INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON Bali, Indonesia, June 1 ST – 6 TH , 2014 Study of Social and Economic Impacts of Construction of SIAHBISHEH Dam Using Rapid Matrix Method Roohollah Mohammadvali Samani Site Manager, Dam, Water & Wastewater Division, KAYSON Co., Iran. [email protected]Kazem Heidarpour Chenar HSE Supervisor, KAYSON Co., Iran. Fatemeh Iravaniniay Tehrani Advisor to Managing Director, KAYSON Co., Iran. ABSTRACT: Considering to the growing needs of society for more water and energy resources, Nowadays construction of dams and hydroelectric power plants appear as an applicable solutions for the problem. Hence many countries have turned to the construction and use of these resources. Such that from 1950 the number of large dams with a height of over 15 meters in 5700 has reached more than 41,000. Dam construction along with the benefits and valuable impacts has disastrous effects on the environment and surrounding community and that’s why having provided grounds for so many criticism. Industrial processes in the world to protect the environment and its associated parameters are in more attention and development by the day. In dam construction industry, this monumental task of screening is responsibility of professionals of this scope that are work In order to more correspond and coordinates between this industry and environmental factors. On the other hand, due to the growth and development of science in various fields, deployment of new and modern ways seems necessary and useful to achieve different and useful results. One of these methods is the analysis of the effects that reported by EIA. In order to fulfill these tasks and to reduce the social and economic consequences and improvements in the construction and operation of dams and case study of SIAHBISHEH pumped storage dams in Iran, extensive research has been conducted by the present authors. This paper with considering the current situation, proceed to assess the social and economic impacts of the project on the rapid matrix in EIA and have to offer the results were analyzed to improve the situation and solutions, strategies and experiences in this area. Keywords: Dam, Environment, Rapid Matrix, EIA. 1. INTRODUCTION The efficient economic aspects of dam construction and the amount of the electricity produced are the matters to be considered in the studies of prefabricated constructions; this is while the dam construction is of great environmental importance in the way that it will affect both the region and the community of it. These cases are of direct and indirect socio- economic effects that are to be taken into consideration at the proposal level to prevent their negative effects. I - 1
Transcript
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST – 6TH , 2014
Study of Social and Economic Impacts of Construction of
SIAHBISHEH Dam Using Rapid Matrix Method
Roohollah Mohammadvali Samani Site Manager, Dam, Water & Wastewater Division, KAYSON Co., Iran.
ABSTRACT: Considering to the growing needs of society for more water and energy resources, Nowadays construction of dams and hydroelectric power plants appear as an applicable solutions for the problem. Hence many countries have turned to the construction and use of these resources. Such that from 1950 the number of large dams with a height of over 15 meters in 5700 has reached more than 41,000. Dam construction along with the benefits and valuable impacts has disastrous effects on the environment and surrounding community and that’s why having provided grounds for so many criticism. Industrial processes in the world to protect the environment and its associated parameters are in more attention and development by the day. In dam construction industry, this monumental task of screening is responsibility of professionals of this scope that are work In order to more correspond and coordinates between this industry and environmental factors. On the other hand, due to the growth and development of science in various fields, deployment of new and modern ways seems necessary and useful to achieve different and useful results. One of these methods is the analysis of the effects that reported by EIA. In order to fulfill these tasks and to reduce the social and economic consequences and improvements in the construction and operation of dams and case study of SIAHBISHEH pumped storage dams in Iran, extensive research has been conducted by the present authors. This paper with considering the current situation, proceed to assess the social and economic impacts of the project on the rapid matrix in EIA and have to offer the results were analyzed to improve the situation and solutions, strategies and experiences in this area. Keywords: Dam, Environment, Rapid Matrix, EIA. 1. INTRODUCTION The efficient economic aspects of dam construction and the amount of the electricity produced are the matters to be considered in the studies of prefabricated constructions; this is while the dam construction is of great environmental importance in the way that it will affect both the region and the community of it. These cases are of direct and indirect socio-economic effects that are to be taken into consideration at the proposal level to prevent their negative effects.
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In almost all the pre-studies of dam construction the ultimate focus has always been on the environmental factors; the socio-economic factors were considered to be of less importance, and the typical number of the predictions were far from the reality; this makes the control and the reduction of the damage on the socio-economic aspects’ preparations less efficient. Of some the effects of the dam construction on the social aspects and their possible side effects we can count: the reduction in the size of the farms, the increase of the salt in the lower parts, the reduction in the nutritional elements of the soil, etc. Side effects like the reduced productivity of the farms, the land-use change, moving of the local nomads, population change, and change of occupation and income, which can, in their turns, accelerate the change in the environmental and economic situations. So the considerations of the socio-economic conditions could reduce the environmental risks, which presuppose more attentions to this matter. 2. METHODOLOGY After the general and the local studies of the needed data such as the population data used in this study from the Statistical Center of Iran, other data apropos the prediction of the events and the population effects with a case study on the Iran’s dam constructions, such as Karkhe and Alborz dams and their effects on the immediate covered society and the use of the experts’ opinions, were collected and Siah Bishe’s socio-economic population susceptibility of construction of a dam was predicted. Then suggestions were made by the experts for the executors for the future preparations and the rapid matrix was used for the comparisons among the dam construction activities. 3. THE INTRODUCTION AND THE FEATURES OF THE EIA The assessment of the environmental effects is a way of identification and measuring the environmental aftermath of the construction and the utilization of the construction projects that can have bad effects on the environment of the project’s base in global terms. Therefore, before implementing a project, we should do an assessment of the side effects to make sure that it does not have bad effects on the environmental factors and to propose corrective measures and the projects is to be implemented as long as it does not have negative side effects. In Iran, according to the proceedings of the Iran’s Grand Council of the Environmental Care in 23/12/1997, the executors of the construction projects such as dam construction with the height of more than 15 meters are bound to find the feasibility and locating studies along with the assessment of the environmental factors. There are a number of different methods to assess the environmental effects of the plan, methods such as the use of the check-list, matrix, explanatory index, and the addition and the analysis of the system which are used in predicting the environmental effects of the construction and the in the implementation of the projects. The most common method used in these cases is the matrix; the method of the rapid matrix is used in this study to assess the socio-economic effects of the construction of Siah Bishe’s dams, which are under construction, to propose some corrective measures after the passage of a long time after their primary assessments. In this method the assessment criteria are divided into two groups: 1. The groups which are of prime importance and have great impact on scoring (A).
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2. The groups whose locations are of great importance but are of less impact compared to the first group (B). As it is shown in Table 1, the scores of the first group which consists of two sub-groups: A1 and A2 are multiplied and scores of second group consisting of three sub-groups of B1, B2, and B3 are added, the sum of the first group is multiplied by the sum of the second one and the environmental score of the ES which is achieved from the equation 1 and is shown compared in the range of the scores of the Table 2; and in the analysis part the best possible method with the least amount of damage to the environment and society is chosen.
1 2 1 2 3 (1)
Table 1. Classification of Assessment Factors in Rapid Matrix Method
Effects Sum ( B3)
Effects Reversibility
(B2)
Effects Sustainability
(B1)
Effects Amounts
(A2)
Effects Importance
(A1)
Factors
Row
1 Without Change
1 Without Change
1 Without Change
3 Very Positive
Change
4 National/
International Importance
1
2 Non-
Cumulative
2 Reversible
2 Temporary
2 Considerable
Improvement in the Situation
3 Local/ National
Importance 2
3 Cumulative
3 Irreversible
3 Permanent
1 Improvement in
Situation
2 Important for Local Areas
3
- - - 0
Without Change
1 Important for
Local 4
- - - 1-
Negative Change
0 Without
Importance 5
- - -
2- Considerable
Negative Change
- 6
- - -
3- Severe
Negative Change
- 7
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Table 2. Classification of Environmental Scores
Description Group Skirt Environmental Scores )ES(
Very Positive Effect E+ 108<ES<72
Considerable Positive Effect D+ 71<ES<36
Average Positive Effect C+ 35<ES<19
Little Positive Effect B+ 18<ES<10
Negligible Positive Effect A+ 9<ES<1
Without Effect N 0
Negligible Negative Effect A- 1-<ES<9-
Little Negative Effect B- 10-<ES18-
Average Negative Effect C- 19-<ES<35-
Considerable Negative Effect
D- 36-<ES<71-
Very Negative Effect E- 72-<ES<108-
4. THE INTRODUCTION OF THE CASE STUDY OF THE PUMPED-STORAGE DAMS PROJECT OF SIAH BISHE Siah Bishe’s dam and PSH (Pumped-storage hydroelectricity) project is located 150 kms on the north of Tehran, Iran in the central Alborz. This project consists of two rock-fill dams with CFRD that is to initiate a 1040MW power station. The pumped-storage system used in this project among the higher and lower dams make the generation and the compensation of the power in the peak times at night and the adjustment of the peak-time load for pumping operations at different times during the day possible. This project is adjacent to one of the busiest entertaining mountain roads of Iran and there are a lot of small villages around it that provide the socio-economic connections of these two population centers. 5. THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATIONS OF THE PROJECT’S LOCATION The higher dam is located on Chaloos River and the lower one at the confluence of Chaloos and Garmroodbar and is in the heart of Hirkani Forrest. Daryabak, Siah Bishe’s villages, Verkloo, Harijan, and Vali Abad which are some the environs of Marzan Abad, are some of the villages close to the dam’s location. The climatic condition of the region is cold and damp with the average temperature of 7 to 9 °C which is a popular mountainous countryside. There are many seasonal moving in these villages and some of these villagers move to the adjacent towns and come back again at the end of the spring. The dominant occupation of the people is traditional animal husbandry and keeping the local road inns. Women are generally in charge of the house and sporadically produce handicrafts. Vali Abad village has an elementary school to which many students from adjacent villages come to study. There are no health centers in the local villages and the people seek medical
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help from Marzan Abad’s health center. According to the data collected form Statistical Center of Iran 69.7% of the villagers and 77.9% of Marzan Abad’s inhabitants are literate and the human sex ratio of the males to females is 86%. 6. THE DESCRIPTION OF THE CONNECTION BETWEEN EIA AND SIAH BISHE’S DAM’S BASE Given the fact that it has been a long time since the primary assessments and the implementation of the proposal and the changed conditions of the region, it was necessary to have a second assessment of problems analysis, the environmental aftermath, and socio-economic effects of the project under construction to think of some corrective measures in the face of the possible issues. Therefore, by consulting specialized experts, studying the other dams constructed in Iran, and the conditional changes from the start of the project, we assessed the socio-economic effects of the dam construction both during and after its implementation. 7. THE ANALYSIS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF THE DAM CONSTRUCTION BY THE RAPID MATRIX Given the fact that Siah Bishe is a seasonal tourist attraction and is located in Tehran-Shomal’s road, it is considered to be a recreational area and the entertainment is up to some measures part of it. Nevertheless the education opportunities have not been improved and the students have to travel to the adjacent towns to study at the boarding schools. With the start of Siah Bishe’s dams’ construction, some temporary clinics will start giving health service to the locals, and the transferring of the patients to the adjacent towns will be stopped. Most of the local pieces of land belong to the Natural Resources Organization and only a few numbers of them are in private ownership. Given the nature of the region and the locals’ jobs, animal husbandry, the construction of the dam will cover some of the land that is at the back of the dam in water and the region will enjoy less pastures. With the start of the construction process the price of the locals’ land will increase that will encourage them to sell their land to non-locals. In addition to employing many of the locals in the construction process, many others will inhabit and find jobs in the region, making the region a temporary cultural melting pot, and at same time prevents the locals to move from one place to another to find jobs and will increase their earning income. These criteria are shown in Table 3 to assess the social-economic effects of Siah Bishe’s dams’ construction at the present time of the project’s implementation. With the current state of the affairs in the predicted location and the implementation plan, after the construction, the region turns into an unofficial recreation area for both the people who inhabit in the neighborhood and the visitors passing by; and given the fact that the proper facilities are not provided for the people some shortcomings in facilities and needed resources will emerge which will result in a collective environmental crisis that will gradually makes the number of the visitors less and less. At the end of the project the local young workers will have to leave the place and move to somewhere else in search of jobs, this will change the sex ratio of the region, land will be sold and villas will have been built by that time, and women will stop producing handicrafts, and the locals’ income will decrease accordingly. After the end of the project, the workers’ clinic will shut down and
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the locals have to take long ways to Marzan Abad to seek medical help. According to all these, the criteria for the socio-economic assessments under analysis are shown in Table 4.
Table 3. Rapid Matrix for Assessment of Socio- Economic Effects of SIAHBISHE Dam at Implementation Stage
Immediately after the prediction of the likely socio-economic situations after the construction of the dam, and other constructed dams inside the country, some measures were taken to reduce the negative side effects of the construction and at the same time improving the corrective procedures, these considerations made the assessment of the EIA like the ones in Table 5. It was ruled out that the region is to be a tourist attraction site with the help of the Environment Protection Organization of Iran and the local people are going to be used in the corrective procedures. Not only will this direct the region’s tourism, but also it will make the locals stay in the region possible and stop their moving from one place to another. It will also keep the region’s climate stable and will keep the supervision of the land-use more in control. Moreover, a clinic is going to be built to improve the health conditions in the area and give people social services. In the end, as far as the traditional ways of comparing the range of the socio-economic scores are concerned, in three different stages of implementation, the post-construction stage, and the post corrective-procedures stage, the bar charts of the different stages were drawn and compared, and the result is shown in Table 1.
Factors Description
B3 B2 B1 A2 A1 ES Skirt Social-Economic Factors
2 3 3 1 1 8 A+ Fun and Entertainment
2 3 3 0 1 0 N Schools Situation
1 2 2 2 2 20 C+ Situation of Medical Centers
3 3 3 -3 2 -54 D- Land Use Change
2 2 2 2 3 36 D+ Changing Role of Local People
1 1 1 0 1 0 N Changing Women’s Roll
3 3 3 -2 1 -18 B- Local Land Worth
1 1 2 -1 1 -4 A- Change in Minority Groups
3 3 3 0 2 0 N Changing in the Living Location of
Residents
1 1 1 1 3 9 A+ Change in Sex Ratio
1 2 2 1 2 10 B+ Change in Ratio of Society Activist’s
Age
2 2 2 2 2 24 C+ Change in the Natives Income
3 3 3 1 2 18 B+ Change in Tourism
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Table 4. Rapid Matrix for Assessment of Socio- Economic Effects of SIAHBISHE Dam at Post Construction Stage without Corrective Procedure
Table 5. . Rapid Matrix for Assessment of Socio- Economic Effects of SIAHBISHE Dam at Post
Corrective- Procedure Stage
Description Factors
Social-Economic Factors Fun and Entertainment
Skirt ES A1 A2 B1 B2 B3
Schools Situation C- -28 2 -2 2 2 3
Social-Economic Factors N 0 1 0 3 3 2
Situation of Medical Centers C- -20 2 -2 2 2 1
Land Use Change D- -54 3 -2 3 3 3
Changing Role of Local People D- -54 3 -2 3 3 3
Changing Women’s Roll A- -7 1 -1 3 2 2
Local Land Worth D- -36 2 -2 3 3 3
Change in Minority Groups N 0 1 0 2 1 1
Changing in the Living Location of Residents C- -32 2 -2 3 2 3
Change in Sex Ratio B- -9 3 -1 1 1 1
Change in Ratio of Society Activist’s Age B- -10 2 -1 2 2 1
Change in the Natives Income C- -12 2 -1 2 2 2
Change in Tourism C+ 24 3 1 3 2 3
Description Factors
Social-Economic Factors Fun and Entertainment
Skirt ES A1 A2 B1 B2 B3
Schools Situation B+ 14 2 1 3 2 2
Social-Economic Factors N 0 1 0 2 2 1
Situation of Medical Centers B+ 18 1 2 3 3 3
Land Use Change N 0 3 0 3 3 3
Changing Role of Local People C- -21 3 -1 3 2 2
Changing Women’s Roll A+ 7 1 1 3 2 2
Local Land Worth D- -36 2 -2 3 3 3
Change in Minority Groups N 0 1 0 2 1 1
Changing in the Living Location of Residents N 0 2 0 3 2 3
Change in Sex Ratio N 0 3 0 1 1 1
Change in Ratio of Society Activist’s Age N 0 2 0 2 2 2
Change in the Natives Income B+ 12 2 1 2 2 2
Change in Tourism C+ 24 3 1 3 2 3
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Figure 1. Scores Comparison of Different Stages of Implementation, Post Construction and Post
Corrective- Procedure As it is seen in Chart and Table 6 the condition at the implementation stage was in its height and that it was worsen by the end of the project; and after applying the corrective measures it has been improved. Given the difficulties of the interpretation of the number of the scores of the comparison chart in Table, a simplified quantative method of showing the conditions differences was used; in this study, the coefficients of each of the ranges and their algebraic additions were used to have the least range of the difference in the output data. Therefore, in this study the score ranges were given coefficients and the number of the existing ranges in each of conditions is multiplied by their own coefficient and at the end all the conditions’ numbers are added up and the quantative sum of each effect is calculated as the calculation method is shown in Formula 2. The reducing scoring method of the effects was considered in the way that the N range’s coefficient was zero and other ranges of the A, B, C, D, and E were 1,2,3,4, and 5 respectively. The positive and the negative coefficients were added up at the end.
QuantityofSituation ∑Xi n (2)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
E- D- C- B- A- N A+ B+ C+ D+ E+
Sco
re N
umbe
r
Score Range
1)Implementation Stage 2) Post Construction Stage 3) Post Corrective-Procedures Stage
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Table 6. Comparison of Socio- Economic Score of SIAHBISHE Dam
8. CONCLUSION According to the results derived from Tables 3, 4, and 5, we observed that by the start of a dam construction project many of the socio-economic factors of the region have had positive growth and make the whole region’s condition better, some of the betterments are seen in the raised amount of salary earned by the locals and the growth of the tourism industry and job opportunities in the region which are closely counter-related to the corrective measures to be taken after the project’s completion in the way that will directly affect or reduce the positive effects. At the same time, the land’ indices that relates to their value and the use had negative growth which will be aggravated in case of improper supervision and will result in land-use change. Given the fact that the Iran’s Natural Resources Organization is the owner of the big shares of the land, it can have more supervision over the region and the land by employing the local people and will prevent the land-use change and property speculation. As it was pointed out earlier, the project is located in the crowded road of Tehran-Shomal and regarding the high number of road accidents in Iran and the area’s need for a health center, the construction of a round-the-clock medical center according to Table 3 will contribute greatly to the medical indices of the area, will save the time, accelerates the process of medical diagnosis, and will save the precious time of saving people’s lives in emergencies, all of which would be impossible if the center is not built by the end of the project, creating numerous problems in the area according to Table 4. Therefore, proper arrangements of building a medical center in the region were settled with the Ministry of Health and Medical Education, and a permanent medical center was built in the region. Due to the scattering of the villages and the low number of their population, building schools for each of them is not possible, making this index intact. Given the distance between the workers’ hostel and their houses it might create negative temporary social issues which will be over when the project is finished. According to the results derived from Table 6, if the corrective measures are carried out properly and completely, the socio-economic condition of the area will see a drastic improvement. Study, investigation, and accuracy in different areas of dam construction projects to deal with their negative effects which is the source of much criticism about such projects is for construction experts, and as it was observed we can make considerable progress by employing different and various forms of new science and technologies available in the world today to improve and contribute to the industry.
Kind of Effect Situation
E- D- C- B- A- N A+ B+ C+ D+ E+ Sum of
Quantative Effects
Implementation Stage
0 1 0 1 1 3 2 2 2 1 0 9+
Post Construction Stage
0 3 4 2 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 27-
Post Corrective- Procedure Stage
0 1 1 0 0 6 1 3 1 0 0 4+
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Ghannad, Z., Modarres, L. (2011): Constructions methods in Siah bishe CFRD, Sixth international conference on dam engineering, C.Pina, E.Portela, J.Gomes, Lisbon, Portugal.
