmeasures and some have implemented newinitiatives. The main VET providers in Maltaparticipate actively in mobility programmes thatenable staff to visit other training institutions toacquire new skills or to update them. As part ofthe ‘teacher agenda’, the Netherlands introduceda specialisation for VET teachers in 2013 andplans to expand learning opportunities in

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Figure 16. State of play and progress towards STD14: effective and innovative, quality-assureduse of technology by all VET providers

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

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Cooperation with business/industry to ensure relevance of technology used in VET

VET teachers/trainers trained to use modern technology and learning methods

Strategy to ensure state-of-the-art technology in VET

Networks/joint ventures between VET and/or enterprisesfor the use of technology

Incentives for VET provider networks to ensure cost-effective use of technology

Incentives for public-private partnerships for state-of-the-art technology in VET

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Number of EU+ countries

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in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

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enterprises for teachers. Belgium (Fl) has anaction plan for teacher in-service training aimedat implementing e-learning.

Nine EU+ countries have taken new actionsto support VET teachers to use moderntechnology and learning methods, but are not yetat the stage of full implementation. Greece useda new e-platform for adult learning to support VETtrainers in municipal LLL centres in usingtechnology in the classroom. In 2012/13, Swedencreated opportunities for VET teachers to takepart in workplace internships in the sector theyspecialise in. In Latvia, education developmentguidelines for 2014-20 highlight VET teachertraining in cooperation with employers. There istraining for pedagogic specialists to help BulgarianVET teachers use state-of-the-art technology.

Box 37. Networking to ease access totechnology: country highlights

(a) In Italy, a network of VET institutions and employersestablished in 2013 supports access to technologyand enables more flexible learning.

(b) To modernise VET curricula and support modernand up-to-date school-based practical training,Croatia implemented a grant scheme in 2013 thatsupports partnerships between VET providers andother stakeholders.

(c) As part of the Dutch technology pact (2013),enterprises will invest in joint study programmesor make available technical installations andlaboratories for VET.

(d) In the UK, bodies representing business take on thetask of ensuring that national occupationalstandards are kept up to date by updatingequipment and other educational resources.

(e) As part of the education reorganisation act (2013),France is reinforcing partnerships by creatingcampuses which involve VET, business andresearch institutions. These campuses are licensedfor four years, are created in industries with job-creation and innovation potential and help combineclass-based instruction with work-based learning.

(f) In the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,some VET institutions are able to offer theirstudents access to advanced technology andlaboratories on the basis of agreements with highereducation institutions.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

4.2.2. Involving enterprises and buildingnetworks

Cooperation with business and networks betweenVET providers and enterprises or for the use of(relevant) technology existed in the majority ofEU+ countries before 2010. In the candidatecountries, cooperation arrangements are morepopular than networks, with cooperation oftentaking the form of employers equipping schoolworkshops with state-of-the-art technology. Inmore than half of the EU+ countries withmeasures in place in 2010, cooperation has sincebeen reinforced either by adjusting existinginitiatives or by introducing new ones. Severalcountries without arrangements in place in 2012have prepared their introduction since then.

Not many countries have reported onincentives to encourage VET provider networksand public-private partnerships that could reducethe cost of modernising technology. Only a fewEU+ countries have introduced incentives since2010. In 2011, the German Ministry of Educationstarted funding research and developmentsprojects of public-private partnerships for a periodof up to 15 years. Slovakia’s largest carmanufacturer and a metallurgy company receiveda grant (2013) aimed to link better the world ofeducation, research and work; this focuses ontertiary education but also includes basic andsecondary education. A programme in the UK(Wales) that supports knowledge and technologytransfer projects and public-private partnerships ofbusiness with higher and further education wasamended to include non-technological projects in2013. In the candidate countries, the use ofincentives for cooperation also appears limited.The Turkish government has provided incentivesfor contributions to education from business. InMontenegro a law on public-private partnershipsis being prepared and tax incentives for employerscooperating with schools are under discussion.

4.3. Entrepreneurship‘Entrepreneurship and a sense of initiative’ is anindividual’s ability to turn ideas into action. Itincludes creativity, innovation and risk-taking, aswell as the ability to plan and manage projects toachieve objectives. An entrepreneurial mindset isone of the key competences that helps people

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succeed in different work and life contexts(European Parliament and Council of the EU,2006; European Commission, 2012a) (see alsoSections 2.3 and 2.5). Employees with a senseof initiative and responsibility, skills to work inteams and innovate also benefit enterprises.

Europe’s drive for entrepreneurial skills is asmuch about building an entrepreneurial workforceas generating new businesses. New companiescreate new jobs. While around half of the EU’syoung adults would like to set up their ownbusiness, many others think it is too complex andrisky, lack access to finance or feel they do nothave the necessary skills (EuropeanCommission, 2011b). Most young people andadults would prefer to work as employees(European Commission, 2012d).

Data from the 2013 global entrepreneurshipmonitor, which involved 23 EU Member States,provide more detailed insights. Compared to thesituation in the USA, Europe’s adults perceivefewer entrepreneurial opportunities (28.7% vs47.2% in the USA), fewer capabilities (42.3% vs52.4% in the USA) and higher levels of fear offailure in starting a business (39.8% vs 31.1% inthe USA). While entrepreneurial intentions aresimilar, compared to the USA, Europeancountries are less effective in new businesscreation. Europeans that start new businessesmore often do so out of necessity, while researchshows that new ventures started because ofidentified opportunities have a higher chance tosucceed in the medium to longer term. Buildingentrepreneurship skills and mindsets, Europeaneducation and training and in particular VET canhelp contribute to more opportunity-drivenentrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship skills come from practicalexperience in enterprises and other contexts,problem-based learning and involving expertsfrom businesses in VET provision. Education andtraining programmes in entrepreneurship have apositive impact on developing individuals’entrepreneurial qualities, raising awareness ofself-employment as a career option and creatinga positive attitude towards entrepreneurialactivity. A Eurobarometer in 2012 confirms thateducation and training helped half of therespondents develop an entrepreneurial attitude.While only 28% became interested in setting uptheir own business, more than 40% said they had

acquired the necessary skills to do so (EuropeanCommission, 2012d).

Box 38. Unleashing entrepreneurial spirit:country highlights

(a) In Belgium (Dg) the business development agencypromotes enterprise creation in schools.

(b) Within its VET curriculum reform, Estonia allocatesresources for guest teachers from enterprises.

(c) In the UK (England) industry representativesprovide special classes and volunteers share job-related experience in schools.

(d) Business is part of IVET course development inDenmark in a project to make the learningexperience more realistic and motivating forstudents.

(e) Finland has ESF-funded centres that offerentrepreneurship training in many regions.

(f) The 2013 entrepreneurial learning strategy in theformer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia focuseson creativity and innovation among learners,teachers and education institutions.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

Figure 17 gives an overview of whatcountries have done in national VET and relatedpolicies to support entrepreneurship since 2010.In most EU+ countries and in all the candidatecountries, entrepreneurship is an underlyingprinciple of VET. What this means in practicediffers across countries, as various definitions ofentrepreneurship are used. Recent initiatives thatreinforce entrepreneurship as a basic principle inVET include the introduction of compulsoryentrepreneurship and self-employment modulesin Spain and the inclusion of short-term trainingunits in Portugal’s qualifications catalogue. InSlovakia, new national curricula (2013) includeentrepreneurship as a learning domain, withlearning outcomes on entrepreneurship in schoolcurricula mandatory. In addition to Spain, severalother countries are introducing modules orsubject areas (Estonia, France, Norway, Poland,Portugal, Romania, Slovenia) to strengthenentrepreneurship in VET or are planning to do so(Ireland, Lithuania, the Netherlands). Thegovernment of the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia recently decided to reinforce

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entrepreneurship in secondary education,including VET (see also Section 2.3.3).

Many countries have measures in place thatbring the world of work closer to the classroom,so policies develop dynamically. While severalcountries have recently started to involveenterprises and experts from business in VET, 12countries with measures already in place by 2010adapted their existing schemes.

Despite its crucial role, almost half of the EU+countries do not support entrepreneurship withinguidance and counselling strategies or measures.With only three countries implementing newmeasures, recent progress has been limited. Inthe candidate countries, guidance forentrepreneurship is more common.

While training of VET teachers/trainers tohelp learners acquire entrepreneurship skillsoccurs in all candidate countries, it is an area withlimited progress in the EU+ countries. Among thecountries that did take action are Germany,Ireland, Norway, Portugal, Slovenia, Slovakia,where further training courses for teachersencourage the integration of entrepreneurship inthe classroom through e-training modules andbusiness games (see also Section 2.5).

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Figure 17. State of play and progress towards STD15: entrepreneurship

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

Box 39. Supporting aspiring entrepreneurs:country highlights

(a) Italy, within a state-regions agreement, promotedmeasures to combat unemployment by supportingguidance and counselling for entrepreneurship.

(b) Portugal’s public employment service alsoreinforced guidance services, helping theunemployed to become self-employed.

(c) France’s business creation agency implementedan action plan to coordinate better the provision ofinformation and support for entrepreneurs.

(d) Portugal created standards for entrepreneurshipand start-up training, which help teachers inpreparing VET learners.

(e) When Montenegro introduced entrepreneurship inmany VET curricula, it supported learners not onlyby training their teachers, but also by organisingassistance provided by local entrepreneurs actingas mentors or joint teachers.

(f) In Norway, new regulations are to emphasiseinnovation and entrepreneurship and there isagreement to include entrepreneurship in VETteacher training.

(g) E-modules are available for teachers in Germanyand Slovenia that familiarise them more withbusiness processes and promote theirentrepreneurial mindsets.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

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Learning methods in VET including simulated or real business experience

LLL or VET strategy which promotes entrepreneurship skills

Funding scheme specifically targeted towards entrepreneurship activities

Entrepreneurship as an underlying principle in VET

Involving enterprises and experts from business in VET

Guidance and counselling strategies supporting entrepreneurship

Training VET teachers/trainers to help learners acquire entrepreneurship skills

Entrepreneurship strategy including VET

Services that assist VET institutions in finding partners in the business world

Incentives to VET providers to promote entrepreneurship skills and attitudes

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4.3.1. Using strategies to promoteentrepreneurship

Developing the key competence ‘entrepreneur -ship’ and giving young people a chance to gatherentrepreneurial experience is among theobjectives of the European Commission’sentrepreneurship 2020 action plan, which focuseson new business and job creation (EuropeanCommission, 2013a). Entrepreneur shipstrategies that include VET at all levels were notthat common by 2010, but many EU+ countrieshave since worked on them.

In Belgium (Fl), the entrepreneurship ineducation action plan aims to set up minienterprises in compulsory education, whileBelgium (Fr) has a similar initiative within thesecond Marshall plan. The Lithuanianentrepreneurship 2020 action plan foreseesincorporating entrepreneurship and itsassessment into education and trainingprogrammes. Germany has had a nationalbusiness start-up strategy since 2010 anddedicated entrepreneurship initiative targetingyoung people, their teachers and heads ofschools. By 2010, all candidate countries hadincluded VET in their entrepreneurship strategiesand these have been developed in recent years.

While entrepreneurship strategies thatinclude VET are still to be developed in manyEU+ countries, 28 of them had LLL or VETentrepreneurship strategies in place in early2014. Some countries have recently taken action.In Bulgaria, the recently adopted LLL strategyconsiders entrepreneurship as a key competencefor all forms of learning and envisages wideropportunities for entrepreneurship training. InGreece, recent policy documents positionentrepreneurship as a major driver to improvepost-secondary and tertiary education, includingVET. Hungary is working on a new LLL strategy,which considers the development of entrepre -neurial skills as a priority in adult training andstate-supported in-company training.

4.3.2. Helping VET and business find eachother

Links between VET and business can beimportant factors in a country’s entrepreneurshipclimate but more than 10 EU+ countries and twocandidate countries have no dedicated servicesto help VET providers find partners in thebusiness world. Recent progress has beenlimited and several countries that have takensome action have not fully implemented theirmeasures. In Bulgaria, partnerships withenterprises can be established through adatabase that matches supply and demand forpractical training places. In France, technologicaltraining advisors with a business backgroundprovide voluntary support to school/enterprisepartnerships. Involving a broad range ofstakeholders, including the government andsocial partners, Turkey established anentrepreneurship council in 2010 to promoteentrepreneurship at all levels. Montenegro’semployer associations and the Chamber ofEconomy are increasingly supporting VETbusiness cooperation through their services.

Box 40. Funding and incentives for entrepre-neurship: country highlights

(a) In Denmark a foundation allocates funding toprojects developing entrepreneurship. Theprojects aim to develop new ways of cooperationbetween VET and enterprises to stimulateentrepreneurship mindsets among VET teachersand trainers.

(b) In Spain, training centres are competing forprojects in regional contests, and public grants fortraining consider entrepreneurship a priority area.

(c) Belgium (Fr) launched the small business act(2011), increased funding of vouchers givingaccess to language and entrepreneurship/management skills training, has support for thepartly self-employed to become fully self-employed, and has a fund for establishinginnovative enterprises (Brussels).

(d) In Slovakia, non-governmental organisations fundout-of-school activities to help developentrepreneurship skills and attitudes.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

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4.3.3. Using funding schemes or incentivesFunding schemes for entrepreneurship activitiesare present in most EU+ countries, but this is notthe case in the candidate countries. In severalEU+ countries, such as Greece, France, Croatiaand Luxembourg, grants to the unemployed helpthem to become self-employed. The onlycandidate country with some dedicated fundingfor entrepreneurship activities is Montenegro,which finances entrepreneurship training andpromotional activities. The number of countriesoffering incentives to VET providers to promoteentrepreneurship skills and attitudes is still low.Almost half the countries did not report onincentives or mentioned initiatives that have notyet been fully implemented, and the practiceappears non-existent in the candidate countries.

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This chapter assesses the state of play in 2010and reviews progress that countries have madeduring 2010-14 to make IVET and CVET moreinclusive and cohesive. It considers nationalpolicy actions and initiatives taken until early 2014that address STDs 16 to 19. The main findingsare:(a) countries have clearly prioritised reforms and

measures that make VET more inclusive, asthe policy priority profiles in the second partof this report show;

(b) reducing early leaving from education andtraining has been a top priority and manycountries have introduced new early-school-leaving measures or adapted existing onesduring recent years. There is a trend towardusing incentives for learners, enterprises andVET institutions;

(c) countries have also made substantialprogress in raising training participation of thelow-skilled and other at-risk groups, but thereis scope to do more to offer trainingopportunities for adults that meet theirlearning and practical needs;

(d) few countries have taken measures to usebetter the potential of ICT to help at-riskgroups learn;

(e) not monitoring at-risk groups in VET remainsan important obstacle to targeting VETprovision better to their learning needs.

Box 41. STDs dealing with inclusive IVETand CVET

ET 2020 objective 3: promoting equity, socialcohesion and active citizenship

Bruges communiqué strategicobjectives (SO) 6SO6 Realising inclusive IVET and CVET.STDsSTD16 Maximising the contribution of VET in

combating early leaving from education andtraining.

STD17 Raising participation of low-skilled and otherat-risk groups in education and training.

STD18 Using ICT to maximise access to training andto promote active learning.

STD19 Using existing monitoring systems to supportthe participation of at-risk groups in VET.

Source: Council of the EU and European Commission, 2010.

5.1. Early leaving from educationand training

Although early leaving from education andtraining decreased significantly from 17.6% in2000 to 11.9% in 2013, it remains an importantproblem in the EU. The target for early schoolleaving (expressed as share of population aged18 to 24 with, at most, lower secondary educationthat is not in further education or training) of 10%had not been reached by 2010, but countrieshave invested considerable energy in reducingearly leaving since then.

The role of VET is not limited to reducingdropout rates; it includes VET’s potential toattract, retain and reintegrate young people ineducation and training. Early leaving from VET isnot necessarily related to the quality of VET, butreflects on education systems which tend to direct

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those who are at greater risk of early leavingtowards VET. The way VET is organised, forinstance in terms of the structure of programmes,and labour market factors also impact on earlyleaving.

The Bruges communiqué (STD16) calls oncountries to maximise the contribution of VET incombating early leaving from education andtraining. This deliverable covers the Europeansurvey on languages in education and training,and not just VET, which means that possiblemeasures range from efforts to keep VETlearners from leaving education and training earlyto compensation measures for learners that havenot managed to complete general educationprogrammes.

Figure 18 shows that countries have takenactions on several fronts to tackle early leavingfrom education and training through VET.Countries adapted or expanded the measures

they had in place already before 2010,implemented a range of new measures, or aretaking steps to prepare their introduction. The factthat most existing measures to reduce or addressearly leaving have been adjusted in the 2010-14period illustrates that policy initiatives in this areadevelop dynamically to improve effectiveness orto respond to changing circumstances.

The majority of EU+ countries in 2014 havean LLL or VET strategy in place that supportsearly leavers. The others are preparing toimplement such a strategy. With many newmeasures introduced after 2010, reducing earlyleaving has also been a top priority in thecandidate countries. As part of their strategies,many countries (e.g. Austria, Belgium (Fr, Dg),the Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France,Germany, Iceland, Italy, Lithuania) haveincreased individual support for VET learners at

PART I – CHAPTER 5Inclusive VET: equity, social cohesion and active citizenship 81

Figure 18. State of play and progress towards STD16: maximising the contribution of VET incombating early leaving from education

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

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Work-based learning elements in school based IVET programmes

Apprenticeship or similar programmes

Guidance and mentoring for learners in IVET programmes

Incentives for enterprises to provide training or employment

LLL or VET strategy supporting early school leavers and those at risk

Modularised IVET programmes

Opportunity for those with migrant background to learnthe host country language

Opportunity to obtain missed qualifications in VET

Opportunity to acquire underdeveloped key competences in VET

Regulations easing access to VET

Psychological and social support to learners in IVET programmes

Routes outside regular VET for qualifications valued by E&T/labour market

Incentives for learners and their families to remain in VET

Training for VET teachers and/or trainersto support disadvantaged learners

Alternative routes within mainstream VET

Incentives for VET institutions to prevent drop outs

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

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risk of becoming early leavers. As well asimplementing a range of reforms, candidatecountries have also invested in large scaleawareness campaigns highlighting theimportance of completing education.

