Date post: | 02-Jan-2017 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | nguyenphuc |
View: | 229 times |
Download: | 7 times |
FB 10: Fremdsprachliche Philologien
Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik
Student Manual
M.A. North American Studies
Compiled by and with material from
Prof. Dr. Carmen Birkle
Dr. Bärbel Höttges
Carmen Fels, M.A.
Britta Füllgrabe, M.A.
Johanna Heil, M.A.
Janina Rojek, M.A.
1
Table of Contents
1. Marburg’s University System 2
1.1 UE, VL, PS, HS – Abbreviations for Classes and Their Meanings 2
1.2 How to Register for Classes and Exams 3
1.3 ECTS and LP – What Does It Mean? 3
1.4 S.t. and c.t. – How to Be on Time 4
1.5 Class Requirements – What Is Expected of Me? 4
1.6 ILIAS – What Is It and How Do I Access It? 7
1.7 The Grading System
7
2 Writing Term Papers
7
2.1 Acknowledging Your Sources – MLA Style 8
2.2 Writers’ Resources 10
2.2.1 The Libraries and OPAC 10
2.2.2 Accessing Online Databases 13
2.2.3 Material From Other Universities via Interlibrary Loan 13
3 Literary and Cultural Studies
14
3.1 A List of Resources 14
3.2 Prose 16
3.3 Poetry 18
3.4 Drama 21
3.5 Film Analysis 24
4 Appendices
4.1 Appendix 1: Oral Report Guidelines
4.2 Appendix 2: Plagiarism
4.3 Appendix 3: Guidelines on How to Write an Academic Paper
4.4 Appendix 4: A Short Guide to Narratology: Stanzel & Genette
4.5 Appendix 5: Guiding Strategies and Questions for a Systematic
Analysis of Dramatic Texts
2
1. Marburg’s University System
If you are new to Germany, the university system might seem strange to you and
possibly differ greatly from your home university. The following pages are designed to help
you understand the different types of classes and the kind of work that will be expected from
you. Generally, classes are held only once a week and last 1.5 hours. Once you are enrolled,
you can access and sign up for classes via the course catalogue. The exact process of signing
up will be explained later.
1.1 UE, VL, PS, HS – Abbreviations for Classes and Their Meanings
If you look at the course catalogue, you will see several abbreviations that show the form
of instruction of the class. Do not be confused if your modules call for a “UE” and you can
only find a “PS” – if the class is listed under your modules, it counts for your degree program,
but more about that later. First of all, here is a list of abbreviations:
UE = Übung = exercise
VL = Vorlesung = lecture
PS = Proseminar = seminar (lower level)
HS = Hauptseminar = seminar (higher level)
SE = seminar (only in linguistics)
Lectures:
In a lecture class, the students’ role is rather passive – you listen, take notes, and
process the information provided by the instructor. Lectures are held by professors only. You
might have to read assigned texts and you might have to pass a final test at the end of the
semester. Information provided in a lecture class is often rather broad, offering an overview of
a certain topic or field of English or American Studies.
Tutorials/Exercises and Seminars:
All three forms are participatory in nature, i.e., students are actively involved through
presentations and discussions. Higher-level seminars (HS) are usually only offered by
professors, while lower-level seminars (PS) and tutorials/exercises (UE) are also offered by
instructors and research assistants. In all classes you are expected to be well-prepared for each
session to be able to participate actively. Active participation of students also includes student
presentations, for which you usually sign up during the first session. You might also have
other kind of ungraded work, such as portfolios or response papers. Your instructors will tell
3
you at the beginning of class and you can check the available forms (from which instructors
can choose) in the module catalogue (“Modulhandbuch”). You might also have to hand in
graded work, usually a term paper, which will be explained in more detail in due course.
1.2 How to Register for Classes and Exams
The sign-up period for classes usually begins early in September for the winter term and
early in March for the summer term. For exact dates, please consult the news feed on the
departmental website (under “Aktuelles”). The sign-up period lasts roughly a month, but
make sure to look up exact dates as to not miss it. You can look up classes in the course
catalogue and then register for them (Course Catalogue – Fachbereich 10 -
Lehrveranstaltungen für Master of Arts [M.A.] – M.A. North American Studies). If you are
unsure which modules to take, please consult the exemplary schedule. The classes are listed
according to their modules, so make sure you know which modules you have already taken.
You might notice that some classes are eligible for more than one module, but you cannot
have the same class cover more than one module. During the sign-up period, you can sign up
for the class under the header “Activity.” The course catalogue also provides information
about the instructor of the class, the form (lecture, seminar, etc.) and the time and place.
Please do not register randomly for all classes but only for those you really wish to take. Once
you have registered for a class, please check your status: “AN” = “angemeldet,” meaning, you
are registered for the class, but not admitted (= waiting list). “ZU” = “zugelassen,” meaning,
you are admitted to the class. Please note that you need to come to the first session in order to
claim your place or, if you are on the waiting list, to see if you can still be admitted to the
class. Also note that you need to register for all graded and ungraded work separately. Please
check the entry “Prüfungsanmeldung” (and scroll down to “English Guideliness”) on the IAA
Website. The examination office has also made a presentation on how to register for exams.
1.3 ECTS and LP – What Does It Mean?
ECTS stands for “European Credit Transfer System” and is intended to simplify the
process of transferring credits within European universities. When you look up modules, you
will see that each module has a certain number of ECTS or LP (“Leistungspunkte”) assigned
to it. In the ECTS system, one credit point equals 30 hours of work. Ideally, you would have
30 ECTS credits each semester – please check the exemplary schedule for a suggested course
of study.
4
1.4 S.t. and c.t. – How To Be on Time
The earliest classes begin at 8 am., and each class, according to the course catalogue and
most course descriptions, lasts two hours. This means that classes begin either at 8am, 10 am,
noon, 2 pm, 4 pm, 6 pm, or 8 pm, leaving no official lunch break. The most curious thing
about the German university system is, however, the so-called “academic quarter.” This
means that classes that are scheduled from, for example, 10 to 12, start fifteen minutes late
and end fifteen minutes early. In reality, classes therefore last only 90 minutes. If not
indicated otherwise, classes start “c.t.” = “cum tempore,” which is Latin for “with time,”
meaning fifteen minutes later. Since students are so used to this, academic events such as
guest lectures that are supposed to start at x o’clock sharp are often labeled “s.t.” = “sine
tempore,” Latin for “without time.” So keep in mind, if you want to be on time: 10 c.t. =
10.15, 10 s.t. = 10 sharp.
1.5 Class Requirements – What Is Expected of Me?
You find the requirements for your classes in the course catalogue. They vary from class
to class, but they can be any combination of attendance, oral participation, quizzes, essays,
graded homework, a final test, presentations, or term paper. In the following, a short overview
of some of the forms of assessmentwill be given, which is supposed to help you understand
what is expected of you.
Attendance
Most instructors will expect you to attend classes regularly and will announce
guidelines for attendance in the first session. If you are sick, it is best to see a doctor and bring
a doctor’s note to the next session to account for your absence if attendance is compulsory.
Oral Participation
Oral participation includes preparation. You are expected to have read the assigned
homework or relevant literature for each session and to bring copies of your texts and your
notes to class. You should also be prepared to answer questions, share your thoughts, be
actively involved in discussions, and reflect on the texts you have read for the class. Do not
hesitate to ask questions in class since most instructors appreciate active students.
Presentations
For most classes, you sign up for a presentation in the first weeks of the semester.
Often, these presentations are group presentations in which each member is supposed to have
an equal share. You will have topics to choose from, but you should come up with your own
5
ideas and approaches. To be sure what is expected of you in terms of content, talk to your
instructor beforehand. Most instructors also expect you to actively involve the class during
your presentation.
In terms of presentation skills, you are expected to speak freely and fluently. You can
use notes, but you should not just read out your notes or learn them by heart. You should
address the class. For PowerPoint presentations, make sure to know your slides or have them
printed out in order to avoid turning your back to the class. Speak clearly, in an appropriate
pace, and loudly enough. Give the class the opportunity to ask questions and be prepared to
clear up terms and concepts you use in your presentation.
If you use media, make sure the technology works. Better test video and audio formats
for their compatibility with the university computers before your presentation. If you use
PowerPoint, do not overcrowd your slides, but make them readable – use an appropriate font
size and colors. If you do a group presentation in which each member prepares their own
PowerPoint slides, make sure that you all use the same format and style.
Most instructors expect you to prepare a handout. This needs to have a header with the
university and course information and your name. The handout should have the presentation
title as a headline and a bibliography in which you acknowledge all sources used during the
presentation, including video and audio files. Structure the handout according to the outline of
your presentation, but do not merely copy and paste the key words from your PowerPoint
slides, especially when the handout is distributed after the presentation and the class members
do not have the opportunity to take notes on their handouts. The handout should summarize
the main points and serve as study material for your fellow students.
See Appendix 1: Handout “Oral Report Guidelines” for a printable and concise
overview!
Essays
If you are required to write an essay for a class, your instructor will inform you about
his or her requirements concerning the content. In general, every written assignment needs to
follow MLA style (see 2). Your essay should have a clear structure, including an introduction,
thesis statement, main body, and a conclusion. You need to have a header (as in the handout
for a presentation) and provide a bibliography that lists your primary and secondary sources.
Pay attention to the register and make sure your language is appropriate for academia. This
also includes not using contractions, such as “don’t” or “you’re.”
6
Quizzes and Exams
Usually, quizzes and exams are not multiple choice, but there might be exceptions.
The content and form of questions will be different for each instructor, but there are some
ground rules and guidelines that you should be aware of. Quizzes and – even more so – exams
are usually not designed to test you on mere facts (although you are expected to be familiar
with them); rather, you are expected to apply the knowledge gained in class, for example by
answering open-ended questions. If you have a class on, for instance, slavery in the United
States, you might be asked to analyze a short passage from a slave narrative and identify
issues related to slavery in that passage and beyond it. Here it is always important to know the
key dates and events of the topics you will be tested on, even if those are not asked directly in
questions. To put it differently, to prepare for a test, you should review what you covered in
class and be familiar with the historical background and social and political aspects that are
important in relation to the topic - for the example of slavery, you might not be asked when
the Civil War took place, but you should know it anyway since it was important for the
abolition of slavery. If you dealt with controversial subjects in class, you should show your
awareness of difficulties with certain topics: In a test in the fictional class on slavery, for
instance, a question on the characterization of Uncle Tom (from Uncle Tom’s Cabin) should
not only take into consideration his characterization in the novel, but also its implications. To
sum it up, your answers in an exam should be thought through and structured, but not overly
long. You are supposed to answer concisely, but in full sentences.
Term Papers
Most instructors expect you to come up with your own topic and ideas for a term paper,
but you should always check with your instructor to make sure your topic is appropriate. You
will be informed about deadlines at the beginning of each class. Please note that you need to
hand in a hard copy, since most instructors do not accept term papers sent via email. A
guideline on writing term papers, including content and formal requirements, is provided in
the handout “Guidelines: How to Write an Academic Paper,” also available for download
from the departmental website (Studium » Formulare & Handouts » Handouts zum
wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten).
See Appendix 3: Guidelines on How to Write an Academic Paper
7
1.6 ILIAS – What Is It and How Do I Access It?
ILIAS is a platform on which course material is provided, thus an online reserve shelf.
Most classes will only be accessible with a password which you will be told on the first day of
class. To sign in, you need to have a username and password (which you will also need for
your student email address and to use the university’s computers). From the university
website’s cover page, you can follow the direct link menu bar (“Direkt-Links”) to ILIAS. It
asks you to choose your language when logging in; however, so far, it is only available in
German. To add a class you have to go to “Suche” and type in the class title. From there, you
click on “Aktionen” and choose “beitreten.” Type in the password (make sure to pay attention
to capitalization, since it is case-sensitive) and your class is then added to your personal desk
(“Persönlicher Schreibtisch”). From here, you can view the sessions and access course
material. Make sure to download and/or print out assigned readings and other material, since
most classes will be taken off ILIAS after a certain amount of time, which means that you
cannot access the material any more. It is important that you sign up, not only to be able to
access course material, but also because ILIAS is often used by instructors to contact the class
and inform all students of a class about homework, and date/ room changes, or to publish test
results (by student ID number only).
1.7 The Grading System
There are three types of grading systems: the German school grading system (1-6), the
ECTS system (A-D, F, Fx), and the point system (1-15). You can find a document with a table
and explanations on the departmental homepage (» Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik »
Studium » Formulare & Handouts » Formulare für Studierende). However, the one generally
used today is the point system.