Kawabena, K.Y., Enoch, B. Asare., Philip, Gyau, Boakye. And Makoto, Nishigaki. (2005): Rapid impact assessment matrix (RIAM) – an analytical tool in the prioritization of water resources management problems in Ghana, Journal of the faculty of environmental science and technology,Vol.10: NO.1, pp.75-81, Okayama University, Japan.
Larry Lestritz, F., Karen, C.MK. (1981): Socioeconomic effects of large-scale resource development projects in Rural areas, Department of agriculture economics north Dakota agricultural experiment station north Dakota state university Fargo,US.
Leistritz, F.L., Maki, K.C., (1981): Socio-economic effects of large-scale resource development projects in rural areas: the case of McLean County, North Dakota.Department of Agricultural Economics, North Dakota State University, Fargo, N.Dak.
N. Lohani, B., Warren Evans, J., R. Everitt, R., Ludwig, H., A. Carpenter, R., Liang Tu, S. (1997): Environmental impact assessment for developing countries in Asia, Asian Development Bank.
Morris, P., Therivel, R. (2001): Methods of environmental impact assessment, by Spon Press, London.
Wathern, P. (1988): Environmental impact assessment theory and practice, by The academic division of Unwin Hyman, London, England.
Research Center for Sustainability and Environment, Shiga University, Japan Scientific Committee, International Lake Environment Committee Foundation, Japan
Katsuki Matsuno River Basin Policy Bureau, Shiga Prefectural Government, Japan
Keywords: Lake Biwa, Water Resources, Flood Control, Upstream-Downstream Conflict,
Ecosystem Concerns
1. AN OVERVIEW OF THE WEIR HISTORY
Lake Biwa water flows down through part of Kyoto Prefecture over the distance of some
twenty kilometers, reaching the jurisdictional boundary of Osaka Prefecture and then all
the way down to the Osaka Bay some seventy kilometers away from the lake. The
topological and hydrological features are such that the riparian land of Lake Biwa is
naturally flood prone. The Lake Biwa region residents always wanted the flood water to be
quickly released downstream to save the riparian lands from inundation, while the
downstream Osaka region residents always wanted the flood water to be kept within the
lake to save the highly populated downstream. This contentious relationship has persisted
ABSTRACT The management history of Japan’s Lake Biwa - Yodo River basin may be characterized by the
conflicting interests between upstream Shiga Prefecture and downstream Kyoto-Osaka-Hyogo
Prefectures, with the central government playing a role to mediate as well as to dictate the
situation. Over the course of basin history, it was the Lake Biwa communities that had to suffer
from the occasional severe flooding, allowing those downstream to be spared of the flooding risk.
The catastrophic and historic flooding in 1896 led to the construction of a flood control weir in
1905, bringing about a significant reduction in risk. The weir was replaced with a new structure in
1961. Development of lake water resource has also been a central issue of Biwa-Yodo basin
management, as exemplified by the inauguration in 1972 of the Lake Biwa Comprehensive
Development Project (LBCDP). Completed in 1997, the Project included water resources
development, enhanced flood control measures and economic development and environmental
conservation for Shiga Prefecture. Together with the construction of an around-the-lake levy
system, Lake Biwa was effectively turned into a huge reservoir. Over the past decades following the
completion of LBCDP, there has been emergence of an array of new issues, with gradually
changing upstream-downstream relationship. This article is meant to introduce the Lake Biwa
Weir implication depicted in Chapter 6, “Evolving History of Lake Biwa and Yodo River Basin
Management”, in the book entitled “Lake Biwa: Interactions between Nature and People, cited in
REFERENCE.
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over the period of more than a century, having led to the need for a flow control weir that
have undergone three phase transformations, the first being its construction in 1905 (the
Nango Weir), the second being its replacement with a new one (the Setagawa Weir or Seta
River Weir), and the third being its renovation with construction anew of an accompanying
bypass structure for more precise flow control.
2. FLOOD CONTROL
2.1. Constraining Topography of Lake Biwa
There are some 120 or so inflowing rivers to Lake Biwa originating from the surrounding
mountains. These short and steep rivers discharge the collected precipitation from the
mountainous terrains almost instantaneously into Lake Biwa. At times of severe rains, the
lake would swell to the extent that the inflowing river water would be prevented from
entering the lake, causing flooding along the shore as well as along and upstream of those
feeder rivers. The above phenomenon is also exasperated by the hydro-topography of Seta
River, the only outflowing river from the lake. The flow of water used to be impeded by a
constriction point caused by the natural protrusion a few kilometers downstream of the
river mouth. During the record-breaking flood of September 1896, for example, the lake
water level rose up to 3.76 m above the normal level, causing unprecedented flooding
around the lake, inundating most of the towns and villages around the lake and along the
inflowing water courses.
2.2. Upstream–Downstream Conflicts over Dredging of Seta River
Since the mid-19th Century, there have been a number of proposed attempts to dredge the
Seta River to increase the discharge volume of the lake water, particularly for dealing with
the above-mentioned natural topographic feature impeding the river flow. These proposed
attempts by the upstream local leaders always met severe opposition by the leaders of the
downstream Osaka, the political power house of the region at the time. The simple
dredging along the shallow and constricting stretch of the Seta River would mean sending
flood waters to the downstream, potentially jeopardizing the human lives and valuable
properties, rather than keeping the damage within the upstream farmland and villages. In
other words, the downstream region wanted the flood water to be kept upstream as long as
possible, allowing its gradual release over a prolonged time, rather than to be released all at
once. It was only after the above record flooding in 1896 that the central government
agreed to undertake a major channelization work, together with installation of a flow
control weir.
3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SETA RIVER DREDGING AND THE WEIR
3.1. Synchronizing the Weir Operation for Upstream and Downstream Needs
The dredging of the Seta River and operation of the weir are inextricably linked. The weir
controls the Lake Biwa water level in such a way that, under predicted heavy rains, the lake level may be reduced to lower than the normal level and, in turn, the dredged river
bottom at the lake outlet would allow flooding water stored in the lake to be quickly
released when the downstream flooding risk has been sufficiently reduced. Dredging alone,
however, would pose the problem of causing the lake water level to decrease too much at
times when there is little rain. The weir prevents this from happening by holding back the
water and allowing the lake to function as a reservoir for downstream water uses. The
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dredged channel, in turn, allows passage of the amount of water required by the
downstream, as regulated by the weir.
Under conditions of heavy rains, the peak discharge from Lake Biwa can be controlled,
whereas the peak flow of the Yodo River below the weir cannot be controlled. This results
in a „time lag‟ between the impacts of heavy rains on Lake Biwa versus the downstream
Yodo River because of the topographic and hydraulic characteristics of the Yodo River
catchment area. This lag is actually beneficial for managing the Yodo River flooding.
When there is heavy rain, the Lake Biwa discharge may be restricted or completely shut
off. Once the downstream flow starts to subside, the weir operation may be synchronized
to allow discharge of lake water, thereby allowing the lake water level to slowly decrease.
Applying this principle, the weir may be operated in such a way that dredging would not
increase the risk of downstream flooding. When it rains, the rise in water level can be kept
within certain bounds, such that the duration of peak water level may be promptly reduced.
3.2. Conflicts over Fully Closing the Seta River Weir
Before the Seta River Weir was installed, people living downstream strongly opposed
dredging of the outflow channel, arguing that Lake Biwa was a self-regulating natural lake.
They believed that increasing the flow capacity would upset the lake‟s natural equilibrium.
Once the weir was installed, however, it became possible to carry out large-scale dredging
of the Seta River. The increase in the discharge capacity of the Seta River allowed
lowering of the Lake Biwa water level at times of floods, therefore, reducing the flooding
damages around the lake. However, the weir would have to be kept fully closed to prevent
lake water passing down to the Yodo River at times when it is already on the verge of
flooding with waters coming from the Katsura River and Kizu River watersheds. Thus,
what is beneficial for upstream, i.e., opening the weir at times of flooding, is not likely to
be beneficial for downstream residents, being the fundamental cause for the upstream–
downstream conflict.
4. WATER RESOURCES AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT NEEDS
4.1. A Brief History of Water Resources Development
Water resources development in the Lake Biwa and Yodo River basin may be told in three
major episodic tales. The first pertains to Osaka whose water resources come directly from
the downstream Yodo River. As the main use of water in the region historically was for
irrigation, there were a large number of irrigation barrages and intake structures scattered
around the mainstream and its tributaries of the Yodo River portion of the basin. Between
1896 and 1905, the first large-scale water resources development project was implemented
here, synchronically with the various flood control measures for Lake Biwa to be described
in 4.4. The main project components included widening of the channel and consolidation
of many of these barrages and intakes. As a consequence, Osaka benefited greatly from the
resultant increase in water intake capacity. The second pertains to Kyoto. The Metropolitan
Kyoto area does not lie along the Yodo River, and therefore the improvement of the Yodo River infrastructures does not necessarily benefit Kyoto. The Kyoto Governor at the time
foresaw the need for Kyoto to be supplied water directly from Lake Biwa through a canal.
After five years of construction work since 1885, directed by a young legendary engineer
Sakuro Tanabe, the canal was completed in 1890, sparing this water-constrained city from
a serious economic decline. The third and the latest pertain to Osaka, Kyoto and the Lake
Biwa region. It took shape when Osaka and the entire downstream Yodo River region
I - 13
began to regain its industrial strength in the early-1950s after the World War II
devastations. By the early 1960s, the existing water rights from the Yodo River flow had
already been exhausted, and Osaka was eyeing the use of abundant Lake Biwa water. This
thirst of Osaka, no longer being fully satisfied with the previous infrastructure
improvements mentioned above, culminated to the Lake Biwa Comprehensive
Development Project (LBCDP).
Figure 1: A Bird‟s View of the Lake Biwa - Yodo River Basin
4.2. Lake Biwa Comprehensive Development Project (LBCDP)
As industrialization and urbanization got accelerated in the post-war period, Osaka began
to demand that more lake water should be released from Lake Biwa, particularly during the
drought periods. The Nango Weir which had been constructed more for flood control
purposes than for water resource development. It was in 1961 that the new Seta River Weir
was constructed at a short distance downstream, both for flood control and water resource
development. More than a decade of heated political exchange took place among the
downstream local governments (mainly Osaka Prefecture and Osaka City), the National
Government, and the Shiga Prefectural Government with regard to the potential gains and
losses of this action, in terms of accrued benefits, financial burdens, and environmental
implications of transforming Lake Biwa into a sort of man-made reservoir. Increasing the
amount of flow through the Seta River channel meant the need for enlargement of the weir
capacity, as well as for dredging of the constricting channel. However, reconstruction of
the weir to provide a greater water volume in the lake, in preparation for extreme droughts,
also meant an increased probability for flooding damage around the lakeshore lands.
Combined with the need to protect the downstream Yodo River from still imminent
flooding, the ultimate solution was to construct a levy around the lake to impound more
water within the lake in anticipation of possible droughts, and in preparation for protecting
both the downstream Yodo River and Lake Biwa coastal areas from flooding. This agreed
I - 14
scheme of Lake Biwa water resource development is called the Lake Biwa Comprehensive
Development Project (hereafter referred to as LBCDP).
4.3. Policy Framework of LBCDP
Having turned out to be a 25-year plan (1972-1997), rather than the originally anticipated
10-year plan (1992-1981), LBCDP has expended 1.9 trillion JPY. The broader goal of the
project was developing and managing Lake Biwa in order to contribute to the sound
development of the Kinki Region (the entire Lake Biwa - Yodo River basin and the
surrounding prefectures) and to the well-being of everyone who relies on the lake.
Specifically, the objective of the LBCDP was to make proper and effective use of Lake
Biwa‟s resources, while conserving the lake and its surroundings, improving the quality of
polluted lake water, and protecting the natural environment. The policies of the project
were guided by three main concerns, i.e., management of Lake Biwa water quantity to
further reduce flooding around the lake; development of the water resources for
downstream users, as well as for Shiga Prefecture; and improvement of Lake Biwa water
quality and conservation of the natural environment. Practical targets included
development of water resources for the downstream use amounting to a maximum 40 m3/s
at times of droughts, construction of flood control embankment around the lake, and
dredging of the Seta River, together with installation of pumping stations to drain the
inundated fields. The local development projects, including road construction, sewerage
installation, establishment of nature conservation parks, solid waste disposal facilities,
water quality monitoring stations, and irrigation return flow pollution treatment facilities,
were to be implemented by Shiga Prefecture and the Water Resource Development
Corporation, with financial support coming from the national as well as the downstream
prefectural and municipal governments, apart from the due payment to be made by the
Shiga Prefecture itself.
4.4. Implementation Schemes of LBCDP
4.4.1. Planned Management of Lake Biwa Water Level
The purpose of the LBCDP was to fulfill the water supply needs of the downstream
Keihanshin (the general designation of the greater metropolitan region encompassing
Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe Cities and their Suburbs) area, based on the arrangement to release
the Lake Biwa water down through the Seta River Weir (at a maximum of 40 m3/s during
extreme droughts), as well as coping with the floods of a scale that may occur once in a
hundred years. Consequently, the maximum draw down level of lake water was set at
B.S.L. (the Biwako Basic Surface Water Level) -1.5 m. In addition, a special arrangement
was made for the Shiga Prefectural residents that any damages incurred due to the water
level decline between B.S.L. -1.5 m and -2.0 m would be compensated by the national
government and downstream local governments. The agreed process is that the
contingency plan would be implemented for the domestic, industrial, and agricultural
waterworks to continue to function when the lake water level declines toward -2 m, and
that the compensatory payments would be made for wells that may run dry. Other
provisions include compensation to the fisheries to offset income losses related to reduced fish catches. On matters pertaining to the maximum water level, the planned high water
level is set at B.S.L. +1.4 m to cope with the once-in-a-hundred-year floods, in conjunction
with other countermeasures carried out around the lake. The Lake Biwa Flood Protection
Plan was drawn up after considering the flood protection and water supply needs of the
Yodo River system as a whole.
I - 15
4.4.2. Seta River Dredging and Shoreline Flood Management Measures
The Seta River, the only outflow channel from Lake Biwa, was excavated during LBCDP
to increase the lake water discharge rate. The increased discharge allows for lowering of
the lake level in anticipation of increased rainy season water inflows. This „pre-lowering‟
of the water level also would allow the lake to accommodate once-in-a-hundred-year
floods, with the lake level reaching its high water mark of B.S.L. +1.4 m. Further, the
increased discharge capacity of the lake will enable the prompt reduction of its water level,
which would lessen the potential flooding damages around the lake peripheries. Prevention
of overflow from the lake and removal of inundating water, were also major goals in the
LBCDP. Consequently, the construction of the round-the-lake levees and the river channel
improvements were key elements. To allow for 1.2 m headroom over the B.S.L. +1.4 m
planned high water level, the levy embankment was constructed up to the height of B.S.L.
+2.6 m around the lake. Channel improvement of inflowing rivers also was carried out, and
pumping stations were installed to remove water that might spill over from flooded rivers
to cause lowland inundation around the lake that was blocked by the levy structure.
4.4.3. Formulation of Weir Operating Principles
Even after the weir was installed, regulations for its operation were still undecided because
of continuing opposing upstream and downstream interests. As LBCDP neared completion
in 1992, the downstream governments were finally able to execute their acquired right to
draw up to 40 m3/s of water from the Yodo River during times of severe droughts. The
Seta River Weir has been managed and operated based on these regulations since April 1,
1992. Under these regulations, the planned peak water level is set at B.S.L. of +1.4 m.
Seasonally, during the potential flood periods, the level is reduced to B.S.L. –20 cm or –30
cm (between 16 June and 15 October), while at other times, when there is a low risk of
flooding, the water level may be allowed to reach B.S.L. +30 cm (between 16 October and
15 June the next year). Accordingly, water discharges through the weir are finely
controlled so not to exceed the regulated values. During times of downstream water
shortages, the weir would be finely controlled. If the Lake Biwa water level decreases to
below B.S.L. –1.5 m, however, the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and
Tourism decides the weir operation policy, after consulting with the Governor of Shiga and
the other concerned prefectures.
4.4.4. Development of the Yodo River Basin Management Plans
The Rivers Act of 1896 was revised in 1964 to promote the integrated management of both
flood control and water supply in the entire drainage systems. Based on the revised Act,
the first Yodo River Improvement Master Plan was developed in 1965, covering the entire
Yodo River and Lake Biwa. In 1971, recognizing the need for security for the increased
population and the expanded industrial areas in the Yodo River basin, the goal of
preventing the flood damages was set at once-in-two-hundred-year flooding. The 1964
Rivers Act was revised in 1997 for the environmental aspect of river management to be
brought forth as an important consideration as flood control and water resources
management. In conformity to this revised Act, the Fundamental Yodo River Management
Policy was formulated in August 2007, and the Yodo River Improvement Plan (YRIP) was
developed in 2009 through an elaborate and quite controversial participatory process
spanning several years. Nonetheless, the spirit of the Policy was agreed to be: “rather than
sacrificing one area of a region to protect another, the intention is to improve security from
flooding in the entire river system; and “after the downstream flood control infrastructure
development has been completed and as long as there would be no threat of flooding
downstream, the weir would not be completely closed.”
I - 16
Box 1: Outline of Lake Biwa Comprehensive Conservation Plan (ML21 Plan)
a) Targeted Geographic Coverage
The jurisdictional area of the Shiga Prefectural Government, taking cognizance of
the implications to the downstream Yodo River region;
b) Planning Horizons
The specified period is from April 1999 through March 2020, in two phases; the
first was from 1999 to 2010, and the second is from 2010 to 2020;
c) Measures of Achievement
Improvements in overall quality of Lake Biwa water, in water infiltration and
retention capacities of watershed soils, and in the natural environment and
landscape ecology;
d) Compatibility with Other Plans
To be consistent with plans formulated by the existing national and local plans:
e) Implementation Emphasis
Promotion of citizen engagement and networking at sub-basin levels across the
watershed, and of information dissemination and research promotion;
f) Financial Provision
Mainly through the existing prefectural government sector agency budgets:
5. RESTORATION OF ECOSYSTEM INTEGRITY AND WATER QUALITY
5.1. Lake Biwa Comprehensive Conservation Plan (LBCCP)
While the downstream governments acknowledged the LBCDP accomplishments, their
gained benefits were more of an expectancy nature, i.e., more water during times of severe
droughts (which may happen once in ten years), and reduced loss of property and human
lives from major flood incidents that may happen once every few hundred years. On the
other hand, the benefits gained from the LBCDP for the Shiga government and its residents
were more direct and explicit. They saw ports and harbors renovated, levees and
embankments constructed around the lake that also now serve as a major artery road
around the lake, paddy lands extensively improved with large-scale pumping facilities for
irrigation with lake water, and even basic urban infrastructure provided for industrial
developments. The Shiga population has increased by nearly three quarters of a million
over the period of LBCDP implementation, and its per capita income, which was
previously ranked as one of the lowest among the forty seven prefectures, increased to be
among the top incomes, thanks largely to the transformation of the Shiga economy from
being primarily agricultural in nature to being primarily industrial, due in part to migration
of population and industries from the downstream Osaka region to the Lake Biwa
watershed.
This dramatic change in the profile of Lake Biwa watershed, now very urbanized and
industrialized, also meant that the paddy-wetlands along the lakeshore, which used to
provide prolific fish habitats, have been lost. During the same period, quite extensive land
conversions also have taken place, e.g., from paddy land to housing and industrial estates,
forest land to industrial estates, etc. Thus, despite the introduction of significant structural
and non-structural environmental control measures, the water quality and ecosystem
integrity of the lake and its watershed began to deteriorate. While the point source
pollution load has been significantly reduced as a result of the sewerage coverage
I - 17
Figure 2: Shoreline Landscape Alteration and Its
Ecological Impact
implemented during this period, the restoration of the natural self-purification capacity lost
through transformed land uses remained as a major challenge at the time of LBCDP
completion.
