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Service Learning: Salient Strategies and Outcomes

Gwen Knight

Southern Utah University

Dr. Patrick ClarkeStudent Affairs in Higher EducationPADM 6550-701

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Abstract

Service learning assists institutions of higher education to demonstrate commitment to

public concerns in the community and enhances student development, learning and engagement.

Service learning evolved from the historical mission of higher education institutions to foster

social responsibility and citizenship and has several definitions all consisting of similar

components. Research has provided evidence of positive academic and developmental incomes.

Universities and colleges in the State of Utah embrace service learning and engage students and

faculty in its pedagogy. Service learning is a salient topic for student affairs practitioners as they

most likely will play a role in the implementation and facilitation of service learning programs.

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Service learning increases the ability of higher education institutions to demonstrate

commitment to public concerns in their communities while fulfilling their responsibility to

enhance student development, learning, and engagement. Student affairs practitioners assist with

the facilitation of this commitment. Service learning is an area of interest that has expanded to

include colleges and universities in the State of Utah. This paper will examine literature and

research in order to define service learning, provide a brief history of the pedagogy, discuss

impacts on learning and student development and highlight service learning programs in Utah’s

higher education institutions.

Several definitions for service learning exist. Service learning is defined by Jacoby

(1996) as:

A form of experiential education in which students engage in activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote student learning and development. Reflection and reciprocity are key components of service-learning. (p.5)

This comprehensive definition encompasses higher education institutional outcomes of

commitment to public concern as well as student learning and development. Bringle and

Hatcher (1999) summarize service learning as an educational experience that guides student

learning. The experience includes an organized service activity coupled with structured

reflection. They expand on this definition by identifying faculty as having the responsibility of

ensuring that the service learning experience fits with course objectives. Staff of the supervising

community agency is responsible for monitoring and shaping the experience so that it is

congruent with the student’s goals (Bringle & Hatcher, 1999). Bringle, Hatcher and McIntosh

(2006) added further to this definition by emphasizing that the service learning experience is

both “course-based” and “credit-bearing”.

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Cooper (2013) defines service learning as natural learning occurring as a result of

“observation, personal involvement, and problem solving in a real life situation” (p.296).

Whereas Bringle and Hatcher (1999) focus on structured reflection as a vital part of service

learning, Cooper (2013) espouses that learning occurs naturally as the learner solves a problem,

thus making learning more meaningful (transformative learning). Service learning is also

described as a philosophy, program type and a pedagogy (Cooper 2014).

Even though there are a range of definitions, Felten and Clayton (2011) identify how

these definitions converge on three core characteristics. The first core characteristic is that

service learning experiences advance community purposes and both academic and civic learning

goals. The second characteristic is that these experiences involve collaboration. Faculty, staff,

students, educational institutions, and community organizations collaborate to accomplish shared

objectives and build capacity among all partners. The third characteristic is that service learning

experiences incorporate critical reflections and assessment processes. These processes are

designed and facilitated to create and authenticate meaningful service and learning outcomes.

Service learning experiences, even though they reflect these characteristics, vary based on

institution objectives, context and constraints. Courses involving service learning range from

first-year surveys to graduate seminars and can include short-term, semester long, and multiyear

activities as well as multicourse projects. Responsibility levels vary and service may be direct or

indirect and may also contain a research component. (Felten & Clayton, 2011).

Community can be widely defined and might refer to the college campus, local

neighborhood, nearby city, another state or county or even online. It may also include more than

one partner ranging from grassroots to sizeable for-profit or nonprofit organizations (Felten &

Clayton, 2011). Reciprocity is vital as it creates a strong connection between the institution

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(academic context) and the community (public concerns). Reflection can take many forms

including written or oral, individual or collaborative, and reinforces the connection between

academics and the community need. The frequency of the reflection and feedback received may

vary as well. Service learning is viewed as a powerful medium for learning and social change

based upon the interdependence of learning process outcomes and community process outcomes

(Felten & Clayton, 2011).