2. Writing Term Papers
For most seminars, you will need to write a term paper during the semester break as part
of your grade for the class. The length depends on the number of ECTS credits you receive.
Usually you will have to write around 10-12 pages for 6 ECTS credits and 15-18 for 8 ECTS
credits. Your instructor will announce the due date for the term paper in class and you need to
hand in your term paper in printed form by then. If you are sick or need an extension for
another reason, you need to contact your instructor ahead of time, not just two days before (or
even after) the deadline. You choose your own topic (related to the overall topic of the class,
of course), and you should check with your instructor whether your topic is appropriate, i.e.,
8
whether it is manageable in terms of time and length and whether it is on a sufficiently
academic level. You should have a clear thesis and treat your topic in a scholarly way,
meaning you need to structure your paper, prove your thesis, and support your claims with
academic secondary sources. The following chapter will provide you with information on the
formal requirements (MLA Style) and help with finding resources.
2.1 Acknowledging Your Sources – MLA Style
Plagiarism
Not acknowledging quotations or ideas that you have taken from someone else is
plagiarism. Plagiarism is more than severe academic misconduct; it is intellectual theft, and if
you are caught plagiarizing, you may fail your class.
See also Appendix 2: Plagiarism
MLA Style
At the American Studies Department of our university, we use the MLA (Modern
Language Association) style for quoting from a text and citing the sources. In order to avoid
(involuntary) plagiarism, please familiarize yourself with that citation style. You can find the
MLA Handbook in the library. A shortened handout, Guidelines: How to Write an Academic
Paper, compiled by members of the department, can be downloaded from the departmental
website (Studium » Formulare & Handouts » Handouts zum wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten ).
See Appendix 3: Guidelines on How to Write an Academic Paper
MLA style distinguishes between dependent and independent publications. You need to
make this distinction clear on every piece of academic writing (essays, term papers, quizzes,
finals, presentation slides, and handouts etc.). The distinctions are the following:
- Independent publications, such as novels, newspapers, journals, magazines, films, albums
of audio recordings, anthologies, dictionaries etc. are italicized. In handwriting, they are
underlined.
- Dependent publications, such as songs, short stories, poems, articles etc. are put “in
quotation marks.”
9
Practicing MLA Style
The following exercise is designed to help you practice your MLA style skills. The
sources on the worksheet are mixed up. Arrange them in the right order. Please note: a model
solution is provided on the next page.
Worksheet 1: MLA (List of Works Cited)
1. Ernest Hemingway’s short story The Killers, published by Scribner, New York (1987),
edited by John Hemingway, Patrick Hemingway, and Gregory Hemingway, in The
Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Pages 215-222.
2. A novel by the same author: The Old Man and the Sea. Published by Arrow Books
(London) in 2004. Originally published in 1952.
3. About two hours ago, you just found this article by Alex Quade on CNN.com. (Cable
News Network). It was published on the 19th
of March 2007 and is titled “Elite Team
Rescues Troops behind Enemy Lines.”
4. You have to cite an entry from Webster’s Third New International Dictionary. It is
Entry 2 and its topic is “Manual.” The dictionary is from 1981.
5. Cite the book by Paul Smith from 1989, entitled A Reader’s Guide to the Short Stories
of Ernest Hemingway. The publisher is Hall from Boston.
Worksheet 1: Model Solution
1. Hemingway, Ernest. “The Killers.” The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway.
Ed. John, Patrick, and Gregory Hemingway. New York: Scribner, 1987. 215-22. Print
2. Hemingway, Ernest. The Old Man and the Sea. 1952. London: Arrow Books, 2004.
Print.
3. Quade, Alex. “Elite Team Rescues Troops behind Enemy Lines.” CNN.com. Cable
News Network, 19 Mar. 2007. Web. 13 Nov. 2009.
4. “Manual.” Entry 2. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary. 1981. Print.
5. Smith, Paul. A Reader’s Guide to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway. Boston:
Hall, 1989. Print.
10
2.2 Writers’ Resources
Sometimes, you might get stuck when writing or you might not find the right entry for
your source in the MLA Handbook. You find a list of links in the Guidelines on writing a term
paper. The following chapter is a guide on how to use the library and access databases in
Marburg, since most instructors expect you to not use internet sources only, but above all to
consult books and academic articles.
2.2.1 The Libraries and OPAC
Marburg does not only have the large main library next to the PhilFak, but also a
number of smaller departmental libraries. For the English Department, those are the English
Studies library on the second floor of the D tower and the American Studies library on the
seventh floor of the D tower. Both libraries do not only have books you can access directly
and look through (in contrast to the main library, which will be explained later), but also
librarians you can ask for help, as well as computers, a copy machine, and places to work
quietly. Please note that their opening hours are a lot shorter than those of the main library.
You can look them up on the departmental homepage (Institut für Anglistik und
Amerikanistik » Institut » Bibliothek). The main library is open until midnight and offers
places to work, too; you can even rent your own booth to work quietly. You can look up hours
and further information on the main library homepage (» Universität » Universitätsbibliothek
» Über uns » Zentralbibliothek).
In the departmental libraries you can find books by just looking at the shelves and
seeing what they have or, which might be more fruitful, via the online catalogue OPAC,
which is also the only way to access books in the main library. You find a link to OPAC via
the direct links tool (Direkt-Links) on the university’s homepage. With OPAC, you can only
look for independent publications (books, magazines etc.), not single articles, but you can
search for author, editor, and other elements of a bibliographical entry. Here is how it works:
Example: You are looking for books on Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman. You type in
“Arthur Miller Death of a Salesman” and use the most general search setting “alle Wörter
(ALL)”. This is your result list:
11
You will see a number of works, depending on how narrow your search is. In this example
you have 17 hits. For more information, you can click on an entry:
Here you see “Standort,” which describes where you can find the publication. You can find
this title in the departmental libraries; “Aufstellung” tells you whether it is in the English
Studies library (“Anglistik”) or the American Studies library (“Amerikanistik). In order to
find it, you need to note its shelf number (“Signatur”). Here it is “F MIL 2/101.” You then go
to the respective library, look for it yourself, bring it to the front desk (do not forget your
Ucard!), and then you can check it out for a week. You can usually bring it back after that and
check it out again, if it is not reserved, but you cannot extend your loan online.
If you need to check out a book from the main library, the OPAC entry will look
slightly different:
12
Under “Ausleihstatus” it tells you whether or not it is checked out (“ausgeliehen”) or
available (“verfuegbar”). If it is there, you can click on “Bestellen” and a new window will
open:
Here you need to type in your Ucard number (located on the back underneath the bar code)
and your password. After half an hour to an hour, you can go to the main library and pick up
your book. It will be in the room with the check-out desk (“Leihstelle”) on a shelf. The
shelves are organized according to the last four digits of the Ucard number. You can check
your books out at the self-checkout computers. You can keep books for 4 weeks and extend
that period twice, given the book is not reserved. To extend your loan, go to the main library
homepage. On the right hand side you will find “Nutzerdaten und Verlängerungen” (= user
data and extension). If you click on it, you are asked to type in your Ucard number and
password again. Once you are logged in, you can choose “Entleihungen” from the top bar and
check the boxes next to the titles you wish to extend and then click on “verlängern” – it will
now show you the new return date. Luckily, you will also receive an email reminder you’re
13
your student account) three days before your books are due. However, do not solely rely on
that, since mistakes can always happen.
2.2.2 Accessing Online Databases
Marburg subscribes to some online data bases, such as JSTOR, which you can access
within the university’s intranet. You go from the main library’s homepage to “Digitale
Bibliothek” and there to “Datenbanken.” Here you can choose from a variety of fields,
including “Anglistik/Amerikanistik,” from where you can access, for example, the Cambridge
Collection online. You can also access the MLA data base, which allows you to search for
essays. Some of them are available via links, others you might have to find in academic
journals. To find the magazine, either check if it is available on JSTOR or Project Muse or at
the university (search via OPAC as described earlier). Most of these data bases are only
accessible via the university’s intranet; however, you can download a VPN client and thus
access it from your personal computer.
2.2.3 Material from Other Universities (Interlibrary Loan)
During your research you might come across interesting books that are not available at
Marburg’s libraries. If that is the case, go to the main library’s homepage and from there to
MARLA (listed on the right). You can switch it to English. Make sure to log in before
searching for the title. In order to find books that are not in Marburg, you need to select
“Germany” under “Presetting” (right side). Once you find a title, you can order it and it will
be sent to Marburg. For that, you need to have credit on your “Fernleihekonto” (Interlibrary
Loan Account). Each interlibrary loan is 1.50 €. You can put money on your account directly
at the check-out desk (“Leihstelle”) at the main library. Please note that for the final order it
will ask you for your password. In case you changed your UCard password. Your interlibrary
loan password is your birth date, regardless of whether or not you have changed your UCard
password before. You will receive an email once your order has arrived and you can then pick
it up from the main library.
14
3. Literary and Cultural Studies
As a student of North American Studies, you should already be familiar with the
fundamental concepts of literary studies and cultural studies. However, if you need to brush
up on your knowledge or further references, the following chapter will provide you with the
essential (but minimal) toolkit for your studies.
3.1 A List of Resources
In the following lists, you will find books that are available in Marburg’s libraries or online,
but also some other books that you might consider buying for your own reference shelf.
Literary Terms, Literary Theory and History:
Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory.
As the title states, this is an introduction with helpful example exercises.
Bertens, Hans. Literary Theory: The Basics.
Meyer, Michael. English and American Literatures.
Holman, C. Hugh. A Handbook to Literature.
Waugh, Patricia, ed. Literary Theory and Criticism.
This includes a variety of essays on certain theories and schools of criticism.
Cuddon, J.A. The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory.
Explains almost any stylistic device or concept you can think and includes examples
Murfin, Ross C. The Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary Terms.
Introduction to the Study of Anglophone Literatures:
Meyer, Michael. English and American Literatures.
used in Marburg by first-semester students of English and American literature. Covers
narratology, prose, drama, poetry, and literary history and theory. Each chapter also
contains a bibliography for further reference.
Narratology
Nünning, Ansgar, and Vera Nünning, eds. Erzähltextanalyse und Gender Studies.
Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith. Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics.
Meyer, Michael. English and American Literatures. (used for first-semester classes here)
Jahn, Manfred. Narratology: A Guide to the Theory of Narrative.
15
Hermann, David. Routledge Encyclopedia of Narrative Theory.
Gender Studies
Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity
Pilcher, Jane, and Imelda Whelehan. 50 Key Concepts in Gender Studies.
Gilbert, Sandra M. and Susan Gubar. Feminist Literary Theory and Criticism: A Norton
Reader.
Cultural Studies
Meyer, Michael. English and American Literatures. (used for first-semester classes here)
Storey, John. Cultural Studies and the Study of Popular Culture: Theories and Methods.
Grossberg, Lawrence, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treichler, eds. Cultural Studies. a
collection of essays
Edgar, Andrew, and Peter Sedgwick, eds. Key Concepts in Cultural Theory.
Media Studies
Jahn, Manfred. “A Guide to Narratological Film Analysis.”
Nelmes, Jill, ed. An Introduction to Film Studies.
Kaplan, E. Ann. Feminism and Film.
Hayward, Susan. Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts.
Monaco, James. How to Read a Film.
3.2. Prose
Source: Meyer, Michael. English and American Literatures. 3rd
ed. Tübingen: Francke, 2008.
Print.
The following glossary is a very brief summary and is meant to serve as a refresher and first
reference; for a comprehensive and more complex description please consult the original
source.
Story vs. Plot
Story = “the content of what is told,” the sequence of events (Meyer 60)
Plot = “the logical connection between the events“ (Meyer 60)
16
Duration
discourse time = “roughly the time you need in order to tell and listen to or read the
story”
story time = fictional time does not have to be represented 1:1
ellipsis = some aspects are omitted; summary; scene = “show[ing] events of
importance in the same time of their occurrence” (in slow-motion = stretch)
(Meyer 77); pause = “in the relation of events [a pause] occurs at the
description of the setting, reflections, or comments” (Meyer 77)
Time
flashback/ analepsis = “narrator interrupts the present chronology of the story and
connects it . . . to the past” (Meyer 78).
flashforward/ prolepsis = “narrator interrupts the present chronology of the story and
connects it to the future…” (Meyer 78).
Narrative Situations
You can find a more detailed narratology guide in Appendix 4. The following just lists the
main distinctions.
Stanzel’s three basics
first-person narrative is told by a narrator who “shares the characters’ world” (Meyer
63). A “temporal and cognitive distance” (Meyer 64) can exist between the narrating
I and the experiencing I.