Consequently, toward the terminal years of the LBCDP, the Shiga government decided to
pursue a new post-LBCDP project focusing on ecosystem restoration. In March 1997, the
Shiga Prefecture compiled the results of the deliberations of a national council established
for this purpose, and prepared a plan called the Lake Biwa Comprehensive Conservation
Plan (LBCCP), dubbed “Mother Lake 21 (ML21).” The plan emphasizes that the ultimate
solution to the problems facing Lake Biwa lies in restoration of the natural and ecosystem
capacities of the coastal zone and watershed, while also pursuing the revival of an
environmental culture to allow such re-transformation to occur. The Plan is being financed
basically under sectoral budgets, with some preferential subsidy based on their merit
within already-existing sectoral plans and programs. Specific elements of the ML21 plan
are elaborated in Box 1.
5.2. Appraisal of First 10 Years of LBCCP (1998-2010)
In March 2010, with the first phase
of LBCCP having reached its
terminal year, and the second phase
about to be launched, the LBCCP
scientific advisory committee issued
a review report of the first phase,
with recommendations for the second
phase. The report‟s appraisal was that
the Plan has generally played a
significant role as a long term vision
for Lake Biwa, with the first phase
attaining some significant
achievements in lowering the
concentration of total phosphorus
(TP), although the rate of reduction
in the total nitrogen (TN)
concentration was not as impressive
as that for TP. The chemical oxygen
demand (COD) has actually
gradually increased during the period,
being, a puzzling phenomenon whose
implications are not yet clearly
understood scientifically. In terms of
the inflowing pollution load, the point-source contribution has been significantly reduced,
although the nonpoint contribution remained much the same as ten years earlier.
In regard to improved water infiltration and retention capacities of the watershed soils, the results are not so significant. Among others, the report points out, more profoundly, the
need for the Japanese forest industry to gain competitive strength over inexpensive
imported forest products so that an institutionalized system of forest maintenance would be
established both for providing for economic viability and for healthy forest land. Further,
the report points out that the 1st period target was not very clear for the on-the-ground
implementation of plans and programs, particularly with regard to "land acquisition for
I - 18
Figure 3: Transformation from Conflict to Cooperation
ecosystem restoration." But most of all, the report pointed out that there are issues and
problems that did not exist before the LBCCP that are now posing serious threats to the
natural environment and landscape ecology of Lake Biwa, including the loss of habitat for
indigenous species of fish, and the prolific growth of macrophytes in the South basin of
Lake Biwa, particularly in relation to the changed operational procedure of the Seta River
Weir, all indicating that the future of the LBCCP is directly linked to the Yodo River
System improvement policy.
6. THE CHALLENGES AHEAD
The topographical,
climatological, hydrological
settings of the Biwa-Yodo basin
have fostered the peculiar
human geography of the region,
with its resulting unique
demographic, socioeconomic,
and political interactions.
Historically, the pressures put on
to Lake Biwa and its watershed
from the downstream water
users has been enormous
because of the latter‟s political,
economic, and industrial power.
The restrictions on the discharge
of Lake Biwa flood water, both
geophysically and geopolitically, had been causing an insurmountable stress on the
relationship between the upstream and the downstream communities, until a series of
physical interventions was introduced in the first half of the twentieth century, including
construction of a flood control weir at the outlet of Lake Biwa. With additional
interventions to expand the role of the weir to accommodate water resources development
through LBCDP, the strained relationship between the upstream and downstream entities
seemed to have been ameliorated, at least superficially. The Biwa-Yodo system is today
providing water, flood, and drought mitigation, as well as environmental and livelihood
amenities to the population of over 18 million living in Shiga and the Keihanshin area,
totaling some 1,200 km2 .The Biwa-Yodo basin is also characterized by the historic timing
of key policy interventions. Whether they were construction of monumental water control
facilities, development and implementation of instrumental plans and programs, and/or
emergence of controversial and conflicts, their timing seem to have helped shape lake
basin governance since they relate to the region‟s social and economic profile.
LBCDP has brought about a dramatic change in the management profile of water resources
and flood control, accompanied by the emergence of new economic geography within the
Biwa-Yodo basin, and in the entire downstream region. Thereafter, people and industries
began to migrate from the densely packed downstream region to the more spacious
upstream region around Lake Biwa. The underlying intricacy of this fundamental linkage
dynamics resurfaced as a dictating factor in the evolving process of policy development for
the post-LBCDP water and environmental management, in relation to implementation of
LBCCP.
I - 19
The overriding issue in the former is whether or not it will be possible for LBCCP to play a
catalytic role in accelerating the lake‟s ecosystem integrity when the national government
and the downstream governments and people consider that they have already fulfilled what
they were obliged to do for the lake over the past decades. On the other hand, the
overriding issue for the latter is if, and how, the Shiga Prefecture together with the
downstream governments may be able to develop a regional institutional framework for
resolving the contentious issues imbedded in the YRIP. Among the emerging frameworks
is a regionally autonomous governance structure for the Biwa-Yodo basin, with the
national government probably playing a much less prominent role in having “the last say,”
as having historically been the case since the late 19th
Century.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish to acknowledge the coauthors of Chapter 6, “Evolving History of Lake Biwa and
Yodo River Basin Management” in the book titled “Lake Biwa: Interactions between Nature and
People, as cited in the REFERENCE Section below. This article is meant to present an overview of
the Chapter, particularly in regard to the evolving history of Lake Biwa Weir. We would like to
acknowledge in particular that the information on flood control mainly prepared by one of the
coauthors of that Chapter, Mr. Y. Moriyasu. Part of that information was presented here in a
summary form.
REFERENCES
Matsuno, K. (2011): Aiming at Integrated Basin Management in the Lake Biwa-Yodo River
Basin, 14th
World Lake Conference, Austin, Texas USA.
Nakamura, M. (1995): Lake Biwa: Have sustainable development objectives been me?t,
Lakes & Reservoirs: Research and Management, 1:1. pp. 3-29, Blackwell Publishing
Asia Pty Ltd. Australia.
Nakamura, M. (2002): Lake Biwa Watershed Transformation and the Changed Water
Environments, Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol, 28: pp. 1-15. Stuttgart, Germany.
Nakamura, M., Ogino, Y., Akiyama, M. and Moriyasu Y. (2012): Evolving History of Lake
Biwa and Yodo River Basin Management in “Lake Biwa: Interactions between
Nature and People” by Hiroya Kawanabe et al. (eds.), Springer Dordrecht
Heiderberg New York London.
I - 20
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST
– 6TH
, 2014
Environmentally friendly water-powered DTH drilling in dam applications - The history of Down-The-Hole-Drilling and
use of water-powered hammers [Blank line 11 pt]
Dr. Donald A. Bruce President, Geosystems, L.P., P.O. Box 237, Venetia, PA 15367, U.S.A., [email protected]
[Blank line 10 pt]
Rudy Lyon Research and Development Manager, Center Rock Inc., 1 W. 4th Street, Salem, VA 24153, U.S.A.
[Blank line 10 pt]
Stefan Swartling / M. Sc. Michael Beas Managing Director / Dam Application Responsible respectively,
LKAB Wassara AB, Rosenlundsgatan 52 SE-118 63 Stockholm, Sweden
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
ABSTRACT Down-the-hole drilling has been a feature of dam anchoring and rock mass grouting in the U.S. for
many decades. Until quite recently, this rotary percussive drilling method was synonymous with
the use of compressed air. Within the last decade, however, increasing use has been made of
water-activated, down-the-hole hammers. These provide many significant advantages, especially
for rock fissure grouting where the use of water flush is now regarded as standard, and the use of
compressed air is not advisable. This paper provides a brief history of the development of down-
the-hole hammers in U.S. practice, and describes the numerous steps which have been followed to
make contemporary hammers especially efficient and cost effective. The paper also describes the
operating principles of water-powered hammers, and reviews the numerous, significant advantages
these tools have brought to the dam remediation community. [Blank line 10 pt]
Keywords: water power drilling environment safety [Blank line 10 pt]
[Blank line 10 pt]
1. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON PERCUSSIVE DRILLING METHODS [Blank line 10 pt]
Air-flushed drilling with top hammers began in the mining industry in Sweden in 1873,
while down-the-hole (DTH) drills, again with air flush (and activation) became operational
in 1950. During that same interval, Simon Ingersoll had patented the first steam-powered,
top hammer rock drill to provide higher productivity in blast hole drilling. It is well known
that water, as an activating, flushing and cooling medium, has many significant advantages
over the use of air. However, it was not until 1973 that top hammer systems (either air or
hydraulically activated) for larger rigs were adapted to the use of water flush, typically via
“under the head” swivels. [Blank line 10 pt]
The concept of a water-powered, down-the-hole hammer (WDTH) had been explored prior
to G. Drill acquiring the original patent from Atlas Copco in 1988. LKAB, a huge
underground mining company, owned by the Swedish Government and providing about
90% of the European Union’s iron ore, purchased G. Drill in 1991 and encouraged the
areas and this needs to be addressed in regard to the issue of “Public Safety around dams”. ]
2. REGULATED RIVERS AND THE PUBLIC IN SWEDEN [Blank line 10 pt]
2.1. Hydropower regulation, production and location of dams in Sweden [Blank line 10 pt]
There are about 10 000 dams in Sweden. Of these there are approximately 2000
hydropower plants and dams. Out of these 190 dams are so called large dams, according to
the international definition, with dam walls measuring at least 15 meters from foundation
to crest. Hydropower stands for approximately 50% of the entire power production within
Sweden. The majority of the hydropower dams were constructed between 1950s and the
1970s. (SOU 2012:46; RiR 2007:9)
I - 43
The majority of the large dams and regulated water courses are located in the northern part
of Sweden, known as “Norrland” and also “Sápmi” – the traditional core area of the
indigenous people Sámi, which is also reindeer grazing lands. Sweden has about 9,5
million inhabitants. Norrland - Sápmi has about 1,1 million residents (SCB Befolkning
2014).There are a great number of tourists coming in to these areas throughout the whole
year. For instance Norrbotten, the northern most county, topped the statistics with of a
quarter of a million foreign guest nights during July 2013 (SCB Gästnätter 2014). How
these tourists interact or not with regulated rivers is difficult to estimate as there is
currently no such specific statistics available.
By all these regulated rivers – and thus regulation reservoirs or just downstream of
hydropower plants, as well as dry beds due to regulation, there are homes, industries and
infrastructure close by. Many people reside, work, or visit as tourists during all seasons of
the year. Reindeer herders have to cross the regulated rivers to take care of their reindeer.
Other locals do leisure or professional fishing, sports, bathe, sun bathe, drive snow mobile
in winter or go out by boat in summer. We have not been able to estimate the number of
people who are on the regulated reservoirs at each given moment, as there is no such
statistics available. However, the number is likely to be high, as the regulated rivers were
and are as important for transports and all other activities as they were before regulation
took place.
2.2 Human security
The concept of human security was popularized through the United Nations Development
Programme’s 1994, Human Development Report (UNDP, 1994). Traditional security
policies are designed to promote demands ascribed to the state, and other interests are most
often considered subordinated to those. We therefore depart from the human security
concept which focuses on people and the protection of individuals. The original meanings
of security : “security—from the Latin securitas—refers to tranquility and freedom from
care, or what Cicero termed the absence of anxiety upon which the fulfilled life depends”
(Liotta and Owen 2006) . Security is relevant to feelings of safety and stability, routines, or
rather, security of expectations, whereby we can count on certain things for our future, that
which we most value, upon which we can build capacity (Hoogensen 2005, Wibben 2010)
2.2. The Lule River – Julevädno – and the Ume River - Ubmejeiednuo
The geographical focus of the empirical study is on the Ume and Lule Rivers, in the two
northern most counties, Västerbotten and Norrbotten.
The Lule river – in Sámi language “Julevädno” - measures 461 kilometers from mountain
regulated source lakes to the coast and is dammed with 15 hydropower plants. The Lule
River produces around 10 per cent of the totality of electricity produced within Sweden –
or 13-16 TWh per year. In 2012, 16, 4 Twh was produced, which corresponds to ten per
cent of the totality of power production and 21 per cent of the hydropower produced (78,0
TWh) within the Swedish borders (Svensk energi 2013). All dams and power plants on
the Lule River are owned and run by the Swedish state owned power company Vattenfall.
Regulations started in 1910, and peaked during the 1950s-1970s.
There are around 100 000 inhabitants residing in the municipalities located along the Lule
river from the mountain to the coasts. The majority of these (around 75 000 inhabitants) do
not reside permanently near the reservoirs, but downstream of the last of the 15
dams/hydropower plants (Boden) in the municipality of Luleå. However, many of the
inhabitants of Luleå travel up towards the mountain areas for both work and leasure.
I - 44
Furthermore, this is a river with the majority of reindeer herding enterprises in Sweden.
Along the Lule river there are 224 registered reindeer herding companies, and a maximum
of 40 800 reindeer in the winter herd (Sametinget 2014).
The Ume river – Ubmejeiednuo in Sámi language - measures 470 kilometers from
mountain regulated source lakes to the delta at the coast and is dammed with 21
dams/hydropower plants. During 2012 the Ume river produced 9,4 TWh, or 8,3 per cent of
the totality of hydropower production and five per cent of the totality of power
production,162,0 TWh (Idenfors et al. 2012; Svensk Energi 2013). In the whole of the
Ume river valley there is approximately 150 000 inhabitants within six municipalities
(SCB 2010). Furthermore there are 53 reindeer herding companies, within three “sameby”
and a maximum allowed of 24 300 reindeer (Sametinget 2014).
The dams/hydropower plants along the Ume River are owned by four different companies;
the Swedish state owned Vattenfall, the Norwegian state owned Statkraft, the private
owned companies Eon and Vattenregleringsföretagen, jointly owned by the different
power producers in the rivers ( Länsstyrelsen Västerbotten, 2011).
3. TYPE OF ACCIDENTS AND INCIDENTS – LACK OF STATISTICS BLANK LINE
3.1. Identifying a void of official statistics on accidents related to public safety BLANK LINE
Within our empirical study a lot of effort has been devoted to find if there is official
statistics available to easily identify accidents and incidents which can be considered as
“public safety around dams” related. The result of the investigation shows that there is
currently no such data available and there is currently no ongoing effort to collect such
data.The power companies do not keep such records, nor do the local rescue services
(Idenfors et al 2012; Palo 2013).
There is a national database available on drowning accidents – fatalities. But within this
database lake is equated to regulated reservoir (MSB 2014). Thus one has to identify the
accident by geographical location and then find out if the location is on a reservoir or on an
unregulated river/water course. Furthermore, to be able to establish whether it was an
accident caused by the regulation – for instance more release of water causing the ice to
crack up faster in combination with increasing temperature (Öberg 2009) – there is much
more information needed than what is currently available.
For other information regarding the circumstances to be able to identify to what extent the
power company could have prevented the accident, information is needed from the local
rescue services or the police. When asking for such information from the different local
rescue services, it turned out that at some cases we could get good help while in other cases
we did not receive help within the time limit of the empirical study (Idenfors 2013; Palo
2013).
To the question if it possible to receive statistics regarding accidents on or nearby a
reservoir the answers were from local rescue services by the Lule River:
Jokkmokk municipality: ”I can not provide you with such statistics, it might be better if
you contact Vattenfall regarding this issue” (Ström 2013).
Boden municipality rescue services responded: ”Our system unfortunately has deficiencies
in its search functions. Therefore it takes very much working time to go through the data
base which I do not have the time for at this point”(Lindvall, 2013). The Gällivare municipality rescue manager stated that he had no information whether there
is any specific statistic available on accident near to dams. He also stated that he had no
I - 45
information regarding what statistical system that is used in Gällivare for such reporting
(Sonesson 2013).
We also contacted the police authorities of the Norrbotten County, to get more information
on the accidents on the Lule River. We were provided a number of accident reports from
2004 until 2012. However, the details in these reports were not exact enough to be able to
define whether the regulation was the cause of the accident or not (Palo 2013).
As many accidents in winter are related to snow mobile transportations – for work or
leisure – we contacted the Non-Governmental organization (NGO) SNOFED, the Swedish
Snowmobiles owner national association, where one part of the tasks is work with
information to avoid accidents. The response regarding statistics on accidents on regulated
water courses was: “the exact geographical position is not information that we receive, or
we have difficulties to verify. […]When and if we get exact position data we cannot enter
this into our data base other than as place or lake names. We invest the time we have
possibility to in this registration, and more deeper analysis would request more staff
resources than what we have today. Also we do not have the possibility to access details
today. It is only a small part of our and my work time that is dedicated to this task”
(Persson 2013)
For the Ume River, the situation is equal to that of the Lule River. Information on
accidents and incidents are difficult to access and there is no specific data base available
for “public safety around dams” accidents and incidents at any official level. Nor are there
any records kept by power companies/dam owners (Idenfors 2013; Palo 2013).
3.2. Types of accidents and incidents
Within the research project, despite not being able to receive official relevant statistics, the
interviews and requests for information have provided a certain, although not full,
understanding of the situation. We have interviewed both rescue services and also people
living and working along the rivers.
According to the local rescue services the number of fatalities that may be referred to as
“public safety around dams” on the Lule River only amounts to 1-2 persons per year.
(Lundström 2010; Nilsson 2013). On the Ume River and regulated river courses adjacent
to the Ume River the number of drowning or incidents – with injuries or no injuries -
amounted to ten during the period of 2002 to 2013 (Backman 2013; Asp 2013).
Secondly, there are other types of accidents that fall out of the category of drowning. For
instance, the danger in winter time is to fall into holes in the ice. One may not drown, but if
one does not get help within a short period of time, one is likely to die out of hypothermia
within very short time, depending on location and actual air temperature. This is in
particular a problem for reindeer herders who work a lot on their own and thus can be
subject to accidents without anyone being informed.
One of our informants speaks of such an accident, by a regulated water course adjacent to
the Lule River. The accident occurred around 2005-2006:
“A man froze to death here. They went into the water with their snow mobiles. I don’t
know how wet he got, but he never made it to the cabin. His friend made it to the cabin and
survived.” (Pittsa, 2011).
I - 46
The informant continues stating regarding the ice situation in the area that ”it is very bad
ice here. The whole of this stretch is really bad ice, the whole of this stretch is river course.
[…] it might be considered a ‘snow mobile accident’ but I am not so sure the accident
would have happened if it was not regulated. The stream would not be the way it is
[without the regulation] (Pittsa, 2011).
Participatory observations – field studies and interviews provides a number of other types
of accidents, incidents and also risks that can be categorized as “public safety around
dams”. Below are some examples of accidents, incidents and risks identified through
interviews and participatory observations –field studies:
- Cracks in the ice that can cause snow mobile accidents, broken limbs for both humans and
animals, and also become traps for children and animals (:
One woman having a residence by the Suorva reservoir – Lule River - tells how she
managed to save her two year old daughter from slipping into such a crack at the last
second ( Harnesk 2009). Öhman herself when walking on the ice-track at Suorva reservoir
happened to step into a crack covered with snow and fell. (Öhman 2009). Accidents of this
type was reported also by the security co-ordinator of Storuman Municipality – Ume River
(Sundqvist 2013).
- The regulated reservoirs becomes large inland seas, in the mountain areas. As people need
to travel on these lakes, to and from their residences, they need big boats which become
difficult to handle at the eroded shores, especially when one is alone and especially for
older people. (Öhman 2008, 2009, 2010).
- In the mountain areas, storms can come very suddenly, and as the shores are heavily
eroded at the Suorva reservoir, it can become impossible to land the boat and get into
safety (Harnesk 2009).
- Erosion caused by the regulation causes holes in the bottom. An older woman told how she
stepped into such a hole when getting out of her boat and thereby getting injured
(Nordqvist 2009).
- The four regulations of the Suorva reservoir has forced people to move up on the hillsides
at Änonjalme and Vaisaluokta. Combined with the regulation amplitude makes it difficult
to access the houses from the boats, or snow mobiles in winter when the snow is not good
enough to get close to the houses. It is especially difficult for older people and people with
disabilities and when carrying baggage. Also for tourists there are reports of problems
when the elevators do not function properly. (Öhman 2008, 2009; Palo 2013).