Historically, the mission of higher education has been to foster social responsibility and

citizenship (Kezar & Rhoads, 2001). The aim of the earliest colleges established in the United

States was to prepare religious and civic leaders for colonial communities (Felten & Clayton,

2011.) Thomas Jefferson along with others envisioned universities as fostering aptitudes of self-

governance. The Morrill Act of 1862 facilitated increased accessibility to higher education by

creating land-grant colleges and led to the enhancement of economy, technology, and civic

development in the United States. This theme is central to contemporary calls for higher

education institutions to educate students as citizens and to engage with broader communities

(Felten & Clayton, 2011). Service learning thus emerged as a vital element of efforts to

“connect both disciplinary learning and general education with this historic and increasing salient

commitment to public purposes” (Felten & Clayton, 2011 p.75).

Innovation in higher education in the late 1960s and early 1970s created and developed

the pedagogy of multiculturalism, learning communities, collaborative learning and service

learning (Kezar & Rhoads, 2001). All of these innovations evolved from newly applied

philosophies of education. Theses philosophies were based on experiential approaches to

learning and share the core assumptions of the thinking of John Dewey involving dualisms in

philosophy (Kezar & Rhoads, 2001). The basic theory behind service learning is credited to

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Dewey’s belief that the key to learning is the interaction of experience with knowledge and skills

(Felten & Clayton, 2011). Dewey’s philosophy was that because people are holistic beings, they

learn best through the connection of mind, body, spirit, experience, and knowledge (Kezar &

Rhoads, 2001).

The work of Dewey also provided a philosophical basis for the role of reflection in the

learning process in that reflection connects experience and theory (Bringle & Hatcher, 1999).

When reflection activities aid examination of learning opportunities gained by personal

experience through service learning, theory acquires deeper meaning. Theory in context of

information presented in the classroom or assigned readings is often viewed by students as

having no personal relevance. The active learning that takes place during service learning helps

students connect theory and personal experience, thus strengthening learning. When students

practice reflection, new perspectives leading to development immerge and service learning

experiences then become educational experiences (Bringle & Hatcher, 1999).

During the 1980s, David Kolb built on John Dewey’s philosophy by proposing the

Theory of Experiential Learning (Cooper, 2013). This process involves the progression of the

learner beginning with concrete experience, reflections on that experience, formation of new

ideas and concepts based on that reflection and ends with testing the new concepts (Cooper,

2013). The 1980’s also produced discussions as to how service learning could address current

educational concerns, particularly the lack of relevance throughout undergraduate curriculum

(Kezar & Rhoads, 2001). It appeared to some that a gap between what students were learning in

college and the larger world was limiting the vision of students and reducing the effectiveness of

college. Organizations such as Campus Opportunity Outreach League grew in the 1980’s in

response to the irrelevance of curriculum and a desire to create more meaningful undergraduate

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experiences by institutional leaders and students. These organizations created opportunities and

incentives for students to relate educational experiences to community service activities (Kezar

& Rhoads, 2001).

The changing role of faculty during the 1980s and 1990s also evoked criticisms that

contributed to the rise of service learning (Kezar & Rhoads, 2001). Faculty became pressured as

well as rewarded to focus on research and being published, thus removing them from the

teaching component in higher education. Service learning was seen as an innovative strategy

with potential to rejuvenate faculty. The pedagogical strategy of service learning needed

evaluative findings thus linking service learning to teaching and research (Kezar & Rhoads,

2001).

Colleges and universities as well as faculty also received criticisms during the 1980s and

1990s for their lack of responsiveness to public concerns (Kezar & Rhoads, 2001). A body of

literature emerging during this time period raised concerns about conceptions of civic-

mindedness and community, targeting education as both a problem and as a source of a possible

solution. Service learning activities connecting faculty teaching and student learning to

community concerns, enabled institutions to address community needs. This connection also

challenged students toponder their roles as both community members and citizens of a

democratic society (Kezar & Rhoads, 2001).

