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The OdysseyStudy Guide by Course Hero

What's Inside

j Book Basics 1 .................................................................................................

d In Context 1 .....................................................................................................

a Author Biography 3 .....................................................................................

h Characters 3 ..................................................................................................

k Plot Summary 7 .............................................................................................

c Book Summaries 11 .....................................................................................

g Quotes 23 ........................................................................................................

l Symbols 25 ......................................................................................................

m Themes 25 .......................................................................................................

e Suggested Reading 27 ..............................................................................

j Book BasicsAUTHORHomer

YEARS WRITTENc. 725-675 BCE

GENREAdventure

PERSPECTIVE AND NARRATORThe Odyssey is told in the third-person omniscient perspective.

The narrator is Homer, although within his narration Odysseus

tells his own story in first person in Books 9-12.

TENSEThe Odyssey is told in the past tense and includes flashbacks.

ABOUT THE TITLEThe Odyssey refers to the story of its main character,

Odysseus (Ulysses in Latin). The word has come to mean any

long journey full of adventures, especially one with an

intellectual or spiritual goal.

d In Context

Greek Mythology

Homer set The Odyssey in Greece during the Bronze Age,

which is the period from about 1600 to 1100 BCE, before his

time. The Greeks believed that, in this ancient time, gods still

roamed the earth. But Homer inserted some elements from his

own time, such as the social structure of the early Iron Age

(1200–700 BCE) Greek culture in which he lived. Homer refers

to the Greeks in the epic as "Achaeans," the name of a tribe

that lived in Greece throughout the Bronze Age.

The ancient Greeks used their mythology to explain the world

and all its phenomena, from the cycle of day and night and the

passage of the seasons to the origins of particular landforms

and even flowers, as well as processes such as storms and

earthquakes. The Greeks, like most societies of the ancient

world, had multiple gods and goddesses. The gods lived chiefly

on Mt. Olympus, though some dwelt elsewhere. Zeus was the

ruler of the gods, and some of the major deities were his

siblings, such as Poseidon, or his children, such as Athena.

Gods could be associated with more than one power or

attribute. Athena, for example, was the goddess of war but was

also associated with cities, justice, skill in crafts, and wisdom.

The gods were immortal.

The Odyssey Study Guide In Context 2

Copyright © 2017 Course Hero, Inc.

The gods had human form and characteristics. They could be

loving and jealous, generous and vengeful. They directed

human destiny and often interacted with humans. Along with

the 12 Olympian gods, the Greeks believed in many minor gods.

Among those who appear in The Odyssey are the Sirens,

Circe, and Calypso. The Greeks also believed in other kinds of

powerful beings, including giants—such as the one-eyed

Cyclopes—and monsters—such as Scylla and Charybdis. The

origins of these beings varied. The Cyclops Polyphemus was

the son of the sea god Poseidon and the sea nymph Thoosa;

nymphs were minor female deities who were not immortal. The

Greeks also believed in monsters such as the dangerous Scylla

and Charybdis, whom Odysseus and his men must evade.

The Iliad

The Odyssey is a continuation of The Iliad, which tells the story

of the 10-year-long war the Achaeans waged against the city

of Troy, in what is now Turkey, to recover Helen, the queen of

the Achaean king Menelaus of Sparta. Helen was taken to Troy

by Paris, a prince of that city. Archaeologists have found an

ancient site in northwestern Turkey where several different

layers of archaeological remains indicate human occupation

extending over more than two millennia. One of those layers

has evidence of houses closely clustered and facilities built for

food storage, as though the inhabitants had to live through an

extensive siege. This layer also shows the site destroyed by

fire and some evidence of widespread looting, which could be

linked to the Homeric sack of Troy.

The Odyssey picks up where The Iliad leaves off, after the fall

of Troy. It centers on one of the Greek warriors who fought in

the battle, Odysseus, and follows his 10-year journey back

home to his kingdom in Ithaca. The Greeks called this kind of

story nostos, meaning "the journey home." Odysseus also

figures prominently in The Iliad on several occasions. He is the

one who persuades the hero Achilles to join the Achaean

cause, and his persuasive powers are employed on several

other occasions. Athena gives him the stratagem of the

Achaeans building and then hiding a host in a giant wooden

horse before seeming to depart from the area in defeat. As

anticipated, the Trojans brought the horse into the city, and the

hidden warriors emerged from their hiding place at night and

opened the city gates to allow the remaining Achaean host to

enter and destroy the city.

Epic Poetry

An epic poem is a long narrative poem written in a grand or

lofty style that recounts the adventures of heroes; expresses

cultural values; and has cultural, national, or religious

significance. The word epic is actually derived from the Greek

epos, which means "lines" or "verses" and thus underscores

the poetic nature of the genre. In ancient Greece epics were

recited by bards, or singers, at special occasions. They were

transmitted orally for centuries before they were written down.

The Odyssey, which drew on this oral tradition, is one of the

oldest epics ever recorded in writing.

Epic poems have several characteristics. The Odyssey and

The Iliad helped establish several conventions of the epic.

These conventions include focus on a hero of cultural or

national importance who has many adventures, a wide

geographic scope with many settings, battles requiring heroic

deeds, possibly an extended journey, and the involvement of

supernatural beings such as gods. All of these elements are

present in The Odyssey.

Other conventions of literary epics involve how the story is

told—and these conventions are generally attributed to Homer.

Epic poems typically begin with an invocation of the Muse. The

Muses were the nine Greek goddesses of the various arts and

included Calliope, the goddess of epic poetry. The invocation is

the poet's request for divine inspiration. Epics begin in media

res, or in the middle of the action, rather than at the beginning.

Events leading to that point are related in flashbacks. Homeric

epics employ epithets, which are phrases associated with

particular characters or phenomena that are often presented

when that character or phenomena is referred to anew. Thus,

in The Odyssey Athena is often called "sparkling-eyed Athena"

or "the bright-eyed goddess," and the goddess Dawn is

referred to as "young Dawn with her rose-red fingers." Among

mortals Odysseus is often "godlike," "great-hearted," and

"much-enduring." Telemachus is frequently called "clear-

sighted," "clear-headed," and "pensive," and Menelaus is "the

red-haired king." These epithets are, in fact, units of meaning

fashioned to fit the meter of the poem that are variously used

depending on the metrical needs of a given line of poetry.

Finally, epics are traditionally divided into 24 sections, called

books.

Later epic poets consciously followed these conventions to

some extent. Both the Roman poet Virgil in the Aeneid and the

The Odyssey Study Guide Author Biography 3


English poet John Milton in Paradise Lost invoke the Muse and

begin in media res. Their epics have 12 rather than 24 books,

but that there are exactly half as many divisions as in Homer's

works clearly shows the influence of the Greek epics.

a Author BiographyLittle is known about the author called "Homer"—so little that

there is speculation he never existed. One theory posits that

he was a blind man who lived sometime during the 8th century

BCE and that the Greeks considered him to be their greatest

poet. Another theory holds that the name "Homer" merely

stands in for many authors who expanded on the story of The

Odyssey over generations. One thing that contemporary

historians can agree on is that, even if one person did indeed

write The Odyssey (and its companion, The Iliad), it had its

genesis in a long tradition of oral storytelling that wasn't

written down for centuries. These stories would be handed

down through generations, and each storyteller would add new

details or fine-tune the content. Who exactly Homer was

remains one of the great literary mysteries yet to be solved—a

mystery that scholars have named "the Homeric Question."

Despite the mystery around his origins and life, Homer has

influenced storytelling ever since his works came into being.

The Odyssey established the model of the epic quest and has

inspired countless retellings. This epic also provides a rare

poetic glimpse at life in ancient Greek society. Furthermore,

Homer employed a variety of literary devices, such as

metaphors, that have influenced authors for millennia.

h Characters

Odysseus

The protagonist of The Odyssey, Odysseus is a classic epic

hero. He is by turns cunning, deceitful, clever, prudent, wise,

courageous, and impulsive. A distinguishing characteristic

about him is that his mental skills are just as strong as his

physical strengths, and this ability helps him escape some

dangerous situations. Odysseus has weaknesses—a tendency

to give in to temptation, for example—as well as strengths.

Odysseus is on the long journey home from taking part in the

Achaeans' victory in the Trojan War, depicted in The Iliad. Glory

and honor have been the most important things in his life up to

this point, but now he yearns for his family and home.

Telemachus

Telemachus is Odysseus's son, and the two have not seen

each other in 20 years, since Telemachus was a baby. In many

ways Telemachus's journey as a character is as important as

his father's. Still growing up when the story begins, he must

learn to take charge and find the courage to dispel the hoards

of suitors who have besieged his home and his mother. Under

the guidance of Athena (who also guides his father), he

matures and gains confidence. His assertiveness upsets the

suitors, who have only seen him as a little boy up until the time

covered by the narrative. By the end of the epic, he is confident

and cunning, like his parents, practicing prudence and restraint

in order to defeat the suitors.

Penelope

Penelope is the wife of Odysseus and the mother of

Telemachus. When The Odyssey opens, she has been waiting

for Odysseus to return for 20 years. In that time her home has

become besieged by suitors who take advantage of her

hospitality and wait for her to choose one of them as a

husband. Yet a part of her still hopes that Odysseus will return,

and she uses ploys as deceptive as her husband's to fool the

suitors into waiting longer and longer. She does this by

claiming she will choose a husband as soon as she finishes

weaving a shroud for her father-in-law, Laertes. What the

suitors don't know is that by night she undoes the day's work,

which means that the shroud will never be finished. Penelope

proves herself to be just as shrewd and smart as her husband

throughout the epic.