Figure 1: The hole in the ice created by water release from the Ritsem power station, Suorva
reservoir, Lule River. Two men died as they went through the ice near this hole, May 2008.
I - 47
4. ACTORS, RESPONSIBILITIES AND VOID OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
4.1 Strong legislation but weak enforcement of laws blank
The dam owners along Ume and Lule Rivers do work with certain preventive measures,
although it is to a quite small extent. For instance, the state power company Vattenfall
provides for the maintenance of ice roads at two locations on the Lule River, at Ritsem –
Änonjalme, and at Saltoluokta (Palo 2013). However Vattenfall does leave the most of the
responsibility with the individuals, which are more or less considered to be out on the ice
or the waters of the reservoirs at their own risk (Palo 2013). Also the ice roads are closed
by the end of April – beginning of May each year, which is the time when the reindeer
herders come with the reindeer, and the local Sámi residents starts coming into the area for
the summer residence (Öhman 2008,2009,2010).
The work with “public safety around dams” is not defined at all in most of the
municipalities which we have contacted. It seems overall as a concept that is not discussed
or analyzed at all. However, during the interviews that were made by telephone many of
the informants started thinking around the concept, and agreed that it is an important issue
that is far too neglected. A response was that there is certainly room for more work in this
regard (Idenfors 2013; Palo 2013). In regard to the existing legislation the informants at the
rescue services of the municipalities claim that the legislation regarding public safety is
potentially very strong. However, several of them stated that the legislation is not enforced
to the extent which it potentially could be and that there seems to be a void of actually
prosecuting dam owners when accidents and incidents regarding public safety around dams
occur (Idenfors 2013; Palo 2013).
Also, the responsibilities of the municipalities to work with prevention against such
accidents is according to the interviews not something that is spent time or efforts on by
the municipalities along the Ume River (Tapani 2013;Wiklund 2013; Jonsson 2013) and to
a very little extent along the Lule River (Nilsson 2013).
According the “law on protection against accidents” (2003:778) the responsibilities are
quite clear. According to this law the dam owners are responsible to both warn and either
keep or finance emergency preparedness including staff, property as well as other
measures to hinder or limit damages and accidents. Furthermore, the dam owner is
responsible to analyze all serious risks for accidents that may be a threat to person’s life or
health (SFS 2003:778 §2:4). Apart from the dam owner, also the local authorities – the
municipality – is responsible to work with accident prevention, as well as through advice,
information and by other means ensure that dam owners to comply to their responsibilities
according to the law LSO (2003:778 §3:2). The municipality is furthermore required to
have an action plan of preventive actions, within which the organization of such acitivies
should be defined. This action plan is to be renewed for each electoral period, that is every
four years (2003:778 §3:3). Also the state has according to this law certain responsibilities.
In the mountain areas the state should delegate to specific rescue services to assist and
rescue those that have had an accident (or a disease) and who needs a rapid medical care or
other assistance (2003:778 §4:1). blank
4.2 Lack of available rescue services as cause of unnecessary fatalities blank
Despite that the legislation is very far stretching regarding what has to be done to prevent
accidents and actually places are large responsibility with the dam owner, as well as with
I - 48
the local and state authorities, our study indicates that this legislation is currently far from
enforced. For instance, one problem is the time for rescue services to be able to assist.
Interviews with the rescue service in Jokkmokk, where the number of fatal accidents –
drowning – on the regulated rivers amounts to 1-2 per years, indicates that although that
the rescue services can be ready to assist anyone in danger within five minutes – the
distances are long and there is a need of helicopters. The local rescue services however,
does not have access to any rescue helicopter, which is the responsibility of the mountain
rescue service (Lundström 2010).
For instance, despite the legislation, the State power company Vattenfall does not finance
any helicopters stationed by the Suorva reservoir to support rescue operations. There are no
other available resources by the reservoir that can be operated by people who are
witnessing an accident. One accident on the Suorva reservoir in 2008 where two men went
down a hole in the ice on the snow mobile had several witnesses, not far away from the
accident location. (See Fig 1), But due to the condition of the ice, no one could reach them
in time to save their lives. The ambulance helicopter, stationed by the closest helicopter in
Gällivare, which arrived on site after 32 minutes, was not equipped for life saving
operations. The helicopter staff could not even take care of the bodies of the men
themselves, but had to be assisted by some people on site (Pittsa 2011). This may be
compared to another occasion, in Porjus, 2009, when three men went into a hole in the ice.
Due the private helicopter station in Porjus, where there were people available two of the
men could be rescued (Pittsa 2011). Thus the access to fast rescue is obviously the
difference between death and survival in these situations.
So far in our study, we have not been able to follow up if in any of the fatal accidents there
has been any legal consequences for the dam owners or the local authorites/rescue services.
4.3 Void of public participation in the understanding of public safety around dams
The interviews made within the study indicates that first of all there is a lack of discussion
of what “public safety around dams” should be defined as, and secondly that there is
currently little or no work to change this situation. The majority of the informants
responded that issues of dam safety – in particular the issue of “emergency preparedness”
is discussed to a large extent within a specific setting named “River groups” (Älvgrupper)
involving different local and regional authorities as well as the dam owners (Idenfors et al
2012). One informant stated that sometimes issues of what can be defined as “public safety
around dams” is discussed, but to a very limited extent (Tapani 2013).
These River Groups seems to be a potential way for highlighting the issues of public safety
around dams, although at this moment they do not involve professional groups such as
reindeer herders or professional fishermen/women (Tapani 2013).
Within our empirical study we have found that there is a wide knowledge and
understanding among communities as well as individuals that could be made use of to
enhance the safety for the public around the existing dams, but that this knowledge and
understanding is today not considered of importance. Another explanation may be that the
issue of public safety around dams has not been invested in, and thus the need for
understanding the problems, risks, and worries of the public, has not been dealt with. Some
of the explanation may reside within that the hydropower exploitation era, the
overwhelming focus was on power production, and that all other uses of the river and
water courses were more or less completely neglected (Jakobsson 1996; Öhman 2007;
Össbo 2013). BLANK
I - 49
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Our study clearly indicates a large need to direct focus towards Public Safety around dams
in Sweden. There are a great number of accidents, incidents and also perceived risks and
threats in regard to the regulated rivers. The current lack of attention to the issue means a
continued distress and anxiety for the local inhabitants along the rivers, as well as visiting
tourists. Thus an obvious recommendation based on the findings is to immediately invest
into further studies and actual work to enhance public safety around dams, involving the
public from all parts of society, taking into account the different age groups, gender,
ethnicities, language, disabilities, professional groups and the indigenous Sámi and other
local inhabitants cultural and traditional relationships to the rivers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research was/is funded by the research projects “Situated perspectives on hydropower
exploitation in Sápmi: Swedish technological expansion in the 20th century and its impacts
on indigenous peoples” (Swedish Resaerch Council, VR, 2009-2010); “DAMMED:
Security, Risk and Resilience around the Dams in Sub Arctica (Swedish Research Council,
VR, 2010-12) and “Rivers, resistance, resilience: sustainable futures in Sápmi and other
indigenous peoples’ territories” (FORMAS, 2013-16) All research projects are led by Dr.
Öhman.
REFERENCES [Blank line 9 pt]
Interviews and email exchanges:
Asp, M. (2013), MSB- Swedish Civil Contingencies Authorities, Email June 10.
Backman, G. (2013) Emergency preparedness coordinator (Beredskapssamordnare)
Storuman Municipality (Ume River), Telephone interview, June 2013.
Harnesk, V. (2009), Resident of the Suorva reservoir, Personal interview, April 2009.
Jonsson, G. (2013), Fire inspector, Lycksele Municipality. Email May 27.
Lindvall, T. (2013), Security coordinator, Boden Municipality, Email March 21.
Lundström, G. (2010), Security coordinator, Jokkmokk Municipality, Personal Interview,
Oct., 2010.
Nilsson, B. (2013), Security manager (Räddningschef), Jokkmokk and Boden
Municipalities, March 2013.
Nordqvist, S. (2009), Resident of Maksjonjalme. Personal Interview.
Persson, P. (2013), SNOFED, Email March 27.
Pittsa, B-E (2011), reindeer herder and consultant for Vattenfall ice tracks at Suorva dam.
Personal Interview, April 2011.
Sonesson, K. 2013) Rescue services manager (Räddningschef), Gällivare Municipality,
telephone interview 07-05-2013.
Ström, N. (2013) Security coordinator, Jokkmokk Municipality, Email March 19.
Sundqvist, L-E. (2013), Security co-ordinator. Storuman Municipality, June 2013.
Tapani, L. (2013), Fire brigade manager, Umeå Municipality. Email May 31.
SOU 2012:46. Utredningen om översyn av de statliga insatserna för dammsäkerhet.
Dammsäkerhet - Tydliga regler och effektiv tillsyn: betänkande. Fritze, Stockholm
Svensk Energi (2013) Elåret 2012, Svensk Energi – Swedenergy – AB, Stockholm
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (1994). Human Development Report,
UNDP, New York
Wibben, A (2010), Feminist Security Studies: A Narrative Approach, Routledge: New
York
Öhman, M-B. (2007) Taming Exotic Beauties: Swedish Hydropower Constructions in
Tanzania in the era of Development Assistance, 1960s-90s. Diss. KTH: Stockholm.
Össbo, Å. (2013) Nya vatten, dunkla speglingar: Industriell kolonialism genom svensk
vattenkraftutbyggnad i renskötselområdet 1910-1968. Diss. Umeå Univ.:Umeå
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST
– 6TH
, 2014
Roadmap of pre-investment process for a hydropower project.
.hhdTTjjhkljdjjsgshjhfsdkjhskslsl;s;s;;s;;s;;sjsjkjffffrtttttttfggjfgjgkfkjkjf fffffjfjjfkkfjjj Case study Tarnita-Lapustesti pump-storage hydropower plant.
2(14pt)
Ph. D. Eng. Irinel Daniela Iacob Hidroelectrica SA,Bucharest, Romania
Figure 1. The hydrographic basin of the Somes River.
Throughout the period that followed, various study reports evaluating the conditions of
carrying out the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP have been drawn up. Such study reports were
written by some prestigious design and consultancy institutions such as: the Institute of
Hydroelectric Studies and Designs (ISPH), the Institute of Energy Studies and Research
(ISCE), Electric Power Development Co. (E.P.D.C.) from Japan, following to a grant
awarded by the Japenese government, the IPA/Verbund/Poyry Consultant within the
SEEREM program of the World Bank in 2005 – financed by IBRD.
As soon as the study reports were done, two equipping scenarios were primarily outlined:
the scenario with the plant equipped with four reversible hydro-aggregates, with the
turbine – pump having each the capacity of 250 MW, and the scenario with the plant
erquipped with three reversible hydro-aggregates having each 330 MW.
These study reports were written considering the power equipment offers from behalf of
some famous companies such as: Ansaldo GIE from Italy, Toshiba – Japan, Alsthom –
Neyopic from France, Hitachi and Mitsubishi from Japan, etc., a good estimation of cost
and efficiency was therefore provided.
All the study reports highlighted the strategic importance of commissioning the Tarnita-
Lapustesti PSHPP for the National Energy System (SEN) to run under safe conditions for:
Re-commissioning the SEN (black out);
Providing the frequency-power regulation;
Providing the rapid tertiary reserve;
Providing the short-run breakdown reserve;
Providing reactive power, running in compensatory mode with respecting the
quality standards of electric energy;
Providing the optimal conditions for developing the wind and nuclear power
generation sectors;
I - 53
Enhancing the running mode of the large units in Cernavoda NPP and of the
fossil and co-generation condensation thermal power plants (the power
generation on the condensation tail is thus avoided) by transferring electric
energy from idle to peak;
Improving SEN’s participation in the sole energy market, and increasing the
SEN’s global safety, and making possible the SEN’s running in higher technical
and cost-effective conditions;
Inter-connection exchange within UCTE;
Cutting off the utilization of the pretious fossil fuel resources,
besides the strengths we detailed above, we also add the fact that the project will use clean
and renewable energy resources.
II. TARNITA-LAPUSTESTI PROJECT GENERAL DATA
II. 1. Construction characteristics
The principal construction parts of the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP are:
The Upper Reservoir (Lapustesti Storage) has a volume of 10 mil. cubic meters, is located
on Lapustesti plateau at an elevation of 1070.00 m.a.s.l., and will be erected by digging
and dyking, having in mind the principle that the volume of digs should be equal to the
volume of fills from the dykes.
The Lower Reservoir (Tarnita Storage) is an existent objective, has an efficient volume of
15 mil.cubic meters, is located on the Somesul Cald River at the thalweg elevation of
441.00 m.a.s.l., is accomplished by the Tarnita Dam (double arch reinforced concrete),
and has a normal top water level of 521.50 m.a.s.l. and a minimum operation level of
514.00 m.a.s.l.
Figure 2. Tarnita dam
The cavern, which shelters the electro-mechanic equipment, is an underground building
placed in the left slope of the Tarnita Storage, in the area of Somesul Cald – Valea
Farcasului. The cavern is made by the machine hall cavern and the transformers cavern and
I - 54
has some access tunnels and connection tunnels between them, suction galleries, gates
inspection shafts, cable tunnel, and operational personnel’s access.
The inter-basin diversions, which are the hydraulic transportation works between the upper
reservoir and the undergound plant, and the underground plant and the lower reservoir, are
made of the following galleries :
- The high pressure gallery, an underground construction, inclined to 45°
between the upper reservoir and the underground plant. Length L = 1096 m;
Diameter Ø = 6.00 m.
- Two low pressure galleries, underground constructions, almost horizontal,
for discharging the turbined water and sucking the water pumped between
the plant building and the lower reservoir. Dimensions: Length: 2 wires x
1,325. Diameter Ø = 6.20 m.
Electro-mechanic equipment is made of reversible units (pump and turbine mode, with a
capacity of 4 x 250 MW) and its related installations of control, automation, and
connection to the National Energy System (SEN).
Figure 2. Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP Development Scheme.
This location benefits from some natural conditions that are favourable to such a
development. The lower reservoir is the existent Tarnita storage lake itself, meanwhile
there is a plateau on the Laupstesti hill placed on the left slope at the elevation of 1070
m.a.s.l., which allows the erection of the upper reservoir. The level difference is 560 m and
the Hmax/Hmin ratio is of maximum 1/1. It is a weekly regulation storage with a volume of
about 10 mil.cubic meters and an inslalled capacity of about 1,000 MW. The diversion has
a H/L = ¼ ratio and is quite short. A vital criterion in choosing the development location
I - 55
was that it could be executed technically and that it provided the necessary of materials for
executing the dykes from the site excavations. The sources of construction materials were
detailed in the geological reports, for which some digging works and lab tests were made.
The geological conditions, both of the plateau and for the underground works, are good
and are certified by the results of the land survey reports.
II.2. Execution technology
In order to execute the development project, some execution technologies of great
potential were investigated:
The Upper Reservoir (Polder type, V = 10 mil.cubic meters) is executed on the Lapustesti
plateau by building dykes of an average height of 35 m and of a length of about 2,600 m.
In order to execute it, the excavated material from the polder’s cuvette is used, so that the
quantity required for filling should be supplied from the excavations. The excavation
volume is 6.64 mil.cubic meters, and the volume of dykes fills is 5.16 mil.cubic meters.
The upper reservoir is tightened all over the area with a two-layered 16 cm thick asphalte
concrete blanket. The works will be developed on three sectors, with 8 work locations,
using excavators of very big capacity.
The main diversion works taken into account are: the high pressure gallery (the diameter of
which is 6 m and serves the 4 units), the low pressure galleries (one to 2 units, so 2
wires), suction galleries (to every unit), surge tanks (one to 2 suctions in the downstream,
so one to one wire), lower and upper intakes, and valve chambers to both intakes that will
be executed in wet shaft. The high pressure gallery, with L = 1,096 m, will be built with a
15-60 mm thick tunnel lining, which is variable according to the water column height. The
low pressure galleries, with L = 2 x 1,325 m, of which diameters are 6.20 m, will be built
with multiple reinforced concrete linings of up to 60 cm thikness. The high pressure
gallery with a 6.00 m diameter and a 1.096 m length will be executed at a 45 slope, with a
drilling machine, at a full section and in an ascendant tunnel face, with no intermediary
adits.
The underground plant is made of 2 caverns, the machine hall cavern and the transformers
cavern and more galleries: the main adit, the secondary access tunnel, the cable tunnel, and
ventilation gallery, as well as the connection galleries between the 2 caverns in order that
people should have access or for technological flows.
All the underground works are developed in the rock from the area: quartz-mica schists –
detailed in the geological report and given in procentage according to their various types of
toughness. The machine hall cavern with a length of 115 m and width of 25 m will be
executed starting with the arch with development drifts and then in the longwall mining,
the arch having been concreted on the lifts placed on the cradles. The structural work is
made of reinforced concrete and holds the equipment and the 2 travelling cranes, each of
200/ 50 t, for mounting the equipment. The transformers cavern is 115 m long and 19 m
wide and will be executed in the same manner as the machine hall cavern will be executed.
The electric wire connection tunnels between the generators and transformers will be
shored and then concreted. The adit between the caverns and also all over its length will be
initially shored in steel supports for underground excavation and then concreted. The
connection tunnel from the end opposite to the mounting platform will be executed the
same way. The cable tunnel will be developed with a horizontal canal reach of about 600m
I - 56
from the outside and the canal reach inclined to 1:1.5 from the inside. It will be concreted
and departmentalized.
II.3. Functional and technological data
The Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP will have high maneuverability and consequently it will be
capable to timely respond to load variations. The operational period in the turbine mode
depends on the peak load period during daytime. The operational period in the pump mode
depends on the off-peak period during non-business days. Depending on the operational
periods (pump-turbine mode) the volume of the upper reservoir was established (10 mil.
m3). The discharge of the hydro-aggregate is different in the turbine mode as compared to
the discharge in the pump mode. To prevent hydraulic hammering in the pump mode due
to some failures, which could occur at nuclear or thermal energy generators, the turbine-
pump hydro-aggregate must be capable to adjust the absorbed load.
Figure 3. Synoptic profile of the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP
While running in pump mode, both at start and at shut down, there is a frequency variation
in the national energy system, namely: at soon as the pumping starts, the frequency
decreases under 50 Hz (for a unit of 250 MW it decreases to 4.92 Hz). As soon as the
pumping stops, the frequency increases over 50 Hz in the national energy system (for the
same unit of 250 MW it increases to 50.08 MW). The scope of this frequency of variations
is tightly connected to the power of the aggregate adopted for the PSHPP, but also to the
feedback of the national energy system when the PSHPP starts to run in the pump mode.
From this point of view and according to the capacity of the thermal or nuclear units,
capacities as higher as possible would be highly recommended for the turbine-pump hydro-
aggregates installed in the PSHPP. But, the higher the capacity installed in these
aggregates is, the higher the frequency variations in SEN produced at shut down or at start
of the pump mode are.
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For the actual capacity of SEN and in the light of the years 2015 – 2020, focusing on
developing the nuclear, thermal (by refurbishment), and wind power capacities, the
scenario of equipping the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP with 4 tubine-pump hydro-aggregates
of 250 MW each was therefore adopted (4 x 250 = 1,000 MW).
III. COMMUNICATION WITH THE LOCAL COMMUNITY
According to the law, the public is to be consulted for the environmental permit for the
construction. Up to this date, there aren’t significant negative opinions or opposition of the
public regarding the project. Feasibility studies show that the project of Tarnita-Lapustesti
PSHPP does not impact the protected natural areas of community interest. Tarniţa – Lăpuşteşti PSHPP is located in rural Mărişelu , Capusu Great Râşca , Gilău ,
Dângăul Great Big Hill , Lăpuşteşti , Warm Somes Cluj County .
For the the communication with the local community, Hidroelectrica hired a consultant.
The consultant proposed action plan in consultation with representatives of the local
community.