An authorial narrative is told by a narrator who “is beyond the characters’ world and
looks at it from the outside but also has the ability to look into characters” (Meyer 63).
It “offers a godlike panoramic view from an Olympic position outside and above the
story world. . . . The authorial narrator mediates between the world of the characters
and that of the reader, creating the illusion of a fictional world but also breaking it by
intrusive comments and reader addresses” (Meyer 66).
Omnipresence, omniscience of narrator
17
A figural narrative situation “has no visible narrator and presents events through a
character’s perspective” (Meyer 63). This character “serves as a subjective reflector
of the fictional world” (Meyer 67).
Genette’s two basic distinctions
Differentiates between “Who speaks?” (voice) and “Who perceives?”
(focalization)
A homodiegetic narrator “belongs to the story world and is called an autodiegetic narrator
if he/she tells the story of his/her own life” (Meyer 69).
A heterodiegetic narrator is outside of “the world of the characters” (Meyer 69).
Overt vs. Covert Narrator
overt narrator = visible, “appears as a mediator in the discourse. Overt narrators
introduce themselves and the stories to the reader and give comments that guide the
readers’ understanding” (Meyer 69).
covert narrator = invisible, “merely a voice that reports information. The author
passes on the task of evaluating the story to the reader” (Meyer 69).
Reliable vs. Unreliable Narrator
To check whether or not a narrator is reliable, the following three aspects need to be
examined: 1) consistency, 2) coherence, and 3) correspondence (Meyer 71), the first two of
which are the more straightforward, less complex ones:
1) Consistent narrative: no “contradictions between the narrator’s words and acts, values
and judgements, self-image and image by others, his/her version of events and those of
others” (Meyer 71). = reliable
2) Coherent narrative: one event in the story “leads to another without significant
temporal or logical gaps” (Meyer 71).
For the aspect of correspondence, please refer to Meyer’s explanation.
A catalogue of guiding questions for the analysis of prose texts and an exercise are
provided in Meyer!
18
3.3. Poetry
(compiled from various sources)
Linguistic Analysis
Meaning of words and sentences
Dialects (geographical, historical, social)
Formal Analysis
poem: consists of a number of stanzas
stanza: a group of lines which form a division of a poem
verse: one line of a poem
word
rhyme: identity in the rhyming words of the last accented vowel and of all the speech
sounds following that vowel
masculine rhyme: last syllable is stressed, e.g., hill-still
feminine rhyme: last but one syllable is stressed, e.g., ending-mending
position: initial rhyme, internal rhyme, end rhyme
completeness: perfect rhyme, imperfect rhyme (e.g., renew-snow), eye-rhyme
(e.g., daughter-laughter)
rhyme patterns: cross rhyme (abab), rhyme pairs (aabb), embracing rhyme
(abba)
alliteration: initial rhyme created by the repetition of initial sounds in two or
more words (e.g., watch-woods)
assonance: the same vowels rhyme but consonants differ (e.g., tide-time)
consonance: the same consonants rhyme but vowels differ (e.g., hill-hall)
onomatopoeia (Lautmalerei): when sounds are somehow imitative of the
thing they refer to; onomatopoetic effects (e.g., cuckoo, twitter)
meter: pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables, characterized by the name of the
foot and the number of feet (e.g., iambic pentameter)
foot: a group of syllables forming a metrical unit, a unit of rhythm
number of feet: monometer (1), dimeter (2), trimeter (3), tetrameter (4),
pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter (7), octameter (8).
iamb: unstressed syllable is followed by stressed syllable (x/)
e.g., "The curfew tolls the knell of parting day."
19
trochee: stressed syllable is followed by unstressed syllable (/x)
e.g., "There they are my fifty men and women."
dactyl: stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed syllables (/xx)
e.g., "Just for a handful of silver he left us."
anapest: two unstressed syllables are followed by one stressed syllable (xx/)
e.g., "And the shean of their spears was like stars on the sea."
blank verse: five-feet iambic line without a rhyme (iambic pentameter)
Imagery and Rhetorical Figures
Imagery
metaphor: an implied (or reduced) comparison between phenomena of unlike
classes. Metaphor conveys a relation between two things by using a word in the
figurative sense ("übertragene Bedeutung eines Wortes"); e.g., "the foot of a
mountain."
simile: the explicit comparison in poetry between objects that belong to different
classes, introduced by the comparative conjunctions as or like; one or two things,
ideas, beings have one or more qualities in common ("tertium comparationis"); e.g.,
"And like the cat I have nine times to die" (Sylvia Plath, "Lady Lazarus").
metonymy: is characterized by the substitution of a term naming an object
closely associated with the word in mind for the word itself. In this way we
commonly speak of the king as "the crown," an object closely associated with
kingship thus being made to stand for "king."
synecdoche: the use of the part for the whole ("pars pro toto"); e.g., "hands" for men
who are at work at manual labor.
allegory: actual figures or persons who stand for abstractions such as virtues or vices;
it attempts to evoke a dual interest, one in the events, characters, and setting presented,
and the other in the ideas they are intended to convey or the significance they bear;
also: an extended narrative which carries a second meaning along with its surface
story = structure of ideas as the controlling influence in the work; e.g., scales of the
goddess Justitia as an image of justice.
20
personification: refers to the attribution of qualities of life to abstract or inanimate
phenomena. It represents them as persons.
symbol: a concrete thing that represents (stands for) something immaterial or
abstract; e.g., dove for peace.
allusion: an indirect or passing reference to something outside the text in which it
occurs.
Rhetorical Figures
Arrangement of Words
Repetition: words, phrases, or sentences are repeated and produce the effect of, e.g.,
insistence and importance.
parallelism: a structural arrangement of parts of a sentence, sentences, paragraphs,
and larger units of composition by which one element of equal importance with
another is equally developed and similarly phrased.
anaphora: the marked repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive
sentences or paragraphs
chiasmus: a type or rhetorical balance in which the second part is syntactically
balanced against the first but with the parts reversed, as in Coleridge's line, "Flowers
are lovely, love is flowerlike," or Pope's "Works without show, and without pomp
presides."
antithesis: a figure of speech characterized by strongly contrasting words, clauses,
sentences, or ideas.
Function of Words
hyperbole: overstatement or exaggeration, e.g., Macbeth: "No; this my hand will
rather / The multitudinous seas incarnadine, / Making the green one red."
irony: saying the opposite of what one means (two levels of meaning); a broad term
referring to the recognition of a reality different from the masking appearance.
21
paradox: an apparent contradiction which is nevertheless somehow true
oxymoron: etymologically, "pointed foolish"; a rhetorical antithesis bringing together
two contradictory terms. Such a contrast makes for sharp emphasis, e.g., "cheerful
pessimist, wise fool, sad joy, eloquent silence."
zeugma: a term usually applied to any construction in which one word is placed in the
same grammatical relationship to two other words with which it can be yoked only in
different senses, as "stain" is linked in different senses with "honour" and "brocade" in
Pope's line, "Or stain her honour, or her new brocade"; or, e.g., "to take a train and
tea."
apostrophe: consists in addressing someone absent or something nonhuman as if it
were alive and present and could reply to what is being said; e.g., "Oh, Nature!"
rhetorical question: a question propounded for its rhetorical effect and not requiring a
reply or intended to induce a reply.
invocation: an address to a deity for aid
paranomasia (pun): an old term for a pun or play on words, based on the similarity of
sound between two words with different meanings; e.g., "They went and told the
sexton and the sexton told the bell."
Literary Tradition
Quotations; Allusions; Parody
3.4. Drama
In the following, you will find a short list of some key concepts for the analysis of dramatic
texts. In Appendix 5 you will find guiding questions for the analysis of dramatic texts.
Adapted from: Nünning, Ansgar, and Vera Nünning. An Introduction to the Study of English
and American Literature. Stuttgart: Klett, 2007.
Drama vs. play vs. theater: drama refers to the literary genre; play indicates the concrete
text/performance.; the theater is the place (institution) where the play is performed
The Classsical Tragedy:
22
I. Introduction
II. Development of Conflict/ Rising Action
III. Climax (Peripeteia)
IV. Moment of Delay/ Falling Action
V. Catastrophe/dénouement
Concepts:
Hamartia: fault or error that entails destruction of tragic hero (error is derived from
“ignorance of some material fact or circumstance”, see OED)
Hubris: a character’s excessive self-confidence
Catharsis: The purification of the emotions by vicarious experience, esp. through the drama
(OED): evokes fear or pity in the audience/spectators
Peripeteia: reversal, sudden change of fortune
Ways of transmitting information:
Monologue: a long speech by a single character addressing himself/the audience. The speaker
does not have to be the only person on stage.
Soliloquy: special form of monologue where the speaker is the only character on stage
Both monologue and soliloquy represent consciousness, provide information, and can
be commentary.
Dialogue: conversation between two (duologue) or more speakers (polylogue)
Aside: 1) ad spectatores: utterance is only heard by audience, 2) dialogical: it is heard also
by other characters, 3) monological: it is heard by no one
Other key concepts:
Dramatic Irony: Discrepancy of awareness between character(s) and spectators (audience
knows more); thus characters might not be aware of scope of their actions
23
Showing: Action is conveyed through forms of speech or nonverbally. Sometimes there might
be epic elements in a drama, meaning that there is some form of telling (mediation of text),
however, usually there is no narrator. This is called the absolute nature of dramatic texts.
Primary vs. secondary text: primary text includes everything that is said, the secondary text
includes stage directions and the list of dramatis personae
Exposition: information concerning previous events (needed to understand the action). It can
be isolated (at the beginning) or integrated (dispersed throughout text, integrated into action)
Collective nature of production/reception: A performance is produced and received by a
multitude of people
3.5. Film Analysis
Source: Monaco, James. How to Read a Film.
This chapter will provide you with a concise glossary of terminology and concepts of film
analysis. For further information, please consult the source How to Read a Film.
Frame: (1) The single "still" photograph on the strip of celluloid, representing a fraction less
than one-twenty-fourth of a second in screen time. (2) What we see on the screen - that is, the
image outlined or encompassed by the screen as distinct from the darkness of the rest of the
theater. Obviously, the shape of the frame will affect its composition - that is, it will
determine the decision made while shooting about what we are to be shown within the frame
and how what we are shown will be arranged. The frame may be in open or closed form: the
former suggests that the limits of the frame are the limits of artistic reality, while the latter
suggests that reality continues outside the frame. Freeze frame is a freeze shot which is
achieved by printing a single frame many times in succession to give the illusion of a still
photograph when projected.
Mise en Scène: French, literally "placing-in-the-scene"; originally a theatrical term for the
staging or placement of scenery, property, and actors in a play. Fundamentally it refers to the
24
arrangement of the space within the frame: the setting, the lighting, the placement of the
actors and direction of their movements, the perspective of the camera, and generally the
interrelationships of all the components making up the visual image in the frame.
Point of View: abbreviated POV; designates the angle of vision and the perspective conveyed
by the camera "eye."
Camera Angle: the angle at which the camera is pointed at the subject: low, high, or tilt. Not
to be confused with angle of view (or vision), which designates the angle subtended by the
lens (cf. below, focal length).
Focus: that part of the image which is sharply defined. The choice of focus governs the depth
of field. A shallow focus concentrates on one object (in the foreground) while blurring
everything else. A selective focus switches back and forth between, e.g., two people talking.
A deep focus renders a clear image of objects irrespective of their position in the foreground
or background. The focal length determines the angle of vision: the focal length (of a "wide
angle" lens) takes in a wider area and allows a larger depth of field; a longer focal length (a
"telephoto") has both a narrow angle of view and a very restricted depth of field. Follow focus
is to follow the subject as it moves. Rack focusing is a change of focus from one subject to
another. Zoom is a shot using a lens whose focal length is adjusted during the shot (it may
range from wide angle to telephoto).
Camera Movement: two basic types: either (1) the camera revolves or pivots as it remains on
the same spot, or (2) it moves from place to place. Ad (1) pan: the camera pivots on a
horizontal plane, from left to right or right to left; tilt: the camera pivots on a vertical plane,
pointing up or down; roll: the camera revolves around its focal axis. Ad (2) tracking is the
general term used for movements in which the camera changes its location. To dolly is to
move horizontally and to keep up with the object as it moves forward or backward, with the
camera either behind or in front of it. Trucking refers to moving horizontally or keeping up
with the object, alongside of it. A crane shot involves vertical movement, or a combination of
vertical and horizontal movements, in which the camera is mounted on a "crane" or "boom."