Athena

Athena, a favorite of her father, Zeus, is the goddess who

appears most often in the epic. She has been watching over

Odysseus since his days fighting in Troy. She seems to have a

great fondness for Odysseus, in part because they are so

similar—prone to cunning and deception. She comes to

Odysseus's aid time and time again throughout The Odyssey,

The Odyssey Study Guide Characters 4


though not always directly. She is often in disguise and will

usually direct Odysseus to people who can help him rather

than help him herself. She also helps Telemachus, because he

is Odysseus's son. Athena asks assistance from Zeus when

she needs it, and one reason she may not intervene more

obviously on Odysseus's behalf is because she is afraid to

incur the wrath of the god Poseidon, who is angry at Odysseus.

Zeus

Zeus is the ruler of the gods and is also the god of hospitality

and those who are lost. Athena is his daughter, and he will

usually come to her aid when she asks for help for Odysseus.

However, Poseidon is his brother—and Poseidon is determined

to punish Odysseus. This makes Zeus's decisions complicated

at times and unpredictable for Odysseus. However, Zeus

ultimately sends Odysseus omens that he is on the right track

and gives him support.

Poseidon

Poseidon is the god of the sea, which is unfortunately where

Odysseus spends much of his time on his journey home.

Poseidon bears a grudge against Odysseus for blinding his

son, the Cyclops Polyphemus. At every turn of Odysseus's

journey, Poseidon tries to thwart him, even gaining the blessing

of Zeus at one point to continue to do so. The final scene of

The Odyssey finds Odysseus making a sacrifice to Poseidon in

the hopes that the god will finally leave his family in peace.



Character Map

Enchantress

Son

TelemachusSecondary hero;

journeys from boyhoodto manhood

Wife

Persecutor

Occasionalmeddler

PenelopeWife; hopes that Odysseus

will come home after20 years

CirceSorceress; turns

Odysseus's men intoswine and holds him

under a spell

PoseidonGod of the sea; holds a

grudge against Odysseusfor blinding his son

ZeusRuler of the gods andgod of wayfarers and

hospitality

AthenaGoddess of wisdom,

battle, and war;favors Odysseus

OdysseusEngaged on a long andarduous journey home

from war

ProtectorMother

Father

Brothers

Protector

Main character

Other Major Character

Minor Character



Full Character List

Character Description

OdysseusThe protagonist and hero of the book, ona long and arduous journey home frombattle.

TelemachusOdysseus's son, who embarks on ajourney of his own—from boyhood tomanhood.

Penelope

Odysseus's wife and Telemachus'smother, she has waited for her husbandto come home for 20 years, fending offsuitors who have taken over her home.

Athena

The goddess of wisdom as well as battleand war, she watches over Odysseusand intervenes on his behalf to get himhome safely.

Zeus

The ruler of the gods, he is the father ofAthena and the brother of Poseidon, aswell as the god of wayfarers andhospitality.

PoseidonThe god of the sea, who holds a grudgeagainst Odysseus for blinding his son,the Cyclops Polyphemus.

AchillesA warrior friend of Odysseus who died inthe Trojan War, he is visited by Odysseusin the Land of the Dead.

AeolusA master of winds, he gives Odysseus amagical pouch full of seafaring winds tohelp him on his journey.

Alcinous

The king of the Phaeacians, he hostsOdysseus in his kingdom and hearsOdysseus's stories about his journey sofar.

Amphinomus One of Penelope's suitors, he stands outdue to his kindness and reason.

AnticleiaOdysseus's mother, she meets him in theLand of the Dead and informs him ofwhat has happened in his home.

Antinous

The leader of the suitors, he is themeanest and most antagonistic towardOdysseus when the latter appears inIthaca in disguise.

Arete The queen of the Phaeacians, she is wifeof Alcinous and mother of Nausicaa.

CalypsoA nymph, or minor goddess, she kidnapsOdysseus when he lands on her islandand keeps him there for seven years.

CirceA minor goddess and sorceress, she fallsfor Odysseus and keeps him under herspell for a year.

Charybdis This monster has the form of a whirlpoolthat Odysseus must face and survive.

DemodocusA bard in Alcinous's court, he movesOdysseus to tears when he sings songsabout the Trojan War.

ElpenorOne of Odysseus's men, he dies duringthe journey home and must be returnedby Odysseus to Ithaca for a proper burial.

EumaeusA swineherd in Ithaca, he is loyal toOdysseus and aids him in the battleagainst the suitors.

EurycleiaOdysseus's childhood nurse, sherecognizes him by a scar he received asa child.

EurymachusOne of Penelope's suitors, he tries toguide the behavior of other suitorsthrough the power of persuasion.

Halitherses A citizen of Ithaca loyal to Odysseus, heis skilled in reading omens.

Hermes Son of Zeus, he is a messenger god Zeussends to help Odysseus on occasion.

Laertes

Odysseus's father, he has been deeplyaffected by the disappearance of his sonand is reunited with him at the end of theepic.

The Odyssey Study Guide Plot Summary 7


Menelaus

The king of Sparta, who fought withOdysseus in the Trojan War, he recountshis stories about Odysseus toTelemachus.

Mentor

A trusted member of Odysseus'shousehold, Mentor is entrusted byOdysseus with teaching and guidingTelemachus while he is away at theTrojan War.

NausicaaThe princess of the Phaeacians, she isthe daughter of Alcinous and the first todiscover Odysseus in their kingdom.

Nestor

The king of Pylos, who fought withOdysseus in the Trojan War, he recountshis stories about Odysseus toTelemachus.

PhiloetiusA cowherd and loyal servant ofOdysseus, he helps the hero exact hisrevenge on the suitors.

Polyphemus Son of Poseidon, he is a one-eyedCyclops who is blinded by Odysseus.

Pisistratus Nestor's son, he accompaniesTelemachus on his journey.

Scylla This monster with six heads is anotherdanger Odysseus must escape.

SirensCreatures that live at sea and aredisguised as women, they lure sailors totheir deaths by singing bewitching songs.

TiresiasA blind prophet, he meets Odysseus inthe Land of the Dead and warns him ofwhat's to come.

k Plot SummaryThe Odyssey picks up the story of Odysseus 10 years into his

journey home from the Trojan War, which itself had lasted 10

years. The story opens with Odysseus being held captive by

the goddess Calypso on a remote island. Back in his home city,

Ithaca, his wife, Penelope, is being besieged by suitors, who

have moved into her home, taking advantage of the ancient

Greek custom of hospitality. Telemachus, son of Odysseus and

Penelope, must watch the suitors take over their house, waiting

for Penelope to choose a new husband. All—except

Penelope—assume Odysseus is dead after his 20-year

absence.

Athena, the goddess of war, has been watching over Odysseus

since the Trojan War. She feels protective toward him and asks

Zeus to help her free Odysseus from Calypso's island. Zeus

sends his son Hermes to aid Odysseus in his escape. At the

same time, Athena goes to Ithaca to offer help to Penelope

and Telemachus. She advises the son to leave Ithaca to find

information on the whereabouts of his father. The suitors take

note of the newfound courage and authority that Telemachus

displays, and they conspire to murder him when he returns to

Ithaca. On his visit to King Menelaus on the island of Sparta,

Telemachus learns that Odysseus is alive.

Hermes helps free Odysseus, who sails to the land of the

Phaeacians. Exhausted, he collapses on the shore, where the

princess Nausicaa discovers him. She leads him to the king,

Alcinous, and his queen, Arete. There Odysseus tells them the

story of his travels thus far. He and his men had run into a

number of trials on their way home to Ithaca. They nearly lost

themselves and their memories in the land of the Lotus-eaters

and then incurred the wrath of Poseidon by blinding his son,

the Cyclops Polyphemus. Odysseus and his crew were given a

pouch full of sailing winds by Aeolus, but curiosity got the best

of his men and they accidentally released the winds, which

blew them off course and far from home. They encountered

cannibals and witches, Odysseus visited the Land of the Dead,

they avoided the lure of the deadly songs of the Sirens, and

they escaped from numerous monsters. Odysseus lost his men

one by one, and the rest were wiped out when they ate the

cattle of Helios, which the blind prophet Tiresias had warned

Odysseus about. They were punished by a single lightning bolt

sent down by Zeus, which destroyed Odysseus's ship. He

washed ashore on the island of Ogygia, where Calypso held

him captive for seven long years.

Hearing the stories of Odysseus's journey, King Alcinous

comes to his aid by providing him with a ship. Athena also

helps Odysseus once again, forewarning him of the chaos at

home in Ithaca and informing him that the worst is yet to come.

She disguises Odysseus as a beggar and tells him to stop in at

the farm of his old friend, the swineherd Eumaeus, before he

goes to his house. She also orchestrates the reunion between

Odysseus and Telemachus, whom she has advised to come



home. Telemachus relates to Odysseus the behavior of the

suitors, and they plot the mass murder of the suitors to restore

honor to their home.

A few characters begin to recognize Odysseus through his

disguise—among them his childhood dog Argos and his

childhood nurse Eurycleia. However, his wife, Penelope, does

not recognize him. When the suitors encounter Odysseus

disguised as a beggar, they are cruel to him, taunting him and

making him fight another beggar. But Odysseus is able to

practice restraint and bide his time until his plan can be

enacted. Penelope declares that she will hold a contest to

choose her next husband—whoever can master Odysseus's

bow to shoot down a row of axes will win. When the contest

begins, none of the suitors can so much as string the bow.

The still-disguised Odysseus volunteers to undertake the

challenge, to the chagrin of the suitors, but Penelope allows

him to try. He strings the bow and shoots through the axes

easily. The suitors are shocked, and Odysseus, taking

advantage of their confusion, begins to kill them and the

serving women who helped them. Athena once again offers

aid, and Telemachus and loyal servants join in as well. Finally,

Odysseus and Penelope are reunited, but not without a final

test on the part of Penelope to ensure Odysseus's identity.

However, they cannot live happily ever after just yet—the

families of the slain suitors want revenge. The gods finally

intervene, with both Athena and Zeus commanding peace.

Odysseus's final journey is to see his father and then to offer a

sacrifice to Poseidon, so that the god will leave him and his

family in peace.