Strong links with the world of work cancontribute to motivating learners to stay ineducation and training. Apprenticeship or similarprogrammes and work-based learning elementsin school-based IVET exist in almost all countries.As shown in Chapter 2, the volume and scope ofwork-based learning varies from country tocountry and schemes have developeddynamically after 2010.

Since 2010, countries have taken a range ofnew preventive and remedial measures toaddress early leaving. Regulations easing accessto VET, incentives for enterprises to providetraining or employment, and guidance for learnersin IVET appear to be the most popular.

5.1.1. Making VET access and progressioneasier

A total of 11 EU+ countries without measures inplace in 2010 have made access to VET easierby adopting new regulations since then. The focushas been on increasing the training offer (Belgium(Fr), Iceland, the UK (Wales)), facilitating entry orprogression through bridge years/programmes(Belgium (Dg), Italy, Hungary, Sweden) andallowing entry through assessments or exams(Spain, Slovakia). In the EU+ countries,alternative routes within mainstream VET orroutes outside VET that lead to qualificationsvalued by education and training and the labourmarket have also expanded in recent years.Alternative VET routes are also in place in allcandidate countries.

Since 2010, there has been some movetowards modularising IVET programmes butcountries are at different stages and, in mostcases, implementation is not yet complete. InBulgaria, proposed amendments to the VET actpromote modularisation of IVET programmes.Latvia published official guidelines for modularVET in 2013 and started implementation.Luxembourg is developing modules as part of newcurricula following the 2008 VET reform. An ESFproject in Poland helps schools to implementmodular VET curricula, making available trainingfor experts, guides and manuals and an

information technology support system.Introducing modules in post-secondary VETprogrammes is being discussed in the formerYugoslav Republic of Macedonia, while they arealready being introduced in Montenegro andSerbia after pilots supported with EU funds.

Opportunities to obtain missed qualificationsor to acquire underdeveloped key competences,and options for migrants to learn languages, areavailable in most countries (see also Section2.3.4). Among recent measures are VETprogrammes helping students develop keycompetences that lead to a compulsory educationcertificate in Spain. In Iceland, six keycompetences are being integrated in the curriculaand teaching/study materials of upper secondaryschools. Malta offers part-time courses to helplearners obtain missed qualifications. Learners inSweden have these opportunities via newintroductory programmes that were introduced inupper secondary education. Examples of recentinitiatives promoting language learning are thelanguage programme for foreigners in Croatia(adopted in 2011) and a free-of-charge Greeklanguage training programme for migrants over15 in Cyprus. In Montenegro regions, where a

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Box 42. Early-school-leaving strategies:country highlights

(a) As part of the overall Dutch VET strategy, (pre-)VETschools are encouraged to develop and pilotshorter and more attractive technology andcraftsmanship routes to reduce early schoolleaving.

(b) Examples of new initiatives that reinforce orexpand existing strategies are the 2013 actionplan against early school leaving in Belgium (Fl)and the national strategy to prevent and reduceearly school leaving in Bulgaria.

(c) The new Spanish law to improve the quality ofeducation (2013) proposes several measures toreduce dropouts; within the education system 21,new basic VET diploma programmes have alreadybeen developed.

(d) The new LLL strategy (2014-20) being discussedin Cyprus includes actions that support earlyschool leavers and those at risk.

Source: ReferNet.

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large part of the population speaks Albanian,students can choose the language of instruction.

5.1.2. Giving financial incentivesIncentives to prevent early leaving targetedtowards learners and their families were alreadypresent in two out of three EU+ countries in 2010.Few EU+ countries have recently introduced newincentives or started preparing for theirimplementation. Incentives for learners and theirfamilies also exist in various forms in thecandidate countries.

In 2014 most countries have incentives forenterprises to provide training or employment,usually through schemes that incentiviseemployers to provide apprenticeship or othertypes of training (see also Chapter 2). There arealso incentives for enterprises to hire theunemployed. Belgium has a national subsidythat reduces wage cost and social securitycontributions. Similar financial incentives forhiring the unemployed exist in Finland, Ireland,Italy, Lithuania, Montenegro, the Netherlands,Portugal, Slovenia (for non-profit organisations),Spain, and the UK (Wales). Incentives to VETproviders are less common, but severalcountries have taken steps after 2012 tointroduce them.

5.1.3. Offering guidance and support andensuring their quality

More than 10 EU+ countries have implementednew guidance and mentoring measures since2010 to support better learners in IVETprogrammes (see also Section 3.4). In Belgium(Fl, Fr) support for young apprentices has beenstrengthened. Greece recently updated guidanceand mentoring and 30 career offices now offer arange of services to IVET students andgraduates. In Lithuania, after the development ofa career education services model in 2012, 55VET institutions employed career coordinators.Offering support to learners throughout the year,Luxembourg piloted involving mentors from thebusiness world on a voluntary basis. Severalcountries strengthened already existing guidancecapacity, for instance by defining the roles ofguidance and counsellors (e.g. Latvia, Poland,Portugal) or by stepping up training for guidancecounsellors and VET teachers (e.g. Austria,Norway, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden).

Box 43. Using incentives in the fight againstearly school leaving: countryhighlights

(a) Bulgaria is defining responsibilities and incentivesfor all stakeholders involved in early leaving in thecontext of its updated youth strategy 2014-20.

(b) Ireland has started paying providers of training forthe long-term unemployed in stages, implying thatproviders do not get fully paid for early leavers.

(c) In the UK (England) 10% of the value of trainingcan be paid to a provider if the learner enters workafter training.

(d) Iceland has increased funding to upper secondaryschools to provide guidance and monitor those atrisk of early leaving.

(e) The Netherlands has introduced extra funding forVET providers to keep at-risk learners in school.

(f) Denmark adopted new legislation that reducesunemployment benefits for young people tomotivate them to stay in education or training.

(g) The Spanish entrepreneurship and youthemployment strategy (2013-16) includes financialincentives for those without an initial qualificationto prevent early school leaving.

(h) Germany combines financial support with targetedopportunities to eliminate language and practicalskills deficits; also innovative paths towardseducation are funded and promoted with particularfocus on the diversity of young people at pre-working age to support SMEs.

(i) The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia andMontenegro offer free text books and supporttransportation and accommodation for out-of-region students. Scholarships and support forparents are available as well.

(j) In Serbia, VET schools offering qualifications forunpopular sectors (engineering, construction andagriculture) offer scholarships.

(k) Turkey has learning support schemes for familiesin need.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

In many countries, guidance is coupled withpsychological and social services. Among thecountries that recently strengthened learners’legal rights to these services are Estonia, Finland,Iceland and Poland. The Czech Republic andHungary are increasing support capacity at locallevel. With eight countries implementing new

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measures since 2010, training opportunities forVET teachers and trainers to enable them betterto support disadvantaged learners are expanding.VET teachers in Greece participated in trainingcourses to help them support Roma and Muslimminority students and other learners that faceintegration, cultural and learning challenges. InPoland, the 2012 regulation on teacher educationstandards includes working with special needslearners; corresponding in-service trainingoptions are available. Colleges in the UK(England) offer continuing professionaldevelopment for teachers to support at-riskgroups and disadvantaged learners. Candidatecountries also offer a range of guidance andmentoring services. Mentoring helps IVETstudents in the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia and Serbia prepare for exams andcompetitions. These countries also havementoring for Roma. Turkey offers guidance andcounselling in IVET to make learners aware oftheir capabilities and opportunities through anetwork of job and career counsellors.

5.2. Helping the low-skilled andother at-risk groups learn

Low-skilled people and other groups with lowparticipation in learning risk exclusion. Skillspolarisation occurs when people with few skillshave few learning opportunities while those withhigher skill levels have more chances to updateor expand their skills. With jobs becoming moreknowledge-intensive at all levels, insufficientlearning opportunities make groups that areengaged little in learning vulnerable to lowemployability and unemployment, and severelyrestricts opportunities for career advancement.

The adult education survey 2011 (Eurostat,2011) on job-related and employer-sponsoredtraining confirms earlier findings. Older workers,the unemployed, inactive and low-qualified adultsparticipate less in adult learning. The averageparticipation rates in the EU-28 countries areconsiderably lower for the inactive (15.4%) andunemployed (22.8%) compared to the employed(45.2%) adults  (51). In 2011, the EU-28 average

participation rate in job-related non-formaleducation was 15.2% for the low-qualified, 28.6%for the medium-qualified and 48.8% for the high-qualified (52). This means that the last groupparticipate roughly three times as much than thelow-qualified. These inequalities can have variouscauses (Cedefop, 2011c): for example, when itcomes to training, employers tend to focus onyounger employees and on those that are alreadyhighly qualified, often due to expectations of higherreturns on investment in training (Cedefop, 2011c).

Figure 19 shows that most measures towiden the possibilities for skill developmentamong the low-skilled and other at-risk groupsthat countries had in place by 2010 have beenadjusted since then.

Box 44. Opening doors for less fortunatelearners: country highlights

(a) Estonia’s new VET standard (2013) enablesrecognition of prior learning at entry and allowsaccess to upper secondary VET for those over 22years without completed lower secondaryeducation if they have the right competences.

(b) Targeting those at risk of early leaving and youngpeople from disadvantaged social backgrounds, in2014-15 Romania is planning to ease access tosecondary VET by making entry possible aftergraduating from the eighth grade, one year earlierthan was previously the case.

(c) Belgium (Dg) established new classes for foreignnewcomers and a service to integrate disabledadults into training.

(d) Austria supports transition to VET for disadvantagedyoung people under 24 in one of its regions throughsocial and cultural skills training.

(e) Students without completed lower secondaryeducation in the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia can enter VET on the condition that theywill complete the lower level in parallel; the low-skilled have second chance training options in lessdeveloped regions.

(f) Turkey launched a large scale project to help peoplewith disabilities, convicts, refugees and other at-riskgroups develop vocational skills for employment.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

Stronger VET for better lives84

(51) Eurostat, AES2 [trng_aes_103] [accessed 23.7.2014]. (52) Eurostat, AES2 [trng_aes_122] [accessed 5.6.2014].

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Progress since 2010 is pronounced inseveral key areas, but has slowed somewhat asmost measures were taken before 2012. Next tonew or changed incentives for enterprises toprovide training or employment, there is also aclear trend towards new regulations to easeaccess to VET. Providing a training opportunitiesfocus on key competences or missedqualifications for the low-skilled and other at-riskgroups is another area where progress is clearlyvisible.

Opportunities for migrants to learn the hostcountry language were already widespread in2010. Most EU+ countries without measures inplace by then have worked towards creating themsince. Bulgaria’s immigration and integrationstrategy creates the conditions for financinglanguage training while Croatia adopted alanguage programme for foreigners in 2011.There is a regulation in Poland that obliges localauthorities to provide free-of-charge language

classes. Education development guidelines indevelopment support adult teachers in languageinstruction in Latvia.

Some countries strengthened their trainingfor VET teachers and trainers to help them workbetter with adults and at-risk groups. In 2013,Spain introduced a formal training programmefocused on working with adults that is compulsoryfor trainers. Austria mandates gender anddiversity training for trainers that delivers trainingon behalf of the employment services. A 2011regulation on admission requirements, trainingorganisation and final exams sets a basicframework for adult trainer skills in Luxembourg.In the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,teachers were trained to help at-risk students takeonline external assessment tests. Despite someprogress, however, seven EU+ countries do nothave training for VET teachers/trainers to helpthem work with at-risk groups.

PART I – CHAPTER 5Inclusive VET: equity, social cohesion and active citizenship 85

Figure 19. State of play and progress towards STD17: raising participation of low-skilled andother at-risk groups in education and training

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

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Incentives for enterprises to provide training or employment

CVET or LLL strategies promoting the acquisition of key competences

Legal provisions or guidelines improving guidance and counselling for adults

Opportunity for those with migrant background to learnthe host country language

Opportunity to obtain missed qualifications in VET

Guidelines to ensure that CVET qualifications are valued by E&T/labour market

Opportunity to acquire underdeveloped key competences in VET

Regulations easing access to VET

Guidelines to ensure that labour market training is valued by E&T/labour market

Routes outside regular VET for qualifications valued by E&T/labour market

Strategies or guidelines enabling adult learners to accesshigher VET (EQF level 5+)

Guidelines helping learners to combine (C)VET with family obligations

Guidelines on time arrangements for VET that suit adult learners’ needs

Guidelines on easily accessible learning venues for VET

Training for VET teachers/trainers to work with adults including ‘at risk’ groups

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

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Box 45. Focusing on key competences to fillthe gaps: country highlights

(a) One of the initiatives for low- and unskilled peoplein Germany focuses on job-related literacy andbasic skills; another scheme providesopportunities to acquire underdeveloped keycompetences within pre-VET/transition measures.

(b) Key competence development for at-risk groupsfeatures prominently in the new Estonian LLLstrategy for 2014-20 while strategies underdevelopment in Croatia, Lithuania and Romania(2014) outline steps to improve including adults inLLL through key competence development.

(c) In France, the agency in charge of combattingilliteracy and social partners signed an agreementthat helps develop key competences of vulnerableemployees in the hotels and catering sector.

(d) Second chance evening schools in Malta combinethe development of literacy, languages andnumeracy with vocational skills in courses leadingto a formal qualification.

Source: ReferNet and ETF (see also Section 2.3).

Not all countries have measures in place tosupport learning, such as combining CVET withother family obligations, easily accessiblelearning venues and time arrangements that suitlearner needs. These measures could supportmore low-skilled and other at-risk groupsparticipating in learning. For other types ofmeasure, more work is needed to achieve realprogress. Many countries are preparing to (fully)implement strategies to enable adult learners toaccess higher VET, measures to ensure thatlabour market training will be valued by educationand training and the labour market, training forteachers/trainers, and regulations for guidance ofadults (see also Section 2.3).

5.3. Using ICT to support groupsat risk

Using ICT to increase access to training and topromote active learning among at-risk groups canbe a powerful way to support their participation inlearning and the labour market. Figure 20 showsthat many countries are preparing measures that

help use ICT to maximise access to training andpromote active learning. The number of countriesthat have fully implemented measures since 2010is lower, though, and for some options more than10 countries reported no such measures.

Box 46. Going digital to help more peoplelearn: country highlights

(a) Planned digital agendas for Swedish counties willconsider at-risk groups.

(b) Spain’s digital agenda plans to use e-learningspaces to promote internet accessibility. Theagenda and the action plan (2013) consider accessto training for disadvantaged groups.

(c) The Luxembourg internet for all programmetargets digital exclusion by increasing accesspossibilities and by offering internet training.

(d) Austria and Slovakia pay specific attention to theICT needs of older learners within their activeageing measures.

(e) In Denmark, a regional network of technicalschools created an ICT platform that helpspsychologists who deal with students at risk toshare good practices.

Source: ReferNet.

Some EU+ countries have an ICT strategy inplace that takes the needs of at-risk groups intoaccount, while others only intend to do so in thefuture. Some countries have ICT strategies thatdo not explicitly consider at-risk groups, butpromote digital inclusion for all, as is the case inItaly and Cyprus. A growing number of countriesaddress the inclusion of at-risk learners in theirVET or LLL strategies and progress has beensteady since 2010. Bulgaria, Estonia, Croatia,Malta and Romania have recent LLL strategiesthat consider at-risk groups. Most candidatecountries have strategic documents promotingICT for at-risk groups.

With nine EU+ countries implementing themsince 2010, significant progress has been madein developing VET platforms/portals tailored tothe needs of at-risk groups. In most cases, newinitiatives include websites that directly help at-risk groups learn (e.g. Belgium (Brussels),Ireland, Greece, Croatia, Lithuania,Luxembourg). In some cases, platforms help at-risk groups indirectly by supporting teachers and

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other staff dealing with them. Most candidatecountries are still at the stage of preparing thelaunch of VET platforms for at-risk groups.

Tools and methods to support at-risk groupsin learning have been newly developed in severalcountries, while others have adapted theinitiatives they already had in place by 2010.Estonia and Cyprus introduced new e-learningmaterials. France created a digital experienceand skills portfolio to aid guidance and returningto learning which also showcases training andcareer pathways. Through a 2011 projectproviding liquid-crystal display smart boards andtablet computers, Turkey improved access totechnology in schools.

More than half the EU+ countries have notyet implemented incentives to help at-risk groupscover ICT or internet costs. In this area, progresshas been limited, as most of the countries thattook action after 2010 did not move beyond thepreparation stage. Some countries have put inplace training for VET teachers/trainers to help at-risk learners use ICT, but half of the countrieseither do not yet have such training in place orare still at the preparation stage. Among countrieswithout initiatives in place in 2010, several havedeveloped content or modules for teachers (e.g.Bulgaria, Denmark, Spain, Hungary, the UK

(England)) while others have started to train theirteachers to work better with at-risk learners (e.g.Estonia, Croatia, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Slovenia,Slovakia). In Montenegro, ICT coordinators inVET schools assist teachers in applying ICT inthe classroom.

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Figure 20. State of play and progress towards STD18: using ICT to maximise access totraining and promote active learning

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

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Development of ICT-based learning tools/methodsto help 'at risk' groups learn

ICT strategy or 'digital agenda' considering 'at risk' groups

LLL or VET strategy which promotes using ICTfor 'at risk' groups

Training VET teachers and/or trainers to help'at risk' groups in using ICT

VET platforms or web portals tailoredto the needs of 'at risk' groups

Incentives helping 'at risk' groupsto cover the ICT and internet costs

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

Box 47. Helping learners get connected:country highlights

(a) In France, there are agreements between theMinistry of Education and regional authorities towiden ICT access.

(b) Projects in the countries of the UK promote the useand production of open educational resources.

(c) The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia iscurrently implementing the computer for eachstudent project, supports low income families tobuy a computer, and promotes free access to theinternet.

(d) Vulnerable groups in Montenegro benefit fromreduced prices for ICT equipment and pay less forinternet access.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

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5.4. Monitor groups at risk tosupport VET participation

Monitoring is an important tool to support VETparticipation for groups at risk. It not onlyidentifies which groups are lagging in terms ofparticipation, but can also give more insight onthe underlying causes for this, in terms of learningproblems or bottlenecks that groups at risk face.Measures to monitor at-risk groups have been putin place at a slower pace than most monitoringmeasures in general. Figure 21 shows that all ofthem have not been (fully) implemented in morethan half of the countries.