Shot: refers to the unedited strip of a film resulting from a single running of the camera,
whether the basic contents of the frame remain constant or change as a result of camera
movement or because objects come in and out of the camera's angle of view. The (temporal)
length of the various shots in a scene will largely determine the viewer's sense of tempo: a
quick series of shots (accelerated montage) will produce a much more hectic tempo than a
25
single prolonged shot of basically the same mise en scène. Another differentiation relies on
the spatial quality of the shot. In a long shot or extremely long shot the objects are in the
distance. The long shot often serves as an establishing shot, which orients the viewer at the
start of a scene. A full shot is one close enough for the object(s) being filmed to fill the frame,
though not so close that the viewer cannot see, e.g., the full body of a person. A medium shot
shows, say, a person from the knees or waist up. A close shot shows, say, a person from the
shoulders up besides allowing a glimpse of other elements of the setting. In the close-up
(abbreviated as CU) the object (e.g., a person's face) fills much or almost all of the frame. In
an extreme close-up (also called a detail shot, XCU) the viewer is unusually close to the
object, so that s/he sees, e.g., only a person's lips, or a single eye. A point-of-view shot allows
the viewer to observe events from the point of view of a character.
Take: a version of a shot - as, normally, for a feature film a number of (different) variations
of a shot are made so that one or two can be selected and used in the finished movie.
Cut: denotes the switching from one shot to another. The direct cut is a cinematic punctuation
device which preserves the sense of continuity between two shots. In a match cut the two
shots are made to seem parallel by maintaining a visual, aural, or metaphorical link. The jump
cut is one in which a segment of a shot has been removed. The fade is a less abrupt transition
between two shots. In the fade-out the image on the screen gradually disappears into darkness;
then the darkness gradually gives way to the visual images of the next shot. When the old shot
gradually fades as the new shot is coming in, so that for a time the two visual images are
superimposed on the screen, we have a dissolve. The wipe is an optical effect in which a line
or soft edge sweeps across the screen, wiping away the old shot as it brings in the new one (a
flip frame is nearly the same). A similar effect is achieved by the transition known as iris; in
the iris-out, the screen gradually turns to black by having a circle of darkness around the
edges cause the image to get smaller and smaller; then, in the iris-in, the blackness gradually
disappears as a pinhole image of the new shot gets larger and larger until it fills the screen.
Editing: the joining and assembling of shots; also called cutting (montage is the term used in
Europe).
Scene, Sequence: Scene is occasionally used as a synonym for shot; in a more frequent use it
refers to a series of shots which occur in the same locale and are part of the same general
action; or it may refer to any group of shots which seem connected with each other because of
considerations of place or time or elements of the plot. The latter sense is difficult to
26
distinguish from sequence, which generally refers to a series of shots which are themselves
interrelated. A cutaway is a shot inserted in a scene to show action at another location, usually
brief, and most often used to cover breaks in the main take. Cross cutting (or parallel
montage) moves to and fro between two strands of action, thus being an important narrative
device. A jump cut (also called time lapse cut) occurs within a scene rather than between
scenes; it can effectively eliminate dead periods.
Voice-Over: the term for the use of an off-screen voice heard "over" the scene we are seeing;
the voice may be that of a narrator, or that of a character who is in the scene but not talking
aloud. Like "canned laughter," it is a special form of commentative sound. MOS is the
indication in a script that a scene is to be shot without sound. Actual sound has as its source
an object or person in the scene.
Exposure: measure of the amount of light striking the surface of the film. Film can be
intentionally over-exposed to give a very light, washed-out, dreamy quality to the printed
image, or it can be under-exposed to make the image darker, muddy, and foreboding. These
effects can also be achieved by means of over- and underdevelopment.
Contrast: is used to refer to both the quality of the lighting of a scene and a characteristic of
the film-stock. High-contrast lighting shows a stark difference between blacks and whites;
low-contrast (or soft-contrast) lighting mainly emphasizes the midrange of grays.
Parallax: the apparent change of position of a viewed object, caused by differences in
perspective or point of view; useful in providing a sense of depth to otherwise two-
dimensional representations, especially in cinema when it is a function of the moving camera.
Score: the music of a film.
Set-up: a camera and lighting position.
Off-Camera: also Off, abbreviated as OC; refers to anything that occurs outside the area of
the action shot.
Off-Screen: abbreviated as OS; describes action that occurs out of camera range but is
supposed to be occurring nearby.
27
Suggestions for Oral Reports by Prof. Dr. Carmen Birkle and Silke Schmidt, M.A.
1. How to Prepare an Oral Report
Finalize the topic if it is not assigned to you
Narrow the scope – focus on the most important issues connected to the topic
Do research with suggested material and find more sources if necessary
Structure the report in a logical manner
Place yourself in the position of an audience member who is not familiar with the
topic be clear, explain, focus on comprehension
Think of interesting and creative ways to present the report (PowerPoint is a starting
point but there are more options/media/techniques to employ)
Practice the report at home (at least twice) and watch the time – if you do not stay
within the given time frame, add/reduce content (e.g. start a “backup section” in
PowerPoint following the official slides)
Think of sections which you could skip/summarize if – for whatever reason – you
might be given less time for the presentation in the end
Think about questions the audience might have try to find appropriate answers
Get familiar with the setting of the presentation prepare for particularities with
respect to light conditions, acoustics etc.
Arrange for technical equipment in due time if the room does not offer standard
equipment -> e.g. reservation of projector, speakers
LOOK FORWARD TO THE PRESENTATION, NO REASON TO BE NERVOUS
2. Elements of an Oral Report
Introduction
Question/thesis
Outline
Methodology (if necessary)
Main section: most important steps to answer research question, logical order
Handout (maximum two pages): use bullet points to outline major statements
Conclusion: summarize most important findings do not repeat everything!
Outlook (optional): mention major research questions resulting from the presentation
which future research in the field could engage with
Discussion/Questions and Answers (Q&A): be prepared to raise open questions
yourself in case the audience needs additional encouragement
28
STRUCTURE – STRUCTURE – STRUCTURE!
3. Presentation Techniques
Mention important organizational notes at the very beginning, e.g. if the audience can
ask questions in-between, if there will be a discussion in the end
A presentation is NOT a lecture – do not read a prepared text; speak freely, use notes!
Keep an eye on the time – if necessary, skip/summarize sections/slides
Find a balance when using different media: the media should help you get your
content across, they should not superimpose the content
Be open to new methods, try out creative techniques to really reach the audience (e.g.
theatrical performance, staged interview, mime, games, audience interaction…)
Speak at an adequate pace
Make sure the people in the back row also hear what you are saying
Watch the rhythm of your voice – a class presentation should not sound like reading a
bedtime story!
Always highlight how the section you are presenting relates to your research question
Do not talk to the wall when using PowerPoint or other visual media on a screen
(place the laptop in front of you when setting up the technical equipment)
Keep eye contact with your audience – if necessary, react to disturbances
THINK POSITIVELY, SMILE AND ENJOY THE EXPERIENCE – this is YOUR
CHANCE TO SET A POSITIVE EXAMPLE
Source: www.english-blog.com
29
I. Plagiarism – What It Is and Why and How to Avoid It
(by Britta Füllgrabe, M.A.)
1. What Is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism generally means “intellectual theft” (Gibaldi 52). It can be committed on purpose, but it can
also happen unintentionally (Gibaldi 55). Plagiarism can take many forms. The MLA Handbook mentions
the following (52, 56-58):
using the entire work of someone else and declaring it to be your own
using the words of another person without quotation marks and/or source
using the idea of someone else without giving the original source
paraphrasing a text without giving the original source
There are even more ways to plagiarize, as Dr. Debora Weber-Wulff introduces (Weber-Wulff):
using the structure of thought of someone else without giving the source
citing the sources only in the works cited list/bibliography, but not in the text, or vice versa
having a translation machine (e.g. Google-translator) translate a text and claiming it to be your own
Plagiarism thus has a wide range of definition. It can mean employing someone to write the paper for
you or even handing in one of your formerly written papers a second time in another seminar. It can
mean to apply too little care to your academic work and end up unintentionally using others’ words or
lines of thought as your own. All of this is not allowed and unethical.
2. Why not to Plagiarize
30
Plagiarism is not always an intentional “Täuschungsversuch,” but can happen without being aware of
plagiarizing. That is why it is important to know what plagiarism is and how to avoid it.
Avoiding plagiarism is also a question of morals. You should not only avoid it because it is illegal, but also
because it is a “moral and ethical offense” (Gibaldi 52).
Consider the following reasons for avoiding plagiarism that the MLA-Handbook lists (52-53):
Giving the original source acknowledges the work of others – it is only fair. You will want to be
treated fairly, too.
Giving the source allows your readers to draw their own conclusions from the original text and not
relying solely on your interpretation of it. This is important in a society of responsible and informed
people.
If you have plagiarized once, all of your other writing is likely to be treated with suspicion. Plagiarism
can destroy careers – not only of writers, but of people with all kinds of occupations, because
plagiarism takes away your credibility.
When students plagiarize, the relationship between teachers (at the university as well as in school)
and students is harmed. Plagiarism “turn[s] teachers into detectives instead of mentors and foster[s]
suspicion instead of trust” (Gibaldi 53).
When students plagiarize, they miss the chance to learn how to work academically. This is not only
important for those wanting to work in the academic realm, but also for school teachers and those
wanting to work in other fields. As school teachers, for instance, you will use a lot of texts that are
not your own and thus have to know how to give the sources. This will create your students’
awareness of a responsible treatment of other people’s work. As a teacher, it is required of you to
act as a role model to those shaping our society in the future.
If you plagiarize, you fail to express your own personality in writing. “Gaining skill as a writer opens
the door to learning more about yourself and to developing a personal voice and approach in your
writing” (Gibaldi 53). Don’t miss this chance by taking the perhaps easier way.
Apart from these reasonable points, there are also consequences and penalties directly damaging your
university education. At the Philipps-Universität Marburg, the following can happen if you plagiarize:
If you are suspected of plagiarism, your teacher will talk to you about your paper. If the plagiarism
turns out to be unintentional, you might be allowed to revise it once more.
31
If you are repeatedly suspected of plagiarism, more severe consequences will be applied.
If your plagiarism is severe and/or likely to have happened on purpose (e.g. when happening
repeatedly), your paper will be graded with 0 points – you have then failed the course. In your
transcript of records, “TA” for “Täuschungsversuch” will be entered. This will be visible to your future
employers in the application process and is likely to shed a negative light on you and your
trustworthiness.
2. How to Avoid Plagiarism
You do not need to know all about plagiarism when entering university. However, as a student
you are expected to inform yourself about what plagiarism is and how to work academically correct.
During the writing process, make sure to ask yourself continually where your sentences come from. Give
all of the sources you are using immediately – as short references in brackets or footnotes and as full
citations in the list of works cited. If you have doubts and questions about how to do research and write
papers correctly, you can ask your teachers, participate in courses on academic work, or read about how
to research and cite correctly, e.g. in the MLA Handbook or the style sheet provided on the institute’s
website and in this manual. The style sheet’s appendix also includes a sample declaration for you to
include in every paper you turn in at university. With your signature, you declare that you know what
plagiarism is and that you have not plagiarized in your text.
Note that even if you plagiarize unintentionally, you are responsible for your work and can be
penalized. Unintentional plagiarism can occur when you do not keep your notes in order. When you take
notes during the preparation of a paper, you should always immediately indicate whether it is a direct or
indirect quote. Otherwise, you are likely to forget which is what and run the risk of plagiarizing if not
doing the work all over again. Thus, you should always work accurately and carefully (Gibaldi 55).
As a second language speaker of English, you might unintentionally plagiarize because you feel
you cannot formulate a sentence as well as it is in the original. Coming too close to an author’s sentence
structure can easily lead to plagiarizing (Gibaldi 55). You should thus always work on improving your
language skills, which of course cannot be done by copying other people’s work, but by practicing the
language in speech and writing.
In case of doubt, you can always talk to your teacher. The appendix provides some example
questions and answers regarding the citing of sources in academic writing. You can also test your skills of
avoiding plagiarism here: http://abacus.bates.edu/cbb/quiz/index.html.
32
If you find you have plagiarized after turning in your paper, talk to your teacher immediately.
Then, you can prevent your plagiarism from being called a “Täuschungsversuch,” and you might even be
allowed to revise your paper (Gibaldi 56).
Works Cited
Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers and Research Papers. 7th ed. New York: The Modern
Language Association of America, 2009.
Weber-Wulff, Debora. “Plagiatserkennungssoftware: Wundermittel oder Zeitverschwendung?”
