Student Resources Chapter 8

A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India by Upinder Singh

Chapter 8: Student resources

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P. 454 PHOTOGRAPHS OF SCULPTURES FROM VARIOUS BUDDHIST SITES

NAGARJUNAKONDA

WORSHIPPING THE BUDDHA, NAGARJUNAKONDA



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A KING VISITING THE BUDDHA

INDRA VISITING THE BUDDHA



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TOP: THE SAKYAN PRINCES CONVERSION; ABOVE LEFT: THE BUDDHA PREACHING AT SARNATH; ABOVE RIGHT: MARAS ATTACK ON THE BUDDHA



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FURTHER RESOURCES

EXTRACTS

The Jatakas

Extracted from E. B. Cowell, ed., The Jataka, or Stories of the Buddhas Former Births, Vol. I, Book II. Translated from Pali by Various Hands. New Delhi: Low Price Publications, [1894] 1990.

Mandhatu-Jataka

This story the Master told during a stay at Jetavana, about a backsliding brother.

We are told that this brother, in traversing Savatthi for his alms, saw a finely dressed woman and fell in love with her. Then the Brethren led him to the Hall and Truth, and informed the Mater that he was a backslider. The Master asked whether it were true; and was answered, yes it was. [311]

Brother, said the Master, when will you ever satisfy this lust, even while you are a householder? Such lust is as deep as the ocean, nothing can satisfy it. In former days there have been supreme monarchs, who attended by their retinue of men held away over the four great continents encircled by two thousand isles, ruling even in the heaven of the four great kings, even when they were kings of the gods in the Heaven of the Thirty Three, even in the abode of the Thirty Six Sakkas,even these failed to satisfy their lust, and died before they could do so; when will you be able to satisfy it? And he told an old-world tale.

Long ago, in the early ages of the world, there lived a king named Mahasammata, and he had a son Roja, who had a son Vararoja, who had a son Kalyana, who had a son Varakalyana, and Varakalyana had a son named Uposatha, and Uposatha had a son Mandhata. Mandhata was endowed with the Seven Precious Things and the Four Supernatural Powers; and he was a great monarch. When he clenched his left hand, and then touched it with his right, there fell a rain of seven kinds of jewels, knee-deep, as though a celestial rain-cloud had arisen in the sky; so wondrous a man was he. Eighty-four thousand years he was a prince, the same number he took some share in ruling the kingdom, and even so many years he ruled as supreme king; his life lasted for countless ages.

One day, he could not satisfy some desire, so he showed signs of discontent.

Why are you cast down, my lord? the courtiers asked him. When the power of my merit is considered, what is this kingdom? Which place seems worth desiring? Heaven, my lord.



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So rolling along the Wheel of Empire, with his suite [312] he went to the heaven of the four great kings. The four kings, with a great throng of gods, come to meet him in state, bearing celestial flowers and perfumes; and having escorted him in their heaven, gave him rule over it. There he reigned in state, and a long time went by. But not there either could he satisfy his craving; and so he began to look sick with discontent.

Why, mighty king, said the four monarchs, are you unsatisfied? And the king replied, What place is more lovely than this heaven? They answered, My lord, we are like servants. The Heaven of the Thirty-three is more lovely than this!

Mandhata set the Wheel of Empire a-rolling, and with his court all round him turned his face to the Heaven of the Thirty-three. And Sakka, king of the Gods, bearing celestial flowers and perfumes, in the midst of a great throng of gods, came to meet him in state, and taking charge of him showed him the way he should go. At the time when the king was marching amidst the throng of gods, his eldest son took the Wheel of Empire, and descending to the paths of men, came to his own city. Sakka led Mandhata into the Heaven of the Thirty-three, and gave him the half of his own kingdom. After that the two of them ruled together. Time went on, until Sakka had lived for sixty times an hundred thousand years, and thirty millions of years, then was born on earth again; another Sakka grew up, and he too reigned, and lived his life, and was born on earth. In this way six and thirty Sakkas followed one after another. Still Mandhata reigned with his crowd of courtiers round him. As time went on, the force of his passion and desire grew stronger and stronger. What is half a realm to me? said he in his heart; I will kill Sakka, and reign along! But kill Sakka he could not. This desire and greed of his was the root of his misfortune. The power of his life began to wane; old age seized upon him; [313] but a human body does not disintegrate in heaven. So from heaven he fell, and descended in a park. The gardener made known his coming to the royal family; they came and appointed him a resting-place in the park; there lay the king in lassitude and weariness. The courtiers asked him,