In 2014, several countries’ legislation alreadyrequires monitoring systems to consider at-riskgroups while others plan to adopt such legislation.Recent initiatives include the permanentmonitoring of truants, one of the measures of theBelgian (Fl) anti-truancy plan, and the set-up of aninterministerial data exchange system to preventearly leaving in France. Countries not takingmeasures are, in many cases, constrained byprivacy legislation. In more than half of thecountries, legislation that allows combining dataon learning, labour market entry and careers is notyet in place (see also Section 2.6).

Many of the benefits of monitoring at-riskgroups can only materialise when the outcomesof monitoring feed into VET provision. Less thanhalf of the EU+ countries base preventive orremedial VET responses for groups at risk onmonitoring data. With some countriesimplementing remedial VET responses for groupsat risk taking monitoring data into account since2010, progress is visible, but slow. Candidatecountries are exploring using monitoring systemsto support the participation of at-risk groups inVET. In Montenegro, for example, monitoringdirectly informs policy-making and drivesadjustments in VET and second chanceprogrammes and guidance schemes.

Stronger VET for better lives88

Box 48. Monitoring at-risk groups: countryhighlights

(a) In Denmark, the national council for VET monitorsgroups at risk in the VET system.

(b) A study formed the basis for a new programmeon workplace-oriented literacy and basic skillsoffered by the Ministry of Education and socialpartners in Germany.

(c) In the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,legislation on employment provides the legal basisto collect data on groups at risk.

(d) Turkey combines its e-school data system withthe population registry for information on schoolattendance and learning achievements of at-riskgroups.

(e) In the countries of the UK, monitoring data areused in various ways to inform trainingprogrammes in terms of funding (England) andprogression opportunities (Wales and Scotland)and could support NEET prevention in the future(Northern Ireland).

(f) In the Czech Republic, monitoring is not only usedto inform remedial VET, but also forms the basisfor support given by counsellors, teachers andpsychologists.

(g) Ireland developed a new profiling model thathelps target VET activation measures at thosegroups most at risk of long-term unemploymentby giving them priority access and higher levelsof support.

Source: ReferNet and ETF.

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PART I – CHAPTER 5Inclusive VET: equity, social cohesion and active citizenship 89

Figure 21. State of play and progress towards STD19: using existing monitoring systems tosupport participation of at-risk groups in VET

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet and ETF.

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Preventive VET responses for groups at risk,taking account of monitoring data

Remedial VET responses for groups at risk,taking account of monitoring data

Legislation allowing to combine data on learning,labour market entry and career

Laws or regulations to consider 'at risk' groupsin existing monitoring systems

Candidatecountries

Number of EU+ countries

in place by 2010 and adjusted sinceput in place since 2010 and adjusted sinceno action reported

in place by 2010 and not changedput in place since 2010preparing for implementation

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PART II

Working together to reach the 2020objectives

This part of the report presents a synthesised overview ofpolicy developments in VET in European countries in recentyears, with a focus on long-term strategic objectives asdefined in the Bruges communiqué. Chapter 6 provides anassessment of the impact of the Copenhagen/Bruges processat national level and indicates the priorities that countries havepursued in their VET policies. The chapter also reflects on therole of stakeholders in implementing reforms and presentsindications of progress towards the Bruges strategic objectivesby country, using policy priority profiles. These profiles are thebasis for a discussion on where countries stand with respectto the Bruges strategic objectives. Chapter 7 reviewsdevelopments in the candidate countries.

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6.1. IntroductionIn contrast to the analysis presented in Part 1 ofthis report, which looked in detail at the BrugesSTDs, this chapter looks at the impact of theBruges process in synthesised terms tosummarise the achievements between 2010 and2014 in the context of the Bruges strategicobjectives. The long-term objectives have beenaligned to Europe’s 2020 strategy and thestrategic framework for European cooperation ineducation and training (ET 2020) (see Box 49).

In most countries, the Bruges strategicobjectives are drivers of national policies for amore attractive, relevant, open, modern andinclusive VET. Sustainable and inclusive growthrequires continuous investment in people’s skillsand LLL: VET is an important part of thatinvestment. Today, about half of all jobs in Europerequire medium level qualifications, many ofwhich are acquired through VET (53). To have alabour-market-relevant qualification largelydefines the employability of the individual andcontributes to economic development andcompetitiveness. This is even more important inmany Member States as unemployment hassoared during the economic crisis and hasremained high since then. This concerns not onlythe young, but also adults and particularly thelow-skilled. Employability is not only a matter of arelevant initial qualification, but also requiresCVET during working life, which becomes themore important the fewer job opportunities exist.

The chapter attempts to discern the impactof the Copenhagen/Bruges process on VETpolicy at national level and examines VET policiesthat countries have pursued. It analyses the focusof the policy measures and reforms of the pastyears in terms of the strategic objectives.

The structure of the chapter follows the logicof the policy-making and implementation process.It starts by discussing how the Copenhagen/Bruges process on VET has influenced policy-making and national strategic priorities. Next, thechapter looks at VET policy implementation, byconsidering the focus of reforms, initiators,approaches used to achieve policy aims, and thecooperation of governments, social partners andother stakeholders, which is widely viewed asindispensable to successful VET. This is followedby a review of how the developments in recentyears contribute to achieving the Bruges strategicobjectives based on policy priority profiles thatvisualise the focus of policy measures. Usingthese profiles, countries have been grouped infour clusters. While their classification as‘continuous developers, early developers, recentimplementers and modest developers’ reflectstheir recent achievements towards the Brugespriorities, such a clustering is a rough indicationof where countries stand. The final sectionreflects on main achievements and challenges inimplementing VET policies.

The analysis uses the same sources as usedin Part 1 but complements these with informationcollected in interviews and focus groups with themain stakeholders of the Copenhagen/Brugesprocess, i.e. the DGVTs and the ACVT. Theanalysis is informed by statistics and the workCedefop has done in regard to the Europeantools and principles as well as studies on otherissues.

CHAPTER 6

On track towards 2020: a synthesis

(53) See www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/about-cedefop/projects/forecasting-skill-demand-and-supply/skills-forecasts.aspx[accessed 28.11.2014].

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Box 49. ET 2020 objectives and Brugesstrategic objectives

ET 2020 objective 1: making LLL and mobility a reality

Bruges communiqué strategic objectives (SO) 3 and 4SO3 Enabling flexible access to training and

qualifications.SO4 Developing a strategic approach to the

internationalisation of IVET and CVET andpromoting international mobility.

ET 2020 objective 2 as adapted for the Brugescommuniqué: improving the quality and efficiency of VET andenhancing its attractiveness and relevance (a)

Bruges communiqué strategic objectives (SO) 1 and 2SO1 Making I-VET an attractive learning option.SO2 Fostering the excellence, quality and

relevance of both IVET and CVET.

ET 2020 objective 3: promoting equity, social cohesion and activecitizenship

Bruges communiqué strategic objectives (SO) 6SO6 Realising inclusive IVET and CVET.

ET 2020 objective 4:enhancing creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship

Bruges communiqué strategic objectives (SO) 5SO5 Fostering innovation, creativity and

entrepreneurship, as well as the use of ICT(in both IVET and CVET).

(a) Original wording in ET 2020 (Council of the EU, 2009): ‘improvingthe quality and efficiency of education and training’.

Source: Council of the EU; European Commission, 2010.

6.2. Impact of Copenhagen/Bruges on VET policy atnational level (54)

DGVT agree that the Copenhagen process andBruges communiqué have had a real impact onnational VET reforms (see Figure 22). However,the type and magnitude of impact differs bycountry and is influenced by countries’ differentstarting points. The objectives and STDs of theBruges communiqué reflected issues that somecountries had already been working on for a longtime; for other countries, these issues were new.

Figure 22. Impact of the Copenhagen/Bruges process on national VETpolicy and strategy (number ofcountries)

Source: Cedefop interviews with DGVT, 2013-14.

The fact that the process drove or inspiredcomprehensive or partial reforms of VET systemsor VET policy measures in more than two thirds(22 of 30) of countries is a significant impact.

In seven countries, European cooperationdrove national reforms, meaning that all Brugespriorities became issues on national policyagendas. This group of countries comprisesnewer Member States and countries fromsouthern Europe.

Stronger VET for better lives92

(54) This section is based on the outcomes of Cedefop’s interviewswith the DGVTs.

Limited impact

715

62

Impact mainlythrough EU tools

Inspiring reforms Driving reforms

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In six of the remaining eight countries theimpact focused on (national) implementation ofthe European tools and principles. Only twocountries reported a limited impact overall. All ofthe eight countries with lesser impact are MemberStates with well-established VET systems whichobviously saw no urgent need for extensivereforms.

Replies to the question of whether and howthe 22 Bruges STDs focused attention on keynational issues requiring reforms also indicatesubstantial policy impact (see Figure 23).

Despite the large number of STDs, 12countries considered all STDs relevant and fivecountries indicated that the STDs had someinfluence. Six countries understand the Brugesdeliverables as a ‘menu’ for policy-makers tochoose from, based on their country’s specificneeds. But even countries saying that STDs havehad limited influence consider them useful. Thesecountries, which are mostly Member States withwell-developed VET systems, acknowledge thatthe STDs stimulated discussion, experienceexchange and cooperation between countriesand so encouraged policy learning.

Figure 23. Impact of STDs on key nationalissues requiring reforms (numberof countries)

Source: Cedefop interviews with DGVT, 2013-14.

6.3. From ideas to action:implementing VET policies

6.3.1. Where to go: focus of national VETpolicy developments and reforms

When asked about the main national strategicpolicy changes in VET since 2010, most (23)countries’ DGVTs emphasise systemicimprovements as overall priority (see Figure 24).This group includes countries with well-established VET systems as well as MemberStates where VET is not yet very well developed.

Box 50. Implementing STDs: how do theyinteract?

The STDs have been established as subobjectives and,thus, as means to achieve the strategic objectives ofthe Copenhagen process and the Brugescommuniqué. In consequence, they are interrelated.This is confirmed by a correlation analysis of themeasures countries have implemented since 2010 orare preparing to implement. Taking into account all theareas that countries have worked on, such an analysisindicates policies that complement each other. Suchlinks should not be over interpreted; correlations ofthis kind do not prove causal relationships.(a) There is a clear link between progress towards

developing entrepreneurship in VET (STD15), andensuring good cooperation between VET institutionsand enterprises (STD5b). This correlation is not asurprise as the development of entrepreneurshipeducation and the teaching of entrepreneurial skillsis highly supported by the business community andbenefits from the cooperation between VETproviders and companies.

(b) Countries that develop monitoring systems ontransitions from learning to work (STD6) areactively using them to support participation of at-risk groups in VET (STD19). Legislation andavailability of data that allow monitoring learningpaths and labour market outcomes are importantelements of such systems. Feedback on theemployability of VET graduates for VET institutions(STD5c) is linked to both development ofmonitoring systems and to their use to address theproblems of at-risk groups through VET.

(c) Efforts in combating early leaving from education(STD16) are linked to the development of basic

PART II – CHAPTER 6On track towards 2020: a synthesis 93

12

56

7

STDs focused on actionsalready taking place

The STDs were a menu to choose from

STDs had someinfluence on reforms

STDs focused reforms

f

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skills/key competences and career managementskills (STD4) and to measures acquainting youngpeople with VET in compulsory (general)education (STD2). To prevent early leaving,national core curricula often include skills thatallow young people to manage their careers froman early age. VET and work-experience ‘tasters’in compulsory education help them choose asuitable learning/career pathway which preventswrong choices and lowers the risk of early leavinglater on.

(d) Efforts to reduce early leaving from education andtraining (STD16) (work-based learning, youthguarantees) are also linked to measuresincreasing training participation of the low-skilledand other at-risk groups (STD17) andparticipation in CVET (STD7). Guidelines andstrategies for CVET and LLL are usuallycomplemented by policy measures specificallysupporting at-risk groups.

(e) Measures for VET attractiveness and excellence(campaigns, fairs) (STD1 and STD2) are linked tomeasures that help to develop key competences(STD4). This suggests that measures for VETattractiveness often go together with a strongfocus on key competences, to make VET a morenatural and modern choice for young people.

(f) Measures to ensure effective and innovative,quality-assured use of technology in VET (STD14)frequently go together with policies to encouragepartnerships for creativity and innovation (STD13).This often involves knowledge exchangeplatforms and the development of new learningmethods. There are also links between creatinginnovation and creativity partnerships andincreasing training participation of low-skilled andother at-risk groups (STD17) and strengtheningthe role of ICT in promoting active learning(STD18).

NB: Only significant moderate to strong correlations(r>0.5) are reported on. The correlations havebeen estimated on the basis of the number ofpolicy options countries have worked on undereach STD. When the same policy is part of severalSTDs, the correlations have been estimatedwithout the overlapping policy options.

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet.

Systemic improvements in most countriesentail a combination of legislative reform, reviewand adaptation of existing programmes orpathways and qualifications and introduction ofnew ones, strengthening work-based learning,curriculum reform, restructuring provision andincreasing stakeholder involvement. Improvingquality and strengthening quality assurance hasbeen a strategic priority for 15 countries, as waspromoting work-based learning andapprenticeship. Both areas have been a priorityin north and south European countries. More than10 countries prioritised VET attractiveness, labourmarket relevance or the development of NQFs.

Guidance and counselling, investing in VETteacher and trainer training, establishing VET athigher levels, matching labour market demandand key competences, have each been priorityareas for six to nine countries.

It may seem surprising that NQFdevelopment does not top the list even thoughNQFs are the most tangible outcomes of theCopenhagen process. However, DGVTs’emphasis on VET systems reform masks the factthat the work on EQF/NQFs has been triggeringmany systemic reforms, aiming at improvingsystem coherence, relevance and quality ofqualifications, developing new pathways andprogrammes or increasing accountability of ETinstitutions. What started as a process within VETto make qualifications easier to understand andcompare, has developed into a tool that doesmore than shedding better light on VETqualifications. Development of NQFs, including alllevels and types of qualifications, places VET inthe wider context of the overall education andtraining system and helps link programmes andqualifications across education sectors intolearning pathways visible to individuals; this aidsaccess, participation and progression ofindividuals. Implementation of NQFs based onlearning outcomes is still at an early stage, buttheir impact is becoming visible, as severalcountries are redesigning their qualifications,standards and curricula based on learningoutcomes. When linking qualifications to the EQF,countries like the Czech Republic, Estonia,Lithuania and Poland identified gaps in theirqualifications structure at EQF/NQF level 5.Subsequently, the Czech Republic and Estoniahave established a basis to develop initial

Stronger VET for better lives94

f

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education and training qualifications at this level,while Lithuania and Poland are still discussingthis option. A recent Cedefop study (Cedefop,2014f) points out that qualifications at this levelare diverse in function and purpose and developdynamically. As they develop specialistknowledge directly relevant for the labour market,EQF level 5 qualifications can serve as a bridgebetween education sectors and so contribute tomaking education and training systems moreflexible.

The value of different qualification types hasbeen discussed further in the development offrameworks that link qualifications of differenttypes and levels in a coherent and consistentway.

Developments illustrate a dynamic process,in many cases also a step by step approach,where the focus has been on NQF which thentriggered work on validation, quality assuranceand ECVET.

Attempts to include qualifications acquiredoutside formal education and training, as forinstance in Denmark, the Netherlands andSweden, shifts the attention to methodologicalquestions of how to assure the quality of VETqualifications and certification processes. Asqualification levels, qualifications and standardsare described in terms of expected learningoutcomes, quality assurance arrangements are

required to verify whether learners’ achievementsactually meet these.

Further, quality assurance indicators, asforeseen in the EQAVET recommendation, aim tohelp understand the relevance of the learningoutcomes, for entry into the labour market.

Outcome indicators, notably those ondestination, employability and occupation of VETlearners, as well as satisfaction of individuals andemployers with the acquired skills/competences,are, however, not often used. This coincides withthe Cedefop findings on countries’ attainment ofSTDs related to monitoring transition andemployability, which indicate comparatively littleprogress to date (see also Section 2.6).

For CVET, ‘effectiveness of mechanisms toidentify training needs in the labour market’ and‘effectiveness of schemes used to promote betteraccess to VET’ are among those that countriesuse the least.

Capitalising on the potential of EU tools andprinciples requires awareness of citizens andstakeholders but information from ReferNet sug-gests that strategies to communicate theimplementation and the value of these tools arestill missing in many countries. Most countries donot have comprehensive communication strate-gies. Exceptions are Denmark, Sweden and theUK (Scotland), that do comprehensively commu-nicate value and synergy of the different tools.

PART II – CHAPTER 6On track towards 2020: a synthesis 95

Figure 24. Focus of VET policy reform since 2010 (number of countries)

-

NB: Data refer to highlights, other initiatives were also mentioned.Source: Cedefop interviews with DGVT, 2013-14.

System reforms

Quality

Work-based learning and apprenticeship

Attractiveness

Labour market relevance

NQF development

Guidance and counselling

VET teachers and trainers

Higher VET

Matching labour market demand

Key competences

0 5 10 15 20 25

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Many countries also limit their communicationefforts to stakeholders closely involved ineducation and training and have made littleprogress in raising the awareness of end-users.

This is also visible in the results of the recentEurobarometer on the European area of skillsand qualifications (see Figure 27). Only a minority

of citizens know about the EQF, though there areconsiderable variations across countries. Morecitizens are aware of ways to document theirqualifications, but there are several countrieswhere most citizens are not aware of such tools(e.g. Belgium, Ireland, France, the UK). Despitelimited awareness of EU tools, many citizens

Stronger VET for better lives96

Figure 25. Use of EQAVET indicators in IVET

NB: BE (Fl) did not provide data on the use of indicators for IVET. Iceland did not participate in the survey.Source: Cedefop based on 2013 EQAVET survey (EQAVET, 2013).

Figure 26. Use of EQAVET indicators in CVET

NB: Belgium (Fl), Estonia, Spain, Norway and Slovenia did not provide data on the use of indicators for CVET. Iceland did notparticipate in the survey.

Source: Cedefop based on 2013 EQAVET Secretariat survey (EQAVET, 2013).