Plot Diagram

Falling ActionRising Action

Resolution

Climax

12

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Introduction

Introduction

1. Telemachus leaves Ithaca to learn his father's fate.

Rising Action

2. Menelaus tells Telemachus that Odysseus is still alive.

3. Calypso, on Zeus's orders, reluctantly lets Odysseus depart.

4. Odysseus is shipwrecked and found by Nauticaa.

5. Odysseus tells adventures to Alcionus, who promises aid.

6. Odysseus, Telemachus meet in Ithaca for revenge.

7. Suitors taunt Odysseus, disguised as beggar.

8. Penelope tells Odysseus of her test for suitors.

Climax

9. Odysseus passes Penelope's test; suitors killed.

Falling Action

10. Odysseus passes final test, confirms identity.

11. Odysseus makes needed sacrifice to Poseidon.

Resolution

12. Odysseus reconciles with Laertes.



Timeline of Events

10 years before present

After the Trojan War ends, Odysseus embarks on his

journey home to Ithaca.

10 to 7 years before present

Odysseus and his men face a series of trials sailing

home; his men are killed.

7 years before present

Odysseus's raft washes ashore on the island of Calypso,

who holds him captive for 7 years.

Very recently

Odysseus is rescued by Hermes at Athena's request.

The present

Suitors besiege Penelope and Telemachus, and

Telemachus leaves to find news of Odysseus.

Upon rescue

Odysseus sails to the land of the Phaeacians and tells of

his journey since the end of the war.

Days later

Odysseus returns to Ithaca in disguise and with

Telemachus plots revenge on the suitors.

Next day

Odysseus and Telemachus slaughter the suitors with

Athena's help.

Same day

Odysseus and Penelope are reunited.

Some days later

Odysseus visits his father and offers a sacrifice to

Poseidon so his family can live in peace.

The Odyssey Study Guide Book Summaries 11


c Book SummariesThe Odyssey is divided into 24 books. The first four describe

the difficulties faced by Telemachus, the son of Odysseus.

Books 5–12 describe the adventures the hero encounters on

his way home. Books 13–24 tell how Odysseus returns to

Ithaca and is finally reunited with his wife, Penelope, and his

son. In this guide some books that describe continuous or

related actions have been combined for the purpose of

analysis.

Book 1

Summary

The Odyssey opens with the poet asking the Muse of Epic

Poetry, Calliope, to inspire him in the telling of this story.

The opening scene is on Mt. Olympus, with the gods, and

provides an example of Olympian diplomacy. Athena attempts

to persuade her father, Zeus, to let Odysseus return to his

family and home in Ithaca, where Odysseus's wife, Penelope, is

busy fighting off suitors who are keen to replace the

presumed-dead Odysseus. Athena convinces Zeus that

Hermes should be allowed to rescue Odysseus. Zeus agrees

and also tells Poseidon to leave Odysseus alone.

Odysseus, the story's protagonist and hero, has been stranded

on the island of Ogygia for years. He's being held captive by a

nymph, Calypso, who is in love with him. Additionally, Odysseus

is hiding from the god of the sea, Poseidon, who is angry that

Odysseus blinded his son, Polyphemus the Cyclops.

Athena descends from the heavens to counsel Odysseus's

son, Telemachus, who has been unable to regain control of his

home from Penelope's suitors. She goes to Ithaca disguised as

Mentes, an old friend of the family. There she tells Telemachus

that Odysseus will be returning home soon, but until then

Telemachus needs to protect his mother and their home from

the onslaught of suitors courting Penelope. The suitors are

surprised when Telemachus finally tells them to leave—one of

them notes that his confidence seems to have "come from the

gods," adding "only the gods could teach you/to sound so high

and mighty!"

Analysis

Book 1 introduces some of the multitudes of characters, many

interwoven plots, and significant themes encountered during

Odysseus's return home. Readers hear of the captive and long

absent Odysseus, observe the council of the gods, and learn of

the trouble that Penelope and Telemachus face back home in

Ithaca.

Through these situations Homer introduces important thematic

elements as well. Hospitality to strangers, strict protocols for

behavior toward the gods, the crafts and skills of a hero, and

the preservation of one's fame all figure here. Odysseus's

reputation and legacy are inseparable from his heroism, and

they make more difficult Penelope's choices when dealing with

the suitors. Both Athena and Zeus seem to be on Odysseus's

side, but Odysseus has angered Poseidon, whose power has

forced Odysseus to stay with Calypso.

Why does Penelope, Odysseus's wife, allow these potential

suitors to eat and drink their way through her wealth? While

reputation was crucial in ancient Greece, how one treated

guests was even more so. Strangers relied upon the hospitality

of others to survive. Penelope is bound by social customs to

allow the suitors into her home and to provide for them

generously—even if the suitors break the rules of the custom,

overstay their welcome, and take advantage of Odysseus's

absence. Penelope (and Odysseus by extension) is judged by

how well she treats the suitors. This is why Athena intervenes,

encouraging Telemachus to stand up for his family as the man

of the house, whom the suitors must respect. The Odyssey,

therefore, unfolds a parallel journey for Telemachus. With his

father absent, he needs the guidance of a god, Athena, on his

road to becoming a man. Athena's attention to him indicates

that he is a worthy hero, like his father—she would not bother

with him otherwise. She notes an "uncanny" physical

resemblance between the son and his father, which firmly

connects the two.

Telemachus demonstrates strength in taking the role of male

head of the family. When a bard sings the song of the

Achaeans' journey home from Troy, Penelope asks him to

desist, but Telemachus chides her and tells her to take heart

and summon courage. His chiding might be seen as lacking

filial respect, but Penelope accepts his words, accepting "the

clear good sense in what her son had said."



Book 2

Summary

Telemachus gathers an assembly of Achaeans to make his

case for removing the suitors from his home. The suitors are

not behaving according to custom. Rather than seeking

permission from her father to marry Penelope, they stay at

Odysseus's home, consuming his wine, sheep, and goats.

Helped by Athena, who has applied her powers to make him

appear intimidating and confident, Telemachus threatens them

with vengeance from the gods for their behavior. One of the

suitors, Antinous, says that Penelope has led them on,

promising that she would choose a husband from among them

once she finishes the shroud she is weaving for Laertes. But

they now know from one of Penelope's maids that by night

Penelope undoes that day's weaving, indefinitely postponing

the decision.

Just after the angry Telemachus expresses his hope that the

suitors will be punished, Zeus sends an omen of two eagles.

The soothsayer Halitherses proclaims that this omen

prophesies the death of the suitors. The suitors scoff at these

words. Telemachus says he is finished trying to reason with the

suitors, and the suitors refuse to leave. On Athena's

instructions, he asks for a ship and crew in order to take to the

sea to seek information on the whereabouts of Odysseus.

Under disguise once again, Athena reassures Telemachus that

he will find success by searching for Odysseus. Athena then

disguises herself as Telemachus and gathers a crew and ship.

She also sends the ship a strong wind that will aid their

navigation. The old nurse, Eurycleia, implores Telemachus not

to go to sea as his father had done, but he reassures her by

sharing his sense that a god is assisting him.

Analysis

Book 2 finds Telemachus confronted with a growing fear that

he is not as courageous and smart as his father, Odysseus.

However, he comes from not one but two clever

parents—Penelope's shroud-weaving trick shows that she is

every bit as shrewd as her husband. As Telemachus confronts

the suitors, he demonstrates how he is growing into his new

role as man. He also remains calm in the face of the suitors'

insulting his mother, responding with logic rather than heated

emotion. He is bolstered in all this by the support of Athena.

Indeed, when the ship departs, she assumed "the pilot's

seat"—clear indication that she is setting the young man's

course—and "sent them a stiff following wind"—showing that

she powers him on his journey.

Telemachus also shows his concern for his mother's state of

mind. He instructs the nurse, Eurycleia, not to tell Penelope of

his departure lest she worry and "mar her lovely face with

tears."

The eagle symbol appears for the first time and in a powerful

way. Halitherses, an Ithacan loyal to Odysseus, reveals the

meaning, which foreshadows the epic's end and the suitors'

destruction. Augurs like Halitherses were vital links that

connected the gods to mortals, explaining the fate that

awaited humans. To the Greeks, the gods set their destiny;

mortals' lot was to make the choices they face, await the

unfolding of that destiny, and accept responsibility for their

actions.

Books 3–4

Summary

Book 3

Telemachus and Athena, disguised as Mentor, reach Pylos,

King Nestor's land, and witness an enormous ceremony in

which 4,500 people are sacrificing dozens of bulls to the god

Poseidon. Athena encourages Telemachus to pay close

attention to how Nestor acts and to be bold in his questions

about Odysseus. Nestor has little information about Odysseus,

but he relates the story of Agamemnon. That king had left

Aegisthus, a cousin, to rule in his stead when he departed for

the Trojan War, but Aegisthus seized the throne and became

the lover of Agamemnon's wife, Clytemnestra. When the

warrior returned, the usurper and betrayer killed him; the king's

death was then avenged by his son, Orestes, and daughter

Electra. Nestor advises Telemachus to visit Agamemnon's

brother, Menelaus, in Sparta and offers the help of his son

Pisistratus. He also refuses to let Telemachus sleep on his ship

and insists he spend the night in his own home, an act of



hospitality for which Athena compliments him. Then she

transforms herself into an eagle and flies off. Nestor,

recognizing that Mentor and the eagle were both the bright-

eyed goddess, vows to make a sacrifice to honor her.

Book 4

Telemachus and Nestor's son Pisistratus are greeted in Sparta

by Menelaus and his queen, Helen, whose abduction caused

the Trojan War. Menelaus recounts his return home, delayed at

first when he was forced to remain on the island of Pharos as

punishment for an inadequate sacrifice to the gods. He and his

trusted men had to to find the solution to their predicament by

wrestling with the shape-shifting god Proteus, but their

perseverance finally forced Proteus to reveal how to leave the

island and appease the gods. He also informs Menelaus of the

death of his brother, Agamemnon, and the status of other

Greek heroes, including Odysseus. Menelaus tells Telemachus

that he would give up his riches for the chance to have

returned home sooner and avenged his brother.