My lord, what world shall we take from? Take from me, quoth he, this message to the people: Mandhata, king of kings, having ruled supreme over the four quarters of the globe, with all the two thousand islands round about, for a long time having reigned over the people of the four great kings, having been king of Heaven during the lifetime of six and thirty Sakkas, now lies dead. With these words he died, and went to fare according to his deserts.

This tale ended, the Master became perfectly enlightened and uttered the following stanzas:

Wherever sun and moon their courses run All are Mandhatas servants, every one:



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Whereer earths quarters see the light of day, There king Mandhata holds imperial away.

Not though a rain of coins fall from the sky Could anything be found to satisfy. Pain is desire, and sorrow is unrest: He that knows this is wise, and he is blest.

Where longing is, there pleasure takes him wings, Even though desire be set on heavenly things. Disciples of the Very Buddha try To crush out all desire eternally.

[314] When the Master had ended this discourse, he declared the Four Truths, and identified the Birthat the conclusion of the Truths the back-sliding Brother and many others, attained to the Fruit of the First PathAt that time, I was the great king Mandhata.

Sasa-Jataka 1

This story was told by the Master while living at Jetavana, about a gift of all the Buddhist requisites. A certain landowner at Savatthi, they say, provided all the requisites for the Brotherhood with Buddha at its head, and setting up a pavilion at his house door, he invited all the company of priests with their chief Buddha, seated them on elegant seats prepared for them, and offered them a variety of choice and dainty food. And saying, Come again to-morrow, he entertained them for a whole week, and on the seventh day he presented Buddha and the five hundred priests under him with all the requisites. At the end of the feast the Master, in returning thanks, said, Lay Brother, you are right in giving pleasure and satisfaction by this charity. For this is a tradition of wise men of old, who sacrificed their lives for any beggars they met with, and gave them even their own flesh to eat. And at the request of his host he related this old-world legend.

Once upon a time when Brahmadatta was a reigning in Benares, the Bodhisatta came to life as a young hare and lived in a wood. On one side of this wood was the foot of a mountain, on another side a river, and on the third side a border-village. The hare had three friendsa monkey, a jackal and an otter. These four wise creatures lived together [52] and each of them got his food on his own hunting-ground, and in the evening they again came together. The hare in his wisdom by way of admonition preached the Truth to his three companions, teaching that alms are to be given, the moral law to be observed, and holy days to be kept. They accepted his admonition and went each to his own part of the jungle and dwelt there.



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And so in the course of time the Bodhisatta one day observing the sky, and looking at the moon knew that the next day would be a fast-day, and addressing his three companions he said, To-morrow is a fast-day. Let all three of you take upon you the moral precepts, and observe the holy day. To one that stands fast in moral practice, almsgiving brings a great reward. Therefore feed any beggars that come to you by giving them food from your own table. They readily assented, and abode each in his own place of dwelling.

On the morrow quite early in the morning, the otter sallied forth to seek his prey and went down to the bank of the Ganges. Now it came to pass that a fisherman had landed seven red fish, and stringing them together on a withe, he had taken and buried them in the sand on the rivers bank. And then he dropped down the stream, catching more fish. The otter, scenting the buried fish, dug up the sand till he came upon them, and pulling them out cried aloud thrice, Does any one own these fish? And not seeing any owner he took hold of the withe with his teeth and laid the fish in the jungle where he dwelt, intending to eat them at a fitting time. And then he lay down, thinking how virtuous he was! The jackal too sallied forth in quest of food and found in the hut of a field-watcher two spits, a lizard and a pot of milk-curd. And after thrice crying aloud, To whom do these belong? and not finding an owner, he put on his neck the rope for lifting the pot, and grasping the spits and the lizard with his teeth, he brought and laid them in his own lair, thinking, In due season I will devour them, and so lay down, [53] reflecting how virtuous he had been.

