Students At-Risk for Reading Difficulties: High and Low Responders Sharon Vaughn and Greg Roberts...

Students At-Risk for Reading Difficulties:

High and Low Responders

Sharon Vaughn and Greg RobertsCenter on Instruction, University of Texas

Sylvia Linan-Thompson, Jeanne Wanzek Christy Murray, Thea Woodruff,

Batya Elbaum

Multi-Tiered Intervention Approaches

Incorporate prevention and interventionInclude ongoing screening and progress monitoring to identify student needs for designing instructionEffective practices implemented class-wide in general education (primary intervention)Successive levels of support increasing in intensity and specificity provided to students as needed (secondary/tertiary intervention)

(Dickson & Bursuck, 1999; McMaster, Fuchs, Fuchs, & Compton, 2005; O’Connor, 2000; O’Connor, Fulmer, Harty, & Bell, 2005; O’Connor, Harty, Fulmer, 2005; Vaughn, Linan-Thompson, & Hickman, 2003)

Tier I: Core Class Instruction

Focus

Program

Interventionist

Setting

Grouping

Time

Assessment

For all students

Professional development, progress monitoring, in-class Support

General education teacher

General education classroom

Flexible grouping

90 minutes or more per day

Screening assessment at beginning, middle, and end of the academic year

Tier II: Intervention

Focus

Program

Interventionist

Setting

Grouping

Time

Assessment

For students identified as at-risk for reading difficulties, and who have not responded to Tier I efforts

Treatment group – trained researcherComparison group – school personnel

Appropriate setting designated by the school

Homogeneous small group

20-30 minutes per day in small group in addition to 90 minutes of core reading instruction (50-100 sessions)

Progress monitoring twice a month on target skill(s) to ensure adequate progress and learning

Specialized, research-based interventions

Focus

Program

Interventionist

Setting

Grouping

Time

Assessment

For students with marked difficulties in reading or reading disabilities and who have not responded adequately to Tier I and Tier II efforts

Appropriate setting designated by the school

Homogeneous – very small group

50-minutes per day

Progress monitoring twice a month on target skill to ensure adequate progress and learning

Sustained, intensive, research-based reading programs

Treatment – trained by research team Comparison – provided by school

Tier III: Instruction for Intensive Intervention

ParticipantsGeneral Information:

Six Title I elementary schools in one near-urban districtAll first and second grade classroom teachers participated in Tier IFirst grade students met criteria for being at-risk for reading difficulties in fall of first grade and were randomly assigned to treatment and comparison groupsFollowed the at-risk students who remained in the district throughout the two-year period (first and second grade)

Tier I

Students at riskStudents who did were randomly assigned to the comparison group for Tier II rather than researcher implemented Tier IIFindings reported here for students in comparison condition who received Tier I intervention only

What was Tier I?

On going professional development for teachers (25 hours per year)

Progress monitoring

In class support as requested

Tier I Effect Sizes

When compared with historical control group, Tier I Effect Sizes on WRMT for at risk students in 1st grade:

WA WI RCCohort 3 .72 .67 .54

Cohort 2 .27 .19 -.15

Implications of Tier I findings

Guskey & Sparks (2000, 2002) advocate for connecting professional development to student outcomes.Effective Tier I instruction allows for effective implementation of RtITier II and Tier III interventions should not be used as alternatives to ineffective Tier I instruction – boost Tier I.

Participants (cont’d)

High Responders10-20 weeks of intervention was sufficient to meet exit criteria20 treatment (11 females; 9 males)23 comparison (8 females; 15 males)

Low Responders10-20 weeks of intervention was not sufficient to meet exit criteriaStudents received additional 20 weeks of intervention in second grade7 treatment (2 females; 5 males)15 comparison (5 females; 10 males)

Criteria for Identifying Students At-Risk

Tier II Intervention

Screening Period

Risk Criteria

Fall First Grade NWF<13 OR PSF<10 and NWF<24

Winter First Grade NWF<30 and ORF<20 OR ORF<8

Tier III Intervention

Screening Period

Continued Risk Criteria

Fall Second Grade ORF<27

Winter Second Grade

ORF<70

Tier II Research Intervention

Conducted in first gradeDaily, 30-minute sessions in addition to Tier I instructionSmall groups (4-6 students)Tutors hired and trained by research staff

Tier II Research Intervention (cont’d)

Instruction provided:Phonics and word recognition (15 minutes)Fluency (5 minutes)Passage reading and comprehension (10 minutes)