The presidents of Brown, Georgetown and Stanford Universities along with the president

of the Education Commission of the States, were aware of the afore-mentioned media portrayal

(“Who We Are”, 2014). They believed that higher education institutions and their students were

indeed concerned about their communities and not unresponsive to public concerns as reported

by the media. They founded Campus Compact in 1985 based on the belief that additional

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students on campuses throughout the country would engage in community service with proper

encouragements and supportive structures. Campus Compact assisted in creating structures

including offices and staff to coordinate community engagement efforts and train faculty to

integrate community engagement into teaching and research. This contributed to the

advancement of public purposes of higher education institutions by strengthening their ability to

improve their communities and prepare students for civic and social responsibility. Campus

Compact is now a national coalition made up of 1100 college and university presidents and is the

only national high education association dedicated exclusively to campus-based civic

engagement (“Who We Are”, 2014).

In 2005, the Community Engagement Classification was initiated as an elective Carnegie

Classification (“Carnegie Community Engagement Classification”, 2014). This classification

identifies higher education’s commitment to community engagement by strengthening the bonds

between community and campus through the practice of service. Institutions of higher education

may apply for this classification consisting of three categories: curricular engagement, outreach

and partnerships, or the combination thereof. Much of the criteria for the classification was

inspired by Campus Compact’s indicators of engagement (“Carnegie Community Engagement

Classification”, 2014).

Student interest in service learning is steadily increasing. Service learning was recently

identified as “one of the fastest growing areas of interest on many college campuses” based on

the devotion of the college-aged population to participate in service activities (Schuh, Jones,

Harper, & Associates, 2011, p. 461). Many students are completing service in high school and

desire to continue this service as they pursue their studies in college. Faculty who desire to

engage students more deeply in learning realize that placing them in service opportunities that

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evoke students’ interests will benefit learning. The capacities of students are strengthened,

institutions are better informed about the community through this involvement, and the potential

of communities to remedy their problems is enhanced (Schuh et al, 2011).

Research has shown that service learning positively impacts personal and academic

development. A study by Astin, Vogelgesan, Ikeda, and Yee (2000), identifies principal findings

concerning positive effects on student outcomes. These include academic performance (GPA,

writing skills, critical thinking skills), values (commitment to promoting racial understanding

and to activism), choice of a service career and plans to participate in service after graduation

from college. The study also found that participation in community service had a positive impact

on development in leadership areas including leadership activities, self-rated leadership ability,

interpersonal skills and self-efficacy; however, the benefits to these developmental areas were

not significantly impacted when the service was part of a service learning course (Astin et al,

2000).

Academics was identified as the area most strongly impacted by service learning,

especially writing skills (Astin et al, 2000). The power of reflection as the medium for

connecting the course material to the service was deemed key. Discussion with other students,

professors, and written reflection (papers and journals) were all found to be effective forms of

reflection. The frequency with which professors connect the service experience to the course

subject matter was shown to have an effect on whether the service learning experience enhanced

the academic material. The amount of training the student receives prior to participating in the

service learning also contributed to the degree of enhancement of the academic course material.

Findings also indicate that service-learning courses should be specifically designed to help

students relate the experience to academic coursework. Results also suggested that participation

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in service learning not only increased the sense of personal effectiveness and civic responsibility

in students, it also did the same for faculty. The majority of students indicated that they felt their

service learning experiences made a difference in the community (Astin et al, 2000).

Additional findings of Astin et al (2000) provide further insights into outcomes. The

study identifies that the single most salient factor associated with positive service-learning

experiences is the student’s degree of interest in the subject matter. This not only enhances the

understanding of coursework, but contributes to the student’s view that service itself was a

learning experience. Participation in service has a strong effect on a student’s decision to pursue

a career in the area of service (Astin et al, 2000). This makes sense since students have the

opportunity to immerse themselves through their service in career areas that interest them. This

immersion experience provides an opportunity to discover if they have passion to pursue the

career based on the enjoyment of their experience, or if they find it mundane and unappealing.