The monkey also entered the clump of trees, and gathering a bunch of mangoes laid them up in his part of the jungle, meaning to eat them in due season, and then lay down, thinking how virtuous he was. But the Bodhisatta in due time came out, intending to browse on the kuca grass, and as he lay in the jungle, the thought occurred to him, It is impossible for me to offer grass to any beggars that may chance to appear, and I have no oil or rice and such like. If any beggar shall appeal to me, I shall have to give him my own flesh to eat. At this splendid display of virtue, Sakkas white marble throne manifested signs of heat. Sakka on reflection discovered the cause and resolved to put this royal hare to the test. First of all he went and stood by the otters dwelling-place, disguised as a Brahmin, and being asked why he stood there, he replied, Wise Sir, if I could get something to eat, after keeping the fast, I would perform all my priestly duties. The otter replied, Very well, I will give you some food, and as he conversed with him he repeated the first stanza:

Seven red fish I safely brought to land from Ganges flood, O brahmin, eat thy fill, I pray, and stay within this wood.

The Brahmin said, Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and bye. Next he went to the jackal, and when asked by him why he stood there, he made the same answer. The jackal, too, readily promised him some food, and in talking with him repeated the second stanza:

[54] A lizard and a jar of curds, the keepers evening meal, Two spits to roast the flesh withal I wrongfully did steal: Such as I have I give to thee: O Brahmin, eat, I pray,



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If thou shouldst deign within this wood a while with us to stay.

Said the Brahmin, Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and bye. Then he went to the monkey, and when asked what he meant by standing there, he answered just as before. The monkey readily offered him some food, and in conversing with him gave utterance to the third stanza:

An icy stream, a mango ripe, and pleasant greenwood shade, Tis thine to enjoy, if thou canst dwell content in forest glade.

Said the Brahmin, Let be till to-morrow. I will see to it by and bye. And he went to the wise hare, and on being asked by him why he stood there, he made the same reply. The Bodhisatta on hearing what he wanted was highly delighted, and said, Brahmin, you have done well in coming to me for food. This day will I grant you a boon that I have never granted before, but you shall not break the moral law by taking animal life. Go, friend, and when you have piled together logs of wood, and kindled a fire, come and let me know, [55] and I will sacrifice myself by falling into the midst of the flames, and when my body is roasted, you shall eat my flesh and fulfil all your priestly duties. And in thus addressing him the hare uttered the fourth stanza:

Nor sesame, nor beans, nor rice have I as food to give, But roast with fire my flesh I yield, if thou with us would live.

Sakka, on hearing what he said, by his miraculous power caused a heap of burning coals to appear, and came and told the Bodhisatta. Rising from his bed of kuca grass and coming to the place, he thrice shook himself that if there were any insects within his coat, they might escape death. Then offering his whole body as a free gift he sprang up, and like a royal swan, alighting on a cluster of lotuses, in an ecstasy of joy he fell on the heap of live coals. But the flame failed even to heat the pores of the hair on the body of the Bodhisatta, and it was as if he had entered a region of frost. Then he addressed Sakka in these words: Brahmin, the fire you have kindled is icy-cold: it fails to heat even the pores of the hair on my body. What is the meaning of this? Wise sir, he replied, I am no brahmin. I am Sakka, and I have come to put your virtue to the test. The Bodhisatta said, If not only thou, Sakka, but all the inhabitants of the world were to try me in this matter of almsgiving, they would not find in me any unwillingness to give, and with this the Bodhisatta uttered a cry of exultation like a lion roaring. Then said Sakka to the Bodhisatta, O wise hare, be thy virtue known throughout a whole on. And squeezing the mountain, with the essence thus extracted, he daubed the sign of a hare on the orb of the moon. And after depositing the hare on a bed of young kuca grass, in the same wooded part of the jungle, Sakka returned to his own place in heaven. [56] And these four wise creatures dwelt happily and harmoniously together, fulfilling the moral law and observing holy days, till they departed to fare according to their deeds.



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The Master, when he had ended his lesson, revealed the Truths and identified the Birth:At the conclusion of the Truths the householder, who gave as a free gift all the Buddhist requisites, attained fruition of the First Path:At that time Ananda was the otter, Moggallana was the jackal, Sariputta the monkey, and I myself was the wise hare.