There were numerous contacts with local media and local NGOs . After identify key NGOs
active in the Cluj Country and held preliminary identification of areas of activity and
interest for each such organization. Afther that, consultant prepared joint meetings and
presentations of the project. Hidroelectrica, held several meetings with NGOs local
representatives. Mr. Dorin Chiorean , project manager from Hidroelectrica participated in
meeting to provide some details on project promotion by authorities.
NGO representatives reactions can be classified into two main areas :
- Such a massive and spectacular project will significantly impact the landscape and
environment in the construction. Even if the impact of plant construction and higher
accumulation can be considered limited to the construction area at the colony;
- Such a project could create 5,000 temporary jobs would have a social impact . NGOs
active in the area would like to have more information about structure professions
workforce will be employed by the project ( many employees with university high or
medium , many employees in various specialties , etc. ) , considering that this such persons
during the 5-7-8 years will influence economic and social development of the region.
Immediate conclusion is that a study social impact would be absolutely necessary.
Regarding relations with the local community, we can mention frequent contacts with
Mayors of Mărişelu , Capusu Great Râşca , Gilău , Dângăul Great Big Hill , Lăpuşteşti ,
Warm Somes Cluj County. It was noted a total openness of local authorities to support
project implementation. They understood that the project would bring significant benefits
for local infrastructure development, job creation and development of tourism in the area.
Meanwhile for the project permitting were held with the participation of community
members locale and representatives Hidroelectrica. In these meetings were made detailed
presentations of the project and were given answers on the implications of the project.
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Figure 4. Meanwhile the project permitting process under way
In the ongoing campaign to promote the Tarnita project among the local community in the
20th
September was organized a visit to the leading journalists on the Lapustesti plateau
.This meeting was attended by project Mr. Dorin Chiorean. The most important local
publications have participated. On this occasion, journalists traveled route the plateau
Tarnita-Lapustesti, being informed of the details of hydropower construction and its
implementation status. It has also been made a visit to the hydroelectric Mariselu for a
concrete view of a construction of this kind. In addition, there where organized public
debates The Hall of Rasca.
Figure 5. Visit to the plateau Tarnita-Lapustesti
At long last, sustained media campaign and open permanent dialogue with representatives
of local communities gave the expected result. The project was approved by local
community members, they have given their consent for the project.
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CONCLUSIONS
From the point of view of the national energy sector development, the accomplishment of
the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP is a must and opportune. In the light of the years 2015 –
2020 when the following are forecasted: developing the nuclear, thermal (by
refurbishment), and wind power capacities, the Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP responds to the
concrete need of the National Energy System of existing a generation capacity that could
store efficiently the energy produced for which there is no immediate consumption and
contributes to increasing the quality of the power supplied by participating to the
frequency-power regulation and to providing the rapid tertiary reserve.
According to the law, the public is to be consulted for the environmental permit for the
construction. Feasibility studies show that the project of Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP does
not impact the protected natural areas of community interest.
After a sustained campaign of public information, community members understood the
importance of the project to the national energy system and the benefits of developing such
a project for the local community. The project has approved the local community.
It can be concluded that the key to success of the roadmap of preinvestment process for
Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP was the open and sustained communication between the
beneficiary Hidroelectrica and the local community.
REFERENCES
Irinel Daniela Iacob: ”Effectively Sourcing Funding Solutions for Developing and
Managing Renewable Power Generation Projects”, The annual European Power
Generation Strategy Summit 2010, Prague, 2010;
Irinel Daniela Iacob and Dragos Zachia Zlatea: The Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP,
European Club Symposium Saring experience for safe and sustainable water storage, 10-12
April 2013, Venice, Italy.
Oprea Traian, Razvan Cojoc and Irinel Daniela Iacob: “Tarnita-Lapustesti PSHPP, the
first pumped storage plant in Romania”, The 10th
Regional Energy Forum - FOREN,
Neptun-Olimp, 2010 ;
I - 60
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I - 61
Government support the decision to reduce the release of greenhouse gases by 50 percent of the present level by 2050. During the past 10 years, dam construction, as a necessity for hydropower development, has been questioned. One argument is that hydropower plants transmit clean electricity, so the dam itself is an environment-friendly facility, while the opposite view that dam construction occupies a large number of farmland and woodlands and consumes a large amount of building material, its reservoir filling inundates a large number of woodland and farmland and destroys the local ecosystem. Obviously, for the dams to be constructed in China, it’s necessary to use scientific attitude to evaluate theirs advantages and disadvantages to the atmospheric ecosystem thoroughly, thus to reach a consensus and to create a good external environment for construction. 2. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DAM CONSTRUCTION TO THE ATMOSPHERIC ECOSYSTEM 2.1. The ecological benefits of dammed water resources to atmosphere The dams have three main functions: (1) Flood control and disaster reduction. (2) Breed aquatics and tourism. (3) Hydropower generation. The first two have not direct relationship to atmospheric ecosystem. Upon the completion of a dam, a hydropower station with a capacity of a kWh can reduce the release of CO2 by 0.648a kg and SO2 by 0.0044a kg annually. The figure is based on unit coal consumption of 0.35 kg / kWh and CO2 release of 0.648 kg / kWh in thermal power plants provided by China government. 2.2. Dam construction consumes a large amount of building materials and energy and releases CO2 indirectly Construction of dam and its affiliated power plant involve excavation and filling of earth and stone, production of sand and aggregate, concrete casting, electrical and mechanical equipment installation and so on. With the continuous progress of dam construction technology, a dam construction can be finished within 10 years from planning to completion. If the construction consumes energy of bi for the i year (i<10) and the transportation of cement and steel and other bulk goods consumes energy of ci, then the total energy consumption during construction of the dam is Σ (bi + ci). This part of energy consumption is equivalent to 0.648 Σ (bi + ci) (kg). of CO2 release to the air, based on the release index of thermal power plants. 2.3.The plants in the reservoir area cannot absorb CO2 after filling For the fast-growing forests in mild region, their absorption capacity of CO2 is 270 t/km2 annually. When they are destroyed, the decay of plant residues accumulatively releases CO2 of 500 t/km2. If the total area for the construction of a dam and its reservoir is S square kilometers, then the ability of CO2 absorption will reduce by 270 S (t), and the decay of underwater plant residues will add another 500 S (t) accumulatively. 2.4 .Comprehensive analysis of dam construction to the atmospheric ecosystem
I - 62
3
From above analysis, dam construction has both advantages and disadvantages to atmospheric ecosystem. If the life of the dam is n years, and the total amount of CO2 released from both dam construction and the plant decay under its reservoir is averaged by n year, then index of dam to the reduction of CO2 release would be F = [0.648 Σ (bi + ci) +5 ×105S] / n +27 ×104S -0.648a, where the unit of F is kg, i ≤ 10, n ≤ 200. If F <0, then index of dam to the reduction of CO2 release is good. 3. CASE HISTORY 3.1 Impacts of Dagangshan hydropower station, Dadu River to atmosphere Dagangshan Hydropower Station is composed of a 210 m-high concrete arch dam and an underground powerhouse with an installed capacity of 2600 MW. Upon completion, the power station bears a multi-year average power-generating capacity of 11.4 billion kWh. Major indices of the project include excavation of earth and stone 12.77 million m3, concrete casting of 4.57 million m3, mechanical and electrical equipment installation of 24,000 ton. It takes about nine years from 2006 to 2014 to finish the dam. The multi-year average temperature is 15.40 C and the rainfall is 642 mm in the dam area, and the total area of the reservoir-inundated woodland is 13.56 km2.The impacts of the dam to atmospheric ecosystem are analyzed as follow.
fig1. Dagangshan dam
(1)The annual 11.4 billion kWh of hydropower saves 3.99 million tons of standard coal, reducing 7.39 million tons of CO2 release each year based on release index of thermal power plants. (2)Within the nine years of construction, the yearly average power of all kinds of construction equipment is 3000, 4000, 4500, 4500, 6000, 7000, 7000, 8000, 9000 and 6000 kW respectively. Supposing the average usage of the construction equipment is 6000 hours, the total consumption of electricity during the construction is 354 million kWh, which is equivalent to CO2 release of 228,700 tons in thermal power plants. (3)Within the nine years of construction, the yearly average power for transport equipmenta is 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500, 4000, 5000, 5000, 5500 and 5000 kw respectively, the energy used for transportation of bulk materials is 175 million kWh, which is equivalent to release 113,400 tons of CO2 in thermal power plants.
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4
(4)After the 13.56 km2 of woodland is inundated or decomposed in the damsite and in the reservoir area, the total CO2 release will be 6780 tons. (5)After the 13.56 km2 of woodland is inundated or decomposed in the damsite and in the reservoir area, 3661 tons of CO2 absorption by local environment will be reduced.
fig2. Dagangshan reservoir area
If Dagangshan arch dam can stands for 200 years (a conservative figure), then index of dam to the reduction of CO2 release is 0.174 +0.3661-739 = -7.3846 million tons. That is, when various factors are considered, the dam can reduce the release of CO2 by 7.3846 million tons to the atmosphere annually, compared with an equivalent thermal power plant. If compared with a thermal power plant of capacity of 11.4 billion kWh, its total amount of engineering is equivalent to concrete casting of 300,000 m3, its plant electricity usage is 7%, construction period is three years and the plant can be used for30 years, then the equivalent CO2 release will amount to 203,000 tons for its material transport and construction, and to 7.9 million tons annually during operation period, 29.7 times as that by the construction and reservoir filling of Dagangshan Hydropower Station. 3.2 The environmental benefits of Ertan Dam, Yalong River The China Ertan concrete arch dam is 242 m high with an installed capacity of 3300 MW and a multi-year average generating capacity of 17 billion kWh. Its reservoir extends for 145 km long with an area of 102 km2. The dam construction commenced in 1989 and ended in 1998. After the completion of the dam, climate in the reservoir area changes drastically. Its winter temperature increases by around 20C, while its summer temperature drops almost 20C than before. Before dam construction, the multi-year average rainfall in the dam site area is 700 mm and it seldom rains during the dry season. After dam construction, the average rainfall in the reservoir area increases by 50 mm and it often has flurry in the dry season. According to statistics, 90 percent of electricity consumption of Panzhihua City, 46 km away from the Ertan Dam, is from the clean energy supplied by Ertan power station, which greatly improves the city’s the atmospheric environment with the reduction of coal consumption. In May 2006, the Ertan dam won the national environment-friendly project prize awarded by China Government.
I - 64
5
fig3. the ertan dam
4. CONCLUSION (1)The dams with power generation function can do more advantage than harm to the atmosphere ecosystem.Dagangshan hydropower station in China can reduce the CO2 emission by 7384.6 million tons each year.On the other hand, the rotting plants below the reservoir water level can release some CO2 during the building time and operating time,and it will release 1.74 million tons every year. Though the reservoir would inundate woodland, reducing the absorption of CO2 by 3.66 thousand tons each year, the negative effect is far less than the positive effect. (2)Reservoirs formed by the dams can improve the local climate conditions.After the adjustment of the reservoir,the temperature and the water vapour content will be more suitable for the survival of animals and plants . REFERENCES "China's energy Yearbook" (2007) China Plans Press, Beijing, China ZHENG Shou-ren: China's water resources utilization and environmental protection issues.
"Water Science and Technology forefront of the new century" (2005) Tianjin University Press, Tianjin, China
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1
ST – 6
TH , 2014
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT DURING CONSTRUCTION
IN COMPLIANCE WITH MEXICAN REGULATIONS
M.A. Gomez-Balandra Instituto Mexicano de Tecnología del agua
In an agricultural and tropical countries like Indonesia, the issue of global warming
associated with GHG emissions, many focused on methane gas. This is because methane can
occur naturally in wetlands such as swamps, reservoirs and paddy farming is widely available
in Indonesia. Other GHGs such as N2O, HFCs, PFCs and SF6 are generally produced by
industrial processes. Methane gas needs serious attention because it has a value of Global
Warming Potential ( GWP ) 21, meaning that each molecule of methane has the potential to
heat up the earth 21 times greater than CO2 molecules. Besides causing a greater warming
effect, methane gas also can not be absorbed by the chlorophyll of plants so that more setabil
in the atmosphere than CO2. Given the things mentioned above, this study is limited to
investigational GHG methane alone.
Sources of natural gas such as methane can be emitted from wetlands and geothermal areas.
Moreover, it can also come from human activities such as animal husbandry, agriculture
mining and fuel consumption ( US- EPA, 2010). Globally, livestock are the largest source of
methane gas that comes from human activities (US-EPA, 2011b)
Lately, there is the assumption that the reservoirs and dams in tropical countries is a source of
methane is quite large and is the cause of global warming potential. This assumption is still
controversial and generated much debate. Some researchers claim that the reservoirs and
dams are a source of methane gas which is quite large and potentially cause global warming .
However, some other researchers disagree and consider that statement was a mistake and just
based on assumptions that are not necessarily were correct. (MED India net working for
Health, 2007, PM Fearnside 2007, and International Rivers Press Release, 2007). In fact,
research on methane emissions in the reservoir is still rarely carried out, including in
Indonesia. .
To determine the amount of methane gas emissions from reservoirs in Indonesia, the
measurement had been carried out in the reservoir, particular in Java Island. The study
conducted in April 2012 until in October 2012. Location of the study methane gas emissions
from reservoirs in P.Jawa is showed in Figure 1.
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Figure 1 . Area measurements of methane in reservoirs in Java
2. METHODOLOGY
Measurements of methane emissions from reservoirs was carried out direct on reservoirs
using the equipment Fluxmeter from West System. Fluxmeter equipment consists of a
floating lid that is connected by an infrared spectrophotometer, This equipment can measure
the levels of methane gas directly in the field. This equipment is also equipped with GPS,
(Global Positioning System), thermometers, pressure gauges, as well as special programs for
calculating methane emissions are being measured.
3.1 The amount of methane gas emissions from reservoirs in Java.
1. Measurements of methane emissions was conducted on 14 reservoirs in Java Island,
namely 3 reservoirs in West Java Province (Saguling, Cirata and Jatiluhur reservoir ); 6
reservoirs in Central Java namely: Cacaban reservoirs, Mrica, Kedungombo Wadaslintang
and Gajahmungkur reservoir and 5 reservoirs in East Java Province namely: Sengguruh,
Karangkates, Lahor, Selorejo and Wlingi reservoir. The location number of measurements
on each reservoirs is different amount, depend on the area of reservoir and its morphology.
Result of measurements showed that, emission of methane gas can be detected in each
reservoir more than 70 % of total amount locations except in the Wadaslintang reservoir. In
Wadaslintang reservoir, from the number of locations as much as 8 locations, methane
emissions were detected only 2 locations, or about 25 percent. In the Mrica reservoir,
Saguling, Sengguruh, and Wlingi, methane emissions can be detected up to 90 % of the total
measured location. The results of measurements of methane emissions from 14 reservoirs in
Java island is varied between 0 to 18.691 g/m2/day. The largest emission of methane gas
found in reservoirs Selorejo, in the province of East Java, namely 18, 691 g/m2/day ; while
the average emissions of methane gas in the 14 reservoir varied from 0.094 to 4.461
g/m2/day with average average 1.705 g/m
2/day. The total amount of methane gas emissions
to 14 reservoirs was measured as 333.3 tons/day ( Table 1, and Figure 1 ) .
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Table 1 : Emissions of methane gas reservoirs in Java
No Name of
reservoirs
Locations amount measurement
Locations amount (CH4) detected
Emission Min (CH4*)
Emission Max (CH4*)
Emission average (CH4*)
Reservoirs area (Ha) **)
Emission total (Ton/day)
1 Saguling 12 11 0 8.174 57,60
2 Cirata 15 10 0 2.262 38,39
3 Jatiluhur 19 8 0 5.70 31,96
4 Cacaban 7 4 0 5.715 10,45
5 Sempor 6 5 0 8.717 5,77
6 Mrica 12 12 0.67 2.023 12,47
7 Wadaslintang 8 2 0 0.637 1,24
8 Kedungombo 6 4 0 2.902 43,24
9 Gajahmungkur 18 15 0 9.163 84,27
10 Sengguruh 10 9 0 9.582 8,88
11 Lahor 14 10 0 12.107 6,51
12 Karangkates 13 7 0 1.237 5,71
13 Wlingi 9 8 0 13.386 16,95
14 Selorejo 10 6 0 18.691 15,86
Emission Average - - - - 1.705 - -
Emission total 333,3
* ) . Unit g/m 2/day
** ) Source : Research Institute for Water Resources , Large Dams in Indonesia in 1995 .
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Figure 1: Emissions of methane gas reservoirs in Java inland (Tons/day)
To determine the variation of methane emissions in the reservoir during 24 hours, had been
measured every two hours in Saguling reservoir. Results of these measurements showed in
table 2. At location 1, the value of the methane emissions varied from 0.1675 g/m2/day to
4.711 g/m2/day with an average of 1.5457 g/m
2/day. At location 2, the values methane
emissions varied from 0.005 g/m2/day to 2.1491 g/m
2/day. Statistical analysis at level of
(p <0.05) was obtained results there is no significant difference between the emission of
methane gas during the day and night.
Table 2.Variation of emission methane gas during 24hour in Saguling reservoir.
Location1 Location 2
No Time Emission CH4 Time Emission CH4
1 7.oo 0.023 7.oo 2.1491
2 9.oo 2.6134 9.oo 0.0233
3 11.oo 1.108 11.oo 1.1315
4 13.oo 0.3669 13.oo 0.7738
5 15.oo 2.1672 15.oo 0.5715
6 17.oo 0.1675 17.oo 1.097
7 19.oo 1.082 19.oo 0.005
8 21.oo 2.972 21.oo 0.264
9 23.oo 2.763 23.oo -
10 1.oo 4.711 1.oo 0.225
12 3.oo 2.432 3.oo 0.794
13 5.oo 2.284 5.oo 1.017
Unit: g/m2/day
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Emis
sion
CH
4 to
n/da
y
Name of reservoir
I - 80
3.2 Discussion of Methane Emissions from the reservoir
Based on the results of measurements, methane emissions per unit area is very fluctuating.
The fluctuation are depend on time, location, temperature, water flow. The fluctuation of
methane emissions in the reservoir is different from one location the other locations. For
example in Saguling reservoir, fluctuations between locations of the other locations ranged
from 0.00 to 8.174 g/m2/day. The fluctuations in methane emissions also occur between
reservoirs each other reservoirs. For example, the average emissions of methane gas in the
reservoir at 0,094 g/m2/day Wadaslintang, whereas in Wlingi of 6.154 g/m
2/day. (Table 2).
Wawan Herawan et.al, (2011), shown that concentration of methane gas is largest in
Saguling reservoir than Cirata reservoir. and Jatiluhur reservoir. The concentration of
methane gas in Saguling reservoir varied from 0.9 to 1.9 mg/L, in Cirata reservoir varied
from 0.9 to 1.6 mg/L and in Jatiluhur reservoir varied from 1,2 - 1,4 mg/L. Measurement of
methane gas used by Gas Chromatography. Measurement of the methane gas is not direct
in the field. Brahmana et .al, (2011) shown that emission methane gas at Saguling varied
0,272 to 71,47 mg/m2/hour, with average 13,446 mg/m
2/hour (5 locations ); at Cirata varied
from 0,080 to 10,658 mg/m2/hour , with average 2,664 mg/m2/hour (4 locations ) and at
Jatiluhur reservoir varied 0,097 to 0,474 mg/m2/hour with average 0,274 (5 locations).
Wawan Herawan et.al, (2011) Brahmana et .al, (2011) were analysed the methane gas is
not direct in the field but in laboratory and used gas Chromatogrhy Shimadzu A8. Saguling
,Cirata and Jatiluhur reservoirs located in catchment area of the Citarum river. The Saguling
reservoir located in upstream, followed by Cirata reservoir, and Jatiluhur reservoir. The
Saguling reservoir more polluted than Cirata and Jatiluhur reservoir.