Tier III Research Intervention

Participated in 1st and 2nd gradeDaily, 50-minute sessions in addition to Tier I instructionVery small groups (2-4 students)Tutors hired and trained by research staff

Tier III Research Intervention (cont’d)

Instruction provided:Sound review (1-2 minutes)Phonics and word recognition and vocabulary (17-25 minutes)Fluency (5 minutes)Passage reading and comprehension (12-20 minutes)

High Responders (Tier II Only)

WRMT-R - Word Identification

Fall 1st Grade

Spring 1st

Grade

Spring 2nd

GradeTreatment

100.42 (9.29)

112.75 (8.50)

106.05 (7.42)

Comparison

98.00 (9.15)

110.22 (10.53)

102.45 (8.76)

WRMT-Word Attack

Fall 1st Grade

Spring 1st

Grade

Spring 2nd

GradeTreatment

101.63(8.49)

112.80(5.42)

105.70(14.20)

Comparison

95.29(11.03)

107.00(13.08)

103.09(12.25)

WRMT-Passage Comprehension

Fall 1st Grade

Spring 1st

Grade

Spring 2nd

GradeTreatment

94.81(12.31)

104.45(6.18)

102.00(6.55)

Comparison

86.95(11.95)

101.96(7.11)

99.18(6.93)

Oral Reading Fluency

Winter 1st

Grade

Spring 1st

Grade

Spring 2nd

GradeTreatment

16.00 (9.07)

40.70(19.36)

82.65(25.93)

Comparison

12.30(7.20)

34.61(8.81)

76.61(18.48)

Low Responders (Tier II and III)

WRMT-Word Identification

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

Fall 1stgrade

Winter 1stGrade

Spring 1stGrade

Fall 2ndGrade

Winter 2ndGrade

Spring 2ndGrade

Mea

n St

anda

rd S

core

Treatment Comparison

WRMT-Word Identification

94.71

102.57 103.86

97.14 97.1499.86

86.07

91.4 91.47

8689.27

91.6

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

Fall 1stgrade

Winter 1stGrade

Spring 1stGrade

Fall 2ndGrade

Winter 2ndGrade

Spring 2ndGrade

Mea

n St

anda

rd S

core


(12.47)

(14.12) (12.84)

(11.27)

(8.60)

(7.14)

(9.48)(12.08)

(11.39) (9.56)

(9.63)

(11.25)

WRMT-Word Attack

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

110

Fall 1stgrade

Winter 1stGrade

Spring 1stGrade

Fall 2ndGrade

Winter 2ndGrade

Spring 2ndGrade

Mea

n St

anda

rd S

core


WRMT-Word Attack

91.14

101.43 102.71 101.43 101.43

106.57

84.8

93.1395.13

90.892.8 91.6

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

110

Fall 1stgrade

Winter 1stGrade

Spring 1stGrade

Fall 2ndGrade

Winter 2ndGrade

Spring 2ndGrade

Mea

n St

anda

rd S

core


(7.76)

(11.27)(9.53)

(4.87)(6.55)

(7.14)(11.63)

(12.47)(14.29)

(6.95) (15.45)

(14.75)


75

80

85

90

95

100

105

110

Fall 1stgrade

Winter 1stGrade

Spring 1stGrade

Fall 2ndGrade

Winter 2ndGrade

Spring 2ndGrade

Mea

n St

anda

rd S

core



84.86

90.29

95.57

91.43

97 97.71

77.13

87.53 87.1385.33 84.33

86.93

75

80

85

90

95

100

105

110

Fall 1stgrade

Winter 1stGrade

Spring 1stGrade

Fall 2ndGrade

Winter 2ndGrade

Spring 2ndGrade

Mea

n St

anda

rd S

core


(8.50)

(10.26) (8.84)(7.63)

(9.53)(9.59)

(6.67)

(12.47)(9.13)

(10.78)

(9.57) (5.22)


05

101520253035404550

Winter 1stGrade

Spring 1stGrade

Fall 2ndGrade

Winter 2ndGrade

Spring 2ndGrade

Wor

ds C

orre

ct P

er M

inut

e



7.43

17.71 15.71

35.71

46.57

3.93

12.53 10.27

24.629.47

05

101520253035404550

Winter 1stGrade

Spring 1stGrade

Fall 2ndGrade

Winter 2ndGrade

Spring 2ndGrade

Wor

ds C

orre

ct P

er M

inut

e


(3.24)

(6.53)(6.94)

(14.75)

(19.22)

(1.90)

(5.74) (8.20)

(11.10)

(15.77)

Gains Per Hour Intervention

Word ID

Word Attack

Read Comp

High Responders (~25 hrs.)