Extract from Periplus Maris Erythraei

Extracted from R. C. Majumdar, ed., The Classical Accounts of India. Calcutta: Firma KLM Private, 1981.

48. In the same region eastward in a city called Ozene, formerly the capital wherein the king resided. From it there is brought down to Barygaza every commodity for the supply of the country and for export to our own marketsonyx-stones, porcelain, fine muslins, mallow-coloured muslins, and no small quantity of ordinary cottons. At the same time there is brought down to it from the upper country by way of Proclais, for transmission to the coast, Kattybourine, Patropapigic, and Cabalitic spikenard, and another kind which reaches it by way of the adjacent province of Scythia; also costus and bdellium.

49. The imports of Barygaza areWine, principally Italian. Laodicean wine and Arabian, brass or copper and tin and lead, coral and Gold stone or Yellow stone; cloth, plain and mixed of all sorts; variegated sashes half a yard wide, storax, sweet clover, (meliot, white glass. Gum Sandarach. [Stibium] Tincture for the eyes); gold and silver specie, yielding a profit when exchanged for native money; perfumes or unguents, neither costly nor in great quantity. In those times, moreover, there were imported, as presents to the king, costly silver vases, instruments of music, handsome young women for concubinage, superior wine, apparel, plain but costly, and the choicest unguents. The exports, from this part of the country are

Spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, onyx-stones and porcelain, box-thorn, cottons of all sorts, silk, mallow coloured cottons, silk thread, long pepper and other articles supplied from the neighbouring ports. The proper season to set sail for Barygaza from Egypt is the month of July or Epiphi.

50. From Barygaza the coast immediately adjoining stretches from the north directly to the south and the country is therefore called Dakhinabades, because Dakhan in the language of the natives signifies south. Of this country that part which lies inland towards the east comprises a great space of desert country, and large mountains abounding with all kinds of wild animals, leopards, tigers, elephants, huge snakes, hyenas, and baboons of many different sorts, and is inhabited right across to the Ganges by many and extremely populous nations.

51. Among the marts in this South Country there are two of more particular importancePaethana, which lies south from Barygaza, a distance of twenty days, and Tagara, ten days east of Paethana, the greatest city in the country. Their commodities are carried down on wagons to Barygaza along roads of extreme difficulty, that is, from Paithana a great quantity of onyx-stone and from Tagara ordinary cottons in abundance, many sorts



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of muslins, mallow coloured cottons, and other articles of local production brought into it from the parts along the coast. The length of the entire voyage as far as Limyrike is 700 stadia, and to reach Aigialus you must sail very many stadia further.

52. The local marts which occur in order along the coast after Barygaza are Akabaru, Suppara, Kalliena, a city which was raised to the rank of a regular mart in the times of the elder Saraganus, but after Sandanes became its master its trade was put under the severest restrictions; for if Greek vessels even by accident enter its ports, a guard is put on board and they are taken to Barygaza.

53. After Kalliena other local marts occurSemylla, Mandagora, Palaepatmae, Melizeigara, Byzantion, Toparon, and Tyrannosboad. You come next to the islands called Sesecreienae and the island of the Aigidioi and that of the Kaeneitae, near what is called the Chersonesus, places in which are pirates, and after this the island Leuke (or the White). Then follow Naura and Tyndis, the first marts of Limyrike, and after these Muziris and Nelcynda, the seats of Government.

54. To the kingdom under the sway of Ceprobotras Tyndis is subject, a village of great note situate [sic] near the sea. Muziris, which pertains to the same realm, is a city at the height of prosperity, frequented as it is by ships (from Ariake and Greek ships from Egypt). It lies near a river at a distance from Tyndis of 500 stadia, whether this is measured from river to river the mouth of its own river. The distance of Nelcynda from Muziris is also nearly 500 stadia, whether measured from river to river or by the sea voyage, but it belongs to a different kingdom, that of Pandion. It likewise is situated near a river and at about a distance from the sea of 120 stadia.

