Structural Levels Structural Levels of Languageof Language

Lecture 1Lecture 1

Ferdinand de Saussure Ferdinand de Saussure "Language is a system sui generis “ = "Language is a system sui generis “ = a a

system where everything holds togethersystem where everything holds together

The division of language into different The division of language into different structural levels is made only for the structural levels is made only for the sake of investigation. sake of investigation.

We have to separate one linguistic fact We have to separate one linguistic fact from another in order to analyse it from another in order to analyse it thoroughly. thoroughly.

Which are the structural Which are the structural levels of language?levels of language?

phonologicalphonological

morphologicalmorphological

syntacticalsyntactical

lexico-semanticallexico-semantical

Each linguistic level has its Each linguistic level has its own specific features own specific features

Phonological – Phonological – phonemephoneme

Morphological - Morphological - morphememorpheme

Syntactical – Syntactical – wordword

Lexico-semantical – Lexico-semantical – phrase/clausephrase/clause

Benveniste - the hierarchical Benveniste - the hierarchical nature of language structure nature of language structure

A phonemeA phoneme + + a phonemea phoneme = = a a morphememorpheme

-e-e + + -r-r = = -er-er; ; -f-f + + -u-u + + -l-l = = -ful-ful; ; -m-m + + -e-e + + -n-n + + -t-t = = -ment-ment

A morphemeA morpheme + + a morphemea morpheme = = a a wordword

drive-drive- + + -er-er = = driverdriver, , beauty-beauty- + + -ful-ful = = beautifulbeautiful; ; refine-refine- + + -ment-ment = = refinementrefinement

A wordA word + + a worda word = = a phrasea phrase ( (a a clauseclause) )

blueblue + + skysky = = blue skyblue sky; ; nicenice + + songsong = = nice songnice song; ; highhigh + + mountainsmountains = = high high

mountainsmountains

A sentenceA sentence ( (clauseclause) + ) + a sentencea sentence ((causecause) = ) = sentences of a higher sentences of a higher orderorder

the telephone rangthe telephone rang + + the boy the boy woke upwoke up = = The telephone rang The telephone rang and the boy woke upand the boy woke up..

Phonemes, Phonemes, morphemesmorphemes, , wordswords

It is not possible for an It is not possible for an item of one level to item of one level to combine with an item combine with an item of another level of another level

while preserving the while preserving the qualities of the qualities of the original level original level

an item of one level an item of one level can pass over and be can pass over and be integrated into integrated into another level another level

it acquires the it acquires the features of the level features of the level into which it has been into which it has been integrated, integrated, abandoning the abandoning the features it had in the features it had in the previous level previous level

Is it possible to have a morpheme Is it possible to have a morpheme made of only one phoneme?made of only one phoneme?

YesYes, , in English, there are morphemes consisting only of one phoneme

Example – (Example – (-s-s ) marker: ) marker:

the -s marker for the plural of the the -s marker for the plural of the nounsnouns; ;

the -s marker for 3rd p. sgthe -s marker for 3rd p. sg.; .;

the -s marker for the genitive casethe -s marker for the genitive case

What about morphemes? Are there What about morphemes? Are there any words consisting of only one any words consisting of only one

morpheme?morpheme?

,,, , ,,,,, , , , ;;

It seems that there are many words consisting of only It seems that there are many words consisting of only

one morpheme.one morpheme.

a root morphemea root morpheme + + zero morphemezero morpheme = = wordword

eyeeye + + 00ºº = = eyeeye

There is structural qualitative difference between a There is structural qualitative difference between a

morpheme and a wordmorpheme and a word

J.Molhova: There are also many points J.Molhova: There are also many points in language where the respective in language where the respective

levels not only function together but levels not only function together but

intersectintersect no no morphologicalmorphological markers for markers for gendergender

However, However, gendergender exists since some nouns exists since some nouns are substituted by the pronoun ‘are substituted by the pronoun ‘hehe’, others ’, others by by ‘‘sheshe', and still others by ‘', and still others by ‘itit’’