.23 .16 .29

Low Responders(~130 hrs.)

.04 .12 .10

Closing CommentLearning to read for most students is a relatively easy process that occurs so readily that as adults they often can not even remember how they learned to read. For other students the process is significantly more challenging requiring on-going interventions that may be in place well past the third grade. We believe that the data suggest that the needs of many of these students can not be met solely by general education and that they will require a special education.

Prevailing Questions

Tier I is enhanced classroom instruction.Tier II is 25-50 hours of small group instructionTier III is > 125 hours of small group instruction

Questions (cont’d)

1. When do we refer students for special education?

a. After enhanced Tier I if they are different from peers?

b. After 25 hours of Tier II (10 weeks at 30 min daily)?

c. After 50 hours of Tier II (20 weeks)?d. After Tier III (>125 hours of

intervention)?


2. When do we consider students as “not responding”?

3. If students are in the average range on standardized tests (e.g. >90 standard score on WA, WI, RC) but still very low ORF – do we consider them “nonresponders”?

In other words, is referral to special education based on extensive student need rather than norm-based performance?


4. Assuming very low responders are placed in special education. What should the special education teacher’s intervention be?a. More of what we know works for most

students even though it has not had much impact on them?

b. Something different like…..?

Individual Cases

0

20

40

60

80

100

Fall 2nd GradeWinter 2nd GradeSpring 2nd Grade

Word

s C

orr

ect

Per

Min

ute

Andrea (Intervention Responder)Juan (Intervention Nonresponder)Nick (Comparison Nonresponder)

Case Study Information

DisabilitiesNick (comparison) is identified as speech impaired and OHI

MobilityAndrea (responder) moved out of the district in the middle of first grade but was in the district for all of 2nd gradeJuan (nonresponder) was present for the majority of first grade and all of second gradeNick (comparison) has been in the district since kindergarten

Case Study Information (cont’d)

PPVTAndrea - not in district at time of testingJuan = 77Nick = 80

Tutor NotesAndrea (responder) was motivated, enjoyed being challenged, somewhat shyJuan (nonresponder) processed information slowly and had difficulty reading words automatically.Nick (comparison) did not receive research intervention

Andrea (Intervention Student: Responder)Fall of 2nd Grade

Benchmark 1.1DIBELSTM Oral Reading Fluency

MomÕs New JobYesterday my mom started her new job. Her job is to drive a 13

school bus every morning. She took driving classes to get ready 24for her new job. She had to get a special license, too. She wears a 39dark blue uniform with a yellow vest. 46

Now that she is driving a school bus, my mom has to get up 60even earlier than we do. She has to be at work on time or the 75children wonÕt get to school on time. She does her best to get 88everyone to school on time. 93

When I came down to the kitchen for breakfast yesterday, 103Dad and Mom were eating cereal and drinking coffee together. 113Since Mom has to leave early, I knew she wouldnÕt have time to 126make my breakfast anymore. I sat down and fixed myself a bowl 138of cereal. 140

ŅDid you make my lunch, Mom?Ó I asked. 148ŅI made it for you,Ó said Dad. ŅI made momÕs and mine, 160

too.Ó 161ŅWeÕre all going to take turns making lunches,Ó Mom said. 171

ŅNext week youÕll get to make all three lunches.Ó 180That afternoon when I came home from school, I smelled 190

something good. There was mom in the kitchen, taking chocolate 200chip cookies out of the oven. 206

ŅI made a treat for our lunches tomorrow,Ó she said. ŅHere, 217you may have one.Ó 221

ŅHow was your second day on the job, Mom?Ó I asked. 232ŅJust great, honey. I love my new job,Ó she said. 242

Total: 9 D/C

Andrea (Intervention Student: Responder)Winter of 2nd Grade


Stars of the SeaWhat fish looks like it belongs more in the sky than in the 13

sea? The answer is a starfish. Most starfish have five arms, but 25some have many more. If a starfish loses an arm, it grows a new 39one. A starfish can lose one or two arms and still be just fine. 53

A starfish can stretch its arms to as long as two feet. The 66starfish uses its arms to move through water or along rocks. A 78starfish has tiny tubes on the under sides of its arms. The tubes 91are like sticky suction cups. The starfish can hold on to rocks 103even in the waves. The tubes work like hundreds of tiny feet. 115Starfish crawl along the ocean bottom, but they donÕt move very 126fast. 127

A starfish eats tiny fish and plants. Its mouth is on the 139bottom, in the center of the star. Their favorite food is shellfish, 151and they can eat a lot. The starfish eats during high tide, when 164the waves bring in lots of food. During low tide you might find 177them holding onto the rocks and waiting for the tide to change. 189