55. At the very mouth of this river lies another village, Bacare, to which the ships dispatched from Nelcynda come down empty and ride at anchor off shore while taking in cargo; for the river, it many be noted, has sunken reefs and shallows which make its navigation difficult. The sign by which those who come hither by sea know they are nearing land is their meeting with snakes, which are here of a black colour, not so long as those already mentioned, like serpents about the head, and with eyes the colour of blood.

56. The ships which frequent these ports are of a large size, on account of the great amount and bulkiness of the pepper and betel of which their lading consists. The imports here are principally great quantities of specie; (topaz?), gold stone, thrysolite; a small assortment of plain cloth, flowered robes; Stibium, a pigment for the eyes; coral, white glass, copper or brass, tin, lead; wine, but not much, but about as much as at Barygaza; sandarach, arsenic (orpiment), yellow sulphuret of arsenic; and corn, only for the use of the ship company, as the merchants do not sell it.

The following commodities are brought to it for export Pepper in great quantity, produced in only one of these marts and called the pepper of Cottonara, pearls in great quantity and of superior quality, ivory, fine silks, spikenard from the Ganges, betel, all brought from countries further east, transparent or precious stones of all sorts, diamonds, jacinths, tortoise-shell from the Golden Island, and another sort which is taken in the



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islands which is taken in the islands which lie off the coast of Limyrike. The proper season to set sail from Egypt for this part of India is about the month of July, that is, Epiphi.

57. The whole round of the voyage from Cana and Eudaemon Arabia, which we have just described, used to be performed in small vessels which kept close to shore and followed its windings, but Hippalus was the pilot who first, by observing the bearings of the ports and the configuration of the sea, discovered the direct course across the ocean. For, at the same time when our own Etesian winds are blowing, a periodical wind from the ocean likewise blows in the Indian Sea, and this wind, which is the south-west, is, it seems, called in these seas Hippalus after the name of the pilot who first discovered the passage by means of it. From the time of this discovery to the present day, merchants who sail for India either from Cana, or as others do, from Aromata, if Limyrike be their destination, (must often change their tack), but if they are bound for Barygaza and Scythia, they are not retarded for more than three days, after which, committing themselves to the monsoon which blows right in the direction of their course, they stand far out to sea, leaving all the gulfs we have mentioned in the distance.

Some Donative Inscriptions from Sanchi Stupa No. 1

From Epigraphia Indica, Vol 2, 1894

The gift of Dhamasiva (Dharmaiva), son of Kekaeyaka (Kaikaeyaka).

The gift of Dhamagirikas (Dharmagirikas) mother.

The gift of Vijita, son-in-law of Kekaeyaka (Kaikaeyaka). The gift of the monk Kda (Knda).

The gift of the monk Aya-Pasanaka (the venerable Prasannaka).

The gift of the nun Achal, from Nadinagara (Nandinagara).

The gift of the monk Kboja (Kmboja) from Nadinagara (Nandinagara).

The gift of Soadev (Suvaradev or onadev), wife of Siharakhita (Simharakshita).

The gift of Arahaguta (Arhadguta), inhabitant of Ssad.

The gift of Subhaga, inhabitant of Kuraghara (Kuraragiha).

The gift of Vudin (Vyudr), a female lay-disciple.



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The measuring-staff of the Divine one (Buddha, the gift) of Kka (i.e. probably kkin, the litlle crow).

The gift of Vesamanadata (Vaisravanadatta), daughter-in-law of Patihiya (Pratishhitha), a gahapati from Tubavana (Tumbavana).

The gift of the gahapati Patihiya (Pratishhitha) from Tubavana (Tumbavana).

The gift both of Ndavu (Nandyu?) and of Nndivirohi (Nandivirohin).

The gift of the Bauddha Committee of Trustees from Dhamavahanana

(Dharmavardhanana).