Menelaus and Helen both tell Telemachus their memories of

Odysseus's bravery and cunning, and Telemachus is deeply

moved by their fondness for his father. Menelaus, in turn, is

upset when he hears about Penelope's suitors. He tells

Telemachus that he has heard that Odysseus is alive but

trapped by the nymph Calypso on the island of Ogygia.

Back in Ithaca Penelope and the suitors discover Telemachus's

departure. The suitors plan to assassinate him upon his return,

and Penelope is alarmed when she hears of the plot. Athena

assuages her fears by sending her a phantom in the form of

Penelope's sister who reassures her that Athena is with

Telemachus and protecting him. The phantom does not,

however, tell Penelope of Odysseus's whereabouts or

condition.

Analysis

Telemachus begins to learn the lessons of what it is to be a

man in Book 3, as he begins his journey. Raised fatherless, he

needs to see and be told the proper ways to behave. His first

lesson is the importance of appeasing the gods, as shown by

Nestor's sacrifice to Poseidon. Devotion to the gods is a duty

for mortals, and the lesson is reinforced when Nestor makes a

sacrifice to Athena after her transformation into an eagle.

Menelaus's tale of being stranded on Pharos because of an

inadequate sacrifice underscores the lesson further: do not

stint on devotions to the gods, or punishment will be sure and

swift.

Nestor and Menelaus both reinforce the importance of

hospitality as well. Nestor honors Telemachus in insisting that

the young man stay in his home and then providing him with a

fine chariot and noble horses to undertake his journey to

Sparta. That both kings treat him well even when his identity as

Odysseus's son is unknown to them shows how deeply

hospitality is valued.

The Agamemnon story (which Greek audiences would be

familiar with) reflects on the situation back in Ithaca.

Penelope's steadfastness contrasts with Clytemnestra's

adultery; the loyalty of Orestes and Electra serves as a model

for Telemachus. Nestor also gives him a warning: "Don't rove

from home too long," he says, "leaving your own holdings

unprotected." A man must be ever vigilant.

Helen's and Menelaus's stories about Odysseus tell

Telemachus more about his father and the devotion that he

inspired in others—Menelaus mentions that he feels keenly

sorry for Odysseus for all he has suffered. Helen's story shows

Odysseus's steadfastness and strong leadership.

Menelaus's struggle with Proteus is another instance of the

theme of deception. The god who changes shapes is difficult

to overcome, but Menelaus and his men were able to do so and

thus obtain the secret of how to manage their departure from

Pharos. Persistence pays; it will lead the way to the truth.

It's also interesting to note that, while Athena sends Penelope

reassurance about her son in the form of a phantom omen, she

refuses to answer Penelope's questions about Odysseus. This

begs the question of just how much the gods believe they

should interfere in the lives of mortals.

Book 5

Summary

Book 5 opens on Mount Olympus at another council of the

gods. Athena once again asks Zeus to assist Odysseus, and

Zeus decides to send Hermes to help him break free of his



captivity by the "lustrous" Calypso. However, Zeus warns that

Odysseus's journey home will not be easy. Athena is also

reminded that she must continue aiding Telemachus in his

journey home, particularly when it comes to the suitors' plans

to murder him.

Calypso is taken by surprise when Hermes arrives with strict

instructions from Zeus to free Odysseus and comments on the

double standard of male gods, who allow themselves to

philander with mortal women but deny the same freedom to

goddesses. She grudgingly agrees to let him go. Our first

glimpse of Odysseus finds him crying and homesick. He is in

disbelief that Calypso would free him. She warns him that his

journey home will be difficult and that, if he knew what lay

ahead of him, he would stay. But Odysseus says he longs to

return to his home and to Penelope. Supplied with tools by

Calypso, Odysseus builds himself a ship, which he outfits with

a sail using cloth she furnishes. He departs.

Odysseus's difficulties begin soon after leaving Calypso's

island. Poseidon conjures up a storm that shatters Odysseus's

ship, though, once the hero is forced to swim to land, Poseidon

abandons his torment. Athena and a sea nymph come to his

rescue, but, when the waters become turbulent again,

Odysseus prays to Poseidon for relief. Poseidon finally relents

and allows him to reach the island of Scheria, where the

Phaeacians reside.

Analysis

Athena wins Zeus's agreement to help Odysseus through her

powers of argument and persuasion—powers Odysseus has as

well. She appeals to Zeus by pointing to Odysseus's role as a

ruler, in which he showed himself "kindly as a father to his

children."

The first look at Odysseus may surprise some readers, who

expect a gallant and brave hero. He is crying openly, seemingly

defeated by the idea that he will ever make it back home to

Ithaca. Greek heroes expressed emotion openly; this scene

would not have been a shock to Homer's audience.

Odysseus mistrusts Calypso when she first tells him she will let

him go, which again raises the theme of deception. She vows

not to harm him, which wins his trust, but this challenge to a

character's truthfulness is a pattern that will recur in the epic.

Odysseus's ability to build a ship by himself shows his great

skill and craftsmanship. This characteristic links him to Athena

again, as she was the goddess of skills and crafts. His ability to

sail the ship alone is another substantial skill, one that the

seafaring Greeks would much admire.

When Calypso rails against the gods' double standard

regarding relations with mortals, she gives several examples. In

the end, though, she must comply with Zeus, the all-powerful.

Poseidon, too, is forced to follow Zeus's command and let

Odysseus sail his ship to Scheria, though that doesn't stop him

from splintering the ship into pieces and casting the hero into

the sea. His frustration at being forced to obey Zeus may have

been assuaged somewhat by Odysseus's pitiable plea for

mercy.

Books 6–7

Summary

Book 6

Athena schemes to introduce Odysseus to the daughter of the

Phaeacian king Alcinous, Nausicaa. She lures Nausicaa and her

maids near the shore where Odysseus has been sleeping, and

he is roused by the sound of them playing nearby. The maids

scatter as Odysseus approaches them, because he is naked

but for a few well-placed leaves. Nausicaa remains and listens

while Odysseus pleads with her to help him. Given the strict

Greek code of hospitality, Nausicaa agrees to help him, but she

tells him to enter alone and to ask Arete, the queen, for help.

Book 7

Odysseus calls upon Athena for guidance once again, and she

obliges by cloaking him in an obscuring mist. She moves

toward King Alcinous's palace and he follows. Athena tells him

his best bet is to pay attention to the queen, Arete, who has a

great deal of influence in her husband's kingdom. Once inside

the palace, Odysseus throws himself at Arete's feet and begs

her to help him. Alcinous declares that he will help Odysseus

get home, even though he is still in the dark as to the man's

identity. Arete is suspicious when she realizes that Odysseus is

wearing clothes she recognizes. This leads Odysseus to tell



the king and queen how he met their daughter, Nausicaa.

Impressed with Odysseus's sense of respect and honor toward

his daughter, Alcinous tells Odysseus that he wishes Nausicaa

could marry him but agrees to help Odysseus by providing a

ship to take him home.

Analysis

The deception theme appears frequently in these two books,

from Athena's obscuring mist to Nausicaa's secret advice to

Odysseus and his own behavior in not admitting his true

identity when he first appears before Alcinous and Arete.

Alcinous nearly mistakes him for a god in disguise, implying

that it is not unusual for gods to disguise themselves as

mortals. The confusion also plays off an epithet often applied

to Odysseus throughout the epic—"godlike." Though mortal, he

has divine-seeming qualities, marking him as a worthy hero.

Those qualities shine through, even when Odysseus seems

nothing more than a tired, suffering man who yearns to return

to his home.

The themes of hospitality and devotion to the gods also

reemerge in the scene at the Phaeacians' palace. Alcinous and

Arete are generous in providing a feast to Odysseus even

though they do not know who he is. Similarly, Alcinous's

promise to provide him with a ship and crew shows great

kindness to a stranger. Alcinous's vow to sacrifice to the gods

before Odysseus departs recognizes that ventures should

begin only after proper devotion has been paid to the gods.

This hospitality and proper piety parallels what Telemachus

experienced with Nestor, linking father and son in their

adventures as they are linked by character.

Book 8

Summary

Alcinous calls his people to the meeting grounds, unknowingly

aided by Athena, who helps rouse interest. He commands his

citizens to find a ship and crew to help take Odysseus home to

Ithaca, promising that once a crew is found they will hold a

celebratory feast. During the celebration a bard named

Demodocus tells the legend of a verbal battle between

Agamemnon and Odysseus during the Trojan War. The

memories stirred by the song cause Odysseus to weep, and,

though he tries to hide it, the king notices and distracts the

crowd by suggesting they begin an athletic competition.

Odysseus is invited to take part in the competition, but he

declines, blaming his weariness from traveling. One of the

champions teases him, and Odysseus, angered, agrees to take

part in the games to prove him wrong. Odysseus easily wins

the competition, claiming he will defeat anyone who challenges

him. After the competition and another song by Demodocus,

the king calls upon his people to give Odysseus gifts for his

voyage. Demodocus sings a final song about how the

Achaeans and Odysseus defeated Troy due to Odysseus's

courage. Odysseus weeps again at the story, which the

watchful king once again notices, prompting him to ask

Odysseus to reveal himself.

Analysis

Alcinous proves himself to be a keen observer, as he notices

how Odysseus weeps at Demodocus's tales. Odysseus has

been careful to guard his identity, but the taunting at the

athletic competition stirs his need to prove his honor. It's likely

that Alcinous has guessed Odysseus's identity by this point.