Starfish come in many colors, including yellow, orange, red, 198blue, purple, pink, and brown. They come in all sizes, from tiny 210to very large. When many different ones are in the same area 222they look like a rainbow under water. 229

Total: 37

Andrea (Intervention Student: Responder)Spring of 2nd Grade


My Drift BottleI read a story about people who met because of a message 12

inside a bottle. A man put the message inside the bottle and 24tossed it in the ocean. Months later, a lady found the bottle on a 38beach far across the ocean. 43

I asked my teacher if we could try sending a message in a 56bottle. She said she would save a bottle with a tight lid for me. 70She said we could launch the bottle on our next field trip to the 84beach. It was our class project. I wrote a letter about myself for 97the bottle. Some of my friends wrote letters, also. 106

After we were done, we showed our letters to my teacher. 117She said we could put all the letters in the bottle. We asked 130whoever found the bottle to write to us at our school. We wanted 143to know how far the bottle would go. We took the bottle along 156on our next trip to the shore. We stood on the beach until the tide 171started to go out. Then I threw the bottle as far as I could. We 186watched it bob in the waves until we could not see it anymore. 199

Now every day I wonder if someone has found our message. 210I wonder if the bottle is still drifting on the waves. I wonder if it 225is traveling across the ocean and imagine the different countries 235it might reach. I hope someday we find out where it went. 247

Total: 81

Juan (Intervention Student: Non-Responder)Fall of 2nd Grade












Total: 9 D/C

Juan (Intervention Student: Non-Responder)Winter of 2nd Grade







Total: 20

Juan (Intervention Student: Non-Responder)Spring of 2nd Grade


If I Had a RobotIf I had a robot, he would do everything I donÕt like to do. 14

First, heÕd brush his teeth. Then, heÕd get dressed for school. I 26would stay in bed. He would make my lunch. He knows pizza 38and cookies are my favorite. My robot would carry my books 49and lunch for me. He might even carry my friendÕs books. 60

At school, my robot would tell me all the right answers. He 72would take my spelling test for me and get all of the words right. 86During recess, my robot would do extra credit while I played. I 98would eat the lunch my robot made. Everyone would want to 109trade for my cookies. IÕd make my robot eat everything I didnÕt 121like.

When school was over, my robot would do my homework. It 133would be perfect and in his best handwriting. I would play 144outside with my dog. After dinner, my robot would do my 155chores. He would pick up my clothes. He would empty the 166garbage. He would feed the cat and the dog. I would watch TV 179and play chess with my dad. My robot would bring me a big 192piece of chocolate cake. 196

My robot would take a bath and wash his hair. Then my 208robot would brush his teeth. I would hug my dad and kiss my 221mom goodnight. My robot would have to hug my little brother. 232

Total: 24

Nick (Comparison Student)Fall of 2nd Grade












Total: 9 D/C

Nick (Comparison Student)Winter of 2nd Grade







Total: 23

Nick (Comparison Student)Spring of 2nd Grade


My Grandpa SnoresItÕs hard to get a good nightÕs rest at my grandma and 12

grandpaÕs house because my grandpa snores. Grandma says he 21snores so loudly that he almost snores his head off. Grandpa 32sleeps in a bedroom all by himself because his snoring keeps 43grandma awake. 45

GrandpaÕs snore is so loud he sounds like a big bull elephant. 57He sounds like the largest lion in the zoo giving his loudest roar. 70HeÕs as loud as a huge grizzly bear or an old moose. Anyway, 83heÕs very loud. 86

Grandma says that when she wants to get a good nightÕs 97sleep she just puts in her earplugs and shuts her bedroom door. 109When I spent the night, I didnÕt get very much sleep. I tried 122putting my pillow over my head. Then I got all the way under the 136covers. Then I crawled under the bed. No matter what I did, I 149could still hear grandpa. His snoring kept me awake almost all 160night long. 162

By morning I was so tired that I fell asleep at the breakfast 175table. I almost hit my cereal bowl with my chin. Grandma had to 188shake me awake. 191

ŅWake up, Will,Ó she said. ŅWake up, now youÕre the one 202snoring.Ó We all laughed. I guess I learned how from my 213grandpa. Next time I sleep at Grandma and GrandpaÕs house I 224am going to bring earplugs so I can sleep too. 234

Total: 17

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Students At-Risk for Reading Difficulties: High and Low Responders Sharon Vaughn and Greg Roberts...

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