The findings of Astin et al (2000) indicate that service learning is effective in facilitating

outcomes for students resulting in an increased sense of personal efficacy, an increased

awareness of personal values, increased awareness of the world and increased engagement in the

classroom experience.

Other studies have similar findings. Eyler, Giles, Stenson, and Gray (2000), summarize

many of these findings in categories identified as personal, social and learning outcomes.

Personal outcomes include that service learning has a positive effect on student personal

development in areas of sense of personal efficacy, identity, moral development and spiritual

growth. Their findings show additionally that interpersonal development of the student is

positively impacted in that the student’s leadership and communication skills are strengthened as

well as the ability to work well with others (Eyler et al, 2000).

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Social outcomes reiterate many those described by Astin et al (2000). Service learning

has a positive effect on facilitating racial and cultural understanding and reducing stereotypes

(Eyler et al, 2000). A sense of social responsibility and citizenship skills are positively

influenced by service learning. In addition, students participating in service learning appear to

have more commitment to service and continue to be involved with community service after

graduation (Eyler et al, 2000).

Learning outcomes postulate that service learning positively impacts students’ academic

learning. Reports by student and faculty identify service learning as improving students’ ability

to apply what they have learned in the “real world” (Eyler et al, 2000). Participation in service

learning also has an impact on the academic outcomes of problem analysis, critical thinking,

demonstrated complexity of understanding, and cognitive development. Quality feedback from

professors to students has been found to contribute to learning course material and use of skills

taught in the course. The finding that service learning contributes to career development is also

reiterated by Eyler et al (2000).

In addition the study by Eyler et al (2000) addresses research in the additional area of

students’ relationships with higher education institutions. Service learning has been shown to

improve students’ satisfaction with college. Students are more likely to graduate if they are

engaged with service learning (Eyler et al, 2000).

Some of the same program characteristics espoused by Astin et al (2000) are summarized

in Eyler’s study as well. Astin and Eyler both point to reflection as having an impact on student

learning as well as the application of the service to academic course content. Eyler et al (2000)

also describes the quality of the placement as having positive impact on student personal and

interpersonal outcomes. Duration and intensity of the service learning experience as well as

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exposure to diversity during the experience contribute to outcomes. The diversity area especially

impacts personal outcomes including identity development and cultural understanding.

Community voice contributes to cultural understanding as well (Eyler et al, 2000).

A programmatic approach to service learning would be to establish an office that would

collect information from community agencies needing help and then match students seeking to

provide service to fill the need (Schuh et al, 2011). Faculty and staff serve as “experts” in

identifying community needs as well as help students find a good fit for the student’s interest

(Schuh et al, 2011). For example, faculty would use this office to identify agencies whose needs

match the subject of their coursework and who are willing to allow students to participate in the

service learning experience through volunteer service. Faculty would then refer their students to

these agencies.

Student affairs practitioners are often involved in service learning. They support faculty

by assisting them develop service options connected to specific course objectives. They can also

serve as skilled facilitators guiding student reflection (Kezar & Rhoads, 2001). Because student

affairs practitioners are trained in areas of cognitive and affective development, they can offer

assistance to faculty in developing service-learning modules and courses. In addition, they have

opportunities to create and support their own service options in areas such as career service,

residence life, or advising (Kezar & Rhoads, 2001).

Colleges and universities in Utah embrace service learning. An examination of these

various programs provides further insights into the concepts of service learning and their salient

adaptation to Utah higher education institutions.

At Utah State University in Logan, Utah, service learning is part of the Center for Civic

Engagement and Service Learning (“Center for Civic Engagement and Service Learning”, 2014).