The methane emissions from reservoirs fluctuate greatly also occurs in reservoirs the others
countries. The results of the study of methane emissions in Nielisz Reservoir in Southeast
Poland showed that methane emissions fluctuated between 0.256 to 6.138 g/m2/day (
Gruca - Rokosz, R at.al, 2012 ). Research in Reservoir Funil, San Antonio and Tres Maria
in Brazil also showed fluctuating values each between 0.005 - 0.159 g/m2/day ; 0,00 to
0,634 g/m2/day and 0.000 to 0.007g/m
2/day (Emma,2012).
Conditions at the bottom of the reservoir is very influential on the emission of methane
on the surface of the reservoir, due to the formation of methane gas occurs at the bottom of
the reservoir. If the reservoir is widely available on the basis of crop residues and plants or
contain lots of organic matter and an aerobic, then the bottom of the reservoir occurs
significant methane emissions. The reservoir contains a lot of organic matter, (concentration
of BOD, and COD very high), will produces lot of methane gas. If concentration of BOD,
COD are high in the water and the concentration of the dissolved oxygen are low, and
condition anaerobic situation triggers the decomposition of organic materials will produce
methane gas.
Reservoir water quality also affects the emission of methane gas. The reservoir which contains a lot
of organic matter , both derived from domestic sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes will cause
oxygen levels in the water is reduced or even depleted. This situation triggers the decomposition of
organic materials that produce methane gas. Water flow that occurs in the water reservoir can cause
methane gas to move from one location to another to follow the direction of the current. Therefore, if
in a location at the base of the formation of methane gas reservoirs, not necessarily at the surface
location of the large emissions. With respect to emissions of methane on the surface of the reservoir
fluctuates widely from one location to another, then to determine the amount of methane gas
emissions at the surface of the reservoir is required observations at many locations and represent a
I - 81
reservoir of water quality conditions and reservoir morphology. The more locations the better
repeatability of measurements and data obtained.
3.3 . Comparison of methane emissions from reservoirs with emissions from other sources Based on the research that has been done in P. Java to examine 14 of different reservoir
conditions are obtained values of methane emissions from the reservoir per unit breadth ranged from
0.094 to 4.461 g/m2/day with an average 1,705 g/m2/day. Based on the data area of reservoir
obtained , in Indonesia namely 98 269 ha (Ministry of Ocean and Fisheries , 2011), thus the amount
of methane gas emissions from reservoirs in Indonesia is estimated at about 1,675 tons /day .
Emissions of methane gas , generated by the dam in addition can also be generated by other sources
eg landfills (landfill) garbage, swamps and paddy cultivation process and ranch activities .
a.Emissions from Landfill.
Landfill waste is a potential source of methane gas . In developed countries even utilized landfill
waste to generate energy. The production of methane gas at landfill waste is also influenced by
several factors including: waste composition, levels of available oxygen, moisture, acidity,
nutrient availability, size and density of litter (Purwanto, 2009).
Measurement of methane gas emission from garbage in the field has been conducted in Indonesia. .
Based on the number of Indonesian population reached 218.8 million, and estimated each person
generates garbage of 0.61 kg/person per day (Purwanto , 2009), the waste generated reaches 133 468
000 kg/day or approximately 133 468 tonnes /day . Based on estimates each ton of waste can produce
50 kg of methane (Sudarman , 2010) so that methane gas emissions in Indonesia can reach 6,673
tons/day.
b. Emissions from the Swamp and Peat Soil
The swamp/peat soil is one of main a sources methane gas. In the swamp area and peat
soil there are many organic materials , such as grass or plants from rotting. Furthermore,
these organic materials with the help of microorganisms methanogens and certain conditions
(especially the lack of oxygen) will decompose produces methane gas. The study gas
methane emission in swamp area in Indonesia is still rare. Instead a special study of
carbon dioxide emission in peat soil has been done. Loss of carbon dioxide (C2O) gas for
10 years in the peat soil 69.9 ton/ha/year. (Miswar 2013). Research the amount of methane
emissions from swamp conducted in Canada shows a very fluctuating emission values
between 0.39 to 197.81 mmol/m2/day (Pelletier, et al, 2007) or 0.00624 to 3.16496 g/m2/
day. Assuming the average value is the average value of the minimum and the maximum
value of the average emissions of methane gas in the swamp is at 1.5856 g/m2/day. Based on
extensive swamps in Indonesia reached 33.4 million hectares (Simatupang, P and
A.Adimiharja, 2004), it can be estimated magnitude of methane emissions from marsh
reached 529 590 tonnes/day.
c. Emissions from Paddy field
Paddy field is a source of methane emissions. Release of methane from paddy crop can
occur through three processes, namely through aerenchime vessels of rice plants, through a
process of diffusion in air bubbles and dissolving in water through irrigation. The amount of
methane emissions from rice cultivation process is very diverse, among others, depend on
I - 82
how the management of the land. Research conducted by Prihasto and friends give methane
emissions from rice cultivation process in Indonesia amounted to 169.9 kg /ha/cropping
season (Prihasto et. al, 2008). If the year consisted of 3 seasons, the methane emissions from
paddy field is estimated at 0.1396 g/m2/hari. Based on statistical data, extensive rice crops
in Indonesia reached approximately 12.88 million hectares, the estimates of methane
emissions from rice fields to reach 17, 986 tonnes/day.
d. Emission from Livestock
Farm business is a source of methane is also considered potential. In America's farm business
is the largest source of methane emissions third ( US- EPA, 2011b ). At the farm business ,
methane emissions to the atmosphere can occur in two ways. The first way is called "enteric
fermentation" that occurs in the stomach of ruminant animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.
At the time of these animals did digestive methane gas formed in considerable amounts . The
second way is through the feces of these animals. The animal waste contains a lot of organic
ingredients. If the organic matter decomposes in the anaerobic atmosphere, it will produce
methane gas. Based on the research that has been conducted emissions of methane gas from
one cow in developing countries is estimated at 95.9 g/head/day (Veerasamy, S., et al., 2011).
From the data released by the Central Bureau of Statistics and Ministry of Agriculture
recorded the number of cows and buffaloes around 15.4 million head, thus the methane
emissions from the livestock sector is estimated at about 1,477 tons/day. This value does not
include that derived from horses, pigs, goats, sheep, ducks, chickens, ducks, geese and other
species. Based on the data and the calculation above shows that although the reservoir as a
source of methane gas, but in general the amount is relatively small compared with other
sources such as swamps, rice, garbage, livestock and industry (Figure3.)
e.Emissions from Industrial waste.
Industrial waste that contains organic substances such as food and beverage industry also
produces methane gas. The numbers are big enough, but in this paper not yet metioned.
I - 83
Figure 3 : Comparison of methane emissions from a variety of sources ( in tons/day )
From the figure 3 above show that the greatest emissions generated by the swamp. This
value is the result of calculations based on the assumption that the data of methane emissions
per unit area were taken from the results of studies elsewhere. In addition to the value of
emissions per unit area which is still based on the assumption, the amount of methane
emissions is also due to the enormous swamp in Indonesia . Instead most small emissions
generated from the farm. Compared with the situation in the livestock business overseas in
Indonesia remain undeveloped so that emissions of methane produced is relatively small.
Methane emissions from reservoirs in Indonesia is estimated at 1,675 tons per day . This
value is below the value of methane emissions from wetlands, rice plants and garbage.
4.CONCLUSIONS
a. The methane emissions from reservoirs is different from one reservoir to anothers
reservoirs and one location to others locations in same reservoir.
b. Value of methane emissions in reservoirs in Java ranged from 0.094 to 4.461 g/m2/day
c. with an average 1,705 g/m2/day
d. Based on the data, area of reservoirs in Indonesia around 98,269 hectares the amount
of methane gas emissions from reservoirs in Indonesia is estimated at about 1,675
tons/day .
e. When compared to other sources such as swamps, rice or the value of the waste sector
is very small.
f. In an effort to reduce methane emissions from reservoirs can be done in several ways,
among others :
g. Reservoir will be impounded, must be clean up his plants and others materials. It is
important to be reduced emission methane gas.
h. For long- stagnant reservoirs, if on the edge of the reservoir there is a lot of wild plants
or other plants at low tide when the water level needs to be cleaned, thereby reducing
the decomposition process of organic matter in the reservoir when the water level
rises.
i. The quality of river water into the reservoir needs to be maintained so as not to contain
many pollutants, especially organic pollutants as organic pollutants in water reservoirs
will ultimately lead to increased emissions of methane gas.
j. Other efforts to reduce methane emissions is to look for microbes that consume
methane and oxidize.
REFERENCES
1. Brahmana et.al 2011. Emisi Gas Rumah Kaca (metana) di Perairan Waduk . Prosiding Kolokium
Puslibang Sumber Daya Air ,Bandung Maret 2011.
2. Emma Hällqvist, (2012), Methane emissions from three tropical hydroelectrical
reservoirs, Committee of Tropical Ecology, Uppsala University, Sweden
3. Gruca-Rokosz, R., , E.Czerwieniec, J.A. Tomaszek, (2011), Methane Emission from the
ABSTRACT European ICOLD Working Group "Management of Dam Incidents" was established in Venice Italy in April 2013 to study European dam safety practices and experiences. The study will comprise at least following items: the dam safety legislation, the guidelines and the documentation related to the dam incidents, the training activities of dam incidents, the roles of the authorities and the dam owner, the safety arrangements practices and the analysis of the dam incidents and failures. The management of the dam safety at the tailings dams is included in the scope. The objectives of the Working Group are to improve the practices handling dam incidents and to collect the best practices of the member countries. In this paper the work on Finnish ICOLD committee are presented by introducing some characteristics of Finnish dam safety legislation and experiences. Keywords: dam safety, management, legislation, dam incidents. 1. INTRODUCTION The dam owner’s responsibility is to ensure safety in the construction, maintenance and operation of a dam and reduce the hazard and the consequences, which the dam incident or accident may cause. The dam is monitored and inspected in order to detect changes or abnormal operation. The upgrading or the repair of the dam is carried out to avoid any dam accidents or incidents. However the changes in the dam condition may occur instantly and without warning. The dam owner shall start emergency repair. The alarming, evacuations and rescue operations shall be initiated, if the situation is critical (Figure 1). European ICOLD Working Group "Management of Dam Incidents" was established in Venice Italy in April 2013 to study European dam safety practices and experiences. The study will comprise at least following items: the dam safety legislation, the guidelines and the documentation related to the dam incidents, the training activities of dam incidents, the roles of the authorities and the dam owner, the safety arrangements practices and the analysis of the dam incidents and failures. The tailings dams are included in the scope. The objectives of the Working Group are to collect experiences and the best practices and improve the practices handling dam incidents. Possibly the recommendations may be given. Although best European dam safety practices for managing dam incidents are collected. The objectives is also to improve national dam safety practices. FINCOLD has established
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a national working group to collect and analyze Finnish experiences. In this paper is described some Finnish dam safety practices and experiences. The paper includes the issues on Finnish dam safety legislation, practices on emergency preparedness plans and training of rescue actions also some dam safety incidents are presented.
Figure 1. Dam safety activities and players 2. FINNISH DAM SAFETY LEGISLATION RELATED TO MANAGEMENT OF DAM INCIDENTS Finnish dam safety legislation was enacted in 1984. The dam safety legislation was presented in the act, the decree and the guidelines. However the dam safety practices described in the guidelines had not any legislative ground. Therefore Finnish dam safety legislation was renewed and the practices were included in the Dam Safety Act (429/2009) and in Government Decree on Dam Safety (319/2010). In addition the renewed dam safety legislation are applied to the tailings dams. The dam break hazard analysis and the dam owner's emergency action plan have to prepared for the high consequence class dams (class 1-dam) (Section 12 in Dam Safety Act (429/2009). The dam hazard analysis is further described in Section 6 of Government Decree on Dam Safety (319/2010) and it contains dam break flood wave analysis, the determination of the maximum coverage of dam break flood flow (flood hazard area), identification of the objects (people at risk, private and communal houses, industry, etc.)
Dam safety
Normal operation ChangesAbnormal operation
DamBreach
Measurements
Inspections
Detection
History dataCorrectivemeasures
AlarmRescue
Evacuation
Data Analysis
Dam safety reportsStructural safety
- appropriate design
Instructions for Monitoring and
Maintenance.
Emergency Action Planning
Rescue Actions
Failure Mode
Operation
Management
Dam rehabilitation and repair activities
AuthoritiesLegislation, State of art practices, ICOLD
Dam safety authorities Rescue authorities
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in the flood hazard area and an estimation of the damages. The information and the documentation of the dam break hazard analysis are used in the preparation of the emergency action plan and rescue service plan. The measures to prevent personal accidents in case of dam incident and to prevent and to limit the damages at the dam are presented in dam owner's emergency action plan (Section 7 in Government Decree on Dam Safety (319/2010). The measures shall protect humans, property and environment against damage. The dam owner shall alarm and report the dam incident. The plan is developed based on the dam failure scenarios and their possible hazard. The dam owner's organization and responsible persons with contact information are included. Possible ways to receiving information on the dam incident or hazard and the alarming of the authorities, personnel and people are described. The dam repair materials and its storage, the contractors and their equipment and own staff are listed with contact information. The document shall continuously updated. Specific technical requirement for class 1 and 2 dams is that the crest throughout its length must be passable to traffic (Section 4 and 5 in Government Decree on Dam Safety (319/2010). The access of the dam maintenance must be ensured during the flood and dam accidents. Dam Safety Act (494/2009) comprises 7 chapters and "the preparations for the accidents and actions in the event of accidents" are described in the Chapter 5. The dam owner with due consideration of the dam hazard must take the necessary action to prevent dam accident and to limit the damages caused by an accident (Section 24: Preventing accidents). The dam safety authority submits the information in its possession necessary for preparing the rescue service plans as requested by the rescue authority (Section 25: Rescue Service Plans). Provisions on rescue activity are laid down in the Rescue Act. The owner of a dam and dam safety authority must assist the head of the rescue activity in performing rescue activity. In addition, the dam safety authority participates, where necessary, in the work of the steering group (Section 26: Rescue activity). The declaration of an emergency and an exceptional situation are described in Section 27. It also states that the dam owner must notify the dam safety authority without delay. 3. RESCUE SERVICE PLANS AND TRAINING OF RESCUE ACTIONS The operations of the rescue authorities are guide by Rescue Act (379/2011). The officer in charge of the rescue operation has the overall charge and is responsible for maintaining the situation picture and for coordinating the operations (Section 35: Command of rescue operations in situations involving co-operation). External emergency plans are prepared for the waste sites for extractive waste referred to in section 45a(2) of the Environmental Protection Act (86/2000) (Section 48: External emergency plans for sites posing a particular hazard), which may be applied some tailings dams with hazardous chemical content. The training on the rescue actions based on dam break flood analysis has become a practice in Finland. First exercise was held in Rescdam-project in 2001 (Finnish Environment Institute, 2001). The dam breach situation of Kyrkösjärvi embankment dam was simulated in the exercise. The rescue and dam safety authorities were responsible for the execution. The objectives of the exercise was to test and improve: the emergency
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action plan, the alarming system and its coverage area, the operation of different parties in the crisis management center, the co-operation of the authorities and the volunteers, the leadership of the regional rescue operations, the intercommunications and the communication during the dam breach accidents. Second exercise was held in 2006. The dam breach of Seitakorva embankment dam in Northern Finland was simulated in the exercise. Third dam exercise will be held in 2014. 4. DAM INCIDENTS IN FINLAND The dam owner is responsible to give notice concerning an exceptional situation (dam incident) to the dam safety authority without delay (Section 27 in Dam Safety Act 494/2009). The dam safety authority is collecting the dam incident reports and some preliminary analysis has been carried out (Kirves, 2010). The earth fill dams with glacial till has had problems with internal erosion in Finland. Several cases with increased leakages, sink holes and turbid water has occurred. The springs at Peltokoski embankment dam appeared during the first fill of the reservoir in 1950's and second one in 1980's. In late winter 1987 the spring collapsed approx. 60 meters from the left embankment dam. A large sink hole of 3 meter deep and a settlement of 29 cm at the dam crest were formed (Figure 2). The collapsed bank was repaired by constructing inverse filter with stones on the surface and with grouting of the embankment. Two Thompson overflow weir were constructed behind the inverse filter. Total leakage was 35 l/s. The water was clear without any sediment suspension. Main reason for the internal erosion was the leakages through the fissured bedrock (Laasonen, 2010).
Figure 2. A large sink hole appeared at the place of spring in 1987 (Laasonen, 2010) Uljua homogeneous earth fill dam is situated in the River Siikajoki watercourse. The leakage was noticed during the first filling in 1970, which was turbid after one month. The
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embankment dam was repaired with cement grouting. The cause was estimated as possible frost action in the upper part of the moraine core (glacial till) and deficiencies in the fine filter. Further a turbid water was found in the tailrace channel in 1990. Several sink holes of 3 meter diameter was found at the bottom of the reservoir. The leakage through the fissured bedrock was considered as the cause. Melo embankment dam is situated in the River Kokemäenjoki. The leakage and a sink hole with the depth of 3.5 meters and a diameter of about 4 meters was noticed in 2005. The leakage was repaired with sheet piling and with grouting. The repair activities lasted 10 months. The cause for the internal erosion is considered the differential settlement of the core at the cast-in-pile, which was considered under the core. Pamilo embankment dam in the eastern part of Finland has had several dam incidents. first one during the first filling and the latest sink holes appeared in 2008 and 2012. The sink holes were filled and emergency grouting was carried out. Several causes for the internal erosion have been considered improper construction of the core (the frosted moraine core was not removed), the deficiencies of the filter and the leakages through the fissured bedrock. The emergency grouting were carried out in all the cases. In addition extensive site investigations were started in order to find out the cause of the internal erosion (Figure 3).
Figure 3. The site investigations at Pamilo embankment dam. The causes of the internal erosion have been the deficiencies with the filter, insufficient filter coverage between the ground moraine and the embankment dam, frost action in the core, the differential settlements of the moraine core due to the partial sheet piling and fissured bedrock under the moraine.
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6. CONCLUSIONS The work on European ICOLD Working Group "Management of Dam Incidents" has started. Some characteristics of Finnish dam safety legislation and experiences are presented in this paper. It requires more detailed analysis of the case studies i.e. how the emergency cases were handled. The internal erosion cases presented in here show one type of the dam incidents. Several other hazards and uncertainties e.g. malfunction of the mechanical and electrical equipment of the gates can lead to a dam incident. The management of dam incidents requires comprehensive understanding of the dam risks and its mitigation measures. Each dam is an individual structure with specific features. However the "Management of dam incident"-study may improve dam owner's understanding and give tools to handle the abnormal situation. The questionnaire is prepared for collection of European practices and experiences. The preparation of the conclusions requires discussions in the workshops to understand different aspects and opinions. REFERENCES
Kirves, R. (2010): Häiriötilanteet Suomen padoilla (Incidents at Finnish dams), in Finnish. Häme Centre for Economic Development, Transport and Environment, 48 p. Finland. http://www.ymparisto.fi/download/noname/%7B4CE06AE1-83AE-4D71-85FF-C6E1610C1F13%7D/57453
Laasonen, J. & J. Autio (2010). Maapatojen sisäinen eroosio - pohjoismainen ongelma (The internal erosion - Nordic problem of embankment dams). in Finnish. FINCOLD. Finnish National Committee on Large Dams 1960 -2010. History and activities. 152 p. FINCOLD. Finland. pp. 112-125.
Laasonen, J. (2010) Internal erosion and duration of grouting works. Case History of a small embankment dam. Proceedings of 8th ICOLD European Club Symposium. Dam Safety - Sustainability in a Changing Environment. 22nd - 23rd September 2010. Innsbruck, Austria (Edited by ATCOLD). ISBN 978-3-85125-118-0. pp. 393-396.
Laasonen, J. (2012). Dam owner's perspective to the dam safety legislation in Finland. 3rd National Symposium and Exposition on Dam Safety. October 10-12, 2012. Proceedings. Editors: Dr. Hasan Tosun, Dr. Murat Türköz & Dr. Hasan Savas. 646 p. Eskisihir, Turkey. pp. 15-19.