Ex.Ex. , , , , , , , , Since it is not expressed on the

morphological level then it should be part of the semantic structure of the noun

there is a similar parallel with the there is a similar parallel with the

category of category of numbernumber

calf

bull

cow

children

father

mother

person

person

person

people, family, cattle people, family, cattle

Their form does not point to pluralityTheir form does not point to plurality On the syntactic level they always On the syntactic level they always

require a verb in the plural require a verb in the plural The element of plurality is somewhere The element of plurality is somewhere

in the noun in the noun If it is not in the grammatical form then If it is not in the grammatical form then

it must beit must be in its semantic structure in its semantic structure

The morpheme is the smallest The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unitmeaningful unit

J.Molhova: every form has its content / J.Molhova: every form has its content / meaning; and every content / meaning has meaning; and every content / meaning has its form its form

Grammatical category

form meaning

the difference between a the difference between a grammatical and a lexical item grammatical and a lexical item

table - tables; cat - cats; girl- girlstable - tables; cat - cats; girl- girls

table, cat, girltable, cat, girl

the common forms the common forms singularsingular of the nouns of the nouns tables, cats, girlstables, cats, girls

the common the common pluralplural forms of the nouns. forms of the nouns.

This description refers both to This description refers both to the form and its meaning the form and its meaning

The form is one and the same for the three The form is one and the same for the three items and the meaning accordingly items and the meaning accordingly

00º -º - a grammatical form for the singular of a grammatical form for the singular of the noun, common case the noun, common case

-s – a grammatical marker with the meaning -s – a grammatical marker with the meaning of plurality in English of plurality in English

the morphemes 0 and -s have these the morphemes 0 and -s have these meanings irrespective of the lexical meanings irrespective of the lexical

meanings of the itemsmeanings of the items

HypothesisHypothesis: : a grammatical category a grammatical category as a specific form with a specific meaning as a specific form with a specific meaning independent of the lexical meaning of the independent of the lexical meaning of the

itemitem

She is a teacher. She is a teacher. (a noun)(a noun) She is a bla. She is a bla. (a noun, singular)(a noun, singular) The bla blas The bla blas (a verb, 3rd p. sg.)(a verb, 3rd p. sg.)

WordsWords consist of strings of sounds, consist of strings of sounds, forming the phonological system of forming the phonological system of

languagelanguage every word is phonologically motivated every word is phonologically motivated a word of one language cannot consist of a word of one language cannot consist of

phonemes belonging to the system of phonemes belonging to the system of sounds of another language sounds of another language

Ex. Ex. borrowings - borrowings - camping - camping - къмпингкъмпинг The former English phoneme is substituted The former English phoneme is substituted

by a Bulgarian oneby a Bulgarian one

a a wordword must have a must have a grammatical grammatical formform compatible with the existing compatible with the existing

grammatical patterns in the grammatical patterns in the

languagelanguage It is not possible for any word to function It is not possible for any word to function

without having a grammatical form without having a grammatical form It is not possible for any word to follow the It is not possible for any word to follow the

grammatical pattern of another language grammatical pattern of another language

every word must be grammatically every word must be grammatically motivatedmotivated

The grammatical motivation The grammatical motivation actually turns a actually turns a morphememorpheme or a or a

group of morphemesgroup of morphemes into a into a wordword

It is impossible to add anything more It is impossible to add anything more to the word on the morphological level. to the word on the morphological level.

Ex.Ex. girl – girlsgirl – girls

girl-girl-

girl- + -0 = girlgirl- + -0 = girl

girl- + -s = girls girl- + -s = girls

Grammatical motivation can be Grammatical motivation can be considered as grammatical considered as grammatical

completeness completeness

For this reason one can discuss For this reason one can discuss problems of meaning connected with problems of meaning connected with the word with greater confidence than the word with greater confidence than

with the morphemewith the morpheme