Fachforum “Plagiats-Erkennung in der Lehre.” Philipps-Universität Marburg. 20 Mar 2012.
II. Exercises to Avoid Plagiarism (by Dr. Bärbel Höttges)
1) Direct and Indirect Quotes
You have to write a term paper on trickster figures in Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine. While reading
Jeanne Rosier Smith's Writing Tricksters: Mythic Gambols in American Ethnic Literature, you discover
these interesting passages:
Page 76:
As the novel's most conspicuous embodiment of the trickster, Gerry addresses
Erdrich's central concerns by challenging the notion of fixed boundaries, both
physically with his transformative powers and politically with his continual escapes
from imprisonments by whites. Chippewa writer and critic Gerald Vizenor
describes Nanabozho as a "comic healer and liberator" ("Trickster Discourse" 188).
Gerry Nanapush fits both of these descriptions insofar as he represents Erdrich's
concern with liberating and healing Chippewa culture from damaging white
stereotypes.
Page 79-80:
Although Gerry's mother, Lulu Lamartine, corresponds to Nanabozho's
grandmother Nookomis, Lulu is also Erdrich's feminist revisioning of the trickster,
sharing Nanabozho's physical flexibility, artful gambling, and sexual prowess. Like
the trickster, Lulu can "beat the devil himself at cards." She brags, "I am a woman
of detachable parts" (LM 115).
33
In your term paper, you include the following paragraph:
Where and how should you refer to Jeanne Rosier Smith's book?
2) Facts and Background Information
In a term paper on slavery, you write the following paragraphs. In both cases, you rely on
more than one article or book and you do not directly or indirectly quote one specific author.
Nevertheless, you rely on secondary sources, of course, as far as facts, dates, and numbers are
concerned. Do you need to indicate your sources?
Example 1
Gerry is Erdrich's most conspicuous embodiment of the trickster as he
challenges the notion of fixed boundaries both physically with his transformative
powers and politically with his persistent attempts to escape from white
imprisonment. Trickster-like abilities are not restricted to male characters in
Erdrich's world, however: Although Gerry's mother, Lulu Lamartine, corresponds
to Nanabozho's grandmother Nookomis, Lulu is also Erdrich's feminist revisioning
of the trickster, sharing Nanabozho's physical flexibility, artful gambling, and
sexual prowess.
Serious efforts to Christianize the slave population did not begin to bear fruit until
1740, but even after that date, the Christian faith did not sweep through the slave
community with anything like the rate that some earlier scholars assumed; it is
estimated that by 1750 only one percent of the colony's black population was
baptized.
34
Example 2
When the Civil War broke out in 1861, the system of slavery was still firmly established in
the American South. At the beginning of the war, abolition was not on Lincoln's agenda. In
the course of the war, however, the question of slavery became more and more important
and Lincoln finally decided to issue the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863.
35
Some Answers
1) Direct and Indirect Quotes
In the paragraph on Love Medicine, you quote Smith twice: In the beginning of the paragraph, Smith
is quoted indirectly when you paraphrase her idea of Gerry's transformative powers. In the second
part of the paragraph, you quote Smith directly. As the paper relies on Smith's analysis twice, you
need to indicate your sources in both cases:
2) Facts and Background Information
A statement considered to be "common knowledge" – e.g., major historical events or dates –
does not need to be attributed to a source in your term paper. Usually, you can find that kind
of information in a variety of books and articles, and anyone who is vaguely interested in your
field of research will be aware of those facts. Accordingly, you do not need to include source
references in the passage dealing with the Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation:
If you include in-depth knowledge – i.e., information only experts will know such as
historical details or statistical data – you have to indicate your sources, even if you summarize
several scholars' results:
Gerry is Erdrich's most conspicuous embodiment of the trickster as he
challenges the notion of fixed boundaries both physically with his transformative
powers and politically with his persistent attempts to escape from white
imprisonment (see Smith 76). Trickster-like abilities are not restricted to male
characters in Erdrich's world, however: "Although Gerry's mother, Lulu
Lamartine, corresponds to Nanabozho's grandmother Nookomis, Lulu is also
Erdrich's feminist revisioning of the trickster, sharing Nanabozho's physical
flexibility, artful gambling, and sexual prowess" (Smith 79-80).
When the Civil War broke out in 1861, the system of slavery was still firmly established in
the American South. At the beginning of the war, abolition was not on Lincoln's agenda. In
the course of the war, however, the question of slavery became more and more important
and Lincoln finally decided to issue the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863.
Serious efforts to Christianize the slave population did not begin to bear fruit until
1740, but even after that date, the Christian faith did not sweep through the slave
community with anything like the rate that some earlier scholars assumed; it is
estimated that by 1750 only one percent of the colony's black population was baptized
(see Lincoln 19; see also Wilmore 450).
36
Alternatively, you may also incorporate source references directly into your text, especially if you
want to stress that you are referring to an important scholar or work:
Please note: Make sure to indicate all your sources in your term paper whenever you rely on other
people's research. (That includes research available online!) Plagiarism is a serious matter and you
will fail the class if you copy other authors or include their ideas in a term paper of your own without
proper reference.
Last but not least, do not forget to list all authors you mention in the course of you paper in your
Works Cited list:
According to C. Eric Lincoln, serious efforts to Christianize the slave population did
not begin to bear fruit until 1740 (see 19). Even after that date, however, the Christian
faith did not sweep through the slave community with anything like the rate that some
earlier scholars assumed; in his recent study "Survival, Elevation, and Liberation in
Black Religion," Gayraud S. Wilmore estimates, for example, that by 1750 only one
percent of the colony's black population was baptized (see 450).
Works Cited
Lincoln, C. Eric. "The Development of Black Religion in America." African
American Religious Studies: An Interdisciplinary Anthology. Ed. Gayraud
S. Wilmore Durham: Duke UP, 1989. 1-21. Print.
Smith, Jeanne Rosier. Writing Tricksters: Mythic Gambols in American Ethnic
Literature. Berkeley: U of California P, 1997. Print.
Wilmore, Gayraud S. "Survival, Elevation, and Liberation in Black Religion."
Down by the Riverside: Readings in African American Religion. Ed. Larry
G. Murphy. New York: New York UP, 2000. 447-68. Print.
37
GUIDELINES: HOW TO WRITE AN ACADEMIC PAPER
There are some rules, regulations, and conventions that you should be familiar with before
you start to write a term paper. They will be briefly introduced in the following.1
1. Readership, Authorship, and the Writing Process 2
2. Formal Outline 3
3. Drafting a Thesis Statement 3
4. Structure and Line of Argumentation 4
4.1 Introduction 5
4.2 Main Part 6
4.3 Conclusion (in a shorter essay or paper: concluding paragraph) 7
5. Documentation of Sources 7
5.1 Citing within the Text 8
5.2 Bibliography or Works Cited 10
5.3 Citing Sources from the Internet 12
5.4 Other Sources 13
6. Bibliography 13
7. Appendices 14
Appendix 1: Some Useful Verbs and Phrases 14
Appendix 2: Some Online Resources 14
Appendix 3: Abbreviations Used for Documentation 16
Appendix 4: Plagiarism 17
1 Since most information is based on the MLA Handbook (7th ed.), constant references to this source would be
reader-unfriendly and are, therefore, omitted. Please note that the compilers of these guidelines do not claim
authorship but are simply responsible for the collection and representation of this information.
38
1. Readership, Authorship, and the Writing Process
Before you write your term paper, it might be helpful to clarify who your readers are, and
what your role as an author is, accordingly. Please note that different instructors might have
slightly different expectations here. In general, your paper shows that you are part of an
academic community and its specific discourse. Your paper is situated within the academic
discourse, draws on previous findings, and adds news aspects, perspectives, or insights into
a specific topic. Since you might never publish your paper, which means it might not find its
way into the “real” academic community, imagine your readers as your fellow students (who
took a different class), i.e., people who have some knowledge of Anglophone literatures and
cultures, but who do not necessarily know about specific concepts, theories, and
approaches. As the author, you should guide your reader through your thinking process (i.e.,
the structure of your paper), make clear what your main argument is (i.e., your thesis
statement), and point out where your ideas come from (i.e., document your sources), and
how you approach your topic (i.e., methodology and/or theory). Try finding a topic that you
are actually interested in, since the paper is the product of a relatively long process of
research, analysis, and writing.
Ideally, once you have your topic and consulted your sources, your actual writing process
begins. How exactly you structure this process depends on your mode of writing/ what kind
of writer you are (see table below). However, some strategies are useful for all writers:
- gathering and evaluating information - working out and formulating your main argument (“thesis”) - structuring what you intend to do - start writing - (getting feedback) - (restructuring what you intend to do) - . . . proof-reading
(adapted from Kruse 110-15)
This strategy of recursivity will help you in checking whether or not the part you are working
on is relevant for your overall structure, whether or not it fits where you have placed it, or it
will help you in restructuring your paper and/or even defining a new thesis if you realize that
new information and aspects change the direction of your paper. In addition, feedback (by
your fellow students or your instructor) will help you get over writer’s block, to refocus, and to
check if your line of argumentation makes sense. Please do not forget to have someone
proof-read your paper, since you are bound to overlook typos and other mistakes.
39
Models of Writers/Modes of Writing (Willey qtd. in Kruse 43, transl. and adapted by Heil and
Rojek):
Mental planner External planner Planner/ Explorer
Explorer/ planner
Explorer
Writes the
complete text in
one step without
revising much
(1) Written drafts
of most of what
s/he wants to
write; (2) writing
and revising
Each sentence /
paragraph is
revised before
s/he starts with
the next one
Starts with a
rough plan or
blueprint and
revises at a later
point
Follows
spontaneous
ideas; organizes
ideas at a later
point
Mostly
sequential (start
at the beginning)
Often sequential Sometimes
sequential
Sometimes
sequential,
sometimes
erratic
Barely
sequential
Thinking “rationally” thinking “in language”
2. Formal Outline
1. Title Page
upper section : university, department, semester, title of course,
instructor's name
middle section: title of the paper
lower section: author's name, course of studies, module,
number of ECTS points, semesters studied,
address, email / telephone, date of
submission, student ID / registration number
2. Table of Contents (Example)
1. Introduction 1 2. [Main Part I] (including chapter numbers and page numbers) 2
2.1 Historical Background 3 2.2 Fictional Setting 5
3. [Main Part II] 7 3.1 [Character Analysis I] 8 3.2 [Character Analysis II] 13
4 Conclusion 17 5 [Bibliography] or [Works Cited] 19
Plagiarism Statement 22
Titles in [brackets] indicate a placeholder for an actual heading
40
Many word processing programs provide templates for tables of contents which
update and format chapter and page numbers automatically.
3. Layout
margins: 2.5 cm left, 3 cm right, 2.5 top and bottom
spacing: 1.5 for main text, single for indented quotations (i.e., quotation exceeding four lines)
font: Arial or Times New Roman (use the same font for the whole text)
size: 12 for main text, 10 for indented quotations longer than four lines
3. Drafting a Thesis Statement
[A thesis statement] is a single sentence that formulates both your topic and your point of
view. In a sense, the thesis statement is your answer to the central question or problem you
have raised. Writing this statement will enable you to see where you are heading and to
remain on a productive path as you plan and write. Try out different possibilities until you find a
statement that seems right for your purpose. Moreover, since the experience of writing may
well alter your original plans, do not hesitate to revise the thesis statement as you write the
page. (MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers 42)
Before getting started, make up your mind on what you want to write about and make your
topic/thesis as precise as possible. If, for example, you decide on focusing on a specific text
(e.g., Toni Morrison’s Beloved) you cannot possibly include all the information you consider
relevant about the work in general, but rather should limit your scope of interest in a practical
and specific sense which means that you might concentrate on gathering information
relevant to your thesis. Try to develop your own theories, concepts, and schemes to
substantiate your reading(s) of the respective text.
By the way, in literary and cultural studies, “text” may refer not only to written works; a song,
movie or painting can also be regarded as a text. So whenever this term is used in the
following, it does not exclusively pertain to written texts such as novels.
Example:
Let us suppose that you want to write about Toni Morrison’s Beloved. It does not make sense
to simply label the paper "Toni Morrison’s Beloved” as this would be much too vague and
41
unfocused. There is no way you would ever be able to cover all aspects and facets of the
novel’s dimension(s).
Instead:
Think about aspects or elements in a text that you find relevant and, above all, interesting or
attention-grabbing. Another strategy you might want to take into consideration is a theoretical
approach on which you can then base your own analysis.