EE LV HU LT MT

NO SI CY

BE(F

R) DK SE SK AT FI LU BG CZ DE ES FR HR EL IE IT NL PL PT RO

UK(E

N)

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think positively about the recognition of theirqualifications internationally. In most countries,more than half of the respondents to theEurobarometer survey think that theirqualifications would be recognised in another EUcountry and that studies, work experience andtrainee- or internships would be recognised intheir own country. This is a surprising result asrecognition of qualifications across borders canbe difficult in practice.

Figure 27. Citizens responding positively (%)to statements on EU tools andtransferability of qualifications (%)

Source: European Commission, 2014a.

If the tools are to benefit end-users, theyneed to be aware how these tools can supportthem and what their added value is. This requiresmore attention to the target groups, effectivecommunication and guidance, as the consultationon a potential EASQ confirms (EuropeanCommission, 2014a).

Until now, European tools and principleshave predominantly been taken forward asseparate initiatives which are only partly linked.While this was necessary at the initial anddevelopmental stages, this ‘tool-by-tool’ approachhas now reached its limit. As recent Cedefopstudies (Cedefop, forthcoming c; forthcoming d;forthcoming e; forthcoming f; forthcoming g) pointout, a more comprehensive and long-termstrategy is needed. The tools should no longer beobjectives in themselves but focus on the needsof the end-users in education and training and thelabour market.

6.3.2. Who takes the lead?VET relevance requires strong connections to thelabour market and occupations, which can beestablished best if stakeholders are involved inVET and its development. To understand betterthe different roles of stakeholders in the processof adapting policies and measures, or introducingnew ones, the ReferNet questionnaires thatformed the basis for the progress analysis in Part1 of this report also included questions on whoinitiated policies at national level (55).

Figure 28 presents a synthesis of findingsarranged by policy aim. In most cases, nationalauthorities have taken the lead in reforms:national governments have been responsible forinitiating more than half of all policy measuresand initiatives since 2010. Social partner actionsaccounted for between 13% and 24% and havebeen most significant for the development ofwork-based learning/apprenticeship, promotingcreativity, innovation and entrepreneurship andraising the attractiveness of VET. Especially incountries with low social partner involvement,VET reforms and raising awareness of theirimportance would benefit from wider participationof social partners, which not only requires anopen attitude from national or regional authorities,or even legislative provisions, but also proactiveand competent inputs.

PART II – CHAPTER 6On track towards 2020: a synthesis 97

My qualifications would be recognised in other EU Member States

Studying in another EU Member state would be recognised within my country

Working in another EU Member state would be recognised within my country

Traineeships/internships in another EU Member state would be recognised within my country

I know about the EQF

I am aware of at least one European information point

I am aware of ways to document my skills and qualifications

80 100

MTSI

CY

SE

LT

HR

FI

AT

LU

IE

DKNL

HU CZ ES LVEL

EE

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PL

IT

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EU28

DE

RO

BGPT

FRUK

2060

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(55) The questionnaires did not systematically cover regionalinitiatives, which are important in countries where thecompetence for VET lies at regional level.

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6.3.3. The role of social partnersThe role of social partners is more important thananalysis of initiating policies and measuressuggests. Because of national specificities suchas the institutional context, the organisation of theeducation and training system, the industrialrelations context, and country-specific politicaland economic issues (Cedefop, 2010), there aresubstantial differences between countries.

Focus groups with national social partnerrepresentatives in the ACVT are the main sourceused to reflect on the role of social partners.These groups have discussed social partner rolesand responsibilities for measures and policies inthe specific context of countries and recenttrends (56). The following gives an impression ofthe arrangements and developments in thecountries in the focus groups.

In many countries, trade unions have anadvisory or consulting role (e.g. in the CzechRepublic, Estonia, Italy, Cyprus, Poland, the UK).In some, this is combined with joint responsibilityfor curricula and implementing measures. InGermany and Austria, for instance, they haveshared responsibility for quality of occupationalstandards and in Denmark and Latvia for skillsdevelopment.

Trade unions take responsibility for pro -

gramme content in Denmark and Lithuania andinfluence the design and implementation ofapprenticeship schemes in the Netherlands.Being involved from the planning until theimplementation phase, Lithuanian and Turkishsocial partners see themselves as full partners inthe VET reforms. In Finland, although the role oftrade unions is formally only advisory, theirknowledge and understanding of VET makesthem sometimes the de facto policy-makerstogether with the government.

Employer organisations and chambers playa major role in some countries. The Austrianfederation of industry initiated a platform todiscuss emerging skill needs and employerspropose VET policies and measures based onskills analysis. The Greek employer organisationhas launched studies to map future skill needs inthe most important economic sectors andsupported entrepreneurship and innovationprogrammes.

Swedish employers have developed materialsfor schools, with the aim of strengthening links withbusiness. Employers in Latvia contribute toplanning student enrolment. In other countries(such as the Czech Republic) the role ofemployers has remained limited to advising.

The role of social partners in VET policy andimplementation in the past four years has beenincreasing, especially in countries with a longtradition of social partner involvement ineducation and training. This trend towards

Stronger VET for better lives98

(56) As fewer than half the countries’ ACVT trade union andemployer representatives participated in the focus groups, thefollowing cannot be comprehensive.

Figure 28. Initiators of VET policies and measures by policy aim (%)

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet.

Monitoring VET outcomes

Reducing early leaving from education

Developing CVET

Developing key competences

Developing work-based learning and stakeholder cooperation

Promoting creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship

Promoting attractiveness

National authorities Regional Authorities Social partners-sectors Others

64% 11% 13% 13%

58% 13% 15% 14%

58% 15% 15% 12%

56% 12% 16% 15%

50% 13% 24% 12%

48% 12% 21% 18%

46% 16% 19% 19%

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increased participation in the development andimplementation of VET policies is welcomed bythe social partners themselves. In countrieswhere their role has remained mostlyconsultative, public authorities dominate theprocess and the possibilities for social partnerinvolvement remain limited.

6.3.4. Approaches to achieving policy aimsCountries have various approaches toimplementing policies and measures. Theinitiatives reported by ReferNet, according to thepolicy options defined by Cedefop, have beenclustered into four different categoriesrepresenting different approaches: legislate,finance, promote and other (57).

Adopting new laws, regulations or otherforms of legislation is most common for measuresto promote CVET and key competences.Regulating curriculum reforms or development ofstandards and laws establishing entitlements toCVET are often used. An example is theLuxembourg law establishing a right to 80 trainingdays during a career in the private sector.

Using financial incentives for learners,enterprises or VET institutions is most commonin measures to reduce early leaving. In many

cases these financial incentives stimulateenterprises to offer training or employment, helplearners at risk of leaving early to remain ineducation and training, or assist early leavers toaccess second chance options. Examples arescholarships for VET learners in Lithuania,encouraging them to remain in VET, and VETinstitutes in Cyprus offering free of charge trainingfor those who want to acquire or complete aqualification.

Financial incentives are also used inmeasures promoting creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship or work-based learning andcooperation. Examples are EU funds forinnovation partnerships between VET providersand other stakeholders in Croatia, and linkingfunding for VET providers to employmentoutcomes to encourage cooperation withemployment services in the UK (England).

Measures and policies that focus onpromoting VET (such as through awarenesscampaigns or skills competitions) are not verycommon, except for measures to supportattractiveness, which are, in some cases, part ofwork-based learning or CVET measures. Somecreativity, innovation and entrepreneurshippolicies and measures to support CVETparticipation have, however, also been supportedby promotional activities. Examples include localdevelopment agencies in Belgium (Dg) promotingentrepreneurship schools and the adult educationfestival in Montenegro.

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(57) The categories legislate, finance and promote represent thedominating approach that countries have used to implementpolicies or measures. Policies and measures without adominant approach were assigned to the ‘other’ category.

Figure 29. Approaches used to implement VET policies and measures by policy aim (%)

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet.

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6.4. Understanding progresstowards Bruges strategicobjectives

The policy measures that countries haveundertaken to pursue the STDs ultimately servethe Bruges’ strategic objectives. It is, however,difficult to quantify their impact. Not all measureshave the same level of systemic impact and theeffects of education and training policies andreforms take time to materialise.

Nevertheless, policy measures reflectcountries’ efforts to achieve the strategicobjectives and, thus, more relevant and inclusiveVET; this improves citizens’ chances to find andsustain employment and contributes to economicdevelopment.

To provide a synthesised overview, Cedefopuses policy priority profiles. They visualise thefocus of policy measures in terms of the ET 2020objectives:(a) attractiveness, relevance and efficiency;(b) LLL and mobility;(c) creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship;(d) equity, social cohesion and active citizenship.

The different colour shades indicate status ofimplementation: in place by 2010, implementedor planned. These profiles help to understandbetter progress towards the Bruges strategicobjectives.

Based on the patterns of the policy priorityprofiles, countries have been grouped in fourclusters. Such clusters are necessary to aidinterpretation and detect patterns ofdevelopment. However, they do not do justice tothe very specific situation of each individualcountry. In consequence, and even though thefollowing clusters represent groups of countrieswith similar policy dynamics, they do notrepresent homogeneous groups:(a) continuous developers: countries with many

measures already in place by 2010 andsignificant developments since then;

(b) early developers: countries with manymeasures already in place by 2010 and somedevelopments since then;

(c) recent implementers: countries with somemeasures already in place by 2010 andsignificant developments since then;

(d) modest developers: countries with slow

progress on at least one strategic objective.By reflecting on trends and patterns in VET

policy implementation, and by linking the findingsto several important socioeconomic character -istics, the analysis contributes to a betterunderstanding of recent developments.

6.4.1. Cluster 1: continuous developersCountries that can be considered continuousdevelopers are Austria, Belgium (Fr), Denmark,Germany, Spain, France, Latvia, Lithuania,Hungary, Malta, Slovenia, and the UK (England,Wales and Scotland). Although these countriesappear in the same cluster due to similar patternsof VET policy developments, there are significantdifferences between them, both in terms of theirVET systems and their socioeconomicperformance.

Countries with traditionally strong VETsystems with well-developed work-based learningsuch as Denmark, Germany and Austria have lowunemployment and youth unemployment, goodinnovation performance and an average or highparticipation in LLL and continuing vocationaltraining (58). The French-speaking community ofBelgium shows similar characteristics, althoughhere unemployment is higher and work-basedlearning is less developed.

France illustrates the heterogeneity of thiscluster as it combines tertiary VET provision withwell-developed systems for work-based learningin school-based VET and in apprenticeship andcontinuing vocational training.

In the countries of the UK (England, Walesand Scotland) unemployment is low and theshare of highly qualified employment is high. Sois participation in LLL and innovationperformance. While VET at upper secondary leveland work-based learning is less developed, thereis significant VET provision at tertiary(international standard classification of education(ISCED) 5B) level.

Latvia, Lithuania and Hungary, and alsoMalta, have a low share of VET participation atupper secondary level, modest participation inLLL and continuing vocational training, and low

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(58) Although these countries are traditionally considered to havestrong VET systems, they are different in terms of the sharesof learners in apprenticeship, the prevalence of school-basedVET and age groups in VET.

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innovation performance. These countries realisedearly that there is a need for VET reform and theyare in the process of dealing with theirchallenges.

This also is true for Spain, where many newinitiatives to strengthen VET have been taken inrecent years, also at regional level. In the follow-up to the economic crisis and depression, whichhas caused very high levels of unemployment,deep imbalances between labour market needsand qualifications have become apparent andrequired drastic and rapid reforms, especially oftheir VET systems.

This cluster combines countries which havebeen consistently, meaning before 2010 andafter, pursuing policies to improve and adapt theirVET systems. Most of the countries that startedout with well-developed systems (Denmark,Germany, Austria, the UK and Malta) have lowerthan average youth unemployment. Spain, Latvia,Lithuania and Hungary have been responding tonew challenges but started out on a weaker basisand have average to high youth unemployment.This also includes France, which has moderateyouth unemployment. The policy priority profilesare presented in Figure 30.

With many changes in policies and measuresalready in place, Austria has continued to developits VET system. New initiatives have mainlyfocused on equity, social cohesion and activecitizenship and in particular promoting LLL andmobility to address average participation in LLLand continuing vocational training. Its lower shareof tertiary graduates is a characteristic of theAustrian system; this is not perceived as aweakness (59).

Starting from a favourable position in 2010,Germany has been active in updating andadapting existing measures to sustain thestrengths of its VET system. Targeting all thelong-term objectives, the country has introduced

PART II – CHAPTER 6On track towards 2020: a synthesis 101

(59) Tertiary attainment is 27.3%, low in comparison to the EUaverage of 36.9% (ISCED 97 levels 5 and 6). It has to benoted, however, that Austria has traditionally obtained a largepart of its higher-skilled labour force from VET colleges thatgrant ISCED 4a/EQF level 5 level qualifications. This is alsowhy the government included this qualification level in itsnational target (38%). Nevertheless, the government is awarethat more tertiary qualifications are necessary, and reachingthe target by 2020 would represent an improvement on thecurrent situation (see also European Commission, 2011c).

Box 51. Visualising VET reform in policypriority profiles

Indicating the strategic focus of national policy reformsand measures, policy priority profiles visualisedevelopments and progress towards the four ET 2020objectives. The profiles basically show actions atdifferent levels of implementation in pursuing theseobjectives. They are based on predefined policy options(developed by Cedefop) that also underlie the analysisin Part 1 of this report. Using the policy optionframework, countries’ actions towards achieving theSTDs have been grouped according to the four ET 2020objectives.

As many of the deliverables defined in the Brugescommuniqué overlap, particular policies can serveseveral objectives simultaneously, and are reflected assuch in multiple dimensions of the profile.

The profiles show four types of information.Different colours show the number of policies andmeasures a country:(a) had in place by 2010 that were not adjusted

afterwards (black);(b) had in place by 2010 that were adjusted since then

(dark blue);(c) has implemented since 2010 (blue);(d) is preparing to implement (light blue).

It is important to emphasise that while the profilesindicate progress, they are not strict measures ofimpact. Not all policy measures generate the same levelof systemic impact; the effect of reforms in educationand training takes time to become visible. But theyshow the emphasis of VET policies until early 2014,taking into account the (baseline) situation in 2010.

Source: Cedefop.

Creativity, innovation and entrepreneurshipp

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Attractiveness, relevance and efficiency

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active citizenship

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Stronger VET for better lives102

Figure 30. Policy priority profiles for countries in cluster 1: continuous developers, 2010-14

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet.

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many new measures to respond to the challengesof low LLL participation, plus an ageing labourforce a programme for continuous education andtraining.

Most of the recent actions in Denmark, acountry currently working on reform of its VETsystem, have been new measures. Examples arenew initiatives to strengthen creativity, innovationand entrepreneurship in VET and in support ofCVET and LLL. Some of the measures tostimulate VET attractiveness, relevance orefficiency remain to be implemented.

In the French-speaking community ofBelgium, all objectives have been targetedthrough new VET policies/measures or theadaptation of existing initiatives. Most of the newmeasures have been implemented, except for thepolicies that stimulate LLL and mobility, which arestill in preparation.

France has also implemented a range of newinitiatives to strengthen VET. Objectives for whicha range of measures was already in place in 2010(attractiveness, relevance and efficiency and LLLand mobility), have been reinforced throughcoherent policies and tools for LLL and anintegrated system of validation and recognition oflearning outcomes. Many new measures havehelped to support equity, social cohesion andactive citizenship and to strengthen creativity,innovation and entrepreneurship.

The countries of the UK (England, Scotlandand Wales) have been quite active in recentyears to strengthen VET by introducing measuresthat contribute to all the long-term objectives.There are slight differences between them.England and Scotland, which both had a goodstarting position in 2010, have changed some oftheir existing policies and introduced several newmeasures. In Wales, the focus has been onintroducing new policies and initiatives to worktowards the long-term objectives. Great effortshave been made particularly to introduce newapprenticeship schemes, which are not yetreflected in statistics on work-based learning.

Malta has taken action to address its lowinnovation performance and its high share of low-skilled employment, predominantly by adaptingmeasures already in place by 2010. Some newmeasures to increase VET attractiveness,relevance and efficiency and to support equity,social cohesion and active citizenship have been

implemented but most new initiatives after 2010remain to be fully implemented.

Facing high unemployment and youthunemployment, a high share of low employed anda significant rate of overqualification, Spain has,both before and after 2010, undertaken a rangeof efforts and reforms to strengthen its VETsystem. Supporting equity, social cohesion andactive citizenship, and strengthening creativity,innovation and entrepreneurship have beenpriorities. The country is also expandingopportunities for work-based learning andapprenticeship-type schemes. Although progresshas been made in supporting LLL and mobility,more work is needed, as several initiatives toengage more people in learning remain to be fullyimplemented.

For all four strategic objectives, Slovenia hascombined updating existing initiatives with theintroduction of new measures. Most of thecountry’s recent efforts have focused onstrengthening creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship in VET. Despite recentprogress, more work is still needed to make VETmore attractive and responsive to the needs ofthe labour market and to increase LLLparticipation. A range of initiatives started inrecent years to achieve this are not yet (fully)implemented.

Hungary has taken action to address lowparticipation in LLL and continuing vocationaltraining, but there is scope to expand the efforts.It will take some time before the process set inmotion by recent VET reforms will lead tostronger VET provision at upper secondary andtertiary level. For all strategic objectives, thecountry has focused on updating the measures italready had in place by 2010. While there aresigns of progress in addressing the long-termobjectives, tackling high youth unemploymentand low innovation performance will require moreaction and, given the present weak economicsituation, long-term commitments.

Low innovation performance is also an areaof concern for Latvia. Most recent VET policiestargeted towards creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship remain to be fully implemented.LLL and mobility have been on the agenda, aswell as equity, social cohesion and activecitizenship. Several new measures implementedafter 2010 address these long-term objectives.

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Figure 31. Policy priority profiles for countries in cluster 2: early developers, 2010-14

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet.

Lithuania has worked to increase LLL andmobility, but several initiatives are yet to be fullyimplemented; this is true to a lesser extent for theactions addressing the other long-term objectives.Fully implementing current reform should help tostrengthen VET provision at upper secondarylevel, reduce the rate of overqualification, andsupport innovation performance. Attempts toincrease apprenticeship and work-based learningmay play an important role in this context.