This tension between reality and illusion is part of the

deception theme that is woven through The Odyssey. The

scenes with Demodocus give a glimpse into the role of the

bard in ancient Greek society. These storytellers related the

adventures of the gods and heroes, passing on Greek

values—as well as providing considerable entertainment. Their

position was considered important in a society in which many

people couldn't read. The speculation that Homer was blind is

based on this scene, particularly the fact that Demodocus is

blind. Some scholars and historians have suggested that

Homer put himself in his own tale, but this view is not widely

accepted. There were many bards in Homer's time who played

the role of storyteller for their audiences.

Book 9

Summary

Now that Alcinous and the Phaeacians know Odysseus's

identity, they ask him to relate where he's been since the war

ended. Odysseus recounts his adventures.



After the Achaeans defeated Troy, he and his men sailed to a

different city, which they plundered. Odysseus warned his

army that they needed to leave quickly, but he was ignored.

The people of the city launched a counterattack, forcing

Odysseus and his men to hastily retreat back to sea. After

being blown off course by storms, they came to a land

inhabited by Lotus-eaters. After eating the lotus fruit,

Odysseus's army soon began to forget their memories of

home.

Odysseus was finally able to get his crew back on course, but

they soon found themselves in the land of the lawless

Cyclopes, giants with only one eye. Odysseus and a few men

were captured by one named Polyphemus, and, after the giant

killed and ate six of his men, Odysseus used his cunning to

escape. Odysseus tricked Polyphemus by telling him his name

was "Nobody," a name that would come in handy when he

made his escape. When Polyphemus fell asleep, Odysseus

drove a stake into his eye to blind him. The giant's screams

brought other Cyclopes to his cave, but, when they asked who

was hurting him, he responded "Nobody." After the others

departed, Odysseus revealed his true identity, not realizing that

Polyphemus was Poseidon's son. His true name didn't surprise

Polyphemus—the entire episode had been prophesied.

Polyphemus called upon his father to avenge him by ensuring

that Odysseus would either never make it home to Ithaca or

suffer greatly en route.

Analysis

This book and the next three are largely told in flashback, as

Odysseus fills in the details of his adventures over the past 10

years. His retelling reveals mistakes that he made, as well as

the courageous or cunning actions he took. Odysseus is fairly

direct in his recitation.

Even though Odysseus is initially hesitant in revealing his

identity to Alcinous and the Phaeacians, his reputation as a war

hero serves him well in this world. At this point Odysseus's

wanderings seem to be patterned on the typical hero's journey:

here he recounts the many trials he encountered that brought

him the necessary wisdom and insight he needed to truly

become a great leader. This wisdom is every bit as important

as his noted bravery and cunning in keeping himself alive.

The episode with the Lotus-eaters shines a light on a recurring

theme in The Odyssey: temptation. Just as Odysseus is

tempted by the allure of Calypso and Nausicaa, so are his men

tempted by the lure of forgetting that comes with ingesting the

lotus. In the same way that Odysseus is ultimately able to

break free of his temptation, so, too, is he able to convince his

men to leave before their ambition and drive have dried up and

been forgotten.

Odysseus's encounter with the Cyclops Polyphemus reveals

why Poseidon has such antagonism toward him. Though

Odysseus escapes the giant through cunning, he makes the

mistake of revealing his true name to Polyphemus, thereby

securing the wrath of Poseidon. Even though Odysseus has

heroic qualities, he has some potentially fatal flaws as well. His

hubris, or excessive pride, is his tragic flaw, or hamartia, as the

Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) called it. This flaw

connects Odysseus to many other Greek heroes. As in their

cases, it causes him a great deal of suffering, though it is clear

by his recounting of this story that he has gained wisdom from

his mistakes. The fact that Odysseus's assault on Polyphemus

was foretold brings up the theme of fate again.

Book 10

Summary

Odysseus and his men sailed on and landed at the home of

Aeolus, where they stayed for a month. Aeolus, master of the

winds, gave Odysseus a pouch that contained all of the winds

that would have driven their ship off course. The remaining

winds will help guide them back home to Ithaca. Ten days later

the ship was so near Ithaca that they could see the island.

While Odysseus slept his men discovered the pouch full of

winds and accidentally unleashed them, bringing on storms

that sent them off course again. With the helpful winds gone,

Odysseus and his men were forced to row their ship. They

reached a land inhabited by giant cannibals, the

Laestrygonians. The cannibals attacked them, spearing

Odysseus's men and devouring them. After Odysseus and his

remaining men escaped, they sailed to the island of Aeaea,

where the goddess Circe—a "nymph with lovely braids"—lives.

She fed a few of Odysseus's men a potion that turned them

into pigs and made them forget their memories. To escape,

Odysseus called upon Hermes. Hermes advised Odysseus to

find a plant that would counteract Circe's potion and render

him immune. He also advised Odysseus on how to overpower



Circe should she attack. Odysseus and his men stayed on

Circe's island for a year but grew increasingly restless. During

this time Elpenor, one of the men, died in a drunken fall from

Circe's roof. Circe told Odysseus to travel to the Land of the

Dead to speak to the prophet Tiresias.

Analysis

Odysseus reveals another flaw in Book 10 that compounds his

hubris—poor judgment. He and his men are so close to home,

and yet Odysseus neglects to guard closely the pouch of

winds or even to stay awake. These mistakes cost him and his

men dearly. By the same token, the men demonstrate their

willingness to succumb to temptation, the downfall of mortals.

When Odysseus and his men are blown back to Aeolus's

island, the wind master refuses to help Odysseus further.

Odysseus's poor judgment costs him again in the land of the

Laestrygonians, when he sends his men to investigate, only to

see them killed.

Odysseus's interactions with Hermes are similar to those he

has with Athena. When Hermes acts he does so indirectly, as

Athena does, giving Odysseus advice on how to disarm Circe

but leaving it to Odysseus to take the steps necessary to

implement that advice.

Even after following Hermes's instructions and evading Circe's

spell, Odysseus chooses to stay with her for so long that his

crew grows restless and has to urge him to resume their

journey home. Once again Odysseus succumbs to temptation:

Circe has become his lover.

The death of Elpenor introduces another element to the story:

the need to give him a proper burial. Odysseus's obligation to

take care of this matter is one of his responsibilities as a

leader. Leaders have duties to those under them, just as their

followers owe them allegiance and obedience.

Book 11

Summary

Odysseus followed Circe's instructions and reached the Land

of the Dead. There he encountered Elpenor, who demanded a

proper burial, which Odysseus promised to carry out.

Odysseus then saw his mother, whom he did not know had

died. Finally, Tiresias appeared and told Odysseus that he

could make it home alive but would face much peril and

heartache along the way due to his conflict with Poseidon. He

also warned Odysseus that, if his men were to kill the cattle of

Helios, they would perish. Lastly, he advised Odysseus to make

a sacrifice to Poseidon after arriving home if he wanted to live

the rest of his life in peace.

Odysseus ends his storytelling and asks Alcinous and Arete

again for help getting home. They agree—on the condition that

he remain a while to elaborate on his experience in the Land of

the Dead. Odysseus recounts his meeting with such heroes as

Ajax, Hercules, and Achilles. He explains that Agamemnon told

him that Clytemnestra's betrayal marked all women as

untrustworthy and urged him to be cautious when he finally

returns home.

Analysis

Finding the Land of the Dead represents another trial and test

that Odysseus must face, and it is as much a mental trial as it

is a physical one. Odysseus is forced to confront his memories

of the people he has lost, as well as his own sense of mortality.

This journey to the Land of the Dead became a standard

feature of epics and of the journey of the hero.

Tiresias notes that Odysseus has incurred the ongoing wrath

of Poseidon and that their struggle is far from over. But

Tiresias does encourage Odysseus by saying that, if he

exercises good judgment, he will be able to outsmart Poseidon

and make it home to Ithaca safely. However, Tiresias notes

that Odysseus will arrive home as "a broken man," having lost

all of his men. He also hints that Odysseus's home is in chaos

and turmoil. Tiresias's advice to Odysseus sets up another trial

Odysseus and his men must face: what will they do if they

encounter the cattle of Helios?

Agamemnon's tale reintroduces the contrast between

Clytemnestra and Penelope. His embittered criticism of all

women based on his wife's infidelity underscores how loyal and

faithful Penelope has been—especially considering that she

had to remain faithful much longer than Clytemnestra had to.

Agamemnon's warning to be secretive and cautious when he

finally reaches his home foreshadows what Odysseus does.



Book 12

Summary

Odysseus resumes his narrative. Because Odysseus promised

Elpenor in the Land of the Dead that he would give him a

proper burial, he returned to Circe's island to give him his

funeral rites. Before he departed for home, Circe advised

Odysseus on how to avoid the Sirens, who lure sailors into

shipwrecks with their hypnotic songs. Odysseus followed her

advice and had his men stuff their ears with wax so they would

not hear the song. He was curious, though, and, instead of

blocking his hearing, had his men bind him tightly against the

mast so he could not break free. He was tormented by the

song, but the ship got past the danger. After the Sirens they

had to avoid the Wandering Rocks—which only one ship had

ever survived.

The next trial forced a choice between two monsters: Scylla, a

six-headed beast, or Charybdis, a monster in the form of a

whirlpool. Scylla devoured six of the men, but the ship made it

past the twin monsters and reached the island of the sun god

Helios, home of the sacred cattle of Helios.

Odysseus made his men promise not to harm the cattle, but,

after being trapped by a storm for a month, their supplies

dwindled and the men grew hungry. When Odysseus fell

asleep, his men left the ship to slaughter the sacred cattle. This

act deeply angered Helios, who demanded punishment. After a

few days, Zeus sent a fierce storm that killed everyone aboard

except for Odysseus. The hero clung to a raft until washing

ashore on Calypso's island.

Analysis

Bound by his word to Elpenor, Odysseus doubles back to

Circe's island in order to give Elpenor's body the burial he

promised. This speaks to the theme of loyalty.