Finnish Environment Institute (2001). Rescdam. Final report. Grant Agreement No Subv. 99/52623. Helsinki, Finland. http://ec.europa.eu/echo/civil_protection/civil/act_prog_rep/rescdam_rapportfin.pdf
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La Romaine Hydroelectric Complex, Canada hhdTTjjhkljdjjsgshjhfsdkjhskslsl;s;s;;s;;s;;sjsjkjffffrtttttttfggjfgjgkfkjkjf fffffjfjjfkkfjjj Management of the Riparian flow at Romaine 2
2(14pt)
during construction and reservoir filling
Jean-Pierre Tournier, Luc Roy, Redha Kara & Isabelle Thériault Hydro-Québec Équipement et services partagés, Montréal, Canada
ABSTRACT: India ranks third in the world after China, USA and Russia in terms of number of dams. India has so far constructed about 4818 large dams which have provided about 225 BCM of storage. Another 375 large dams with storages of about 63.9 BCM are under construction. Large dams in India alone are estimated to have submerged 37500 sq km of land area. About 10 million of people has been displaced or affected. While on one hand, storage schemes yield multipurpose benefits like irrigation, hydropower, flood and silt control, on the other hand various associated issues like environmental degradation, Resettlement and Rehabilitation and earthquake hazards also need proper attention and solution. More than 45,000 dams constructed around the world have helped many communities and countries’ economies in utilizing and harnessing water resources from half of the world’s dammed rivers. Dams supported 30- 40% of the entire irrigated area of the world and thus supported 12-16% global food production. Around 12% of all dams supply water for drinking and sanitation. The dams of 75 countries have a flood control function to safeguard nearby communities. But, the above mentioned benefits from dams are just one side of the story. On the other side are the social and environmental impacts. While Hydropower provides about 19% (2,650 TWh/yr) to more than half of 63 countries’ electricity supply, it can have adverse impacts on the environment and can be mitigated if well managed. Construction of Diversion dam as part of Run of the River development instead of Storage dam is one such solution. Devsari Hydro Electric Project (DHEP) in Uttarakhand, India was originally conceived as storage scheme with 90 m high concrete gravity dam having installed capacity and design energy as 300 MW and 856 MU respectively. However, in view of huge submergence involved (522 ha) and other technical and environmental issues, it was modified into a Run of the River (RoR) scheme with much less submergence (82 ha) having 35 m high concrete gravity dam with installed capacity of 252 MW. This paper discusses the various alternatives for arriving at the most optimum solution involving least submergence and maximum power benefits taking into considerations various technical, socio- economic and environmental issues involved. Key words: Hydropower, Technical, Socioeconomic, Environmental, Dam
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1. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DEVSARI HYDRO ELECTRIC PROJECT Devsari HEP is project located in Chamoli District of Uttrakahand having a installed capacity of 252 MW. It is located on River Pinder which originated from Pindari Glacier. It is run-of –the- river scheme with all components except dam and pothead yard, located underground. Its diversion structure 1.75 km downstream of confluence River Pinder and Kailganga is a concrete gravity dam 35 m (from river bed level) high, having five low level sluices to pass design discharge of 6969 cumec and facility for flushing of silt annually. The live storage of the Devsari dam reservoir with FRL at El 1300 m is 9.02 MCM .The reservoir shall also act as desilting basin. The head race tunnel carrying water to the surge shaft is 17.9 km long having 6.9 m diameter designed for discharge of 120.76 cumec. The surge shaft of 21.5 m diameter has a depth of 78 m. It is restricted orifice type. One steel lined vertical pressure shaft, 4.8 m dia having length of 248 m take off from the surge shaft and connect to three units of power plant after trifurcating into 2.77 m dia meter branches .Each of the three units are Francis turbine operating under rated head of 230.42 m utilizing a discharged of 120.76 cumec These are housed in an underground cavern of size 80 m(l)X20m(w)X 39.86 m(h).The layout of the project is shown.(see Fig. 1.) .
Figure1. Layout of the Devsari H.E.P., Uttarakhand
2. ALTERNATIVE STUDIES CONDUCTED FOR CONVERSION FROM STORAGE TO RUN-OF –THE RIVER SCHEME
Following four alternative studies were carried out taking into consideration Technical, Socio- economic and environmental factors
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• Alternative 1 90 m high dam at 1.75 km D/S of confluence of River Pinder and Kail Ganga having FRL= El 1370 m with TWL= El 1120 m and HRT Length =12.445 km
• Alternative 2 60 m high dam at 1.75 km D/S of confluence of River Pinder and Kail Ganga having FRL= El 1325 m with TWL= El 1120 m and HRT length=12.445 km
• Alternative 3 35 m high dam at 1.75 km D/S of confluence of River Pinder and Kail Ganga having FRL = El 1300 m with TWL = El 1120 m and HRT length =12.445 km
• Alternative 4
35 m high dam at 1.75 km D/S of confluence of River Pinder and Kail Ganga having FRL =El 1300 m with TWL =El 1046.5 m and HRT length=17.9 km
3. ALTERNATIVE 1: 90 M HIGH DAM AT 1.75 KM D/S OF CONFLUENCE OF RIVER PINDER AND KAIL GANGA HAVING FRL= EL 1370 M WITH TWL= EL 1120 M AND HRT LENGTH =12.445 KM
3.1 Technical Considerations In this alternative, dam is located at 1.75 km D/S from confluence of Pinder river with Kailgnaga. In the PFR prepared for this alternative ,the installed capacity was 300 MW based on design discharge of 149.37 cumec .However during detailed studies conducted based on the topographical, hydrological and geological data it was found that installed capacity shall be 250 MW with following features given in table -1.
Table1. Features of the Alternative-1
Components Detail Installed Capacity 250 MW Dam Location 1.75 km d/s of confluence Dam height 90m -from river bed level FRL El 1370m Gross Storage 192 MCM Live Storage 83.5MCM HRT Length 12.445 km Design Discharge 120.76 cumec Powerhouse Location Downstream of Pranmati Nallah Tail water Level El 1120 m Design Energy 890MU
Besides the above factors, feasibility of constructing 90 m high dam at the present locations has been found to be unviable on following consideration:
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3.1.1 Geology Physical inspection of left bank at dam site shows that the river terraces deposits occupied 4-5m above river level almost 100m upstream of dam axis of left abutment. Also, along the dam axis, left abutment is occupied with slope wash materials and thereafter the rock appears to lie under a veneer of debris. The rock exposures are not visible at higher levels which indicate that lot of stripping will be required for the left abutment. The rocks are also traversed by three set of joints i.e., one set parallel to foliation with 2-3 cm opening and another two sets inclined and perpendicular to the foliation. The strike of foliation is northeast-southwest with 50°-60°dip in northwest direction i.e. dipping towards river side. The right bank occupied by an overburden of 12-15m thick slope wash material below the road level. Above the road level and along dam axis, exposure of augen gneiss/mylonitic gneiss with occasionally pyritiferous muscovite schists and micaceous quartzites with well-developed foliation joints are seen. Rocks are exposed on the right bank of river bed as well as on Debal-Tharali road section which is approximately 88m above the River bed level. The quartzite-phyllite sequence of rocks exposed at the site strikes N10E°-S10W° and dip 40° towards NW i.e. downstream. The rocks are traversed by few sets of joints. A thrust is observed near confluence of Kail Ganga and Pinder river and truncated by another fault which is aligned parallel to the Pinder river i.e. NW-SE direction(GSI, Dehradun, 2007). The Devsari HEP reservoir area is devoid of any lime/calcareous formations of highly previous gravelly material. The ground in this area contains fractured and sheared quartzite/phyllite and schists which are relative permeable. This may result in water loss from the reservoir if water level is increased above an altitude of El 1335m. There are no adverse features for seepage losses from the reservoir below this level. Hence, the geology of reservoir is not suitable for constructing a dam above El 1335 m, both in Kailganga valley and Pinder valley because of presence of multiple shears and disturbed rock strata. A fault trending NNE-SSW has been noticed along river Kail Ganga (see Fig 2). These disturbed strata on saturation with the filling of dam beyond El 1335 m may result in multiple slides and destabilization of both the banks in the reservoir. Since the rock/strata above El 1335m is not water tight and whole area cannot be treated, if water level is increased above El 1335m, this might result in heavy water loss from the reservoir.
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Figure2. Geological map of the reservoir area
3.2 Socio-economic considerations 3.2.1 Submergence The storage scheme with 90m dam height involves large submergence involving 522 ha of total land (203.6 ha of Agriculture Private land, 47 ha of Private scrub land, 182.7 ha of forest land and 88.7 ha of river bed). 13 villages were expected to be submerged. Besides the above villages, the storage scheme involved submergence of many historical/religious places and public structures such as Main road leading to Deval Market and other villages. This road goes upto the border connecting number of villages on route and is main road being used for Nanda Devi Raj Jat Yatra and Rupkund. It could have submeregd Nanda Devi Temple at Purna, Shiv mandir at Sailkhola village (1346m) and Shiv Mandir near Devsari bridge. The photographs showing the important structures/historical place are below (see Fig.3 and Fig.4)
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Figure3. Historical Nanda Devi Temple
Figure4.Historical Shiv Temple 3.3 Environmental Considerations The Pinder valley upstream of confluence is full of dense forest consisting of Deodar, Pine, Chir and the protected species viz. Banz Oak (the major species given below). The storage scheme will involve submergence/cutting of more than 20,000 trees.
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3.4 Discussions on Alternative-1 From studies carried out as mentioned above, it was decided that going ahead with a storage scheme having 90m high dam was not feasible from technical, socio-economic and environmental considerations. 4. ALTERNATIVE 2: 60 M HIGH DAM AT 1.75 KM D/S OF CONFLUENCE OF RIVER PINDER AND KAIL GANGA HAVING FRL= EL 1325 M WITH TWL= EL 1120 M AND HRT LENGTH=12.445 KM. 4.1 Technical considerations In this alternative study dam height has been considered 60m at the same location. With this alternative, the installed capacity of the project works out to 201 MW. Description of the Alternative -2 is shown in Table-2 below. Table2. Description of the Alternative 2
Components Details
Installed Capacity 201 MW Dam height(from river bed level) 60m Dam Location 1.75 km d/s of confluence FRL El 1325m HRT Length 12.445 km Design Discharge 120.76 cumec Powerhouse Location Downstream of Pranmati Nallah Tail water Level El 1120 m Design Energy 753.36MU
Besides lesser installed capacity, feasibility of constructing 60 m high dam at the present location has been found to be unviable on the grounds explained below. 4.1.1 Geology As discussed under alternate 1(a), the geology of the reservoir area was still not favorable for the construction of 60m high dam as many shears/discontinuities exposed in the Kailganga valleys around El + 1315m on the road to Melkhet near bridge may get activated by the water level of the reservoir resulting in multiple slides and destabilization of left bank of Kailganga river. 4.2 Socio-economic considerations 4.2.1 Submergence The scheme with 60m dam height involved submergence of 220 ha of total land involving 3 villages.
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This scheme also involved submergence of historical/religious places and public structures such as: Road leading from Dewal to Melkhet and beyond upto the border connecting number of villages shall get submerged at many reaches on route in addition to Nanda Devi Temple at Purna and Shiv Mandir near Devsari Bridge. 4.3 Environmental Considerations The upstream Pinder valley is full of dense forest consisting of Deodar, Pine, Chir and the protected species viz. Banz Oak (the major species given below). This scheme will still involve submergence/cutting of more than 10,000 trees. 4.4 Discussions on Alternative-2 From the studies carried out as mentioned above, it was opined clearly lead to conclusion that going ahead with a scheme with 60m high dam was also not feasible from Technical, socio-economic and environmental considerations as it would have involved submergence of religious/historical places and could be not favorable to local sentiments. 5. ALTERNATIVE 3: 35 M HIGH DAM AT 1.75 KM D/S OF CONFLUENCE OF RIVER PINDER AND KAIL GANGA HAVING FRL= EL 1300 M WITH TWL= EL 1120 M AND HRT LENGTH=12.445 KM 5.1 Technical Considerations Feasibility of constructing 35 m high dam at the present location is explained below: In this alternative study, dam height has been considered as 35m at the same location. With this alternative, the installed capacity of the project works out to 176 MW. Description of the Alternative 3 is shown in table: 3.
Table3. Description of the Alternative 3
Components Details Installed Capacity 176 MW Dam height(from river bed level) 35 m Dam Location 1.75 km d/s of confluence FRL El 1300m HRT Length 12.44 km Design Discharge 120.76 cumec Powerhouse Location Downstream of Pranmati Nallah Tail water Level El 1120m Design Energy 646 MU
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5.1.1 Geology The geology of the reservoir area with a 35m high dam was found favorable for the construction as most of the shears/discontinuities exposed in the Pinder and Kailganga valleys are above El 1315m. Whereas with 35 m high dam, the FRL remains at El 1300m as such and there is no chance of the shears/discontinuities getting charged by the reservoir level. On inspection from left bank of the Pinder river, it was noticed that rock is exposed upto the level of + 1300m on right bank and chances of water loss from the reservoir is negligible. 5.2 Socio-economic considerations 5.2.1 Submergence The storage scheme with 35 m dam height involves minimum submergence of 82 ha of total land including 12 ha of Agriculture Private land, 70 ha of forest land and a part of one Shoding village involving 26 families is being displaced. This scheme does not involve submergence of any historical/religious places and public structures.
5.3 Environmental Considerations This scheme involves cutting of only about 2000 trees in submergence area. 5.4 Discussions on Alternative-3 The studies carried out as mentioned above lead to conclusion that this alternative involved minimum submergence and was most viable dam height from Technical socio economic, and Environmental consideration. However, another alternative was considered to optimize energy generation discussed here under as Alternative No 4, in which power House has been shifted further downstream. 6. ALTERNATIVE 4: 35 M HIGH DAM AT 1.75 KM D/S OF CONFLUENCE OF RIVER PINDER AND KAIL GANGA HAVING FRL= EL 1300 M WITH TWL= EL 1046.5 M AND HRT LENGTH=17.9 KM 6.1 Technical considerations In this alternative study dam height has been considered as 35m at the same location but Power House was shifted downstream from the original location to Simli gad. With this alternative, the installed capacity of the project works out to 252 MW. Description of the alternative -4 is shown at table-4.
Table4. Description of the alternative 4
Components Details Installed Capacity 252 MW
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Dam height 35m -from river bed level Dam Location 1.75 km d/s of confluence
FRL El 1300 m HRT Length 17.903 km
Design Discharge 120.76 cumec Powerhouse Location Upstream of Simli Gaad
Tail water Level El 1046.45m Design Energy 937 MU
In this scheme, the dam location remained at the same place as mentioned in Alternative -3 and all the benefits of Alternative 3 were available for this alternative too. 6.2 Discussions on Alternative-4 The studies carried out with 35m high dam, as mentioned above, lead to conclusion that it was most viable scheme from Technical, Socio-economic, and Environmental aspects. 7. COMPARISON OF VARIOUS ALTERNATIVES
The comparison of the storage and RoR alternatives is summarized below (see table 5)
Table5. Comparison of various alternatives
Details Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Alternative 3 Alternative 4 Location 1.75 km d/s of
confluence 1.75 km d/s of confluence
1.75 km d/s of confluence
1.75 km d/s of confluence
Dam Height 90 m 60 m 35 m 35 m FRL El 1370m El 1325m El 1300m El 1300m MDDL El 1355m El 1310m EL 1295m El 1295 m Gross Storage
192MCM 65.32 MCM 9.02 MCM 9.02MCM
Live Storage 83.5 MCM 28.64 MCM 3.21 MCM 3.21 MCM HRT Length 12.445 km 12.445 km 12.445 km 17.9 km Design Discharge
8. LOCATION UPSTREAM OF CONFLUENCE OF RIVER PINDER AND KAIL GANGA In addition to above alternative location upstream of the confluence was also studied taking into consideration technical, socio economic, environmental angle. Considering the above aspects, it was not feasible and viable to construct a high dam upstream of confluence on Pinder river upto Milikhet Village. Kailganga water will not be available for use and will remain unutilized. The available design discharge would be only about 87 cumec due to deduction of Kail ganga discharge which contribute 30% of discharge to the Pinder river below the confluence. With this design discharge, the installed capacity would be further reduced to 145 MW. With reduced inflows, it would have been uneconomical to construct a storage dam. 9. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Keeping in view the various technical, Social-economic and Environmental considerations, Alternative 4 with 35 m high concrete dam having 17.9 km long HRT was considered for adoption. The installed capacity of the project shall be 252 MW and design energy of 937 MU. The submergence involved shall only be 82 ha with only 26 families of one village getting displaced. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This paper is made possible through the help and support from Site Engineers and Geologist of Devsari H.E.P, Tharali, Uttarakhand, India and colleagues in Civil Design Department, SJVN Ltd., Shimla, India. Our acknowledgment of gratitude toward the following significant advisors and contributors: We would like to thank Er.K.L.Aumta, AGM (Civil Design) and Er. Vinod Kumar, Sr. Engineer (Civil Design) for their most support and encouragement. They kindly read our paper and offered invaluable detailed advices on the theme and grammar of the paper. REFERENCES Report on studies conducted by SJVN Ltd on “Conversion of Storage scheme to RoR scheme“
as per observations of Standing Technical Committee(STC) submitted to CEA vide letter no SJVN /DHEP/CEA/11-239-241 dated 07/12/2011.
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST
– 6TH
, 2014
Implementation of the Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol:
Implementation by Participation and Impacts on the Society, Economy and Environment
Önder Özen
Deputy Coordinator, Dam Projects Coordination Department, İLCİ Holding & TRCOLD Member, Ankara, Turkey [email protected]
Ergün Üzücek Head of Dams and HEPPs, General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works & TRCOLD Member, Ankara, Turkey
Tuncer Dinçergök Deputy Head of Dams and HEPPs, General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works & TRCOLD Secretary General, Ankara, Turkey
ABSTRACT Turkey, being one of the leading countries in terms of hydro potential development, has numerous completed and ongoing projects ranging from small hydro schemes to large hydro schemes. The Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP) is one of the World’s biggest social and economic development projects including 22 dams and 19 HEPPs which will create an irrigable land of 18’000 km2 by utilizing the hydro potential of Euphrates and Tigris rivers. With an approximate investment value of $3.5 billion, Silvan Project, located in Diyarbakır, Turkey, is one of the largest components of GAP and is the last step to complete GAP. The project includes 8 dams, 1 hydropower station, 242’000 meters of irrigation channel, 2 tunnels with a total length of 15’360 meters and 21 pumping stations. After completion, the project will create 2’570 km2 of irrigable land, employment opportunity to 320’000 people and will have a great impact on the social and the economic development of the region. The annual income is estimated to be $63 million from energy production and $460 million for the agricultural development. Taking into consideration the social impacts combining with the economic development, it is upmost importance that the Governmental Institutions and the Public cooperate at the upmost level to realize the project as soon as possible. This paper focuses on the steps taken by the Government for the public and private sector participation in the project and the effects on society and the government in terms of social, economic and environmental factors. Keywords: Development, Public & Private Sector Participation 1. INTRODUCTION Silvan Project, being one of the largest components of Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP), was initially planned as a water resources development package within the framework of a development program in provinces of Southeastern Turkey in the 1970’s.