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The Center was officially created July 1, 2013 and combined the staff, missions, and values of

several existing campus programs including Aggie Blue Bikes, Education Outreach, Service-

Learning, Student Sustainability Office, Val R. Christensen Service Center, and Utah

Conservation Corps programs. The first major project of the center was to complete the Carnegie

Community Engagement Classification for Utah State University. This mission of the center is

to connect USU students with service, sustainability and outreach (“Center for Civic

Engagement and Service Learning”, 2014). Components of service learning used in the USU’s

definition include that it is a teaching and learning strategy incorporating meaningful community

service, instruction and reflection, enriching the learning experience, strengthening community

and teaching civic responsibility. Three service learning experiences are highlighted including

working with refugees, exploring environmental missions and passions and a summer project of

in the areas of public health, education and engineering in Uganda. A Service Learning Scholar

certification program exists to motivate students to participate. Student feedback for service

learning was congruent with research outcomes in that students identified the service learning

experience as the most useful experience in college. Students also felt that it provided a feeling

of “making a difference” and served as preparation for the “real world” and a future career

(“Service Learning”, 2014). In addition, USU extends service learning opportunities to students

attending their Utah State University-Eastern campus in Price Utah through the SUN

Involvement Center (“SUN Involvement Center”, 2014).

The Lowell Bennion Community Service Center at the University of Utah located in Salt

Lake City was founded in 1987 (“History”, 2014). Projects serving elderly people, youth, and

special populations were among the first opportunities at the center and still provide the majority

of volunteer opportunities. These projects are student directed usually in partnership with

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existing public and private agencies. The focus of the Bennion Center is to make connections

with agency partners, engage faculty in the pedagogy of service learning, promote campus-wide

civic engagement and strengthen the U’s Service Learning Scholars Program. Each year, 8500

student volunteers provide 225,000 hours of community service (“History”, 2014). The mission

of the Bennion Center involves fostering lifelong civic participation and service through

university engagement with the greater community promoting learning, action and change

(“Mission and Values”, 2014). Over one hundred community engaged learning courses are

taught at the University of Utah. Student volunteers have a variety of events and projects to

choose from including Saturday Service Projects, Legacy of Lowell, Community Engagement

Day, Hunger Banquet and Project Youth to name a few (“Events”, 2014).

The Volunteer and Service Learning Center is the home of service learning at Utah

Valley University (UVU) in Orem. Service learning at UVU is described as an engaged teaching

and learning strategy in which students participate in structured service activities that meet the

following criteria: strengthen the community, enhance students’ sense of civic responsibility and

community engagement, enhance discipline-based knowledge and skills, encourage in-depth

understanding of course content and broader appreciation of the discipline, and immerse students

in subject matter and its application (“Service Learning”, 2013). The center provides the

following assistance to students and faculty: contacts to community agencies and officials

supportive of service learning, assistance in developing community partnerships, direction to

useful resources to learn more about service learning, guidance to faculty in designating a course

as a service learning course, ideas and examples of possible service learning projects, and help to

students to identify useful service learning projects (“Service, Learning”, 2013). UVU also

offers a Service Scholar Program designed for students who wish to have a structured emphasis

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on service and civic engagement during college. Participation in this program assists students to

earn the Engaged Learning University Distinction (ELUD) (“Service Scholar Program”, 2013).

The Center for Service and Learning at Brigham Young University (BYU) in Provo, Utah

supports the fourth Aim of BYU Education which is lifelong learning and service (“Mission and

History”, 2014). The center coordinates service opportunities for BYU students in the local

community. The Center and its programs known as Y Serve (aptly named), offers 70 community

service programs serving individuals with cognitive or physical disabilities, the elderly, youth

and at risk children. Some programs originate in the Center, but many are aligned with non-

profit community agencies. Each program is administered by student leader volunteers. The

mission of the Center is to “provide every student with a meaningful service opportunity”.

During 2012, 24,990 BYU students volunteered 125,499 hours. In addition to academic, social

and leadership growth, Y Serve seeks to add a spiritual component to student development as

well (“Mission and History”, 2014). BYU offers the BYU Service Certification that can be

earned by students participating in service learning (“Recognition”, 2014).