6.4.2. Cluster 2: early developersCountries belonging to this cluster are Belgium(Dg and Fl), the Czech Republic, Finland, theNetherlands, Norway, Sweden and the UK(Northern Ireland). The countries in this groupshare several characteristics. They have

comparatively low youth unemployment andoverall unemployment is also low. Participation inLLL is average to high and participation incontinuing vocational training is high. Most of thecountries in the cluster have high participation inVET at upper secondary level and a less frequentincidence of overqualification or low innovationperformance.

There seems to be no common or clearpattern for implementation of apprenticeship-typetraining, but it appears to be less common inBelgium, Sweden and the UK (Northern Ireland)than in the other countries in this group. However,the effects of new policies supportingapprenticeship-type training cannot beimmediately successful and may not yet bereflected in statistical data.

Stronger VET for better lives104

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As indicated by the name ‘early developers’,this group had reached a fairly mature state ofpolicy implementation in 2010, but fewer newpolicies have been put in place since then. Thegroup is fairly homogeneous. From a policy pointof view one general concern remains: continuousefforts in all areas are necessary in all thecountries to secure and sustain their well-developed VET systems. The policy priorityprofiles are presented in Figure 31.

Finland had a good starting position in 2010and has continued the work to make VET moreattractive, relevant and efficient. It supports equity,social cohesion and active citizenship, mostly byadapting measures that were already in place by2010. The country has high participation in LLLand continuing vocational training, lowunemployment, and relatively low youthunemployment. A limited number of new initiativeshave been implemented to strengthen LLL andmobility further. Building on several measuresalready in place, Finland has also stepped up itsefforts to encourage creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship in VET. Some new initiativeshave been implemented and several are beingprepared for (full) implementation.

Actions in Sweden in the past few years havefocused on adapting existing measures withsome new ones implemented. Further measuresfor all strategic objectives are being prepared forimplementation. To supplement a well-developedschool-based VET system, reform has beenundertaken to promote apprenticeship training.

Norway has introduced several newmeasures to increase LLL and mobility tostrengthen its already high participation incontinuous learning and training. For the otherstrategic objectives, the focus has been onpreparing new measures for futureimplementation and on adapting measuresalready in place by 2010.

Starting from a favourable situation in 2010,adjustments to existing measures have alsodominated recent VET policies in theNetherlands. For all strategic objectives, manyinitiatives have been updated or changed. Thenew measures taken mostly focused onpromoting LLL and mobility.

The German-speaking community of Belgiumhas adapted most of the measures it already hadin place by 2010. Since then, few new measures

have been implemented. The Flemish communityof Belgium has also adapted or changed a rangeof its initiatives already in place in 2010 andseveral new measures to support LLL andmobility have been implemented since. Severalother actions are under preparation but have notyet reached the status of implementation.

The UK (Northern Ireland) has taken actionto increase LLL and mobility and to encouragecreativity, innovation and entrepreneurship inVET. To work towards these strategic objectives,the country has combined adaptation of somepolicies and programmes with the introduction ofnew measures. Increasing VET attractivenessand supporting its relevance and efficiency, andencouraging equity, social cohesion andcitizenship have also been on the agenda, butmost of the new initiatives introduced after 2010to address these strategic objectives are not yet(fully) implemented.

The Czech Republic, which has moderateparticipation in LLL, has focused on increasingLLL and mobility by introducing new measures. Ithas also worked on the other strategic objectives,mostly by changing or aligning initiatives thecountry already had in place by 2010.

6.4.3. Cluster 3: recent implementersBulgaria, Estonia, Ireland, Luxembourg, Portugaland Romania can be considered recentimplementers.

The group is heterogeneous. Ireland andLuxembourg are countries which have long VETtraditions and institutions; this has not been thecase for Bulgaria, Estonia and Romania.

Economic performance and the employmentsituation in the countries is also different: Irelandand Bulgaria and Portugal suffer from especiallyhigh levels of youth unemployment.

The countries in this cluster have beengrouped together as actions and policy measureshave considerably increased after 2010. It is notsurprising that, from a policy perspective, thefocus in these countries should be on(successful) implementation, which will requirepersistence and flexible adaptation. Bulgaria,Ireland and Romania need to address low LLLparticipation and to develop a systematicapproach for the upskilling and continuoustraining of those already in the labour force.Figure 32 presents the policy priority profiles.

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Luxembourg stands out from countries in thecluster as it has low youth unemployment, a highshare of highly qualified employment, high shareof VET participation at upper secondary level, andhigh provision of VET at tertiary (ISCED 5B) level.The country has complemented VET policies andactions existing in 2010 with a range of newinitiatives for all strategic objectives except forcreativity, innovation and entrepreneurship,where recent action appears limited. Innovationis an area where the country already performsrelatively well and it is a strategic objective forwhich it already had several measures in placeby 2010.

Ireland has average participation in LLL, highyouth unemployment and relatively low VETparticipation at upper secondary level.

Encouraging LLL and mobility has been a priorityfor the country and has also focused attention onpromoting equity, social cohesion and activecitizenship.

Promoting equity, social cohesion and activecitizenship and encouraging LLL and mobility hasbeen a clear focus of recent VET developmentsin Estonia. Less prominent are new initiatives topromote VET attractiveness, relevance andefficiency, and new measures supportingcreativity, innovation and entrepreneurship; theseare strategic objectives which had already beentargeted by a range of measures before 2010.

Bulgaria has focused most of its recentefforts on making VET more relevant, attractiveand efficient, and on stimulating LLL and mobility.The country has taken action to address its low

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Figure 32. Policy priority profiles for countries in cluster 3: recent implementers, 2010-14

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet.

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participation in LLL and continuing vocationaltraining. Promoting equity, social cohesion andactive citizenship and encouraging creativity,innovation and entrepreneurship have also beenon the agenda, but to a lesser extent. Actions andreforms for all strategic objectives have not yetbeen (fully) implemented.

Portugal faces high unemployment and youthunemployment and a relatively high share of low-skilled employment. Starting from a relativelyweak position, the country has progressedtowards all strategic objectives and, apart fromactions taken to support LLL and mobility, mosthave also been implemented. Creativity,innovation and entrepreneurship, however,remain an area needing further attention, inparticular because of the relatively unfavourable

starting position in 2010. Although a range ofmeasures supporting creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship have been taken in recentyears, more work remains to be done in support.

With many initiatives not yet fullyimplemented, the same holds for Romania. Thecountry has focused its efforts on making VETmore attractive, relevant and efficient and onencouraging creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship in VET. Romania alsoimplemented several new initiatives promotingLLL to target low participation rates.

6.4.4. Cluster 4: modest developersThe countries in this cluster are Croatia, Cyprus,Greece, Iceland, Italy, Poland and Slovakia. Theyhave fairly high unemployment and especially

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Figure 33. Policy priority profiles for countries in cluster 4: modest developers, 2010-14

Source: Cedefop based on ReferNet.

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high youth unemployment, low or moderateparticipation in LLL, and, typically, low innovationperformance. Iceland, however, with lowerunemployment figures and higher participationrates in LLL, is something of an outlier but has,like Greece and Italy, an above average share oflow qualified. Greece also has, at the same time,an above average share of tertiary graduates.

Most of the modest developers have low oraverage shares of students in VET at uppersecondary level; none appears to be strong inproviding VET at tertiary (ISCED 5B) level.Although progress has been made, work-basedlearning is not very well developed in thesecountries. From a geopolitical viewpoint, theMediterranean countries – Greece, Italy andCyprus – share some common characteristicsand differ from the (sub)group of Croatia, Polandand Slovakia.

From a policy point of view, modestdevelopers need to speed up reforms in at leastone policy area and would, in most cases, benefitfrom a more comprehensive approach; some,such as Croatia, Iceland, Italy, Poland andSlovakia, are already addressing theseshortcomings systematically. For those countrieswith high youth unemployment, further effortstowards work-based learning and renewingapprenticeships and similar schemes mayprovide some short-term relief and are necessaryto achieve long-term improvements.

Figure 33 presents the policy priority profiles.Iceland is the only country in the cluster with

high LLL participation, low unemployment andyouth unemployment, and a favourableinnovation performance. However, it has lowparticipation in VET at upper secondary level andan above average share of low-skilledemployment. Despite some recent policies tomake VET more attractive, relevant and efficient,this is an area with limited progress.

Increasing VET attractiveness and making itmore relevant and efficient is also at an earlystage in Poland, but there are challenges for theother strategic objectives. Facing low participationrates in LLL, high youth unemployment and lowinnovation performance, the country has workedon all of these, but many of the measures remainto be fully implemented.

Implementing or mainstreaming initiatives isalso an issue for Croatia, with most measures still

in preparation. The country scores below averagein terms of policies to support LLL and mobility.VET at secondary level and work-based learning(apprenticeship training) is more developed thanin several other countries in cluster 4, but LLLparticipation, continuing vocational training inenterprises, and overall innovation performanceare low.

Slovakia has worked to encourage LLL andmobility, but it remains an area where more effortsare needed, as many of the actions remain to befully implemented. There has been significantattention to equity, social cohesion and activecitizenship. Starting from a relatively unfavourableposition in 2010, the country has also worked onmaking VET more attractive, relevant andefficient and stimulating creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship.

Italy has made progress towards increasingLLL and mobility, but has not advanced greatly interms of promoting equity, social cohesion andcitizenship. Participation in LLL and continuingvocational training in enterprises is around theaverage, but both youth unemployment andoverqualification among young workers arerelatively high, indicating that there are significantmismatches on the labour market. There are alsosignificant regional disparities. The country isaddressing challenges by reformingapprenticeship and introducing it at tertiary level.Action has also been taken to strengthenvalidation mechanisms and guidance andcounselling.

Cyprus scores low in terms of attractiveness,relevance and efficiency of VET. Both thecountry’s 2010 baseline and the developmentsuntil 2014 are below average. Overall, progresstowards the strategic objectives appears limitedand many planned measures remain to be fullyimplemented. Mismatch on the labour market ispervasive; the large share of highly qualifiedworkers does not match labour market demand,resulting in significant overqualification.

In Greece, most of the measures taken in thepast few years are still in preparation. Manypolicies and actions have been agreed orlegislated, but have not yet been (fully)implemented. Although there have been movestowards strengthening apprenticeship, progresshas been limited in increasing VET attractiveness,relevance and efficiency. Because of very high

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unemployment, especially youth unemployment,relatively low participation in VET at secondarylevel, and low LLL and continuing vocationaltraining participation, there is urgent need foreffective implementation and further reforms.

6.5. Achievements, challengesand lessons learned

The Copenhagen/Bruges process has been amajor factor in promoting VET reform inEuropean countries. VET has taken a moreprominent position on national policy agendasand, for many national policy-makers, the Brugescommuniqué has become both an inspiration anda catalyst for reform. The Bruges STDs helped tofocus reforms on key issues. In many countries,the deliverables and their implications for VETsystems and policies have also set in motiondiscussions on how to organise cooperation andhow to share responsibilities betweenstakeholders. Implementation of European tools,notably EQF and NQFs including all levels andtypes of qualifications, has required involvementof a broad range of stakeholders from alleducation sectors, labour market and socialpartners.

Countries did not start from scratch whenthey started working towards the Bruges STDs,but they did start from very different positions interms of the maturity, competitiveness andeffectiveness of their VET systems. Especially forcountries where the VET system was not welldeveloped, this has been a challenge. Addressing22 different STDs in a four year period is not easy,especially if resources are scarce or evenreduced because of austerity measures in alasting economic crisis. Despite the fact that EUfunding has helped reforms in countries severelyaffected by the economic downturn, it is not asurprise that countries had to prioritise andconcentrate their efforts on some of the areascovered by the STDs. Resource constraints alsomade countries use project-based approacheswith less systemic impact. Although suchinitiatives may provide stakeholders with goodexamples of practice, to embed them into VETsystems requires further upscaling andmainstreaming measures.

Cedefop’s analysis shows that there areseveral common patterns in VET policydevelopment across Europe. This section reviewsthe most important trends and highlights theachievements of the past years while alsopointing out some of the challenges. The analysisbuilds on several sources of information. Findingspresented earlier in this report have beencomplemented with others emerging from ACVTfocus group discussions (60).

Work-based learning, measures to makeVET more inclusive (reducing early schoolleaving and promoting LLL for groups at risk) andthe development of NQFs have been high onnational policy agendas. In most countries,encouraging creativity, innovation andentrepreneurship has been less prominent.Monitoring and feedback to inform VET provisionand continuing professional development for VETteachers and trainers are also areas with limitedprogress.

6.5.1. Strengthening work-based learningWork-based learning is becoming increasinglypopular in Europe. It has been part of theresponse to alleviating the impact of the economiccrisis; this made labour market mismatches morevisible, with increasing unemployment andoverqualification that disproportionally affectedyoung people in many countries. Despite thisincreasing unemployment, in some countries skillsshortages in particular sectors remained high,limiting growth potential and curtailingopportunities for economic recovery.

Increasing work-based learning is not amagic solution to resolve high youthunemployment, but it contributes to a betterfunctioning labour market. Countries with strongVET and apprenticeship systems tend to havelower youth unemployment rates. Studies haveshown that work-based learning has importantpositive labour market outcomes.

Increasing recognition of the benefits of work-based learning has led to a renaissance of

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(60) The starting points for the discussions in the focus groupswere two main areas of reform: one area where progress hasbeen quite pronounced, the labour market relevance of VET;and one area where developments are less visible, learningin VET for creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship. Duringthe discussions, however, several other policy areas werementioned.

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apprenticeship. Several countries have started toimplement or prepare the introduction of newschemes, a process that requires extensive effortand time to convince companies to invest timeand money in young learners. A long-termperspective is important. Quickly raising thenumber of apprenticeship places or adaptingthem continuously by trying to follow every moveof the labour market do not serve long-term goals.

It is important to get SMEs involved andcommitted, and recent policy measures explicitlytarget them. Information outlining the benefits oftraining apprentices, combined with appropriate(financial) incentives, helps to get small andmedium-sized businesses on board. But this is notsufficient. When learners prefer doingapprenticeships in big rather than smallcompanies, SMEs that do not find trainees for oneor two years stop offering apprenticeships. Otherchallenges are particularly relevant for SMEs:securing sufficient availability of qualified trainers;establishing and implementing proper qualityassurance systems; and attracting/organisingfunding and other types of support for cooperationarrangements with VET institutions.

It is not only countries that are currently cre-ating or expanding their work-based learningopportunities that face challenges and constantlyneed to update and develop their programmes,but also countries with well-established systems.Even VET systems with long-standingapprentice ship traditions have faced a lack ofgood quality apprenticeship places during theeconomic downturn. A shortage of apprenticeshipplaces may push those who cannot find a placein a company to leave education and trainingearly. Lack of apprenticeship places also affectsthe newly introduced youth guarantees. Stronglinks between VET and business are, therefore,a precondition for sufficient supply of trainingplaces. Several countries have also taken spe-cific measures to avoid shortages of learningplaces, involving schemes in the public sector.

It is widely recognised that exportingsuccessful apprenticeship schemes is unlikely tobe effective because of the different institutionalcontexts, education systems and socioeconomicconditions. However, cooperation can stimulatepolicy learning and the European alliance forapprenticeship, established in 2013, hasgathered the main stakeholders to promote

apprenticeship schemes and initiatives acrossEurope. The alliance encourages reformingapprenticeship systems and promotes thebenefits of apprenticeships and smart use offunding and resources; it also stimulatesimportant players, large companies as well asassociations and social partners, to committhemselves to the theme. Developing cooperationto set up or reform apprenticeship schemes thatlead to tangible results is a time-consumingprocess; this is illustrated by the experiences ofthe German alliances of apprenticeships, whichstarted at the end of 2012 with formal memorandawith six other EU Member States. It takes time tochange perceptions and mindsets, raiseawareness, adapt existing education and traininginstitutions, obtain commitment and support fromemployers, ensure that teachers and trainershave adequate training opportunities to help themsupport apprentices, and inform the choices ofpotential learners and their families.

Effective work-based learning demandsstrong links with the world of work, and such linkscan serve several other important goals.Cooperating with business increases VETattractiveness for learners because of the betteremployability of graduates. For example, involvingvolunteers from business to talk about real liferequirements in the classroom can help makeVET more attractive as it gives students a senseof trust and support for their training and careerdecisions. Such initiatives help communicate thebenefits of VET and its progression potential andchanges mindsets, particularly in contexts whereuniversity education has become the preferredroute for learners and their parents, as has beenthe case in some countries in the recent past,such as Greece and Spain.

Strong links with business also create(flexible) opportunities for teacher training inenterprises and aid timely adoption of curricula inresponse to changing skill needs. Finally, strongVET business links help stimulate entrepreneurialspirit, which can increase employment options forVET learners. VET stakeholders see talentdevelopment programmes and incubators assuccessful ways to develop entrepreneurialattitudes.

It is not only work-based learning and therenewed interest in apprenticeship that havemade the links to the world of work stronger. The

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increased visibility of VET has also led theemployment and education sectors, includingnational authorities, to cooperate regularlycompared to the situation before 2010. The rangeof participating stakeholders has become widerand brings more transparency to VET policy andits implementation. Employers’ representativesnow engage in developing qualifications andother activities more regularly and intensively.They often take full or partial responsibility for thedesign of VET qualifications and programmes.Sharing responsibility for VET quality assuranceor accreditation of institutions are factors drivingemployer participation in the development of VETand cooperation. Only in a few countries has nosubstantial progress has been made in thisdirection.

6.5.2. Making VET more inclusiveThe aim to reduce the number of low-skilledpeople has been a driving force behind measuresto reduce or alleviate early leaving from educationand training and increase LLL participation, inparticular through measures targeting groups atrisk. Providing tailored VET opportunities, in linewith their learning needs, requires flexibleprovision and greater permeability betweendifferent education pathways. Making VET moreflexible has been a trend in recent years, as seenin new modular programmes, the introduction ofhigher VET qualifications, measures to open upaccess and new short VET courses for trainingthe unemployed.