Examples:
"Interior Frontiers in Toni Morrison's Beloved"
“Slavery, Scarring, and Complications of Authorship in Beloved"
“African American Gothic Elements in Toni Morrison’s Beloved”
"Beloved: A Neo-Slave Narrative?"
“Reading Space and Time in Toni Morrison's Beloved"
If you are not sure whether you have sufficiently narrowed down your topic, the following
three questions may help:
a) What? What is the topic of your paper? What are you dealing with?
b) How? What methods do you use for your analysis? What theories do you base your analysis on?
c) Arrangement? In what order do you present the main arguments of your paper?
42
4. Structure and Line of Argumentation
A term paper should adhere to a logical and coherent line of argumentation. Your arguments
should be presented according to a formal structure which will be explained in the following.
4.1 Introduction
Function: Introduces the reader to the topic and is a preview or outline of the content and
structure of the paper. It has to observe several formal rules and contains a specific set of
information.
Formal aspects: The introductory part should approximately make up one tenth of your entire
paper. For regular term papers this usually adds up to 1 (Proseminar) or 1-2 (Hauptseminar)
pages. According to its function, it can simply be entitled “Introduction,” just like above (but
without quotation marks).
Content(s) (suggestions):
You could start the introduction of your thesis by simply pointing out your thesis
statement, i.e., what issue you intend to examine in your paper and which
answers/arguments you propose. This could be realized by, for example, a paragraph
giving a short overview of the main argument within the criticism relevant to your
topic. Questions that may be addressed indirectly here are, amongst others, “Why
does this approach matter in the context of this particular topic?” or “To what extent
can this particular focus enrich previous models of analyzing this specific text?” Mind
that you should be very clear in how you proceed to conceptualize your own
findings/research.
For example:
43
Criticism of Margaret Laurence’s novel The Diviners includes essays and books on a
large variety of topics, such as metafiction, ethnicity, myth, history, the author's
Scottish background and its influence on her work, autobiographical elements,
regionalism, as well as feminist readings of her work. This paper expands on the topic
of memory and imagination as it emerges from the novel. I maintain that in The
Diviners memory is presented as an active process of recreation of past events and
feelings, on the one hand, and as a process of reconstruction of place and identity, on
the other.
The second step (and, as the case may be, following paragraph/s) includes an
elaboration on your thesis statement, i.e., how you intend to conduct your analysis.
Here you
briefly outline how you want to approach the topic (method) and what aspects in which order you focus on.
mention the various aspects that you analyze in the selected text and also outline the theories you use.
For example:
In her memoir Dance on the Earth Laurence makes the distinction between those
memories of her childhood of which she is herself aware and which she can actually
remember experiencing, and those memories which were transmitted to her by other
people (24). This distinction, however, does not allow for the claim of accuracy and
objectivity in connection with either of these two kinds of memories. In The Diviners,
Morag revises her childhood with the aid of photographs. She calls the events evoked
by them "totally invented memories" (Laurence 18) and qualifies them as "quite
untrue, [o]r maybe true or maybe not" (Laurence 16). She can paradoxically remember
composing her memories even though she is no longer able to identify the facts that
have generated them.
4.2 Main Part
The Main Part contains the actual implementation of your line of argumentation. Here you
bring forward arguments that "prove" the thesis previously sketched in your introduction by
further elaborating on those aspects you would like to focus on.
44
WATCH OUT:
Every paragraph should constitute a logical unity of meaning which deals with a part of your overall line of argumentation and should be placed according to the structure you have outlined in your introduction. No one-sentence paragraphs!!! The general rule is: one thought, one paragraph.
Do not list many disconnected details that may be interesting observations but are not related to the coherent structure of your paper. If at all, these can be added in footnotes.
Think about transitions from one paragraph to the next. Ideally, one paragraph refers to the preceding paragraph.
NO-NOS:
One-Sentence Paragraphs One-sentence paragraphs that are not related to one another are a sign of poor
writing style as they show that the text is not logically structured and not based on
proper logical argumentation. No one-sentence paragraphs ever! If you find that one
of your thoughts really makes up only one sentence, check closely: Is it really
substantial? If not (so much), omit it or mote it to a footnote. If yes, your sentence
might need to be split up and/or your thought elaborated in more detail.
Exaggerated /Inflationary Use of Subheadings While the main part should have a meaningful heading (NOT simply “Main Part”), not
every paragraph needs its own subheading! This is especially inappropriate in
Proseminar papers that are only 10-12 pages long. In practice, it should be possible
to read a term paper even without the inclusion of subheadings, i.e., as a
homogenous entity featuring smooth transitions that link one thought with the other.
Headings and subheadings do not replacer transitions between the paragraphs (see
Appendix 2). Also note: If you have a first point, you need to make a second one, e.g.
if you have chapter 3.1., you need chapter 3.2.
Summaries of Texts which Comprise a Whole Chapter. In some cases, it might be necessary and useful to briefly introduce your reader to
your topic in its relation to the context of the story/plot. However, it is sufficient to
summarize the plot of a text in a few words. A better way of indicating the text’s
story/plot is to make it part of your line of argumentation. The reader of your paper is
familiar with the contents of the work on which you write your paper. Summarize the
plot only if this is indispensable to your line of argumentation.
45
Bio-Bibliographical Information Include information on the author’s life and his or her works only if this information is
relevant for strengthening/substantiating your thesis. Refrain from providing extensive
records and facts and figures on the author’s life only to then leave this bulk of
information without comment or without transferring your findings to the actual focus
of your paper (compare the problematic usage of summaries as pointed out above).
4. 3 Conclusion (in a shorter essay or paper: concluding paragraph)
Summarizes the main arguments of the paper and adds the results of the main part to the thesis of the introduction and can therefore be simply called what it is, i.e., it does not need a more specific heading.
Repeats the thesis and topic statement, yet should not necessarily recap the various arguments.
A helpful strategy to find out whether a paper is well structured is to read the introduction and then the conclusion as both should transmit the paper's focus, methodology as well as your results.
Some General Remarks:
Whatever you write about, a critical re-evaluation as well as accurate documentation of your sources are essential to an academic paper. Your paper should be based on a consistent line of argumentation that constitutes your own approach. You need to document your sources to avoid plagiarism!
Your argumentation needs to be based on textual evidence. Whatever you argue, support your arguments with examples from the text and secondary literature. This avoids superficial interpretations and trains you to read a text closely and critically.
Not only quotes from sources/authors that you have consulted during your research need to be documented but also those whose ideas you have modified by either paraphrasing them or integrating them in your research. Please also see the section on Plagiarism for further information on how to avoid intellectual and academic theft. By the way: The term plagiarism derives from the Latin word plagiarius and means “kidnapper.” Just as the term suggests, it is an academic crime.
46
5. Documentation of Sources
The careful documentation of sources is crucial to good scholarly writing. Whenever you
draw on the work of another person or institution, you must document your source by
indicating what you borrowed—whether fact, opinions, or quotation—and where you
borrowed it from. Whether you quote from another text directly, paraphrase it, or take from it
an idea which you express entirely in your own words, you must properly document that
source.
Plagiarism is the most severe crime in academia. You plagiarize when you use someone
else’s formulations directly but also when you display someone else’s ideas, trains of
thoughts, or line of argumentation as your own without acknowledging the sources. If found
out, you will not receive credit and you will not be given the opportunity to write an alternative
paper for the course. If you plagiarize, you severely damage your academic reputation. And
remember that your instructors have discovered the internet as well!
The following website offers a self-test with which you can test your knowledge of various
types of direct and indirect plagiarism: http://abacus.bates.edu/cbb/quiz/index.html.
The last page of your paper must be a statement by which you guarantee that you have not
used any unacknowledged sources (see Appendix 4).
5.1 Citing within the Text
All references to primary and secondary sources have to be included in the text. You must
include all the information necessary for finding the quotation, using parenthetical
documentation and the bibliography at the end of your paper. If you are quoting short
passages up to three lines of text, integrate them into your own sentence. Use American
quotation marks (i.e., check the language settings of your word processing program). When
you quote from a text and leave out parts of the original text, indicate the omission by adding
three spaced periods (or four, if the omission is at the end of a sentence. If the original text
already contains an ellipsis and you leave out parts of the text, indicate the omission in the
following way: (page number, ellipsis in orig.).
47
Parenthetical references are directly linked to your list of works cited or bibliography.2 The
author's last name and a page reference are usually sufficient to identify the source. In the
following example, the reference (Townsend 10) indicates that the quotation comes from
page 10 of a work by Townsend. Your readers can then find complete publication information
for the source in your list of works cited.
Example:
Medieval Europe was a place both of "raids, pillages, slavery, and
extortion" and of "travelling merchants, monetary exchange, towns if
not cities, and active markets in grain" (Townsend 10).
Basic Structure and Placing of Parenthetical References
The standard parenthetical reference is simply the author's last name followed by a space
and then a page number. A parenthetical reference in your text must clearly point to a
precise location in a specific source listed in your works cited, but at the same time you
should keep the reference as brief as possible. If, for example, you include an author's name
in a sentence, you need not repeat the name in the parenthetical page citation that follows.
Place the parenthetical reference where a pause would naturally occur (preferably at the end
of a sentence), as near as possible to the material documented. Whenever you use ideas,
lines of argumentation, etc. from a text without directly quoting, you still need to indicate your
source. Use “cf.” (‘confer’) if you point to a source that can be used for comparison. Use
“see” if you point to a source that gives more information of the same kind.
Authors’ Names in Parenthetical References
If your list of works cited listing contains more than one author with the same last name, add
the first initial. If the list contains more than one work by the same author, your parenthetical
reference must include the title (preferably shortened) after the author's last name.
2 The difference between “Works Cited” and “Bibliography” will be explained in 5.2.
48
Page Numbers in Parenthetical References
The abbreviation p. is not required before the page number. When citing poetry, you should
cite the line number(s) by initially using the word line(s) (line 24) in your first citation and then
giving the numbers alone. When citing plays, act, scene, and line numbers should be given,
separated by periods (either 2.4.120 or II.iv.120, depending on your instructor's preference).
Parenthetical References by Title
If you quote a work with no stated author, as is often the case with electronic sources, you
list the work by title. You can shorten the title if necessary, but make sure that your readers
can find the respective work easily in the works cited list or bibliography. You may add a
footnote in which you indicate that you will use a certain abbreviation throughout the paper.
Sample Entries for Parenthetical References
Citing a Work by a Single Author
Between the 1960s and the 1990s, television coverage of presidential
elections changed dramatically (cf. Hallin 5).
Citing a Work by Two or Three Authors
Others, like Gilbert and Gubar (1-25), hold the opposite point of
view. Or: Others hold the opposite point of view (e.g., Gilbert and
Gubar 1-25).
Citing a Work by an Author Who Has More Than One Work Listed in Your Works Cited
Shakespeare's King Lear has been called a "comedy of the grotesque"
(Frye, Anatomy 237). Or: In Anatomy of Criticism, Frye called King
Lear a "comedy of the grotesque" (237).
Citing a Work Listed by Title
A New York Times editorial called Ralph Ellison "a writer of
universal reach" ("Death").
49
Citing More Than One Source
(Hallin 22; Scotto 63)
(Gilbert and Gubar 1-25; Atwood 15)
Citing Volume and Page Numbers of a Multivolume Work
The anthology by Lauter and his coeditors contains both Stowe's
"Sojourner Truth, the Libyan Sibyl" (1: 2425-33) and Gilman's "The
Yellow Wall-Paper" (2: 800-12).
Citing Indirect Sources
Samuel Johnson admitted that Edmund Burke was an "extraordinary man"
(qtd. in Boswell 2: 450).
5.2 Bibliography or Works Cited
Generally, the rules for citing electronic sources are similar to the ones pertaining to printed
material. In the list of Works Cited you should always indent the second and all subsequent
lines of entries five spaces from the left margin and use the following format:
This list should contain an entry for each of the works cited in your paper. You may also want
to include works which were consulted in the preparation of the paper but not actually cited
in your text. In the first case you will use the heading Works Cited; in the latter case you will
use the heading Bibliography, but note that you cannot use both headings at the same time.
All entries are listed alphabetically. Alphabetize entries by the author's last name; works
listed under the same name are alphabetized by title. If the author's name is unknown,
alphabetize by the title, ignoring any initial A, An, or The. The following paragraph is the
basic structure of an entry (a period usually follows each of the numbered components, but
very few entries will contain all components):
1. Author's name, last name first; 2. title of a part of the book (i.e., short stories,
articles, poems) in quotation marks; 3. title of the book, in italics or underlined; 4.
name(s) of the editor, translator, and/or compiler; 5. edition used; 6. number(s) of the
50
volume(s) used; 7. place of publication [only the first one is necessary]: name of the
publisher [not necessary with books before 1900], and date of publication; 8. page
numbers. 9. publication form: print or web.