This book once again touches on the theme of temptation. Just

as the men faced temptation on the island of the Lotus-eaters,

they must resist the allure of the Sirens, who would cause

them to wreck their ship if they listened to their bewitching

songs. Odysseus's pride tells him that he can withstand the

temptation but only because of his cleverness. He suffers

greatly from hearing the alluring sound, but his strategy

succeeds—he is wily Odysseus indeed.

His ultimate test of judgment comes when they arrive at the

island of Helios. Warned by both Tiresias and Circe of the

danger there, Odysseus wishes to avoid the place altogether,

but that would entail sailing the sea at night, which is more

dangerous. Odysseus fails the test once again by falling

asleep—metaphorically dropping his guard—which opens the

way for his crew to make their fatal mistake. Did Odysseus err

in not giving his crew more information? Perhaps he did, or

perhaps they would have fallen prey to hunger anyway.

Books 13–14

Summary

Book 13

With this final story, Odysseus finishes his tale for the

Phaeacians. The epic shifts back to the present. He is ready to

return to Ithaca, finally, and the king once again promises his

help to Odysseus. This angers Poseidon, who still holds a

grudge against Odysseus. He appeals to Zeus, who allows

Poseidon to take out his frustration on the Phaeacians for

helping Odysseus.

Book 14

With the help of the Phaeacians, Odysseus reaches Ithaca.

Athena guides him once again, surrounding him with an

obscuring mist so that he can't recognize his own home. She

appears in disguise as a shepherd and tells him that he is

home. Odysseus does not reveal his true identity to her,

whereupon Athena changes into her goddess form and praises

Odysseus for his cleverness. Odysseus, unaware of all of

Athena's maneuverings thus far, asks her why she seemed to

forget him after the war. Athena tells him she was afraid of

incurring the wrath of Poseidon. She also warns him that all is

not well at his home, and Odysseus learns about the suitors.

He asks Athena for help, and she disguises him as a beggar

and sends him off to meet his old loyal swineherd, Eumaeus.

As a test of Eumaeus's loyalty, the disguised Odysseus makes



up a story of how Odysseus once generously lent him a cloak

when he thought he might freeze to death. Eumaeus, delighted

by this story of his master's virtue, lends the beggar his own

cloak.

Analysis

The punishment of the Phaeacians is another example of

Poseidon's vengeance and of the importance of not defying

the gods. Given that Odysseus had told them of Poseidon's

persecution of him, they were, in a sense, forewarned.

The interaction between Eumaeus and Odysseus (in disguise)

shows how Odysseus's true friends have stayed loyal to him

despite having no news of him for nearly 10 years. Eumaeus

despises the suitors and their disrespect of Odysseus's home

and legacy. He believes that the suitors will be appropriately

punished by the gods for this disrespect. The story that the

disguised Odysseus tells Eumaeus aligns closely with events in

his own life, and through the telling it's clear he regrets that he

deserted his family in his quest for glory. Now that he has

gained some distance and perspective, Odysseus seems to

recognize that he will benefit more from piety and humility.

Books 15–16

Summary

Book 15

In Book 15 the narrative shifts back to Telemachus, as Athena

goes to him and advises him to return home to Ithaca. She also

warns him about the suitors' plot to murder him and offers a

strategy to avoid their ambush. Telemachus and Pisistratus

prepare to leave, and Telemachus notices an omen of good

luck: an eagle clutching a goose in its talons. He sets sail for

Ithaca.

Book 16

Back on Ithaca Odysseus gives Eumaeus one more test of

loyalty by telling him that he plans to beg for help at the palace.

Eumaeus advises him to stay put until Telemachus returns, due

the unpredictable behavior of the suitors. Odysseus accepts

his advice and asks Eumaeus to tell him about his life.

Eumaeus explains the he had been born into royalty but was

kidnapped and forced to become a servant.

Telemachus finally arrives home, avoiding the suitors with

Athena's guidance. She also directs him to Eumaeus's home.

Athena alters Odysseus's appearance from a beggar back into

a younger version of himself. When Telemachus sees this

transformation, he is shocked, taking him for a god. Odysseus

reveals that he is Telemachus's father, and the two conspire to

get rid of the suitors. Athena turns Odysseus back into a

beggar once again, so that only Telemachus will know his true

identity. Back at the palace, the suitors discuss their plot to kill

Telemachus. Amphinomus tells the others they should be

patient and wait for the gods to reveal their plans before they

make a move. The other suitors agree to hold off.

Analysis

Even though Odysseus and Telemachus are both courageous

and cunning, they need Athena's assistance, especially as they

near their home and face mortal danger from the suitors.

Odysseus is certainly showing the caution that Agamemnon

advised when they spoke in the Land of the Dead. His testing

of Eumaeus signals how he will act with others in Ithaca. He

does reveal himself to his noble son, a signal that Telemachus

is a worthy adult now and that Odysseus will need some help.

Eumaeus's story of his life shows how fate can shape a life in

this world. Eumaeus's loss of status highlights the fact that

privilege can be taken away without notice or justification.

That Telemachus is willing to offer his father (disguised as a

beggar) food and shelter shows that he has learned the

importance of hospitality on his journey.

Books 17–18

Summary



Book 17

Odysseus sets off for the palace accompanied by Eumaeus,

who still does not know Odysseus's true identity. Telemachus

goes ahead, accompanied by a prophet who informs Penelope

that Odysseus is back in Ithaca, scheming to overthrow the

suitors, news that she refuses to believe.

Inside the banquet hall, Telemachus and Athena advise

Odysseus, still disguised as a beggar, to beg at the suitors'

table for scraps as a way of discerning who the worst-behaved

suitors are. Most of the suitors are kind, but Antinous

antagonizes Odysseus, though Odysseus manages to control

himself. He does, however, warn Antinous that to be

unnecessarily cruel to a man in need will surely be noticed and

punished by the gods.

Book 18

As the evening wears on, another beggar shows up, and

Antinous eggs him on to start a fight with Odysseus. Odysseus

demurs at first but eventually agrees to the contest. He does

not use his full strength in order to avoid hurting the other man,

but he wins anyway. Odysseus gives Amphinomus a warning of

dire events to come, and the suitor is shaken, but he remains.

As the suitors feast and carouse, Odysseus berates some of

the maidservants for not tending to their mistress. When one

talks back, he threatens them and scares them off. The suitors

protest noisily until Amphinomus urges them to settle down

and let Telemachus tend to the beggars. They agree and

depart for home.

Analysis

Deception and cunning play a large role in this section.

Consider the prudence with which Telemachus refrains from

telling his mother that Odysseus has returned, as well as

Odysseus's restraint in not defending himself against Antinous.

The restraint of father and son goes hand in hand with their

cleverness; by swallowing their anger and irritation, they are

more likely to succeed in bringing their house back to order.

Many of the tensions laid out earlier in The Odyssey begin to

build toward climax here, in the meeting between Odysseus

and Telemachus and in the confrontation between Odysseus

and the suitors. The suitors' end is again foreshadowed in the

speech of beggar Odysseus to Amphinomus, in which he says

that he is destined to be great even though he is now a beggar.

He was brought down, he says, by recklessness and warns, "let

no man ever by lawless all his life,/just take in peace what the

gods will send." Amphinomus errs, though, and remains in

Odysseus's halls, and "even then" Athena "bound him fast to

death." While his kindness might suggest he merited mercy, he,

like the other suitors, has abused the hospitality of Odysseus's

house and must pay the price.

Odysseus accepts the challenge to fight the other beggar to

defend his honor. Again, he uses caution, taking care not to

injure the other beggar too badly. Odysseus is still practicing

the restraint he has displayed since his return to Ithaca. He is

also showing a willingness to delay his immediate satisfaction

to achieve the larger goal of killing all the trespassing suitors

and disloyal maids. A shrewd strategist, he bides his time until

everything is in place.

Books 19–20

Summary

Book 19

After the suitors have retired for the evening, Odysseus and

Telemachus take action for the next day by hiding all the

weapons in the house. Odysseus meets with Penelope but still

refrains from revealing his true identity to her. Odysseus's

childhood nurse, Eurycleia, recognizes him first when she

notices a scar he received as a child. Odysseus makes her

swear not to tell Penelope. She offers to tell him which maids

were disloyal to him; he replies that he will watch them and

judge for himself. Penelope tells the disguised Odysseus that

she is planning a contest the next day to finally choose a

suitor. She will ask them to demonstrate a skill that only

Odysseus has proved before, involving stringing and using his

mighty bow. Odysseus the beggar claims that her husband will

be home before the contest can begin. Penelope retires to her

room and weeps.



Book 20

Odysseus stays up late that night thinking about the next day's

revenge on the suitors. Athena appears to him and tells him he

will be victorious not only over the suitors but over any of their

families that seek revenge. Odysseus also overhears Penelope

praying for her death if Odysseus does not reappear. He offers

a prayer to Zeus, who sends a crash of thunder as an answer

of support.

The next day the seer Theoclymenus warns the suitors about

dark omens he is seeing: blood, mist, and ghosts. The suitors

laugh him off. Only Amphinomus, who recognizes the eagle

flying overhead with a dove clutched in its talons as an omen,

believes the seer's words. He also attempts to warn the other

suitors, but they ignore him.

Analysis

It's uncertain as to when, exactly, Penelope guesses

Odysseus's true identity. She seems skeptical of the "beggar"

from early on and grows increasingly suspicious as he

continually tries to tell her that Odysseus will return home

soon. Is she just testing the beggar's honesty about knowing

Odysseus, or does she, in fact, suspect the truth? She also

mistakenly refers to the beggar as Eurycleia's "master" but

corrects herself quickly. She appears to feel she can speak

freely with him in a way that seems unlikely for a woman of her

status to use in addressing a beggar. Her mentioning the

contest she plans to stage seems like another test, because

only Odysseus has ever been able to perform the task she is

asking the suitors to prove. Whether she has guessed his

identity or not, she shows cleverness again in devising a test

the suitors are bound to fail.