Measures for groups at risk, such as the low-skilled and early leavers from education ortraining or those at risk of leaving early, have notonly expanded but, as the analysis in Part 1 ofthis report shows, are also becoming morecomprehensive. Typical measures have been, forinstance, increasing guidance, counselling andcoaching and offering financial and non-financialincentives. VET stakeholders described thetrends as a shift to a more medium to long-termperspective and see the combination of long-termcommitment, financial help and tailored supportas a success factor for measures to helpdisadvantaged youth. As a result, many have abetter chance to obtain a qualification andintegrate into the labour market.

According to VET stakeholders, anotherfactor driving success has been the setting of

performance targets, without focusing too muchon systems, instruments, institutions orprocedures, and decentralising, with delegation ofdecision-making. This allows VET providers andother stakeholders to choose solutions bettertailored to the needs of specific beneficiaries. Insome north European countries, such approacheshas been accompanied by introducing orupscaling financial incentives such as (partly)performance-based funding for VET institutionsand providers, but these incentives, as theanalysis in Part 1 of this report shows, are not yetcommon.

Participation of adults in VET has notdeveloped as well as hoped: the EU 2020 targetof 15% adults participating in LLL has not yetbeen reached in most countries. It obviously is achallenge to find ways of financing different formsof adult learning, especially for the low-skilledemployed. Participation in LLL is inevitable in afast-changing world, and insufficient learningopportunities for those who need it most, who aremost vulnerable to unemployment or highlyinsecure employment, will create high cost forsocieties in the future. The way participation inLLL is measured also needs to be reconsideredin view of the many and very diverse forms ofadult learning, which may not be sufficientlycaptured by the indicator we presently use.

6.5.3. Implementing NQFs and promotingsynergies with other European toolsand principles

Several VET stakeholders see the developmentof NQFs, including all level and types ofqualifications, as a trend that eases VET policyimplementation and reform. Placing VET in acomprehensive system structuring allqualifications, NQFs help understand thoseacquired through VET better and aidcomparisons, for instance with those from highereducation. NQFs have developed dynamically inrecent years, but a range of countries still needsto move from the development stage or formaladoption to the operational stage. Just as withother European tools and principles, includingvalidation, Member States’ agreements to specificimplementation targets and deadlines haveincreased the pressure on governments toimplement NQFs and make them visible anduseful to citizens.

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Although NQF implementation is still at anearly stage, VET policies have clearly benefitedfrom the development of qualification frameworks.They have helped educators, employers andlearners better understand, compare and usequalifications. They have also stimulateddiscussion on the value of qualifications andsupported the work on validation, ECVET andquality. Through their focus on learning outcomes,EQF/NQFs have triggered discussions onpermeability and equivalence of qualificationsacross sectors and helped identify gaps andimbalances in the system. This has also increasedthe value of qualifications awarded outside formaleducation and training, and stimulated countriesto start including them in the NQFs. NQFs areincreasingly used as a reference point for revisingor developing new qualifications, modernisingcurricula and assessment methodologies. SomeVET stakeholders highlighted the role of nationalcoordination points. The NCPs assist inimplementing qualification frameworks and otherEuropean tools and principles, by providing aforum for cooperation and debate. This helps withpermeability, transparency of qualifications,attractiveness, mobility and employability.Achieved progress in establishing NQFs providesa good basis for applying other European toolsand principles. Exploiting synergies betweenframeworks, credit systems, validationarrangements, and quality assurance can makeVET systems stronger, more flexible, transparentand relevant. This will ultimately benefit learners.

To progress in learning and work, citizensmust be able to move within and between thedifferent sectors of education and training andemployment. Together, the European tools shouldassist people by making it easier for them totransfer learning outcomes and work experiencesand get them recognised. They need to take on a‘bridging function’, allowing learners andemployees to move across institutional, sectoraland geographic borders. In times of considerableskill mismatch and high unemployment, it isessential to use this service function of theEuropean tools in the best way possible.

6.5.4. Areas for further developmentMonitoring transitions, employability and otherlabour market outcomes of VET graduates havereceived more attention. The analysis in Part 1 of

this report shows that many countries haveintroduced new schemes in recent years.However, this information is not commonly usedfor adaptations or designs of VET provision andsupport for reasons related to data or privacyprotection legislation and lack of funding foractions that could encourage VET providers touse the information. The situation is improvingwith the introduction of new data-sharingagreements and laws, but it has been a slowprocess. In some countries, data collectionproblems prevent obtaining valid results. VETstakeholders also mentioned difficulties inmonitoring transitions from learning or training towork or transitions between different learningpathways, especially in countries where learnersare highly mobile (such as go abroad). Usingmonitoring systems to help at-risk groups toparticipate in VET should be of particular concern,but is not yet happening in most countries.

The policy priority profiles presented earliershow that, in most countries, creativity, innovationand entrepreneurship has been less prominent inshaping national policies than the other Brugesstrategic objectives. This can partly be explainedby the fact that countries had to prioritise theiractions, and focused a lot of their effort on work-based learning and reducing early leaving fromeducation and training. Including all types andlevels of VET in innovation and creativitypartnerships or clusters appears not to have lednational policy agenda in many countries. Thisalso holds for incentives to promote using state-of-the-art technology in VET. Entrepreneurshiphas been strengthened in some countries, butmore work remains to be done to support learnersthrough guidance and counselling and VETinstitutions.

ICT can play a major role in promotingcreativity and innovation in VET. But while thereview of developments since 2010 shows thatcountries are working towards increasing the roleof ICT in VET, there is much scope for progress.VET reforms in different areas can stronglybenefit in terms of impact and effectiveness whenthey have a clear focus on capitalising on thepotential of ICT.

Providing professional developmentopportunities for VET staff is another challenge.Expansion of work-based learning in enterprises,in particular apprenticeships, requires not only

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enterprises that have the technical capacity totrain young people, but also more trainers thathave the necessary skills and competences.While quality assurance frameworks for VETproviders tend to cover work-based learningwithin the institutions, there is less evidence thatthey will also cover in-company learning by 2015as foreseen by the Bruges communiqué.

Introducing new elements into VET in view ofan increasingly heterogeneous learner population(age, learning objectives), the need to use newlearning methods and addressing the substantialageing of the VET teaching workforce, requiresinvestments in teacher and trainer skills.Discussions about the modernisation of teachertraining, both in terms of the required initialqualification (e.g. mandatory bachelor degree)and professional experience, as well as theircontinuing professional developmentopportunities, are continuing.

Offering professional development to VETteachers and trainers to help them teachentrepreneurship skills or key competences, andopening up opportunities for them to be trained inenterprises, are not yet widespread practices.Some VET stakeholders view the limitedopportunities for teacher professionaldevelopment in enterprises as problematic. Thisis a particular challenge for predominantly school-based VET systems. These stakeholdersemphasised that formal training courses are notthe only mechanism for continuous professionaldevelopment. Creating space for innovation andcreativity, for instance, through experiments inVET schools and possibilities to work outside thelimits of a ‘normal’ programme, supports teacherand trainer development.

For compulsory education teachers, trainingwhich helps integrate work experience in theclassroom is important. As the analysis in Part 1of this report shows, no such training is offered inabout half of the countries. VET stakeholdersconfirm this and highlight that this training iscrucial, as it enables compulsory educationteachers to assist their learners in gathering moreaccurate information about VET and employmentopportunities to students. Indirectly, this is also away to promote VET attractiveness.

Towards the end of the first phase of theCopenhagen process, VET for adults receivedincreasing attention. This may have been linked

to the measures countries devised to preventstructural unemployment just after the crisis hadhit Europe. In recent years, attention has focusedon attracting more young people and helpingthem manage the transition into VET and remainthere. However, in the longer-term perspectiveVET for adults should not be neglected, asincreasing demand for skills, irrespective ofqualification levels, demographic developmentsand the need for a skilled work force that adaptsto rapid change, requires adequate opportunitiesfor people to update and improve their skills andcompetences.

This also requires continued work ondeveloping comprehensive strategies orapproaches for validating non-formal learning by2018, in line with the recommendation. So far,validation arrangements, which can help learnersprogress and combine different types ofeducation and training more easily to suit theirneeds, tend to relate to specific parts of educationand training and are not widely known. In severalcountries there is a risk that qualificationsawarded through validation are not equally valuedas those obtained within formal learning, as theyare not based on the same standards.

ECVET as a tool to ease mobility withinnational VET systems, which could also supportvalidation, is not developing dynamically, as mostcountries see it mainly as an instrument to easecross-border mobility. Most mobility in VET issupported by EU funds, but tighter personal andnational budgets may limit the chances for VETlearners, and in particular those inapprenticeships, to benefit from learning abroad.

To help European citizens move easilybetween different types of education and training,within and across countries and betweeneducation and employment, European tools willneed to become more visible and interact better.So far, only a few countries show NQF and EQFlevels on certificates and diplomas. While thenational coordination points provide informationand guidance on the different tools and principles,hardly any country has comprehensive strategiesor campaigns in place to communicate the benefitof the EU tools, and how they complement eachother, to end-users. Ensuring that work on thetools does not continue in silos, but focuses ontheir complementarity and their use for citizens,is a challenge to be tackled.

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Another issue raised by VET stakeholders isthe speed of reform. Using the outcomes ofmonitoring successfully requires time. Rushingreforms affects their effectiveness and efficiency(‘speed kills’). It is important, even if timeconsuming, to assess evidence of howsuccessful an intervention has been, before newinitiatives are rolled out.

6.5.5. Setting priorities and monitoringprogress: lessons of 2010-14

Now, as the first period for which STDs havebeen set comes to an end, and as newdeliverables and objectives are being considered,it is important to reflect critically on their designand set-up and the implications this has formonitoring progress.

One of the fundamental issues is to set policyobjectives that countries can identify with andmake their own, which is a challenge as countriesstart from different positions and move at differentspeeds. A second issue is to devise an approachthat supports monitoring the achievements andthe outcomes of the measures taken to addressthe priorities set.

Most progress monitoring in the currentsetting relies on policy options, which indicate thefrequency and aim of policies, either in place,recently implemented, or planned. While thepolicy options approach helps establish cross-country trends and areas that need moreattention, it often cannot reflect the quality ofactions, their outcomes or impact.

Developing an approach to allowunderstanding the impact of policy measures isnot easy, given the number of countries includedin the Copenhagen process and the range ofdifferent STDs considered. Interlinking policyprogress with statistical indicators that are proxiesfor impact is an option for some deliverables,though not for all. In the short-term, this is difficult.Statistical data frequently become available withtime lags and cannot reflect short-termdevelopments.

In the next phase, when more informationcovering longer periods will be available, it will beeasier to link policy objectives to information onpolicy implementation and performance, andcompare them to impact indicators. Nonetheless,VET-specific or VET-related data are not alwaysavailable (for all countries), not sufficiently

detailed or reliable, e.g. for apprenticeship, fieldsof study in VET.

Establishing causal relationships betweenVET policy measures and indicators will remainunrealistic given VET’s interrelation with severalother policy areas, such as employment, whichmakes it difficult to identify the contribution of VETpolicies in real terms. To be able to understandcause-effect relationships and measure impactwould also require comparison to control groups.

Relying on statistical data alone is notenough. A thorough understanding of thedevelopments and their impact requires linkingquantitative data to qualitative analysis andinformation on systems. Combining differentinformation sources in innovative ways willstrengthen the monitoring process and increaseits policy relevance.

Although fewer and more streamlined STDsin the future might appear to reduce overlapbetween them, they will continue to beinterdependent. Future monitoring will need totake this into account.

However, the fundamental issue remains:how to devise a framework to monitor progress,in countries which differ substantially in terms oftheir education and training systems andsocioeconomic conditions, using a commonyardstick. The monitoring approach for the nextcycle of STDs needs to incorporate this in asatisfactory manner while taking into account thepositive experience from the approach applied sofar and including, where possible, elements ofassessing impact.

6.5.6. ConclusionThe considerable progress that countries havemade towards reforming their VET systems andadapting existing policies clearly showcase thepositive impact of the Copenhagen/Brugesprocess. Pursuing common priorities within avoluntary framework has made European VETstronger.

Progress is more visible in some areas, suchas expanding work-based learning or establishingNQFs, than in others. It is also important tounderstand that a considerable share of themeasures that countries have taken is not yetfully implemented. That Member States are atdifferent levels of development is natural giventhe variety of systems, their socioeconomic

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contexts and starting points. In education andtraining, implementation of wider developmentstakes time. Work on these will (need to) continuebeyond the current Bruges ‘cycle’. Progress willbecome more visible over time.

The process has helped portray the value ofVET for regional and national skills strategies.With high unemployment, in particular amongyouth, in several countries, VET in general, andapprenticeship in particular, has moved centrestage as a way to ease young people’s transitioninto the labour market and prepare for tomorrow’swork places. While VET is not a panacea, it canhelp respond to challenges in the labour market,but it should not be seen simply as an instrumentto address structural problems.

The findings in this report also clearly confirmthe integrated nature of VET, which comprisesmany forms of learning in schools, in enterprises,in higher education and in adult learning, and theinterlinkages between them. Opportunities toacquire VET qualifications at higher educationlevel are expanding and modern technologyallows using learning offers both acrossgeographic and institutional boundaries. Thisdemands cooperation on quality assurance.Ensuring a common language between differenttypes of VET, general and academic highereducation is as important as developing acommon language between VET and the world ofwork. The remaining part of the overall ET 2020strategic framework continues to be of keyimportance for the development of VET policiesand the quality, coherence and synergies ofeducation and training systems throughoutEurope.

European citizens as learners are at theheart of this process. Expanding the servicefunction of European tools and principles for theend-user will need to guide future work. Theirfocus on learning outcomes is acknowledged asa basis for better communication and cooperationwithin education and training, and betweeneducation and the labour market. The consistentuse of the learning outcomes principle is directlyrelevant to end-users. Guidance and counsellingshould inform and support people at varioustransition points between different types ofeducation and training, jobs and periods inbetween, and also during their learningthroughout their lives.

To ensure measures are sustainable, allactors need to be on board and committed tomaking them work. The key role of social partnershas become more evident in recent years.Developments have also pointed to a need forwider cooperation and partnerships betweeneducation and training providers, enterprises,employment services and other institutions. Thisrequires continued efforts to build the necessarycapacities, and ensure high quality initial trainingand continuing development opportunities for allstaff involved.

This report aims to contribute to the evidencebase necessary to set meaningful policy goals,promote the potential of policy learning, and helpcountries in their efforts to ensure VETcontributes to the competitiveness of Europeanenterprises, becomes more attractive to thehighly talented and creates an inclusive learningenvironment which empowers citizens of all agesand backgrounds to tap their potential to secureemployability. Ultimately, VET and VET policies,which put European citizens centre stage, willcontribute to better lives.

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7.1. IntroductionThis chapter (61) provides an overview of progresstowards the agreements of the Brugescommuniqué made by four EU candidatecountries – the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey –from 2010 to early 2014. It is largely based onanalysis of answers to the 2012, 2013 and 2014Cedefop Refernet questionnaires (STDs1, 2, 5,6, 7, 12 to 22) and the 2012 ETF questionnaire(3, 4, 8 to 11). The emphasis of thesequestionnaires is on reporting progress in relationto the 22 STDs. Information from questionnairesis complemented with results from a focus groupdiscussion with candidate country ACVTrepresentatives (December 2013) and telephoneinterviews with the four DGVT representatives(January-February 2014), as well as by otherrelevant studies.

The chapter focuses on national policydevelopments since 201; in some cases, actionsimplemented before 2010 are also considered toprovide a better understanding of the state ofplay. It should be noted that the actions reporteddo not always cover the full scope of the STDs.Also, most of the information provided refersexplicitly to IVET while less attention has beengiven to CVET, except in those STDs which referdirectly to CVET. For this reason, it is possiblethat not all CVET-related actions have been fullycaptured.

As the first part of this report already includedmuch detailed information, this chapter focuseson outlining overall trends in the candidatecountries.

7.2. The Copenhagen/Brugesprocess: inspiring nationalreforms

The candidate countries are preparing foraccession to the EU and are influenced bymedium- to long-term EU policy objectives andtargets to improve the performance, quality andattractiveness of VET expressed in theCopenhagen/Bruges process. Therefore, EUdevelopments in VET have an influence onperspectives for the long-term evolution ofeducation and training in these countries,including development of strategies, concreteinitiatives and actions.

All candidate countries report that theCopenhagen process and the Brugescommuniqué inspired national VET reforms after2010, helped to structure VET policy better andsupported identifying national priorities fordeveloping VET. Education and training in thecandidate countries have been through profoundsystemic reforms during the past decade as partof the overall political, economic and socialtransformations of the countries on their way toEU membership. The main drive behind thesereforms in VET, substantially supported by the EUpre-accession assistance funds, has been theneed to move away from the supply-driven modeland to develop VET systems that are moresensitive and responsive to labour market needs.The results achieved are mixed: new VETlegislation has been adopted but its enforcementis delayed or not effective enough despite thenew governance institutions and/or bodies set upfor its execution (such as VET centres, VET andadult education councils); improved curricula,new occupation profiles, and qualificationstandards have been developed (often with theinvolvement of employers) and piloted, but are atdifferent stages of upscaling and mainstreaming;efforts have been made to modernise and betterequip VET schools, often combining scarce public(61) This chapter was drafted by ETF and edited by Cedefop.

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funding (public education expenditure remainsunder 4% of GDP in all candidate countries,compared to the EU average of 5.4% in 2009)with donor assistance. Overall, despite theprogress achieved, implementation of VETstrategies and policy intentions remains achallenge for the candidate countries and needsserious improvement. One reason is that VETreforms have been heavily donor-driven, leadingto insufficient national ownership andsustainability, as well as to systemic fragment -ation; often donor interventions have beendesigned and accepted in the absence of clearnational strategies for economic and humanresource development. Limited ownership of VETreform processes is also due to the lack ofpolitical stability and continuity in the candidatecountries (where governments would rarely servea full term in office) which, coupled withinsufficient institutional capacities and the lack ofrelevant monitoring systems, account for thetardy implementation.

It is against this backdrop of VET reform inprogress that the candidate countries haveaddressed the Copenhagen/Bruges objectivesand policy lines. The countries report that theBruges communiqué STDs have helped themidentify and prioritise key activities for VETreforms.