Please not that all major words should be capitalized (see MLA Handbook 3.6.1). Page
numbers should be given in the following way: 55-57; 255-57; 3255-57; 102-03.
The basic structure of an entry citing a periodical is slightly different. After giving the title of
the journal or periodical, indicate the volume and issue numbers, followed by the date in
parentheses, then a colon, then the page numbers.
Sample Entries for Works Cited
A Book by a Single Author
Berlage, Gai Inghara. Women in Baseball: The Forgotten History.
Westport: Greenwood, 1994. Print.
A Book by Two or Three Authors
Marquart, James W., Sheldon Ekland Olson, and Jonathan R. Sorensen.
The Rope, the Chair, and the Needle: Capital Punishment in
Texas, 1923-1990. Austin: U of Texas P, 1994. Print.
A Book by More Than Three Authors
Gilman, Sander, et al. Hysteria beyond Freud. Berkeley: U of
California P, 1993. Print.
Two or More Books by the Same Author
Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton:
Princeton UP, 1957. Print.
---. The Double Vision: Language and Meaning in Religion. Toronto: U
of Toronto P, 1991. Print.
---, ed. Sound and Poetry. New York: Columbia UP, 1957. Print.
51
A Work in an Anthology or a Collection of Essays
Allende, lsabel. "Toad's Mouth." Trans. Margaret Sayers Peden. A
Hammock beneath the Mangoes: Stories from Latin America. Ed.
Thomas Colchie. New York: Plume, 1992. 83-88. Print.
An Article in a Familiar Reference Book
"Mandarin." The Encyclopedia Americana. 1993 ed. Print.
An Introduction, a Preface, a Foreword, or an Afterword
Drabble, Margaret. Introduction. Middlemarch. By George Eliot. New
York: Bantam, 1985. vii-xvii. Print.
A Translation
Dostoevsky, Feodor. Crime and Punishment. Trans. Jessie Coulson. Ed.
George Gibian. New York: Norton, 1964. Print.
A Second or Subsequent Edition
Feuer, Jane. The Hollywood Musical. 2nd ed. Bloomington: Indiana UP,
1993. Print.
A Multivolume Work
Lauter, Paul, et al., eds. The Heath Anthology of American
Literature. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Lexington: Heath, 1994. Print.
A Republished Book
Atwood, Margaret. Surfacing. 1972. New York: Fawcett, 1987. Print.
An Unpublished Dissertation
Sakala, Carol. "Maternity Care Policy in the United States: Toward a
More Rational and Effective System." Diss. Boston U, 1993.
Print.
52
A Work (Article, Essay, Short Story, or Poem) in an Anthology
Wright, Louis B. "Human Comedy in Early America." The Comic
Imagination in American Literature. Ed. Louis D. Rubin. New
Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1973. 17-31. Print.
An Article in a Journal
Baum, Rosalie Murphy. "Alcoholism and Family Abuse in Maggie and The
Bluest Eye." Mosaic 19.3 (Summer 1986: 91-105. Print.
An Article in a Newspaper
Manegold, Catherine S. "Becoming a Land of the Smoke-Free, Ban by
Ban." New York Times 22 Mar. 1994, late ed.: A1+. Print.
An Article in a Magazine
Murphy, Cullen. "Women and the Bible." Atlantic Monthly Aug. 1993:
39-64. Print.
An Article on a CD-ROM
"Brontë, Emily." Discovering Authors. Vers. 1.0. CD-ROM. Detroit:
Gale, 1992. Print.
5.3 Citing Sources from the Internet
Reliability of Sources
One general word of warning concerns the scholarly seriousness and reliability of materials
found on the Internet. Since among the millions of items you can find both well-researched
articles and highly subjective speculations about authors and literary works, you should be
as selective as you are with printed sources. Digitalized versions of monographs, essays,
etc. as they can be found in databases such as Google Book Search or JSTOR need to be
documented as such.
53
List of Works Cited
1. Name of the author, compiler, director, editor, narrator, performer, or translator of the
work; 2. title of the work; 3. title of the overall Web site if distinct from item 2; 4. version of
edition used; 5. publisher or sponsor of the site (if not available, use n.p.); 6. date of
publication (if nothing is available, use n.d.); 7. medium of publication: Web; 8. date of
access.
Cite as much information as is available.
Only include the URL if the reader would not be able to find the Web site without it. Place
the URL at the end of the entry and enclose it in angle brackets <> followed by a period.
A Work Cited Only on the Web
"Fresco Painting." Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. 2002.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 8 May 2002.
Antin, David. Interview by Charles Bernstein. Dalkey Archive Press.
Dalkey Archive P, n.d. Web. 21 Aug 2007.
Eaves, Morris, Robert Essick, and Jospeh Viscome, eds. The William
Blake Archive. Lib. Of Cong., 8 May 2008. Web. 15 May 2008.
A Work on the Web Cited with Print Publication Data
Cascardi, Anthony J. Ideologies of History on the Spanish Golden
Age. University Park: Pennsylvania State UP, 1997. Penn State
Romance Studies. Web. 12 May 2007.
A Scholarly Journal
Armstrong, Grace. Rev. of Fortune’s Faces: The Roman de la Rose and
the Poetics of Contingency, by Daniel Heller-Roazen. Bryn Mawr
Review of Comparative Literature 6.1 (2007): n.pag. Web. 5
June 2008.
A Periodical Publication in an Online Database
54
Tolson, Nancy. “Making Books Available: The Role of Early Libraries,
Librarians, and Booksellers in the Promotion of African
American Children’s Literature.” African American Review 32.1
(1998): 9-16. JSTOR. Web. 5 June 2008.
Parenthetical (In-Text) Citation
For Internet sources, use parenthetical (in-text) citations, just as you would for traditional
print and non-print sources. Most electronically accessed work is not paginated. Thus, for
most electronic works, you may have only an author's last name.
At least one account of the life of Mary Shelley depicts a child who
was "treated as if she were born beneath a lucky star" (Bridges).
K. W. Bridges's investigation of the life of Mary Shelley reveals a
child who "was treated as a unique individual."
5.4 Other Sources
For all other cases, such as sites found through Gopher, ftp (File Transfer Protocol), Telnet
sites, synchronous Communications (MUD [Multi-User Dungeon], MOO [Object-Oriented
MUD,], IRC [Internet Relay Chat], etc.), e-mail Communications, online databases, or CD
ROMs, access http://webster.commnet.edu/mla/online.htm.
6. Bibliography
Modern Language Association. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 7th ed. New
York: MLA, 2009. Print.
Kruse, Otto. Keine Angst vor dem leeren Blatt: Ohne Schreibblockaden durchs Studium.
Frankfurt: Campus, 2012. Print.
55
7. Appendices
Appendix 1: Some Useful Verbs and Phrases
maintain, illustrate, demonstrate
emphasize, highlight
scrutinize, investigate, examine
accordingly, as a result, consequently, subsequently, in conclusion, therefore, hence, thus, in this way, likewise
besides, furthermore, moreover, even more, what is more, in addition, first(ly)/second(ly), etc., finally, in the first place, next, then, also
still, nevertheless, nonetheless, however, now, even so
for example, for instance, similarly, in other words, that is, specifically
on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand, conversely, instead, otherwise
as a matter of fact, indeed, certainly, actually, in fact, after all
anyhow, anyway, at any rate, of course
at the same time, meanwhile
Appendix 2: Some Online Resources
1. Academic Writing
William Strunk, Jr: The Elements of Style (standard American textbook)
http://www.bartleby.com/141/index.html
Dartmouth College Composition Center:
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~compose/student/index.html
Advice on Academic Writing (University of Toronto):
http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/advise.html
Writer's Handbook (Writing Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison):
http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/handbook.html
Purdue Online Writing Lab
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/
Plagiarism
http://abacus.bates.edu/cbb/quiz/index.html
2.1 Miscellaneous but Relevant
Evaluating Internet Resources:
http://www.library.georgetown.edu/internet/eval.htm
The Heath Anthology of American Literature Online:
http://college.hmco.com/english/heath/litlink.html
Project Gutenberg: Primary Texts Online
http://promo.net/pg/
The Literary Encyclopedia
http://www.litencyc.com/index.php
56
The Literary Link (useful materials, tips and links, as well as suggestions for teachers)
http://www.theliterarylink.com
Representative Poetry Online (RPO)
http://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/display/
E-text sources
www.bartleby.com
www.bibliomania.com
Literary Terminology
http://www.virtualsalt.com/litterms.htm
American Literature
http://www.vcu.edu/engweb/eng372/sources.htm
Romanticism
http://www.rc.umd.edu/
The Poetry Resource
http://www.poetryresource.org
Etext Centre: University of Virginia Library
http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/modeng/
Postcolonial Web
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/
Victorian Web
http://www.victorianweb.org/
Basics of English Studies
http://www2.anglistik.uni-freiburg.de/intranet/englishbasics/Home01.htm
2.2. Databases:
access via U of Marburg Library website: http://www.uni-marburg.de/bis
(Digitale Bibliothek → Datenbanken → Anglistik/Amerikanistik)
Oxford Reference Online
http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/BOOK_SEARCH.html?book=t56
MLA database
http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/search?vid=2&hid=4&sid=3813353f-f8d1-4e23-95f4-
e4f702666413%40sessionmgr14
JSTOR
http://www.jstor.org/?cookieSet=1
Literary Reference Center
http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/search?vid=1&hid=119&sid=bbb5d8e8-a763-4c70-
9afe-acbda8a2a448%40sessionmgr110
Cambridge Collections Online
http://cco.cambridge.org/uid=10484/private_home
57
Appendix 3: Abbreviations Used for Documentation
bk. book
ch., chs. chapter, chapters
cf. compare (Latin confer; do not confuse with the word "see")
ed. editor, edition, edited by (eds. is used after the names of two or more editors)
e.g. for example (Latin exempli gratia; usually set off by commas)
et al. and others (Latin et alii, et aliae)
introd. introduction, introduced by
n.d. no date of publication
n.p. no place of publication; or: no publisher
n.pag. no pagination
p., pp. page, pages
qtd. quoted
rev. revised, revised by, revision; review, reviewed by
rpt. reprinted by, reprint
sec. section
trans. translator, translation, translated by
UP University Press
Appendix 4: Plagiarism
Versicherung
Ich versichere hiermit an Eides statt, dass ich die vorliegende Arbeit selbständig verfasst,
ganz oder in Teilen noch nicht als Prüfungsleistung vorgelegt und keine anderen als die
angegebenen Hilfsmittel benutzt habe.
Sämtliche Stellen der Arbeit, die benutzten Werken im Wortlaut oder dem Sinn nach
entnommen sind, habe ich durch Quellenangaben kenntlich gemacht.
Dies gilt auch für Zeichnungen, Skizzen, bildliche Darstellungen und dergleichen
sowie für Quellen aus dem Internet.
Bei Zuwiderhandlung gilt das Seminar (PS, SE etc.) als nicht bestanden – keine
Scheinvergabe.
Ich bin mir bewusst, dass es sich bei Plagiarismus um schweres akademisches
Fehlverhalten handelt, das im Wiederholungsfall weiter sanktioniert werden kann.
Marburg, den ........................................ .......................................
Datum Unterschrift
58
Confirmation of Authorship
I hereby formally declare that the work submitted is entirely my own and does not involve
any additional human assistance. I also confirm that it has not been submitted for credit
before, neither as a whole nor in part and neither by myself nor by any other person.
All quotations and paraphrases but also information and ideas that have been taken from
sources used are cited appropriately with the corresponding bibliographical references
provided. The same is true of all drawings, sketches, pictures and the like that appear in
the text, as well as of all Internet resources used.
Violation of these terms will result in failure of the seminar and no credits will be awarded.
I am aware that plagiarism is serious academic misconduct which can lead to further
sanctions on reoccurrence.
Marburg, _________________ _________________________
(Date) (Signature)
Please note that you have to copy this, you cannot simply print out the page and add
it to your paper!
59
A Short Guide to Narratology: Stanzel & Genette by Carmen Fels, M.A.
A) DISCOURSE (= in narrative texts: structure of the narrative transmission, “how” is the story
narrated?)