Service learning at Southern Utah University (SUU) in Cedar City, Utah is defined as “a

curricular-based educational experience in which students participate in and then reflect upon

organized service activities that meet community identified needs”(“Service Learning & Civic

Engagement”, 2014). SUU’s definition reiterates that activities are designed so students can gain

a more thorough understanding of course content and a greater appreciation of the discipline as

well as an enhanced sense of civic responsibility. Service learning experiences are designated as

experiences that relate to course subject matter, provide a needed service, provide a method for

students to reflect on what they learned and receive earned credit not for the service alone but for

learning related to the subject of the course. In 2010, SUU applied for the Carnegie Community

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Engagement Classification (“Service Learning and Civic Engagement”, 2014). Students at SUU

can earn a Service Learning Scholar designation on their transcripts and are honored at

graduation for fulfilling designated requirements (“Service Learning Scholar Program”, 2014).

It does not appear that Dixie State University DSU) located in St. George Utah has a

service learning center, but instead has a faculty coordinator. Service learning at Dixie State is

defined in the university catalog (“DSU 2014-2015 Catalogue”, 2014). The definition states that

service learning supports DSU’s educational mission to prepare citizen scholars to make

responsible and meaningful contributions to society, partly through service to others. Service

learning is described as a “much needed and desired academic component complementing the

extensive public service efforts of DSU students” (“DSU 2014-2015 Catalogue”, 2014). It is

also described as a highly effective teaching pedagogy combining community service into course

curriculum. The components of service learning are congruent with those of other universities in

Utah in that students gain a broader understanding of course content and better understand the

discipline, community needs, are met and students reflect on their service and develop their sense

of civic responsibility. The catalog states that service learning opportunities are available to

DSU students in various courses taught at the university (“DSU 2014-2015 Catalogue”, 2014).

The two colleges in Utah, Salt Lake Community College (SLCC) located in Salt Lake

and Snow College in Ephraim, also offer service learning experiences to students. At SLCC, the

mission of the Thayne Center for Service Learning involves establishing capacity-building

relationships with organizations in the community, facilitating service learning development

opportunities for faculty and coordinating service leadership programs for students who are “out

to change the world”(“Thayne Center for Service Learning, 2014). Competencies that students

achieve through participation in service learning include lifelong commitment to effecting social

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change, collaborative leadership and critical and reflective thinking”(“Thayne Center for Service

Learning, 2014). The Thayne Center was established in 1994. It manages five student

leadership programs and models co-curricula on social change theory and fundamentals of

service learning pedagogy. The Center coordinate’s SLCC’s community partner outreach

program working directly with nonprofits. It also manages SLCC’s academic service-learning

program and in 2012-2013, 250 designated service learning courses enrolled 5, 570 students who

contributed 73,468 hours to the Salt Lake Community. Nearly 33% of students enrolled full time

participated in service-learning courses in 2012-2013. In addition, the Thayne Center sponsors

the Civically Engaged Scholars Program (“National Honors and Recognition, 2014”).

Civic Engagement and Service Learning at Snow College defines service learning as a

teaching method incorporating community service and academic instruction focusing on civic

responsibility, critical and reflective thinking (“Civic Engagement and Service Learning”, 2014).

Service learning occurs at a retirement center, Young Women’s Empowerment Center, San Pete

County Food Bank , Children’s Justice Center and the Utah Special Olympics Students can earn

a Service Scholar Award for participation in service learning (“Civic Engagement and Service

Learning”, 2014).

In conclusion, many definitions exist for service learning; however, service learning

consists of similar components. These components include collaboration between colleges and

universities and community, enhanced civic engagement on the part of students and critical

thinking and reflection. Service learning, based on the work of Dewey has evolved as a result of

the historical mission of institutions of higher education to prepare citizens for social

responsibility and civic leadership as well as public concern that institutions of higher education

engage with their communities and provide relevant and meaningful undergraduate education.

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Extensive research has offered evidence of positive outcomes for students participating in service

learning in both the areas of academic achievement and personal development. Colleges and

universities in Utah all recognize the importance of service learning and engage students in their

communities and their coursework, preparing them to be successful after college and fostering

life- long learning and community involvement. Service learning is a salient topic for student

affairs professionals as they play a role in developing and facilitating these programs.

.

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