With tensions mounting the epic takes on a tone of foreboding.

Odysseus grows restless and uneasy seeing the suitors

continue their revelry, blind to the fate that will soon befall

them. In Book 20 Telemachus demonstrates he has grown

bolder and braver, scolding the suitors for their bad behavior.

It's a mark of how far he's come since the beginning of the

story, when he let them run rampant over the household.

Athena's intervention is significant in these scenes. The night

before the upcoming massacre, she gives peaceful sleep to

weeping Penelope and reassures Odysseus. The next day she

mocks the suitors by exacerbating their misbehavior, forcing

them to throw things, and even they seem unnerved by their

behavior.

The eagle omen that Amphinomus comments on recalls the

eagle omen from the beginning of the epic. Then, two eagles

careened through the air and flew off. This eagle has a dove as

its prey. Amphinomus understands the message—the suitors,

like the dove, are certain victims of a more powerful force.

Book 21

Summary

The contest begins. Penelope brings out Odysseus's bow, and

Telemachus tries and fails to string it three times; on the fourth

attempt, his father signals him to stop with a quiet shake of the

head. The suitors begin to take turns, and each of them fails as

well. Antinous finally requests that they postpone the contest

for a day.

Odysseus finally reveals himself to Eumaeus and the servant

Philoetius and fills them in on his plan of revenge. They agree

to help. After the suitors have all failed to string the bow,

Odysseus asks if he might try. He strings it with ease and

shoots an arrow through the 12 axes. He and Telemachus turn

to face the suitors together, and Telemachus draws his

weapons.

Analysis

Telemachus's failed attempt to string the bow is probably

meant to put the suitors off any suspicion they might have felt.

That he comes close to stringing it suggests he is nearly as

strong as his father. He obeys his father's silent instruction, of

course; he is not the one in charge. He also asserts his

importance when he attempts to keep his mother out of harm's

way. He knows the slaughter that is about to happen and

wants to keep her safe.

Odysseus's ability to string the bow and shoot an arrow

through the 12 axes speaks to his heroic strength. The scene is

also important because, not only does it reveal his real identity

to the suitors, but it also shows that he is stronger and more

capable than they are.



The book ends on a riveting cliffhanger that marks fine

storytelling. The lasting image of father and son, armed and

bent on exacting their revenge, compels the reader—and the

action—forward.

Book 22

Summary

Odysseus removes his rags, prays to Apollo, and then shoots

an arrow through Antinous's throat. The other suitors are

stunned, and Odysseus announces what he plans to do to the

rest of them. They offer to repay everything they have taken

from his home, but Odysseus has made up his mind. The

suitors attempt to find weapons, but they only have swords

and no armor. Odysseus and Telemachus begin to kill the

suitors. No one is spared.

Analysis

Book 22 is the epic's climax. Odysseus has shown restraint

and good judgment in biding his time before killing the suitors.

This reflects his training and experience as a military leader, as

he was able to assess, strategize, and follow through. He is

also able to control his emotions. His decision to kill Antinous

first is also strategic—he is the most antagonistic of the suitors

and their de facto leader. Odysseus kills him before the other

suitors have even fully realized that the beggar is, in fact,

Odysseus.

The fact that Odysseus denies the suitors' offer of repayment

is significant—this is about honor not money. In the ancient

Greeks' view of justice, only revenge can balance the scale.

Athena guides Odysseus in this scene and only directly

intervenes toward the end, when she appears as Mentor. She

knows that Odysseus and Telemachus need to fight their own

battle, though she protects them throughout. Odysseus does

not necessarily take pleasure in killing the suitors—he believes

he is only doing what is just and what the gods have already

willed.

Book 23

Summary

The battle is over, and the scene shifts to Penelope, who has

been hiding in her quarters. She still cannot believe that

Odysseus has returned and that the suitors are all dead. Even

upon seeing him with her own eyes, she seems uncertain. She

tests him by seeing if he remembers their bed, which was

carved from an olive tree that is rooted in the house. When she

instructs her maid to move it, an infuriated Odysseus objects

and explains why it cannot be moved. This reaction finally

convinces Penelope that Odysseus is indeed home.

Even though they are finally reunited, Odysseus has one final

task to complete. Tiresias had prophesied to him that, in order

to truly live out a long life of peace, he must travel as far inland

as a possible, away from the sea, to make a sacrifice to

Poseidon.

Analysis

Many readers may wonder why Penelope is so cautious about

believing that Odysseus is truly before her. But It only makes

sense for her to test him. With so many disguises and gods

about, she would be dim not to be careful. As the narrative has

shown, Penelope is hardly foolish. She is shrewd and cautious

throughout the epic. In a way, her skepticism shows real loyalty

to Odysseus—she does not want to be tricked and therefore

be unfaithful.

The fact that Odysseus must leave his now-peaceful home yet

again demonstrates the power and fear that the gods hold

over mortals. As much as Odysseus has missed his family, he

cannot risk further angering Poseidon if he wants to settle into

a long and happy life at home. His further, temporary absence

is necessary in order to protect his family in the long run.

Book 24

The Odyssey Study Guide Quotes 23


Summary

The final book of The Odyssey opens in a different location

from the previous chapter, with Hermes bringing the souls of

the dead suitors to the Land of the Dead. There they meet

Achilles and Agamemnon, who ask how so many young

warriors could have died. After one recounts the tale,

Agamemnon contrasts the betrayal he suffered at the hands of

his own wife with Penelope's steadfast loyalty.

Odysseus visits his father, Laertes, who seems old and broken.

He does not recognize his son; Odysseus does not say who he

is. As the old man laments the loss of his son, Odysseus is

overcome and reveals himself. After he proves the truth of his

claim by showing a scar and recounting memories, the two

reconcile and enjoy a lunch Telemachus helped prepare.

The families of the slain suitors are seeking revenge on

Odysseus, but Athena intervenes to help Odysseus avoid

another fight. She causes the families to forget their losses,

and Odysseus is once again installed as Ithaca's revered king.

Analysis

Many readers have questioned why The Odyssey doesn't just

end with Penelope and Odysseus reuniting. But the final book

wraps up a few important plot points. Remember that

Odysseus encountered his mother in the Land of the Dead,

and she informed him of his father's suffering. Odysseus's

reunion with his father provides another resolution and also

solidifies the father-son motif that runs throughout the epic.

It is telling that Athena appears undisguised at the conclusion

of the book. She gives direct orders from the gods for peace in

Ithaca. This seems to be a notable message that it is futile to

oppose the will of the gods.

g Quotes

"Ah, how shameless—the way

these mortals blame the gods./...

they themselves, with their own

reckless ways,/compound their

pains beyond their proper share."

— Zeus , Book 1

Zeus, king of the gods, speaks to the theme of fate. He says

that mortals don't take responsibility for their own lives and

that they do, in fact, have much more freedom of choice than

they'd like to believe. Zeus believes that the mortals actually

make their own lives worse because they are "reckless" and

prone to temptation.

"Fear the gods' wrath—before they

wheel in outrage/and make these

crimes recoil on your heads."

— Telemachus , Book 2

Telemachus berates the suitors for their bad behavior and

threatens them with the justice of the gods. The suitors have

taken advantage of Penelope's hospitality, an action that the

gods wouldn't approve of. Telemachus is warning the suitors

that, because they have not displayed sufficient piety, the gods

will punish them.

"But here's an unlucky wanderer

strayed our way,/and we must

tend him well. Every stranger and

beggar/ comes from Zeus."

— Nausicaa , Book 6

Nausicaa mentions that every wanderer comes from Zeus. He

is the god not only of wanderers but also of hospitality, and this

is why Nausicaa mentions that they must "tend [Odysseus]

well." To not offer hospitality to a stranger would be a grievous

offense in ancient Greece and would likely anger the gods.

"Zeus of the Strangers guards all

The Odyssey Study Guide Quotes 24


guests and suppliants:/strangers

are sacred—Zeus will avenge their

rights!"

— Odysseus , Book 9

Odysseus pleads with Polyphemus, the one-eyed Cyclops and

son of Poseidon. The Cyclopes are a "lawless" people, and the

way Polyphemus treats Odysseus and his men is cruel—he

even eats six of the men. Here, Odysseus is appealing to the

custom of hospitality that was so important to ancient Greeks

and their gods—particularly Zeus, the god of strangers and

hospitality.

"Even so, you and your crew may

still reach home,/suffering all the

way, if you only have the power/to

curb their wild desire and curb

your own."

— Tiresias , Book 11

Tiresias the blind prophet foretells the outcome of Odysseus's

journey but warns him that succumbing to temptation will

cause Odysseus and his men suffering. His prophecy touches

on the theme of fate: how much control does Odysseus really

have over himself and his men if the gods are calling the shots?

Or are they?

"You terrible man,/foxy, ingenious,

never tired of twists and tricks."

— Athena , Book 13

Athena is praising Odysseus for his cunning and cleverness,

qualities she prides herself on possessing as well. She's saying

that he may very well be the craftiest man among mortals and

even challenges the gods; her use of the word terrible is

actually a compliment, although it suggests that Odysseus is

not entirely admirable either.

"Trust me, the blessed gods have

no love for crime./They honor

justice."

— Eumaeus , Book 14

Eumaeus, Odysseus's trusty swineherd, is reassuring

Odysseus that the suitors will be punished for their bad

behavior, because the gods frown upon mortals who flout the

kindness of hospitality. Justice is a big theme in The Odyssey,

both among gods and mortals. Often mortals will turn to the

gods to help them achieve justice, and fear of divine retribution

persuades many to follow the moral code.

"Should he wheel with his staff and

beat the scoundrel senseless?/...

He steeled himself instead, his

mind in full control."