1. Narrative Situation (point-of-view) according to Stanzel:
authorial narrative situation: 3rd
- person narrator outside the narrated world, omniscient,
intrusive, dominance of the external perspective, appears as concrete tangible speaker,
personal interjections, comments, moral judgements, addresses the reader, flashforwards,
generalizations, thematization of the act of narration, privileges: psychological privilege of
psychological insight into internal processes of all characters, spatial privilege of invisible
and fictive omnipresence (presence at several locations simultaneously), temporal
privilege of being able to survey entire course of narrative events in the past, present,
future
first-person narrative situation: narrating I takes part in the action of the fictional world
as a character or experiencing I (=homodiegetic n.), often: temporal/moral distance
between experiencing I and narrating I, process of reflection, maturation, involvement as
protagonist (I-as-protagonist) or as a peripheral character (I-as-witness), limitations: only
internal processes, thoughts, feelings of narrating/experiencing I, no insight into other
ch.’s consciousness, must be present at the scene, not able to look into the future
figural narrative situation: 3rd
- person narrator outside story world (=heterodiegetic),
covert n. recounts the events from the perspective of a character who is involved in the
action = ‘reflector’ who functions as a medium/center of orientation, his/her
perceptions/internal processes play a central role in determining what is narrated, direct
insight into the sensory impressions and consciousness of the perceiving, thinking
character, internal perspective predominates (≠ authorial n.), 3rd
- person narrator restricts
himself to a factual representation, recedes in the background so that traces of narrative
transmission are barely noticeable,
2. Narrative Transmission according to Genette:
distinction between narration (who speaks?) and focalization (who sees?)
narrating vs. perceiving/experiencing
focalization: in contrast to categories relating to the narrator, this term refers to the
representation of the perception of the fictional world; it includes internal processes such
as thinking, feeling, remembering, sensory perception
- focalizer: subject of the focalization, center of orientation from whose perspective the
narrated world is perceived, answer to the question who sees?
- Internal vs. external focalization, multiple, variable focalization, multiperspectivity
Focalization: who sees?
- external, internal focalization
- fixed, variable, multiple
- monologic, dialogic structures of perspective
- how are the thoughts, feelings, words mediated? (report, indirect discourse, free
indirect discourse, interior monologue)
- distance (1st person shortens distance)
- tone: attitude of the speaker toward what is being said
60
- focalizer: psychological centre of orientation through whose perception and
consciousness the fictional events are filtered = LENS
levels of communication according to Genette:
- extradiegetic level/narrator: n. is located on the level of the narrative transmission,
not part of the fictional world
- intradiegetic level/narrator: n. is a character who is part of the narrated story/world;
located on the level of the story
- heterodiegetic narrator: n. is located outside the narrated world
- homodiegetic narrator: narrator appears as a character within his own story
- autodiegetic narrator: a homodiegetic narrator who is identical with the main
protagonist and narrates his/her own life story, instead of being just a witness or an
observer
overt narrator: or explicit n. = n. appears on the level of the narrative transmission as an
individualized speaker/concrete persona
→ reader is encouraged to attribute personal characteristics and value
judgements to such a speaker
covert narrator (neutrales Erzählmedium): n. who recounts the action in a detached and
factual manner, who is not presented as an individualized speaker
→ his role is restricted to the basic narrative functions (recounting the action and
supplying deictic information concerning place, time, and characters), common in the
figural narrative situation
reliable vs. unreliable narration
- general: degree of reliability, credibility, trustworthiness
- unreliable: n. is compromised by his/her limited knowledge, emotional involvement,
questionable norms/values, contradictions, contradiction between self-characterization
and characterizations by other characters
B) STORY ( = chronological sequence of narrated events, “what” is narrated?)
1. 4 factors which influence the behaviour of the character and thus the development of the
action:
1. abilities
2. needs
3. motivation
4. intention
2. construction/conception of characters
- personification/representative vs. type/individual
- flat or round
- static or dynamic
- transparent or opaque (solid)
- fully explained, closed
- plot agents: hero, helper, villain, donor
- archetypes
- individual vs. type
61
3. How are characters designed?
- telling names etc.?
- character perspective → 3 major factors regarding view of reality:
knowledge
psychological disposition
values and norms
- imitation or role?
- manner and timing of entrances, exits
- PHYSIOGNOMY: judging a character by his/her (facial) features, appearance; the act of
discovering temperament/character from outward appearance
- body language
- characteristic vocal quality
- do words agree with acts?
- which particular places do characters belong to?
- figural vs. authorial characterization
- implicit vs. explicit characterization
- internal vs. external activities
- language:
a. syntax (simple style, complex style, paratactic, hypotactic)
b. diction (colloquial, hard words, archaic, dialect)
4. Character Constellation
- dynamic structure = their relationships, conflict potential
- irreconcilable motives (leads to climax)
- positive traits juxtaposed with a villain (opposition between protagonist and antagonist)
- changing of constellation (groups vs. individuals, pairs)
5. Imagery & Atmosphere
- leitmotif
- metaphor
- symbols
- personification
- ambiguity
- similes
- etc.
6. Setting: Time and Place Where does the story take place?
- single or multiple setting
- objective location, perceived atmosphere
- internal space vs. external space (subjective mind, private home vs. world outside)
- social, political, cultural spaces
- symbolic function
When does the story take place?
- conceptions of time: subjective experience of time (‘mind time’) vs. external, ‘clock’ time =
are there any discrepancies, privileging subjective time (e.g. Faulkner, Woolf)?
- historical/social/socio-economic/political background
7. Structure:
- chronological/logical or anachronic order?
- discourse time vs. story time
- flashbacks (analepsis)
- flashforwards (prolepsis)
- retrospection
- linear, circular, fragmentary
62
- relationship between internal and external action
Sources:
Nünning, Ansgar, and Vera Nünning. An Introduction to the Study of English and American
Literature. Trans. Jane Dewhurst. Stuttgart: Klett, 2004. Print.
Fielitz, Sonja. Roman: Text & Kontext. Berlin: Cornelsen, 2001. Print.
Jahn, Manfred. Narratology: A Guide to the Theory of Narrative. English Department, University of
Cologne, 2005. Web. August 10, 2012.
“Typenkreis“ (Franz K. Stanzel):
Source: Stanzel, F. K. Theorie des Erzählens. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1979. Print.
63
Guiding Strategies and Questions for a Systematic Analysis of Dramatic
Texts by Carmen Fels, M.A.
1. Structure: Primary Text / Secondary Text a) Which forms of epic communication fulfil which functions?
1) Significance of title
2) secondary text (all text which is not part of dialogue): demarcation of acts and
scenes, title, dedications, prefaces, list of dramatis personae etc.
3) Narration: inclusion of narrative (story) elements, narrative frame
4) Comments in stage directions (gestures, facial expressions)
Epic narrator/narration (outside play, introduces, mediates)
Dramatic introduction = serves to establish a communication channel, contact
between the stage and the audience, awaken interest,
acclimatize it to atmosphere of the play (phatic function,
i.e. establish connection, contact)
Exposition = information of events preceding the action, introduction to time and
place of action, characters (referential function, i.e.
providing information)
5) monological speech : Aside, soliloquy etc.
b) THEATER CODES and SIGNS = Semiotics of Theatre (the study of signs and codes of
theatre communication)
1) verbal or non-verbal signs, codes (related to actors or not?)
2) acoustic and optical or visual signs, codes
3) durative (constant) or non durative (temporary) codes
2. Verbal / Non-verbal Modes of Communication / Norms of Co-
operative Communication
Analyzing dramatic language
1. Content (what)
2. Manner (how)
3. Function (why)
Norms of co-operative
communication help to
understand dramatic speech:
speakers should respect each
other and tell the truth, give
adequate amount of information
The intentional violation of these rules in a dialogue
reveals incompetence, alienation, domination, deception
It matters how long, how often someone speaks = quantity
of speeches, entrances Who interrupts whom how often
Dominant characters are given more, longer speeches in
order to reveal their individual complexity, social power,
prominence as agents
64
a) Monologue, soliloquy, aside
function:
1) Familiarize audience w/ atmosphere, description of surroundings, scenery
2) Providing of expository information about preceding events
3) Introducing/commenting on the action, characters, spatial, temporal context
4) Introducing the protagonist, his/her self-characterization
5) Confession, divulgence of innermost feelings
6) Informs the audience about character’s thought, plans, feelings
7) Explicit self-commentary
8) Conclusions concerning his or her own values, norms, personality traits
9) Revealing innermost feelings, conflicts, internal processes
10) Disclosing speakers plans
11) reason? → conceive, intrigue, plan
Distinction :
- soliloquy: ch. alone on stage, or regardless of any hearers, divulgence of innermost
feelings, high degree of subjectivity, unreliable
- monologue: ch. speaks alone, but in the explicit presence of others, Selbstgespräch,
high degree of subjectivity, unreliable
- Aside: ch. addresses audience, reader directly
b) Dialogue
function:
1. sets action in motion
2. ensure progression of action
3. central devise for characterization
4. medium for conflict
5. serve as a clarification of opinions
6. expounding of central themes
Aspects that are crucial for analysis:
= succession of remarks and counter remarks between two or more characters
addressed to an interlocutor on stage
exchange of thoughts, opinions, discussion of topic, plot or intrigue
as an indicator for ch.’s position, hierarchy, rank
length
distribution of speech time (dominant character vs. weak ch.)
linearity
interruption? = sign for malfunctioning, problematical communication?
Relationships between utterances of one figure and other? (quality, quantity)
Logical coherence? = logical reaction to previous utterances by other ch.?
Who says what to whom in which way for which reason?
How do figures characterize themselves/others?
Direct vs. indirect characterization through content, manner, style
What do utterances aim at?
Exchange of information
65
Retrospectives
Foreshadowing
Negotiation
Planning, performing action
How do perspectives relate to each other?
3. Characters and Action: Dramatis personae
a) 4 factors which influence the behavior of the character and thus the development of the
action: 1) abilities (skills, talents, capabilities)
2) needs (requirements, desires, wishes)
3) motivation (drives, inspirations, impulses)
4) intention (aims, objectives, (secret) plans)
b) construction/conception of characters
- personification/representative vs. type/individual
- flat or round
- static or dynamic
- transparent or opaque (solid)
- fully explained, closed
- plot agents: hero, helper, villain, donor
- archetypes (basic models from which copies are made: the rebel, Don Juan, hero,
snob, social climber, femme fatale=
- individual vs. type
c) How are characters designed?
- Stage directions
- Telling names etc.? ( → Blanche DuBois = white from the woods)
- entrances and exits
- character perspective → 3 major factors regarding view of reality:
1. knowledge
2. psychological disposition
3. values and norms
- imitation or role?
- Manner and timing of entrances, exits
- PHYSIOGNOMY: judging a character by his/her features, appearance; the act of
discovering temperament/character from outward appearance
- Body language
- Characteristic vocal quality
- Do words agree with acts?
- Which particular places do characters belong to?
- figural vs. authorial characterization (information conveyed by author or character)
- implicit vs. explicit characterization (direct statements or audience has to draw own
conclusions)
d) Character Constellation
1) dynamic structure = their relationships, conflict potential
2) irreconcilable motives (leads to climax)
66
3) positive traits juxtaposed with a villain (opposition between protagonist and
antagonist)
4) changing of constellation (groups vs. individuals, pairs)
e) Imagery & Atmosphere - leitmotif
- metaphor
- Symbols
- Personification
- Ambiguity
- Similes
- etc.
4. Representation of Place and Time
a) Where does the story take place? 1) Aristotle: unity of time, place, action?
2) Or: open temporal and spatial structure (setting changes frequently, time is not
restricted to one day)
3) Single setting
4) Objective location, perceived atmosphere
5) Social, political, cultural spaces, boundaries
6) Symbolic function (mirror)
7) crossing of boundaries between locations?
8) “word-scenery” (attempts to engage audience’s imagination by describing location
[props] or imaginary figures [ghosts])
b) When is the story set? How is time conceived?
1) Objective vs. subjective measure of time
2) Linear, cyclical, inverted, achronic
3) foreshadowing, flashbacks, pauses, ellipses
4) actual performance time vs. fictional time
5. General Considerations
Impact on audience:
estrangement
catharsis
How does the form correspond to topics?
How does performance realize/interpret play?
How does the drama relate to its cultural context?
Sources:
Nünning, Ansgar, and Vera Nünning. An Introduction to the Study of English and American
Literature. Trans. Jane Dewhurst. Stuttgart: Klett, 2004. Print.
Fielitz, Sonja. Roman: Text & Kontext. Berlin: Cornelsen, 2001. Print.
Jahn, Manfred. Narratology: A Guide to the Theory of Narrative. English Department, University of
Cologne, 2005. Web. August 10, 2012.