7.3. Developing skillsThe issue of skills development is of paramountimportance for the candidate countries and theirVET systems. While Turkey has a functioningmarket economy, the three western Balkancountries – the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia, Montenegro and Serbia – have spentthe past decade in a transition from closed, state-regulated to open, market-based service-driveneconomies that, despite great progress, isincomplete. The transition in the three westernBalkan countries changed the demand for skills,resulting in skills and qualifications mismatchesand shortages, as education and training systemsfailed to respond effectively.

The priority of recent VET reforms in thecandidate countries has been to strengthen theresponsiveness to employment trends anddemands of the economy in a context of lagging

employment and high unemployment, especiallyamong the young. Skills development systems inthe former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,Montenegro, Serbia and Turkey vary and are atdifferent stages of reform. However, ETF analysisreveals that there are several challenges whichare common to all countries, such as effective keycompetences development, adequate and goodquality practical training, and innovation (see ETF,2013). These challenges are targeted in theBruges strategic objectives and STDs.

New VET strategies show that candidatecountries are aware of the need to promote keycompetences in their VET systems. In view of theeconomic transition of the three western Balkancountries, it is important to concentrate ondeveloping broader skills to support flexibility andthe transferability of competences, ensuringbetter employability of VET graduates or theirprogression to higher education. Another reasonfor the strong support of key competences in VETis that their acquisition in primary education in thecandidate countries has not been verysuccessful, so that learners entering IVET orCVET programmes need to catch up. Despitesome positive recent trends, PISA data show thatthe shares of 15-year-old students fromMontenegro, Serbia and Turkey with lowperformance in reading, mathematics andscience are higher than the respective EUaverages and much above the ET 2020benchmark.

The candidate countries report good overallprogress in developing policies aiming to promotekey competences in VET. Actions taken toaddress this STD have focused primarily onincluding key competences in VET curricula andqualifications. Further efforts are needed inteaching and learning methods in VET, facilitatingthe acquisition of key competences (only theformer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia hastaken this into consideration) and their centralisedexternal assessment (in place in the formerYugoslav Republic of Macedonia andMontenegro, no action taken in Serbia andTurkey). The results from these policies remain tobe seen and will largely rely on the continuingreforms of teacher education and training and onsuccessful efforts to improve the acquisition ofkey competences in primary/lower secondaryeducation.

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In career management skills – the secondcomponent of STD4 – the candidate countrieshave shown lack of or negligible progress. Theseskills have not been introduced yet in curricula,standards or qualifications and teachers are notadequately prepared to promote them.

The Bruges communiqué highlights theimportance of entrepreneurship (STD15) for VETlearners, both as a key competence and aspecific business skill. Entrepreneurship hasbeen operationalised as a key competence andintegrated in curricula. Teachers in all countrieshave been trained in the delivery of the subjectsand teachers in Montenegro and Turkey benefitfrom assistance provided by businesspeople andexperts from the world of work. Innovativelearning methods, including simulated businessexperience, have been widely used inMontenegro and in Serbia, while fundingschemes and incentives to promote entrepre -neurship are hardly used at all.

With a great deal of the policy options alreadyin place, and special focus given to training VETteachers and trainers and on learning methodsincluding simulated or real business experience,the candidate countries report goodimplementation of the STD. Its completion willrequire reinforced action to support the promotionof entrepreneurship in VET through incentivesand funding schemes.

The candidate countries have been payingincreasing attention to the importance of work-based learning (STD5a) and cooperationbetween VET institutions and enterprises(STD5b) for enhancing the relevance and qualityof skills. The institutional and cultural contexts inwhich this takes place differ substantially betweenTurkey (with strong work-based learning) and thestate-led school-based systems in the othercandidate countries.

Apprenticeships, as ‘dual’ programmes,allowing students to get a job in an enterprise andto alternate periods of studying in a schoolenvironment with periods of work in companies,exist in a structured, country-wide format only inTurkey. In Montenegro and Serbia,apprenticeship schemes are not currently inplace, while their introduction is under preparationin the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.

Another modality for cooperation betweenVET institutions and businesses is exchanging

staff and organising enterprise traineeships forteachers. The need to develop VET teachersprofessionally through short-term stays inenterprises and companies is generallyrecognised in the candidate countries. However,implementation arrangements are not yetthoroughly developed and traditional provision ofteacher training, formalised in training catalogues,prevails.

Implementation of STDs 5a and 5b seemsmodest in the candidate countries. Positiveresults are related to strengthening work-basedelements in VET (in school-based programmesand simulated or real business experience aslearning methods). However, many policy optionshave remained unaddressed in 2010-14 and willrequire action. For example, none of thecandidate countries has taken any action toestablish services for finding training places forVET teachers in enterprises.

Closely related to the cooperation betweenVET institutions and businesses is effective andinnovative, quality-assured use of technology byall VET providers (STD14). While the use oftechnology in teaching and learning in VET ismentioned in most strategic documentsdeveloped by the candidate countries after 2010,little or no information has been reported onputting this in practice or measures to increaseeffectiveness; implementation remains modest.The countries report some cases whereemployers equip schools’ workshops with state-of-the-art technology. Providing incentives forcost-effective use of technology or forestablishing public-private partnerships, ensuringaccess of students to modern technologicalfacilities, appears limited.

Creativity and innovation (STD13) arebelieved not only to make VET more attractive forlearners but also to prepare them to react in amore flexible and resourceful way in situationswhen skills requirements get more volatile andunpredictable over time. Activities promotingcreativity and innovation started in all candidatecountries before 2010 and continue to be fine-tuned, but little impact has been reported andinitiatives seem fragmented. The modestimplementation of STD13 in the candidatecountries is also related to the type of actionsundertaken: most activities are short-term andinvolve promotion (such as fairs, competitions),

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while long-term partnerships (innovation orcreativity clusters, knowledge exchangeplatforms involving VET providers) are absent.Despite some good examples, the candidatecountries have not been able so far to aid theestablishment of strategic alliances of VETproviders with innovative enterprises and highereducation institutions, to keep VET systems inline with new developments and competenceneeds, to enhance their professional excellenceand foster their innovation capacities. Guidelinesand incentives for creating such partnerships arenot yet in place.

7.4. Strengthening VET systemsThe Bruges communiqué calls for theestablishment of strong VET systems in Europe,capable of guaranteeing improved quality,increased transparency, mutual trust, the mobilityof workers and learners, and LLL. A prerequisitefor this is the setting up of quality assuranceframeworks in accordance with the EQAVETrecommendation (STD3). Since 2010, thecandidate countries have been making efforts toimprove their approaches to managing quality inVET at system and provider level, using EQAVETas a frame of reference. To date there are manyexamples of progress achieved: while some aresystemic, others remain pilot experience in needof mainstreaming.

The reported implementation of STD3 hasbeen generally modest in the candidate countries.Montenegro and Turkey are more advanced (withnational QA approaches developed and based onstakeholder involvement, quality assuranceNRPs established, partial introduction ofEQAVET indicators) but even these two countrieshave a lot to do, especially in the fullharmonisation and alignment of their national QAindicators with the EQAVET ones.

Qualifications have the potential to changethe intrinsic logic of education systems towards acompetence or learning outcomes-based logic,acting as a strong driver for overriding reformsand profound changes (ETF, 2014b). Theestablishment of comprehensive NQFs based onthe learning outcomes approach linked to EQF(STD8) is another condition for and/or feature ofstrong VET systems.

Most NQF activities in the candidatecountries started before 2010, but there havebeen significant initiatives recently. NQFdevelopments are in very different stages, fromconceptual approaches to preparatory work, toformal adoption, not having reached yet anoperational stage in any of the countries.However, in all the countries, the EQF functionsas a lever of progress. Legislation in all candidatecountries provides for the development ofcomprehensive NQFs, encompassing all typesand qualification levels for general, vocationaland higher education, based on learningoutcomes and referring to the eight EQF levels.

The EQF recommendation has not yet beenimplemented in the candidate countries:comprehensive NQFs are not yet introduced (fullydeveloped only in Turkey but not legislated yet),reference to NQF and EQF levels in certificatesand diplomas is not a practice and referencingNQF levels to EQF levels has not beenaccomplished as required by the Brugescommuniqué. This is planned to be finished by2015 in Montenegro and Turkey, by 2016 inSerbia, while the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia has not set any deadline. While theimplementation of the STD achieved so far isweak, it should be noted that the candidatecountries have invested much effort andcommitment in dealing with the EQFrecommendation and have addressed the wholerange of policy options. With nearly 4/5 of themcurrently in preparation, further progress might beexpected soon.

Closely associated with the EQF is theECVET (STD11), intended to aid the transfer,recognition and accumulation of assessedlearning outcomes of individuals who are aimingto achieve a qualification. The development of acredit system is legislated in Montenegro andTurkey, ECVET being the guiding principle andclosely related to NQFs. Serbia plans to launch aproject for piloting ECVET in near future, while theformer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia does notintend to develop a credit system for VET, eventhough the ECTS has been adopted in highereducation. Overall, the countries have reportedweak implementation of STD11.

EQAVET, EQF, ECVET serve as tools forinternationalisation of VET and transnationalmobility of VET learners and professionals

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(STD12), i.e. tools for opening up of VET systemsand for their ‘relevant’ behaviour in today’sglobalised world. This STD has not been high onthe policy agenda of the candidate countries andits reported implementation is weak. Apart fromTurkey, which has participated in the Leonardo daVinci programme for 10 years, transnationalmobility in VET in the candidate countries stilllacks the relevant legal and administrative basisand appropriate financial resources. It is currentlymainly shaped by bilateral agreements withregional or local institutions. However, theprogressive participation of the candidatecountries in the LLL programme functions as acrucial lever for developing transnational mobilityin VET.

The Bruges communiqué highlights theimportance of regular feedback on employabilityand on VET graduate transitions from learning towork (STD5c and 6) for VET policy developmentand VET system governance. Implementation ofthese STDs is reported to have been weak tomodest and focused around pre-2010 actions,with little progress made during 2010-14.Statistical offices in the candidate countriesregularly collect data on employment andunemployment rates by level of education withinlabour force surveys, but there is no systematicdata collection on VET graduate employabilityand graduate tracer studies. There is littleevidence that the limited ad hoc feedback on theemployability of VET graduates that exists, or hasrecently been collected, is used strategically byVET institutions.

Monitoring systems on the learning-to-worktransition are at various stages of developmentand are mainly funded through regular publicbudgets. Pre-2010 initiatives to strengthen datacollection and monitoring have not been fullyimplemented; in most countries, the legal basis tocollect information on the employment status ofVET graduates has not been clearly defined.Transition monitoring systems are currentlyoperational only in Montenegro and Turkey, butare in need of upgrading. Little use is made of thedata produced by these systems as evidence forimproving VET policies. Plausible explanationsare that data collection methods are not robustenough, that the capacities for evidence-basedpolicy-making are still limited, and that thedecisions that have to be made are sensitive

(implying restructuring of VET schools, lay-offs ofteachers). The fact that, despite this, candidatecountries are exploring using monitoring(systems) to support the participation of at-riskgroups in VET (STD19) is a positivedevelopment.

The implementation of STD19 is quite polaramong the countries: while the former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia, Montenegro and Turkeyreport full implementation (all policy optionsdelivered), Serbia reports no specific actionstaken. The implementation in the first threecountries is based on actions put in place by 2010and adjusted in 2010-14; no new post-2010actions have been launched. Given the fact thatthe participation of certain at-risk groups in VETis still unsatisfactory in the candidate countries(see ETF, 2013), their monitoring systems andthe way these are being used are in need offurther improvement.

All candidate countries publish general VETstatistics and provide inputs to EU-level datacollection (STD22) and Eurostat. With theexception of Turkey, which already had a systemin place, most countries have launched advanceddata collection and processing systems after2010. While the current implementation of theSTD is still weak (only 1/3 of the policy optionsput in place), all recommended measures havebeen addressed and are under preparation,which raises the expectations for better delivery.

Structured cooperation between the VETsector and the employment services (STD21)was in place in most candidate countries before2010. Operational mechanisms vary from countryto country, in terms of governance, types ofpartnership and degree of formalisation. Thereported implementation of the STD has beensignificant (93% of the policy measures put inplace, the rest under preparation). While themechanisms for structured cooperation havebeen established and are operational, the ETFanalyses (such as Torino process reports) showthat only a small part of VET policies (mainlythose in Turkey) emerge from the consultationswith employment services and the socialpartners. The proceedings and impact of thestructured dialogue on overall VET policy-makingcycle, therefore, needs improvement.

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7.5. Engaging more people in VET

As emphasised by the Bruges communiqué,IVET and CVET share the dual objective ofcontributing to employability and economicgrowth they also respond to the needs andaspirations of individual learners, as well as tobroader societal challenges, in particularpromoting social inclusion. Both should offeryoung people and adults attractive andchallenging career opportunities, and shouldappeal equally to women and men, to people withhigh potential and to those who, for whateverreason, face the risk of exclusion from the labourmarket. VET should play its part in achieving thetwo Europe 2020 headline targets set foreducation: by 2020, to reduce the rate of earlyleavers from education to less than 10% and toincrease the share of 30 to 34 year-olds havingcompleted tertiary or equivalent education to atleast 40%. Turning more people into VETlearners has become a strategic objective forEurope’s VET systems, including those of thecandidate countries.

Measures at national level recommended forprogressing towards this objective – promotingVET attractiveness and excellence (STD1) andsupporting activities, which enable young pupilsin compulsory education to become acquaintedwith vocational trades and career possibilities(STD2) – have been closely followed andimplemented by the candidate countries.

Most countries had put in place actions topromote VET before 2010, mainly initiated bynational authorities and supported by regionalauthorities, social partners and, increasingly, withthe involvement of chambers of commerce ortrade. Enrolment in VET has always been high inthe three western Balkan countries: in 2012 in theformer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia it was59.8% (Eurostat, 2014); in Montenegro, 67.3%(Unesco, 2014); and in Serbia: 75.9% of uppersecondary enrolment (Unesco, 2014). Thesecountries have two different VET pathways atupper secondary level (three-year vocational andfour-year technical) and although the globalenrolment in VET is stable overall, it is shiftingsteadily towards four-year pathways. One of themain reasons is that technical pathways allow the

continuation of studies in higher education. Facedwith high unemployment and difficult transitionfrom school to work, graduates from four yearVET programmes tend to seek the continuationof studies at higher level. As a consequence, inthe western Balkan countries there areincreasingly fewer secondary vocationalgraduates entering the labour market directly.While this situation needs to be addressed, thetransition from VET-4 to higher education isexpected to increase the share of adultpopulation with tertiary education, which iscurrently low.

In Turkey, with VET standing at 43.9% ofupper secondary enrolment in 2012 (Eurostat,2014c), the explicit goal is to involve 50% ofupper secondary students in VET by 2014.Attractiveness is of particular importance.

Most initiatives in the candidate countriesinclude campaigns. The practice of ‘open doors’is widely implemented by VET schools in thewestern Balkans, when students from primaryschools not only visit VET schools and meet VETteachers and students, but also meet businessrepresentatives. Skills competitions and careersfairs are regularly organised at national andregional level in all countries and the events areoften supported by sectoral organisations and/ordonors. Most efforts and investments incampaigns and promotional activities aim toattract young people to IVET. While there is lessfocus on promoting CVET among adults, somemeasures exist. They promote the attractivenessof VET for adults through active labour marketpolicy measures, offering a wide range ofprogrammes or awareness campaigns.Campaigns encouraging enterprises to invest inVET are still at an early stage of developmenteverywhere. Despite the significantimplementation of STD1 reported by thecandidate countries, the real challenge for VET inthese countries is, in cooperation withbusinesses, to provide skills that have high labourmarket relevance.

The scope of compulsory education differsbetween the candidate countries. To ensureconsistency with analysis of EU Member States,where compulsory education mostly addresseslearners from five/six to 15/16 years of age,information about the candidate countries underSTD2 (acquainting young people in compulsory

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education with VET) focuses on activitiesinforming young students from primary and lowersecondary education on vocational trades andcareer possibilities to support education choice.

Inclusion of VET elements in primary andlower secondary education varies substantially,ranging from mandatory elements in educationprogrammes to pilot initiatives in individualschools. There is a range of education and careerfairs, fully or partially devoted to VET. Simulatedor real business experience for young learners inprimary and lower secondary education is stillunderdeveloped. No specific training to integratework experience for primary or lower secondaryteachers has been reported apart fromMontenegro. The countries have not reported anyactions related to providing work-experience/‘tasters’ before VET, nor aboutexisting services to organise work experience forstudents at ISCED 1 to 2 levels.

The reported implementation of the STD isweak. The share of policy measures that have notbeen addressed is significant and they are allrelated to organising work experience beforeVET. This common deficit needs to be targeted inthe future. Another challenge is to attract to IVEThigh-achieving students.

The objective of turning more people intoVET learners can be achieved not only by meansof attracting new learners, but also throughkeeping VET learners within the system; gettingthem to participate, learn and graduate with aproper qualification, contributes to maximising thecontribution of VET to combating early leavingfrom education (STD16). Performance regardingearly leaving from education varies widely: whileMontenegro and Serbia are already below the EU2020 benchmark, scoring respectively 6.0% (in2013) and 8.1% (in 2012), and early schoolleaving in the former Yugoslav Republic ofMacedonia in 2013 (11.2%) was lower than theEU average (11.9%), Turkey lags far behind,recording a rate of 37.5%. The former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia and Turkey also have thehighest NEET rates among the candidatecountries (ETF, 2014c) confirming that earlyschool leavers are the most consistentlydominant NEET subgroup. All candidatecountries have made preventing students fromleaving education early a top priority andintensified their efforts after 2010, in combination

with targeted poverty alleviation initiatives andlinguistic policies. Important reforms have beencarried out, ranging from the revision of legalframeworks and strategic policy documents to theuse of monitoring and information systems(Montenegro and Turkey) and tailor-madepsychological and/or financial support to familiesin need. Large scale public awarenesscampaigns have been organised everywhere toinform the public of the importance of completingeducation. Further, flexible linguistic policies(targeting students from ethnic groups) andspecific programmes or work-based learningschemes are offered to provide a second chanceto individuals who could not attend or completeformal education. The countries have put intopractice a wide range of actions and havereported good implementation of the STD. Themeasures undertaken must have contributed toreducing the early leaving rates in all countries in2010-14, with the highest falls from 15.5% (2010)to 11.2% (2013) in the former Yugoslav Republicof Macedonia, and from 43.1% (2010) to 37.5%(2013) in Turkey.