— Narrator , Book 17

Odysseus practices self-restraint—he's come a long way from

his days of being tied to a ship mast because he wanted to

hear the Sirens' song. His impulse is to hurt the other beggar,

whom the suitors have goaded him (in disguise) to fight. Yet

Odysseus knows that, in order for his plan of vengeance to

work, he will need to keep "his mind in full control."

"A wild wicked swath I cut,

indulged my lust for violence/...

Look at me now./And so, I say, let

no man ever be lawless all his

life,/just take in peace what gifts

The Odyssey Study Guide Symbols 25


the gods will send."


Odysseus shows remarkable growth and self-reflection here,

toward the end of his epic. His journey has been inward as

much as it has been outward. He looks back on all the pain he

caused and the risks he took during his life and realizes it was

not worth the peace he now craves. Here he is showing a

sense of piety and respect toward the gods, hoping to be

rewarded for what he's learned.

"No fear of the gods who rule the

skies up there,/... Now all your

necks are in the noose—your

doom is sealed!"


Odysseus is addressing the suitors in the climactic moments

before their slaughter. He warns them that, by not fearing the

wrath of the gods who frown upon bad moral behavior, their

punishment is ordained and inevitable. And he's right—Athena

has arranged and orchestrated much of what follows.

l Symbols

Penelope's Shroud

Penelope is introduced weaving a funereal shroud for her

father-in-law, Laertes. This would have been a common task

for a woman of the house in Homer's time. Penelope's home

has been besieged by suitors, while she has seemingly waited

in vain for her husband, Odysseus, to return for 20 years. She

tells the suitors she will choose a husband once she finishes

the shroud. What they don't know is that each night she

undoes the shroud, prolonging inevitably the choice she must

make. Because Penelope is largely powerless to do anything

about the suitors, her shroud ploy symbolizes that she shares

her husband's cleverness and cunning. It also represents her

fidelity to her marriage. That she dismantles a funereal shroud

while delaying taking a new husband also suggests that she is

unwilling to accept the death of her real husband.

Odysseus's Bow and Arrow

Penelope's final contest for the suitors requires them to wield

Odysseus's bow and arrow to shoot through 12 axes. This

symbolizes, first, her search for a man who can rival

Odysseus's strength—or that she is looking for Odysseus

himself to appear. It's telling that none of the suitors can even

string the bow; only Telemachus comes close, and he is

Odysseus's son. The bow and arrow symbolize Odysseus's

strength, as well as how well matched he and Penelope are.

Eagle Omen

The vision of an eagle appears at least four times in The

Odyssey. First, Zeus sends an omen at the assembly

Telemachus has gathered to announce that he will go in

search of information about Odysseus. The vision that Zeus

sends is of two eagles fighting each other to the death, which a

person in the crowd skilled in lore reads to mean the death of

the suitors. Later in the book, Telemachus again sees the

omen of the eagle, this time clutching a goose in its talons, as

he leaves to return home to Ithaca. He sees this as a sign from

Zeus that he is helping him. The significance seems to be that

the family is connected through this symbol of an eagle, and

the fate of their family can be seen in it.

m Themes

The Odyssey Study Guide Themes 26


Hubris

Many characters in The Odyssey display hubris, the arrogance

of overweening pride. They generally suffer for it. Even

Odysseus, who is in the end reunited with the devoted

Penelope and his loving son, Telemachus, and who is

reconciled with father Laertes, suffers for a decade before

reaching that point. While it's true that suffering is sometimes

in the arms of the lovely Circe or the beautiful Calypso, his

seven years with her reduced him to a despondent, tearful

man—hardly the picture of someone content with giving in to

temptation. The arrogant Antinous is the first to die, and the

arrogant Polyphemus, convinced that mere humans cannot

harm him, is tricked and punished with blindness.

Temptation

Temptation befalls many of the characters in The Odyssey,

and the outcome is usually a frustrating setback. Odysseus

and his men succumb to temptation on numerous occasions,

usually with disastrous consequences. Odysseus's men fall

prey to the Lotus-eaters and barely escape with their

memories intact. They open the pouch of winds out of

curiosity, only to find themselves blown far from the home they

had almost reached. When they encounter the songs of the

Sirens, they protect themselves from temptation by plugging

their ears with beeswax but must lash Odysseus to the mast

because he is too tempted by the alluring song to apply this

countermeasure. Perhaps their greatest fall to temptation,

however, is eating the cattle of Helios, after repeatedly being

warned not to. Zeus is so angry that he slaughters every last

one of them.

Homecoming

The central drive of the epic is Odysseus's desire to return

home, to reach the love of his family and the comfort of his

palace. With home is tied the idea of loyalty and fidelity, with

Penelope, Telemachus, and the loyal servants being the chief

representatives. Penelope endures years of importuning by the

obnoxious suitors, demonstrating her worth by keeping them

at bay through stratagems worthy of her cunning husband's

mind. Telemachus, despite his father's two-decade absence,

feels the proper fidelity and devotion of a son, an indication of

his virtue. While Odysseus must first disguise himself upon

reaching Ithaca—as he does so often throughout his

adventures—home represents the place where he can finally

be his true self: master strategist, skilled warrior, loving

husband, guiding father, and dutiful son.

The stories of Menelaus and Agamemnon, related by Menelaus

to Telemachus, provide interesting contrasts. Menelaus must

also undergo trials and effectively do penance to the gods in

order to reach home peacefully. Agamemnon, however, came

back to the danger of an unfaithful wife and her murderous

lover. The success of a homecoming depends on the merits of

those one comes home to.

Hospitality

Modern readers tend to be surprised at the overwhelming

emphasis placed on hospitality in The Odyssey. It seems to

dictate not only social interactions among mortals but also

treatment by the gods. Hospitality is how characters assess

one another's moral code, and it's how they stay safe in a

world where people are constantly venturing into foreign and

unknown lands. Travelers in ancient Greece (and there were

many) had to rely upon the kindness of strangers for food,

shelter, and warmth. To invest in being a hospitable host meant

that it was more likely that the host, too, would encounter a

warm welcome should he or she ever be lost or in need. Hosts

usually enjoyed having strangers visit—strangers who brought

tales of strange lands and stories of adventures to entertain

them with.

Odysseus encounters a range of hospitality throughout the

epic—from the helpfulness of the Phaeacians to the

murderousness of the Cyclops. Even Odysseus must return to

his own home to punish the suitors who abused the rules of

hospitality that custom dictated must be extended to them.

The Odyssey Study Guide Suggested Reading 27


Deception

Deception touches nearly every major character in The

Odyssey. Athena is nearly always in disguise when she advises

Odysseus, who is often in disguise as well or is careful about

how and when he reveals his true identity. It's no coincidence

that it is often Athena who masterminds Odysseus's disguises,

altering his appearance to make him seem stronger or weaker

as befits her plans.

Illusion and trickery are traits that both Odysseus and Athena

admire, and not just when it comes to physical appearances.

Odysseus deploys deception when he cannot rely on strength

alone, such as when he tricks Polyphemus into believing that

his name is "Nobody" in order to deter his neighbors from

coming to his aid. Penelope and Telemachus both dissemble

as well; being cagey is apparently a useful survival mechanism.

Fate

Fate seems to be the strongest force in shaping mortals' lives.

The gods determine mortals' fate, though human action has

weight. Sometimes it seems as though the gods decide the

bigger picture but leave mortals power to make specific

choices. No one counseled Odysseus on how to handle the

problem of Polyphemus. Anchinous and Arete chose to offer

Odysseus hospitality. Tiresias warns Odysseus that his men

should not eat the cattle of Helios, but he didn't say that they

had no choice in the matter. He only told them they would

suffer dire consequences if they did. That he was right did not

mean those consequences were inevitable—only that fate was

unavoidable if they made certain choices.

Justice

Adherence to customs decreed by the gods rules much of

mortal behavior in The Odyssey. Disregarding those customs

can get a mortal swiftly punished, both by other mortals and by

the gods. The gods feel justified in punishing mortals any time

they feel disrespected or if a mortal has reached too far—for

example, become too arrogant. Zeus is the ultimate dispenser

of justice, or at least the ultimate rule-setter. Even a powerful

god such as Poseidon must submit to his decisions.

Vengeance

Vengeance is another major theme of The Odyssey, found in

the plot of Poseidon's revenge on Odysseus, the story of

Orestes and Electra's revenge on Aegisthus and Clytemnestra

for the murder of their father Agamemnon, and on Telemachus

and Odysseus's destruction of the suitors and the

maidservants. In each case the avenging party punishes a

violation of the natural order. To Poseidon, Odysseus showed

him too little devotion, albeit the warrior was unaware of

Polyphemus's relation to Poseidon. Aegisthus and

Clytemnestra clearly violated the trust that Agamemnon had

placed in them and violated the loyalty due to him as a ruler

and as a husband. The suitors abandoned the proper behavior

due from a guest, and the servants showed disloyalty.

Vengeance is implacable and usually thorough. Only because

Poseidon was countermanded by Zeus does Odysseus survive.

e Suggested ReadingAtwood, Margaret. The Penelopiad. New York: Canongate,

2005. Print.

Clay, Jenny Strauss. The Wrath of Athena: Gods and Men in

The Odyssey. New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 1996. Print.

Fowler, Robert, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Homer.

Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004. Print.

Fox, Robin Lane. The Classical World: An Epic History from

Homer to Hadrian. 2nd ed. New York: Basic Books, 2006. Print.

Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin,

1998. Print.

Morrison, James V. A Companion to Homer's Odyssey.

Westport: Greenwood, 2003. Print.

The Odyssey Study Guide Suggested Reading 28


Power, Henry. Homer's Odyssey: A Reading Guide: Edinburgh:

Edinburgh UP, 2011. Print.

Schein, Seth, ed. Reading the Odyssey: Selected Critical

Essays. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1995. Print.

Snider, Denton J. Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary. Project

Gutenberg, n.d. Web. 20 June 2016.

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