Structure of the earth

layered sphere inner core: outer core mantle crust

continental - felsic oceanic - mafic

plate tectonics

surface is made of plates that move around and bump into each other

effects earthquakes volcanoes mountains

rocks and minerals

minerals: building blocks of rocks rocks

rock cycle how rocks form how they relate to each other

igneous sedimentary metamorphic

economic minerology resources & reserves - chapt 8 ore

economic deposit (includes host material) examples

gold - 0001% (10 ppm) iron - 20%

metals - uses and distribution - p 359 nonmetals strategic minerals

mineral extraction

mining techniques processing effects response conservation

recycling substitution

geologic hazards

outlook prediction - date, time, magnitude forecast - likelihood of occurrence,

magnitude

earthquakes

faults - energy stored and released effects magnitude & intensity human impact prediction and forecast

volcanoes

products lava ash gas

effects human impact - none known prediction and forecast

floods

river leaves its banks effects human impact

increased drainage basin efficiency floods are higher and sooner

prediction and forecast

landslides

slope moves downhill human impact

oversteepen undercut add weight add water

prediction and forecast

the coast

high energy environment flooding and erosion

Weather & Climate weather

physical conditions of the atmosphere at a given place and time may rapidly fluctuate

climate long-term weather patterns average conditions fluctuates gradually

atmosphere

“ocean of air” composition - table p 375

N2 - 78% O2 - 21% Ar - 1% CO2 - 0035% H2O - 0 to 4%

development of the atmosphere early - 4.5 to 3.5 BYA

emitted by volcanoes no free oxygen

3.5 to 1.8 BYA water forms oceans CO2 dissolves into the water life converts the CO2 to organic material, rock, and O2

oxygen intermittently present in ocean 18 BYA to present

O2 gradually increased 2% of atmosphere about 550 MYA

layered - fig p 366

troposphere 75% of atmosphere by mass

stratosphere ozone

mesosphere thermosphere

lower part - ionosphere

sun’s energy distribution - fig p 377 work

energy changes from high quality to low quality (infrared)

“greenhouse” reradiated from surface to clouds and back cycling of energy between surface and atmosphere

stored in oceans and atmosphere by water used by plants moves as wind moves as ocean currents

weather

driving forces sun : uneven

distribution of heat

equator get more energy/unit area

earth’s rotation coriolis effect -

deflects moving air

effects circulation patterns - fig p

379 convection cells - fig p 378 jet streams - fig p 380 frontal weather - fig p 380 cyclonic storms - fig p 382

hurricanes & typhoons seasonal winds - fig p 383

monsoons

weather modification

can’t do much initiation of precipitation

El Nino/ Southern Oscillation

figure - p 386 periodic, dramatic change in weather

patterns related to equatorial winds and ocean

currents in the Pacific Ocean effects: shift in rainfall, alteration of

ocean currents

climate change trends & patterns - fig p 384 rate causes

greenhouse gases - fig p 387 moving continents natural & human

effects - figs p 388 & 389 movement of climatic zones changing rainfall patterns changing lengths of seasons more dramatic weather?

solutions?

Air pollution

foul, unclean air 120 million metric tons of air

pollution/yr released in US

sources natural

esp. in rural areas volcanoes sea spray forest fires plants viruses dust methane (from

digestion)

human up to 90% of total in

cities pollutant type

primary - released as harmful

secondary - modified in the air

source type fugitive point

conventional/criteria pollutants

regulated in Clean Air Act of 1970 figs p 399, 400, 401 sulfur compounds nitrogen compounds carbon oxides particulates VOCs (hydrocarbons) photochemical oxidants metals and halogens (including Pb)

unconventional/non-criteria pollutants

regulated asbestos PCBs aesthetic degradation

noise odor light

indoor

concentrated smoking asbestos plastic emissions radon chemicals indoor fires

climate, topography, and atmo. processes temp inversions - fig p 405 urban heat islands & dust domes long range transport - fig p 406 stratospheric ozone - fig p 406

formation oxygen altered by UV

destruction - fig p 407 by UV by Cl from CFCs

effects of air pollution types of effects

chronic vs acute toxic diseases hormonal synergistic

human health plant pathology acid deposition - fig p 410 visibility

control of air pollution move sources away taller smoke stacks particulate removal - fig p 413 sulfur removal

fuel switching & fuel cleaning limestone injection & fluidized bed combustion - fig p 414 flue gas desulfurization & sulfur recovery

nitrogen oxide control catalytic converters (ruined by Pb)

hydrocarbon controls PCV in cars after burners

Laws - clean air acts

1963 1970 1990

marketing pollution rights ozone protection auto emissions

currently under review by Supreme Court

current conditions/future prospects

improving in first world - fig p 418

degrading in second and third world

Water resources importance

essential for life 60% of body 70% of Earth’s surface

source volcanoes comets

hydrologic cycle - fig p 424

water distribution - table p 426 oceans - 97% glaciers/snow - 2% groundwater - 0.28% lakes/reservoirs

fresh - 0.009% saline - 0.007%

also soil moisture - 0.005% atmo - 0.001% wetlands - 0.0003% (typo in book) rivers and streams - 0.0001%

groundwater movement

fig p 428 infiltration zone of aeration (soil moisture) water table zone of saturation water moves under pressure of gravity

through pores in the rock/sediment (rarely in cracks

surface water movement

2/3 - seasonal floods 1/3 - stable runoff

freshwater sources runoff

direct storage and redistribution

groundwater alternatives

desalinization cloud seeding icebergs

drought

long-term shortages cyclic

types of water use

withdrawal - total removed consumption - not returned degradation - returned in a poorer

state

quantities used - graph p 431 agriculture commercial/industrial

cooling water for power plants metal refining petroleum refining paper

domestic public lost

implication/effects of use groundwater - best source

degradation drawdown of water table - fig p 435 mining

surface water reservoirs evaporation leakage siltation

in-stream users

management

watershed management conservation by users pricing

Water pollution

degradation of water quality sources

point non-point atmosphere in-stream users

water pollution types (table p 449)

infectious agents - fig p 452 oxygen-demanding wastes - fig p 451

BOD examine - dissolved oxygen & life forms present

nutrients eutrophication - nutrients stimulate growth vegetation chokes water clarity decreases upon death - produce oxygen demanding waste examine - nitrogen and phosphorous content

water pollution types

table p 449 toxic inorganics organic chemicals

pesticides petrochemicals - LUST pharmaceuticals

sediment thermal pollution

current water quality

fig p 457 1972 clean water act

regulated point sources make all waters fishable and

swimmable

current problems

feedlots non-point source

ag runoff storm sewers

USTs landfills septic/sewage treatment developing countries

other water pollution problems groundwater and drinking water supplies

fig p 460 many sources filtration capacity is limited contamination difficult to remove

oceans - fig p 462 trash ag runoff nets petroleum spills

natural human

pollution control source reduction land management human waste

septic tanks & lagoons - fig p 465 municipal sewage treatment - fig p 466

primary - filtering secondary tertiary

other methods septic effluent to central collection wetland use

laws - table p 469 clean water act

1972 - original amending and reauthorizing

safe drinking water act regulates municipal supplies mandates testing and imposes limits CERCLA/superfund Great Lakes water quality agreement London dumping convention