PHOTOGRAPHS

ARTEFACTS FROM VARIOUS SITES

MATHURA: TERRACOTTA YAKSHI MOULD



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KAUSHAMBI POTTERY



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SCULPTURES AT SANCHI

BODHI TREE, SYMBOLIZING THE BUDDHAS ENLIGHTENMENT



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TOP: GATEWAY SCULPTURES; ABOVE LEFT: DETAIL OF EASTERN GATEWAY; RIGHT: MAYA OR GAJA-LAKSHMI, WESTERN GATEWAY



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BHARHUT SCULPTURES ON RAILING MEDALLIONS

TOP LEFT: WORSHIP OF THE BODHI TREE OF VISABHU, THE THIRD MANUSHI BUDDHA; TOP RIGHT: WORSHIP OF THE BODHI TREE OF VIPASIN, THE FIRST MANUSHI BUDDHA ABOVE LEFT: WORSHIP OF THE BODHI TREE OF KANAKAMUNI, THE FIFTH MANUSHI BUDDHA; ABOVE RIGHT: WORSHIP OF THE BODHI TREE OF KASHYAPA, THE SIXTH MANUSHI BUDDHA



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NAGARJUNAKONDA SCULPTURES

TOP LEFT: SUDDHODANA HEARS THE NEWS OF SIDDHARTHAS DEPARTURE FROM CHANDA; TOP RIGHT: THE FIRST SERMON IN DEER PARK; ABOVE LEFT: KING KAPINAS CONVERSION ABOVE: SCYTHIAN FIGURE; LEFT: CASTING OF THE HOROSCOPE



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MITHUNA FIGURES



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AMARAVATI SCULPTURES

ABOVE: THE TRANSPORTATION OF SIDDHARTHAS HEADDRESS; BELOW LEFT: MAYAS BATH; BELOW RIGHT: WORSHIP OF THE BUDDHAS FOOTPRINTS



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LEFT: STONE HEADS, KAUSHAMBI; ABOVE: TERRACOTA LAMP; BELOW LEFT: KUSHANA STONE LION, MATHURA; BELOW RIGHT: FRAGMENT OF INSCRIBED AND SCULPTED STONE RAILING, ALLAHABAD



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TOP RIGHT AND LEFT: RED SANDSTONE HEAD, SARNATH; ABOVE RIGHT AND LEFT: STAMPED AND INCISED POT SHERDS, PURANA QILA



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QUESTIONS AND ISSUES TO THINK ABOUT

A history of ancient India from prehistory to the 12th century generates hundreds of questions. Given below are some questions of varied complexity and detail. These can be used as a basis for writing essays, class discussions, or as issues to think about.

1. Summarize the multi-dimensional importance of the period c. 200 BCE300 CE. 2. Discuss the themes, patrons and audience of Sangam poetry. 3. How do early Tamil literature and the TamilBrahmi inscriptions reflect the

social and political transformations in early historic South India? 4. Outline the evidence for the spread of urbanism in the difference regions of the

subcontinent during the period c. 200 BCE300 CE. 5. What do texts and inscriptions tell us about the various roles played by guilds

during this period? 6. Is there a necessary correlation between empires and the expansion of trade?

Discuss with reference to the evidence of expanding trade networks between c. 200 BCE and 300 CE.

7. Discuss the expanding Indian Ocean trade networks during this period. 8. Analyse the economic and cultural interactions between South Asia, Southeast

Asia, and East Asia between c. 200 BCE and 300 CE. 9. Discuss the importance of archaeology as a source of the history of religions, with

special reference to this period. 10. Discuss the importance of terracottas for the history of ancient Indian art and

society.

11. How do we come to know about the importance of the cults of the yakshas, yakshis, nagas, nagis, and goddesses in ancient times?

12. In what ways is the period c. 200 BCE300 CE foundational from the point of view of religious history?

13. Compare Vedic and Puranic religious thought and practices. 14. Discuss the increasing importance of devotional elements in religious thought and

practice during this period.



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15. Discuss the relationship between doctrinal changes, permanent religious structures, and patronage of religious establishments during this period.

16. Discuss the early history of the Hindu temple. 17. Discuss the sculptural narratives of the life of the Buddha and Jataka stories at

sites such as Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. 18. Reflect on the connection between collective community patronage and the

growth of Buddhist stupa-monastery sites. 19. Compare the connotations of the words religion and dharma. 20. Reflect on the issues of religious identities and religious boundaries in ancient

Indian societies. 21. Discuss the ideas of the major philosophical schools current in the period c. 200

BCE300 CE.

Photographs Archaeological Survey of India

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