Increasing participation in CVET in line withET 2020 15% benchmark (STD7) is another wayof attracting more VET learners. The participationrates of the candidate countries in LLL range from3% in Montenegro to 4% in Turkey in 2013 andlag far below the EU average and the ET 2020objective. There is vast room for improvementand the candidate countries have recently beentrying to improve their adult learning policymeasures in VET. The implementation reportedto-date is modest. Awareness campaigns andcareer fairs to promote VET have been widelyused in all countries, but only a small share ofthem target adult learners. Making learningarrangements suitable to the needs of adultlearners and making learning venues easilyaccessible have been priorities since 2010, butlittle action has been reported on helping adultlearners combine (C) VET with family obligations.

More effort is needed in several other areas.Special attention needs to be paid to improvingguidance and counselling services for adults,currently unaddressed in all candidate countries.Strategies and policy documents in all thecountries highlight the possibility for adultlearners to access higher level VET but, so far,adults are in the same position as other students

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who have completed secondary education in thesame year. Guidance to the unemployed isprovided in all countries by the publicemployment services but it is recognised that thecaseload is too high and advisors have limitedopportunities to provide proper guidance to theunemployed.

The candidate countries have investedenergy in raising the participation of low-skilledand other at-risk groups in education and training(STD17). All countries have made an effort toease access of adults and at-risk learners toformal education by offering flexible trainingprogrammes and other arrangements. Nationalemployment services in all countries designspecial programmes and offer training to low-skilled persons and, to a lesser extent, to otherat-risk groups. These are complemented bydonor-, government- or civil society-led initiatives.Montenegro and Turkey offer incentives forenterprises to provide training or employment toat-risk groups: good implementation has beendescribed, but with significant room forimprovement.

All candidate countries actively promote theuse of ICT to increase access and support activelearning (STD18). Three – the former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia, Montenegro and Turkey– have LLL or VET strategies which promoteusing ICT for at-risk groups, as well as incentiveshelping them to cover ICT and internet costs. Theformer Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia andMontenegro have put in place training for VETteachers/trainers to help at-risk learners use ICT.The modest degree of implementation of the STDclaimed by the candidate countries revealsserious gaps in ICT-based learning tools/methodsto help at-risk groups learn (in place only inTurkey) and VET platforms or web portals tailoredto their needs.

Flexible VET systems, based on a learningoutcomes approach catering for validation of non-formal and informal learning (VNFIL) (STD9),including competences acquired in theworkplace, attract both young and adult learners.The concept of non-formal and informal learningis relatively new in the candidate countries andso is VNFIL. The acceptance and promotion ofVNFIL principles has been closely linked to theapproaches adopted for the NQF and itsoperational development, in particular with

respect to learning outcomes. None of thecandidate countries has a national strategy onVNFIL. Montenegro and Turkey have someprocedures and practices already in place, but,elsewhere, procedures remain to be developed.None of the policy options have beenimplemented in any of the countries.

Career guidance (STD10) is confirmed as animportant orientation tool in all candidatecountries. Most launched initiatives before 2010and continue to adjust and innovate them; allhave ensured guidance and mentoring for IVETlearners in different ways. Specific support for at-risk groups is available in some branches of thenational employment service in all countries, butis not satisfactory and needs improvement.

The implementation of the STD ischaracterised by modest delivery in the candidatecountries (half of the policy options reported inplace) and many measures that have remainedunaddressed. Among these are support for cross-sectoral services, for career management skillsand for guidance and counselling for adults.

7.6. ConclusionsCandidate countries have prioritised the Brugesstrategic objectives and deliverables according totheir national agendas and have attached varyingdegrees of importance to them. They have madeconsiderable progress since 2010, but muchremains to be done. A significant degree of policyimplementation has been reported only withregard to two STDs: STD1 (VET attractiveness)and 21 (structured cooperation mechanismsbetween VET and employment services) whichcorresponds to traditionally high VET enrolmentsin the western Balkan countries and to currentdemand in all candidate countries to make VETdelivery relevant to the economic and labourmarket needs. Progress on most STDs has beenmodest, with much still to be done.

This stock-taking of implementation of theSTDs might suggest that the candidate countrieshave dedicated a great deal of effort to makingIVET an attractive learning option (strategicobjective 1), to fostering the excellence, qualityand relevance of both I(VET) and C(VET)(strategic objective 2) and to promotinginnovation, creativity and entrepreneurship

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(strategic objective 5). While the contribution ofthe STDs to progress towards the respectivestrategic objectives is difficult to assess (due tooverlapping of deliverables addressing severalobjectives, lack of proper indicators and data), itis clear that the candidate countries haveaddressed all STDs belonging to strategicobjectives 1, 2 and 5 and have reported progresswith all of them. The way they addressed otherobjectives is more controversial and uneven, withprogress on some STDs within a given objectivesignificant while on others there is little or none.A plausible explanation is that these objectiveshave a lower degree of congruence with prioritieson national policy agendas in the candidatecountries and so the countries have addressedonly some isolated policy aspects/dimensions.

In-depth policy analysis is needed tounderstand better how progress made under theSTDs relates to the progress towards achievingthe broader Bruges objectives, as well to capturethe dynamics and the drivers behind theseprocesses. The review of national progress needsto be complemented with an analysis atsubnational level, especially with regard to thelarger candidate countries (such as Turkey), or tosome STDs that are prone to urban-rural andregional disparities (including early leaving fromschool). However, not all policy options under theBruges STDs have produced a similar added-value or impact on national VET reforms, thecontribution being reliant on factors such as theoverall process of VET transformation, thematurity of the institutional capacities involved,the specific context and traditions.

The ETF analysis shows that the candidatecountries have been relatively quick andsuccessful in transposing Bruges communiquéstrategic objectives and STDs into national policydocuments (strategies, plans, vision papers), aswell as in national legislation (laws, by-laws,regulations). Implementation of the policy andlegal frameworks, however, has lagged, as hasmonitoring and evaluation of measuresundertaken. Analysis of progress by thecandidate countries toward the Bruges STDsindicates clear limitations in capacities withregard to the implementation, monitoring andevaluation stages of the policy cycle. Overcomingthese deficits, and prioritising the implementationof the policy lines that have been already definedand adopted, are key levers for the countries todeliver better, not only on the Copenhagen/Bruges objectives but also on their national VETreform efforts and aspirations. Policy-makers andpractitioners in the candidate countries mustdevelop the capacity to become ‘policyinterpreters’, since there are various models,measures and practices available for achievingthe same goal. Over the coming years, thecandidate countries will need further support tobuild capacity to ‘shape’ better their own policiesand, most important, to overcome barriers toimplementation.

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Country codes

AT AustriaBE Belgium

-Fr French-speaking community-Fl Flemish-speaking community-Dg German-speaking community

BG BulgariaCZ Czech RepublicCY CyprusDE GermanyDK DenmarkEE EstoniaEL GreeceES SpainFI FinlandFR FranceHR CroatiaIE IrelandIT ItalyLT LithuaniaLU LuxembourgLV LatviaNL NetherlandsPL PolandPT PortugalRO RomaniaSE SwedenSI SloveniaSK SlovakiaUK United Kingdom

CH SwitzerlandHU HungaryIS IcelandME MontenegroMT MaltaNO NorwayRS SerbiaTR Turkey– the former Yugoslav Republic of

Macedonia (to be defined)

Institutions and organisations

ESF European social fundsETF European Training FoundationEurostat statistical authority of the

European UnionEurydice European network to inform on

education systems and policies inEurope

OECD Organisation for EconomicCooperation and Development

ReferNet Cedefop’s European network ofreference and expertise in VET

Unesco United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organisation

Others

ACVT Advisory Committee for VocationalTraining

CQAF common quality assuranceframework

CQFW credit and qualifications frameworkfor Wales

CVET continuing vocational educationand training

CVTS continuing vocational trainingsurvey

DGVT directors general for vocationaleducation and training

EASQ European area of skills andqualifications

ECVET European credit system forvocational education and training

ECTS European credit transfer andaccumulation system

EEA European economic areaEFTA European free trade areaEHEA European higher education areaELGPN European lifelong guidance policy

network

Acronyms and definitions

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EQAVET European quality assurancereference framework for vocationaleducation and training

EQF European qualifications frameworkERDF European regional development

fundEU+ EU Member States, Norway and

IcelandICT information and communications

technologyISCED international standard

classification of educationIVET initial vocational education and

trainingLLL lifelong learningNEET youth not in education,

employment or trainingNQF national qualifications frameworkNRP national reference pointsNVQ national vocational qualificationsPIAAC programme for the international

assessment of adult competencesQCF qualifications and credit frameworkSME small and medium-sized

enterpriseSTD short-term deliverableSTEM science, technology, engineering

and mathsVNFIL validation of non-formal and

informal learning

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ANNEX 1

Short overview of NQF developments

Austria

Belgium (Fl)

Belgium (Fr)

Belgium (Dg)

Bulgaria

Croatia

Cyprus

Czech Republic

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

former YugoslavRepublic ofMacedonia

France

Germany

Designed as comprehensive NQF; currently, includes qualifications awarded in highereducation, selected ‘reference qualifications’ from VET and a pre-VET qualification.

Comprehensive NQF, including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training and from the professional qualifications system.

Designed as comprehensive framework; will include all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training and from the professional qualifications system.

Comprehensive NQF.

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training.

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training.

Comprehensive NQF, including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training and from the system of vocational qualifications.

Partial national frameworks for vocational and for higher education qualifications.

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training.

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training and from the system of occupational qualifications.

Designed as comprehensive NQF; it will include all state recognised qualifications.

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training and from the professional qualifications system.

NQF covers all levels and types of vocationally or professionally oriented qualifications; general education qualifications are not included.

Designed as comprehensive NQF; currently includes qualifications from VET and highereducation; general education qualifications are not yet included.

Country Scope of the framework

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ANNEX 1Short overview of NQF developments 135

Eight

Eight

Eight proposed

Eight

Eight and a preparatory level

Eight with sublevels at levels 4and 8

Eight proposed

Eight in the QF for VET

Eight

Eight

Eight

Eight with several sublevels

Five

Eight

2012

2011

2013

2013

2012

2011

2011

2011

2010

2012

Formally adopted

Operational

Advanced development stage.Formal adoption pending

(Early) operational stage

Formally adopted

(Early) operational stage

Advanced development stageFormal adoption pending

The QF for VET is operational

Operational

(Early) operational stage

Advanced development stage Formal adoption pending

Formally adopted

Operational

(Early) operational stage

Number of levels NQF linked to EQFStage of development

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Stronger VET for better lives136

Greece

Hungary

Iceland

Ireland

Italy

Latvia

Lithuania

Luxembourg

Malta

Montenegro

Netherlands

Norway

Poland

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education andtraining.

Designed as comprehensive NQF; will include all levels and types of qualifications from formaleducation and training and open up to non-formal and informal learning.

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education andtraining.

Comprehensive NQF including all types and levels of qualifications from formal education andtraining; is open to those awarded by professional and international organisations.

Technical work pointing towards an NQF carried out.

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training.

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training.

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training.

Comprehensive NQF, including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training.

Comprehensive NQF, including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training and from the professional qualifications system.

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training; opens up towards qualifications offered outside formal education system.

Comprehensive NQF including all including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education and training;

Designed as comprehensive NQF; will include all levels and types of qualifications from formaleducation and training and open up to non-formal and informal learning.

Country Scope of the framework

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ANNEX 1Short overview of NQF developments 137

Eight

Eight

Seven

10 and four award types: major,minor, special-purpose andsupplemental (62)

Not yet been decided

Eight

Eight

Eight

Eight

Eight withsublevels at levels 1, and 7

Eight levels and an entry level

Seven; no descriptor orqualification at level 1

Eight proposed

2013

2009

2013major national qualificationsfrom formal education andtraining linked directly to EQF

2011

2011

2012

2009 and 2012 update

2011

2014

2013

Formally adopted

Formally adopted

(Early) Operational

Operational

Development/design stage

(Early) operational stage

(Early) operational stage

(Early) operational stage

Operational

(Early) operational stage

Advanced operational stage

(Early) operational stage

Advanced development stageFormal adoption pending

Number of levels NQF linked to EQFStage of development

(62) Major awards are the main qualifications at a level usually acquired through formal education and training, e.g. the leaving certificateat the end of secondary education. Minor awards recognise a range of learning outcomes with relevance in their own right and at thesame level but not the specific combination required for a major award. These awards allow learners to build up units of learning attheir own pace to meet their own needs. Special purpose awards have a rather narrow focus and certify specialisations. Supplementalawards may complement/update a previous award at the same level. See http://www.nfq.ie/nfq/en/about_NFQ/framework_levels_award_types.html [accessed 1.12.2014].

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Stronger VET for better lives138

Portugal

Romania

Serbia

Slovakia

Slovenia

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Turkey

UK ‒ England and NorthernIreland

UK ‒ Scotland

UK ‒ Wales

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education andtraining and from the national system for the recognition, validation and certification ofcompetences.

Comprehensive NQF including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education andtraining.

Comprehensive NQF being designed, aiming to bring together frameworks for higher educationand VET.

Designed as comprehensive NQF; will include all levels and types of qualifications from formaleducation and training and open up to non-formal and informal learning.

Comprehensive NQF, including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education andtraining and from system of NVQ.

Designed as comprehensive NQF; will include all levels and types of qualifications from formaleducation and training.

Comprehensive NQF, including all levels and types of qualifications from formal education andtraining; long-term aim to integrate certificates awarded outside the public system.

NQF for vocational and professional qualifications. Qualifications frameworks for highereducation adopted and being implemented.

Designed as comprehensive NQF developed; will bring together: NVQS; qualificationsframeworks for higher education and qualifications awarded by Education Ministry.

Three frameworks:(A) a QCF including vocational qualifications;(B) general education qualifications continue to be located in the NQF;(C) a higher education framework.

Comprehensive credit and qualifications framework (Scottish credit and qualificationsframework) including all level and types of qualifications.

Comprehensive credit and qualifications framework (credit and qualifications framework forWales (CQFW)) including all level and types of qualifications.

Country Scope of the framework

Page 145: Stronger VET for better lives for better lives VETThe Bruges communiqué set the agenda for VET in Europe and encourages action in line with aims of the Europe 2020 and the education

ANNEX 1Short overview of NQF developments 139

Eight

Eight

Eight proposed

Eight

Ten proposed

Eight proposed

Eight proposed

Eight proposed

Eight proposed

QCF: nine including entry levels

12 including entry levels

CQFW: nine including entrylevels

2011

2013

2010Joined UK referencing report

2010

2010

(Early) operational stage

Formally adopted

Design/development stage

Adopted, set of level descriptors beingrevised

Advanced development stage Formal adoption pending

Advanced development stageFormal adoption pending

Advanced development stage Formal adoption pending

Advanced development stage Formal adoption pending

Advanced development stageFormal adoption pending

Operational

Operational

Operational

Number of levels NQF linked to EQFStage of development

Page 146: Stronger VET for better lives for better lives VETThe Bruges communiqué set the agenda for VET in Europe and encourages action in line with aims of the Europe 2020 and the education

Country ECVET coordination points EQF coordination points EQAVET national refer. points

AT tbc ● (*) ● (*)BE (Fl) ● ■ ■

BE (Fr) ● ● To be appointedBE (Dg) ● ● To be appointedBG ● ■ ■

CH ■ ● ■

CY ■ ■ ■

CZ ■ ■ ●

DE ● (*) ● ● (*)DK ● (*) ● ● (*)EE ● ● To be appointedEL ■ ■ ■

ES ■ ■ ■

FI tbc ■ ■

FR ● ● ●

HR tbc ● ●

HU ■ ● ■

IE ■ ■ ■

IS ■ ■ To be appointedIT tbc ■ ■

LT ■ ■ ■

LU ■ ■ ■

LV tbc ● ●

MT ■ ■ ■

NL ■ (*) ■ (*) ■ (*)NO tbc ● ●

PL tbc ● ●

PT ■ ■ ●

RO ■ ● ■

SE ■ ● ■

SI ■ ■ ■

SK ■ ● ■

TR tbc ● ●

UK (England) ● ● ●

UK (N. Ireland) ■ ■ ●

UK (Scotland) ■ ■ ●

UK (Wales) ■ ● ■

ANNEX 2

ECVET coordination points, EQF coordination points, EQAVETnational reference points

● National coordination or reference point.■ Same institution acts as national coordination/reference point.(*) Different institution, but under the same roof.

Source: Cedefop ECVET monitoring 2013, EQAVET Secretariat survey 2013, EQF European Commission.

Page 147: Stronger VET for better lives for better lives VETThe Bruges communiqué set the agenda for VET in Europe and encourages action in line with aims of the Europe 2020 and the education
Page 148: Stronger VET for better lives for better lives VETThe Bruges communiqué set the agenda for VET in Europe and encourages action in line with aims of the Europe 2020 and the education

VET

ENEN

Europe 123, 570 01 Thessaloniki (Pylea), GREECE

PO Box 22427, 551 02 Thessaloniki, GREECE

Tel. +30 2310490111, Fax +30 2310490020, E-mail: [email protected]

European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training

Cedefop’s monitoring reporton vocational educationand training policies 2010-14

Stronger VETfor better lives

Stronger VETfor better lives

European countries’ joint work on vocational education and training (VET) shows clear signs of progress but there is more to do. In many countries, the Bruges communiqué of 2010 has inspired systemic reforms focusing on learning-outcomes-oriented standards and curricula. In several cases, these were triggered by the work on qualifications frameworks. In other countries, the main impact of the communiqué is reflected in their work on apprenticeships but there are challenges in securing its quality. The development of national qualifications frameworks (NQFs), measures to reduce early leaving, and policies to promote lifelong learning for low-skilled and other groups at risk have also been high on national policy agendas. Work on the European tools will need to ensure they interact better with and focus more on European citizens and employers to produce the intended benefit. Other challenges include better use of information on labour market outcomes of VET graduates, strengthening efforts to promote creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship in VET, and ensuring professional development opportunities for VET teachers and trainers.

3067 EN – TI-RF-14-001-EN-N – doi:10.2801/8213

ISBN 978-92-896-1660-7

ISSN: 1608-7089


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