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Within time, the project has evolved to a multi-sectoral, socio-economic development program in the 1980’s. The Silvan Scheme has finalized in 2001 with Southeastern Anatolian Project Silvan Project Planning Report. The project has been implemented by State Hydraulic Works of Turkey (DSİ) and GAP Regional Development Administration (GAP-RDA), a separate entity responsible for the coordination of development of the Region in terms of economic, social and environmental development. Once completed, Silvan Project will create an irrigable land of 2’570 km2, employment opportunity to 320’000 people and annual income of $63 million and $460 million from energy production and agricultural development, respectively. 2. PROJECT DEFINITION Silvan Project is located in Silvan of Diyarbakır, Turkey. The main purpose of the project is to increase the development level of the region by utilizing the hydro potential of Ambar, Kuruçay, Pamukçay, Salat, Sinan and Batman creeks, which are tributaries of Tigris River. The project includes 8 dams, 1 hydropower station, 242’000 meters of irrigation channel, 2 water conveying tunnels with a total length of 15’360 meters and 21 pumping stations. Table 1 summarizes the main components and Figure 1 shows the general layout of Silvan Project. Table 1. Main components of Silvan Project
Component Short Information Silvan Dam and HEPP Concrete faced rock fill dam with a height of 174.5 meters.
Hydropower plant has an installed capacity of 160 MW with an annual energy production of 681 GWh. The storage capacity is 6’840 hm3 and will irrigate a land of 2’454 km2.
Babakaya Water Conveying Tunnel
TBM twin tunnels with an internal diameter of 7.00 meters and length of 10’210 meters.
Silvan Water Conveying Tunnel
TBM twin tunnels with an internal diameter of 7.00 meters and length of 5’150 meters.
Irrigation Channels Irrigation channels with a total length of 242’000 meters. Karacalar Storage Dam Clay core rock fill dam with a height of 33.5 meters with a storage
capacity of 24.49 hm3 and will irrigate a land of 51 km2. Kıbrıs Storage Dam Clay core rock fill dam with a height of 33.5 meters with a storage
capacity of 14.24 hm3 and will irrigate a land of 31 km2. Bulaklıdere Storage Dam Clay core rock fill dam with a height of 31.0 meters with a storage
capacity of 24.49 hm3 and will irrigate a land of 59 km2. Başlar Storage Dam Clay core rock fill dam with a height of 25.5 meters with a storage
capacity of 28.87 hm3 and will irrigate a land of 43 km2. Pamukçay Storage Dam Clay core rock fill dam with a height of 31.5 meters with a storage
capacity of 37.60 hm3 and will irrigate a land of 51 km2. Kuruçay Storage Dam Clay core rock fill dam with a height of 32.0 meters with a storage
capacity of 43.27 hm3 and will irrigate a land of 60 km2. Ambar Storage Dam Clay core rock fill dam with a height of 41.0 meters with a storage
capacity of 132.11 hm3 and will irrigate a land of 135 km2. Pumping Stations Various pumping stations with pumping capacities ranging from 0.5
m3/s to 26.36 m3/s.
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Figure 1. General layout of Silvan Project The majority of water which will be utilized for irrigation will be obtained from Silvan Dam reservoir (Silvan Dam itself will irrigate an area of 2’024 km2 and also support the storage dams for an irrigation area of 431 km2). The water will be taken from the reservoir by Babakaya and Silvan Tunnels and will be distributed to the west and east side of the main channel. The capacity of the east side main channel is 5.38 m3/s with a length of 15’773 meters and the capacity of the west side main channel is 208.32 m3/s with a length of 116’534 meters. Additionally, a channel with a capacity of 26.36 m3/s with a length of 126’846 meters will be constructed for pumping irrigation. The storage dams will also have irrigation channels with capacities ranging from 0.79 m3/s to 15.21 m3/s. Silvan Project includes construction of numerous dams and long channels with water distribution pipelines. Since construction of such a project requires a lot of money and time, the project is divided into 4 stages defined in time intervals of 6 years. Within completion of each stage, some part of the land will be able to be irrigated. Since the development will be in stages, the amount of water that will be conveyed from Silvan Reservoir will be increased in time, thus the energy production of Silvan Dam will decrease from 681 GWh to 88.41 GWh. Table 2 shows the development stages of the project. Figure 2 and Figure 3 shows the irrigable land amount for each stage and water usage, respectively. Table 2. Development stages of Silvan Project
Stage Development Plan Stage 1 Silvan Dam and HEPP
Babakaya and Silvan Tunnels Silvan east and west main channels construction starts
Stage 2 Karacalar, Kıbrıs, Bulaklıdere and Başlar storage dams and related components
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71.6 km of west main channel and related components East main channel and related components
Stage 3 Pamukçay, Kuruçay and Ambar storage dams and related components West main channel Various pumping facilities
Stage 4 P5 pumping irrigation and related components
Figure 2. Total irrigable land for each stage
Figure 3. Water usage for irrigation and energy production for each stage 3. AIMS OF THE PROJECT Being one of the major components of GAP, Silvan Project is a multi-sectoral development project which will utilize the water potential of Tigris River’s creeks for a sustainable development for irrigation, flood control, drought control and hydropower generation for Silvan, Diyarbakır area. Being an integrated project, the project aims to improve economic development as well as the social development. The development areas can be divided into 3 categories; agricultural development, industrial development and social development. The main aims of Silvan Project are given as follows:
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
To
tal i
rrig
able
lan
d (
km
2 )
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
857
2143
2570
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
IrrigationEnergy
Wat
er u
sag
e (m
illio
n3/y
ear
)
0
654
2056
450
1597
1791
1410
254
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Management and development of water resources for irrigation, industrial and urban purposes
Improvement of land usage by optimizing crop patterns and agricultural applications Promoting agro-industry Increase the level of social services, education and employment opportunities 4. CURRENT STATUS OF THE PROJECT As stated in Chapter 2, the project is planned to be developed in stages since it is a large scale and multi sectoral huge project which requires an investment time of about 20 years and cost of $3.5 billion. Although the global economic crisis has some effect on the project finance, the construction works as defined in the stages of the project are ongoing and summarized in Table 3. As can be inferred from the table, there are some deviations from the original plan. The reason for this deviation is to utilize some of the storage dams earlier than planned so that the irrigation operations planned for these dams can be started as early as possible without Silvan Reservoirs contribution. Since the irrigation capacities will not be maximized until Silvan Reservoir contribution is completed, the overall benefits and planning will not be affected, however the society will get used to new and modern agricultural methods. Table 3. Current status of the Project
Component Construction Status Silvan Dam and HEPP The construction has started in year 2012 and planned to be
completed in year 2016. Silvan Tunnel The construction has started in year 2012 and planned to be
completed in year 2017. Babakaya Tunnel The construction has started in year 2012 and planned to be
completed in year 2015. Pamukçay Dam The construction has started in year 2010 and completed in year
2013. Ambar Dam The construction has started in year 2011 and planned to be
completed in year 2015. Figure 4 shows some photos from the ongoing construction works for Silvan, Pamukçay and Ambar dams and Silvan Tunnel, respectively. 5. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES As part of Southeastern Anatolian Project, Silvan Project is an integrated sustainable socio-economic development project focusing on investments end development in agriculture, industry, education, health and infrastructure building both urban and rural. After completion, the project will create 2’570 km2 of irrigable land, employment opportunity to 320’000 people and will have a great impact on the social and economic development of the region. Taking into consideration the social impacts combining with the economic development, it is upmost importance, even an obligation, that the Governmental Institutions and the Public cooperate and coordinate at the upmost level to realize the project as soon as and as effective as possible.
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Figure 3. Some photos from the Silvan Project construction works In addition to the Government and Public cooperation, it is also compulsory to attract private sector to the region so that the economic development and rapid increase in employment speed is maximized. To be able to achieve this aim, not only the hydro potential should be developed but also the transportation, energy, industrial and urban infrastructure services so that access of firms to financing sources, building incentive mechanisms in line with the production features of the region, making services by other agencies in the region more effective are improved. Taking into consideration interaction of such different areas should be achieved for a complete realization of the project, one should conclude that extensive planning and coordination is required for the implementation of the project. The above said points are being realized by mobilizing local initiatives and by joint cooperation of different agencies. 5.1. Implementation Principles The implementation principles are basically as follows:
The environmental effects will be minimized as much as possible both in short and long term
A sustainable agricultural and industrial development plan will be implemented The public and the private sector participation will be maximized The programming and the implementation will be based on partnerships and cooperation
and special attention will be given to inter-agency coordination and action synchronization The implementation will be differentiated with respect to both centers with high
development potential and rural/urban settlements Self-sufficiency principle will be taken as the main approach for economic and social
support schemes Efficiency will be ensured in terms of resource utilization by detailed and time based
prioritization The municipalities will be involved in implementation and coordination
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5.2. Implementation Policies and Strategies The basic policies for implementation of Silvan Project are as follows:
To be able to provide new business opportunities, economic growth will be maintained by the opportunities created by Silvan Project
The productivity and competitiveness of enterprises will be enhanced by bringing in more flexibility to labor markets
The quality of labor force will be improved through active employment policies so that the employment will expand in parallel to regions economic growth
Institutional capacity will be increased so that the services delivery is more effective and makes the region more attractive by introducing various incentives
The trade with the bordering countries will be increased To be able to improve the business environments, the competitive power of the region will be increased by developing a production culture and developing labor force in parallel to economic development. After full development of Silvan Project, the economic relations with bordering countries will be expanded so that the goods produced from the region can be exported. The labor market, which is one of the most important parameters for development, will be enhanced by providing education and practices so that further skills and qualifications are gained. Labor productivity will be increased, productive employment opportunities will be provided and finding creative jobs will be encouraged. The Silvan Project construction, itself will create a lot of employment opportunities and will add quality to the labor force of the region. The cooperation between private sector, universities and the public sector will be increased and the administrative defects will be eliminated which is expected to create a dynamic and competitive social and business development environment. To be able to implement the mentioned policies the following strategies are being followed:
People’s participation in project development and implementation will be ensured for sustainable development. To ensure participation, emphasis will be given to training and organization of people in all related matters and dimensions.
To be able to minimize the costs, priority is being given to efforts to streamline information exchange between the project’s planners, executors and its users
The efforts for the project development will be supported by public administration and efficient coordination is being achieved between the parties
A variety of financing methods including private sector, public-private partnership models and direct foreign investments will be supported
5.3. Actions The actions for the implementation of the Silvan Project are summarized in Table 4. Table 4. Summary of actions for the implementation of Silvan Project
Action Responsible Institutions To attract private sector investments, the system of incentives developed for the country as a whole are being re-arranged by taking into consideration regional and sectoral characteristics.
Undersecrecretariat of Treasury
Special programs are being implemented to increase Regions’ export capacity
Undersecrecretariat of Foreign trade
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Cooperation between enterprises are supported Ministry of Industry and Defense
The financing opportunities are being increased Undersecrecretariat of Treasury, Development Bank, Agricultural Bank
Investment projects are being supported Small and Medium Industry Development Organization
Cultural assets will be protected and promoted Ministry of Culture and Tourism, General Directorate of Foundation
Forests will be expended and dams will be protected from erosion Ministry of Environment and Forestry
Agricultural productivity is being increased and agro-based industry will be promoted
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs
Enrollment ratio in secondary education will be raised to 95% Ministry of National Education
Labor force training programs will be expanded Turkish Employment Institution
Delivery of training and consultancy services to people who wants to start their own business is being provided
Turkish Employment Institution
A grant programme for creating employment will be developed and implemented
Turkish Employment Institution
Continuous education centers will be established Dicle University Health infrastructure is being increased Ministry of Health Social status of women are being increased Governorships, GAP
Regional Development Agency
In projects under construction, priority is given to main channel construction
State Hydraulic Works
Irrigation network will be completed as soon as possible State Hydraulic Works On farm drainage works will be completed State Hydraulic Works Energy transmission lines to be renewed, completed Turkish Electricity
Distribution Company Waste water network will be improved and treatment facilities will be built
Municipalities
Although numerous agencies and institutions are involved in the implementation of Silvan project, 2 of them become prominent, namely GAP Regional Development Administration (GAP-RDA) and State Hydraulic Works (DSİ). GAP RDA was established upon the Law Decree no 388 to ensure rapid development of the project by administering and coordination of different stakeholders involved or effected by the project in 1989. DSİ, established in 1954, on the other hand, is one of the most important and active institutions of Turkey responsible for the planning, designing and developing water resources. It has succeeded many projects and made a great contribution to the development of Turkey. 6. SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 6.1. Social Effects
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Silvan Project’s main target is to create a sustainable development model which at the end will decrease the difference between the region and Turkey’s other regions social and economic development. Within this framework, as briefly summarized in the previous chapters, numerous organizations and institutions are involved for the social development of the region. Being known that economic development is one of the first priorities for the social development, for the time being the most of the focus is given on the timely completion of the Silvan Project Construction. The social effects of the project are summarized below:
The ratio of literacy level especially for women will be increased. According to the statistical data, the literacy level for women has increased from 71.9% to 90% between years 1990 and 2012.
A participatory and democratic culture is being developed in the region. With the establishment of community-based women’s Centers (ÇATOMs), women and
girls are receiving health care services and gain skills in areas such as hygiene, home economics and income generation. In the long term, the abilities and knowledge gained from these centers will be transferred to the children which at the end will increase the regions social development level and economy.
“Start Your Own Business” trainings are being received by the local people. Such initiatives will make the people to interact with the developed areas more densely and this will increase the social and economic perspective of the regions people.
With the establishment of youth centers, the living standards of the low income families’ children are being developed.
The education quality is being increased. For example the number of students per teacher has decreased from 31.1 to 30.4 between years 1990~2012.
The quality of health services is being increased with a high rate. The number of hospitals has been increased from 722 to 857 between years 1990~2012, whereas number of persons per doctor has decreased from 2152 to 750 (this data is for all the GAP region)
Infant mortality rate has decreased to 0.031 from 0.066 Since the project is a long term project, it is expected that the social impacts will be more visible in the long term. However, according to the initial observations and raw data, the project has a positive effect on the society. 6.2. Economic Effects With an approximate investment value of $3.5 billion, Silvan Project will create 2’570 km2 of irrigable land, employment opportunity to 320’000 people and will have a great impact on the social and the economic development of the region. The annual income is estimated to be $63 million from energy production and $460 million for the agricultural development.
The net annual income from the agricultural land will increase by 640% in case the full development of Silvan Project is achieved.
The net annual income per family will be increased by 475% in case the full development of Silvan Project is achieved.
The need for labor will increase 78.15 days per year, which will increase the employment ratio.
The gross domestic product composition will increase to 29.8% from 15.69% and to 47.00% from 44.75 for the industrial and services sectors, respectively.
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6.3. Environmental Effects and Measures Silvan Project is a large scale project extended in the whole Silvan region. The environmental effects during construction will be minimized by applying standard practice measures during construction works. There will be some expropriation and resettlement operation, especially for the reservoir areas. A total number of 31’400 people in the whole project area will be resettled because of the reservoir creation. The total forest area of 150km2 will be inundated and a total area of about 50km2 will be expropriated. The forest areas will be deforested before impounding operation and new forest areas will be created. There is no historical areas being effected from Silvan Project. The main focus in fact is given to minimize the environmental effects after full development of the project which will be due to irrigation and industrial development. The mitigation of all environmental impacts, included in the environmental management plans, covers all direct and indirect impacts in all phases and the plans will be followed strictly. The potential environmental impacts in terms of hydrology, pollution, geology, ecology and health are assessed and positive and negative effects and relevant mitigation measures are defined.
The GAP Administration gives priority to projects related to the environment to balance the possible effect of dams, promoting water recycling and avoiding environmental problems such as salinity and waterlogging.
Eco-City approaches are being promoted. Municipalities are being promoted for the utilization of treatment facilities since the
industrial activities are being expected to be increased after project development. Some hotspot areas are determined so that the effects of the project on the environment can
be followed closely. The farmers are being trained to promote soil conservation The project will not affect the aquatic ecosystem since there is no fish live in the creeks. There is a wide variety of land ecosystem in the region. Although the project components
are not expected to give damage to this ecosystem it is expected that after full development, there is risk of contamination from disease and insect control methods for the agriculture. To minimize this effect, the farmers are being educated for the optimum usage of chemicals and organic farming is being promoted.
7. CONCLUSIONS Silvan Project is a social development project giving focus on sustainable development. As defined by World Commission on Environment and Development for sustainable development, the project will “meet the needs of present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Under the above said perspective there is a huge amount of issues such as social, economic, cultural, gender, health, agricultural and environmental. To handle such variety of issues, human being is selected as the main focus of the project both as an object and an agent for the project. Numerous Governmental, Private institutors and Society are cooperating for the realization of the project with the Government’s support.
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Once completed, it is expected that the regions’ social and economic level will be increased considerably with a sustainable development project. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The writers wish to thank to State Hydraulic Works and GAP Regional Development Agency for providing of information related to the Silvan Project. Also we want to acknowledge the people who has been involved in the project from the project planning stage to the construction stages for the realization of such kind of a project. Their past efforts and future efforts will never be forgotten by the Turkish Nation.
REFERENCES
Suİş Engineering and Consultancy & Sial Engineering and Consultancy (2001): GAP Silvan Project Planning Report, Ankara, Turkey
Muammer, Y.Ö. (2004): Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP) as Sustainable Development Project, Fourth Biennal Rosenberg International Forum on Water Policy, Ankara, Turkey
GAP Regional Development Administration (2008): Southeastern Anatolian Project Action Plan (2008-2012), Ankara, Turkey
Ali, E.E. (2006): Social and Economic Impacts of the Southeastern Anatolia Projects, Thesis Submitted to the Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences of Middle East Technical University, METU, Ankara, Turkey
As a clean energy resource, hydropower is always considered as the key aspect in energy
development. For most of developing counties, its modernization needs the development of
hydropower resources. But, on the other hand, the ecological and environmental problems
caused by dam construction will directly related to the sustainable development of river
basin. How to harmonize the development of hydropower resources and the protection of
environment and ecological system, and to make people friendly living with nature will
become an importment issues for dam industry. It could be expected that the restriction
from the requirement of environment protection will become more and more important
factors for hydropower development.
The ecological and environmental impacts of hydropower development involve many
problems. Among these, engineering design and construction is one of the important
aspects. In the traditional construction manner of hydropower project, large amount open
excavation of mountains and earth borrow for dam filling are the common practices of civil
works. Thus, the local environment will be severely damaged. In the future, this rough
construction method will be restricted by the consideration of environment protection.
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How to shift traditional idea of project design and construction and to build environmental
friendly project is an urgent problem to be solved by present hydropower engineers.
Fro protecting environment during design and construction of a hydropower project, the
first thing is to follow the principal of sustainable development in the design. The concept
of environment protection should be fully considered in every aspects of the project, such
as: selection of dam-site and dam type, general layout, etc. During construction, all the
feasible environment friendly measures should be applied. Take an example of earth and
rockfill dam, large-scale open excavation of abutment should be avoided and most of the
affiliated structures could be set underground. But even though, it still has the problems of
utilizing the excavated material. In the design and construction, the discarded or rejected
material should be minimized to keep the balance of excavation and filling. Besides, in the
construction of earth dam, the clay material for core is usually taken from farmland, which
could cause ruin of arable land. To extend scope of core material usage by systematic
researches, such as using weathered material or other wide gradation gravelly soil, reduce
or not use farmland clay material, is also an important way to construct environment
friendly hydropower project.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF HYDROPOWER PROJECT
During past practices of hydropower development, the impacts on environment are often
neglected. In recent year, with economic development and people’s awareness of
environment problems, the protection of ecological system and environment has gained
more and more attentions. But then, it should also be point out, when dealing with the
problems of hydropower development and environment protection, the negative effects are
more emphasized. In fact, the effect of hydropower development on environment has both
negative and positive aspect. As a clean and renewable resource, hydropower plays an
important role in reducing greenhouse gas emission and air pollution. In river flood control
and flood disaster mitigation, the functions of large capacity reservoir are even more
important and could not be superseded. Besides, a well-planned and properly operated
hydropower project may create a better environment. At the same time, by rational
distribution of water resources, the environment of those ecological weakly or endangered
areas could be improved, such as the ecological water supply for Talimu Lake and
Baiyangdian Lake in China.
Based on present knowledge, the main negative impacts of hydropower development could
be summarized as follows:
（1） Impact on river ecology. After dam construction, the natural river flow was blocked.
It could alter the river flow regime and the original rules of sediment movement.
Furthermore, the hydrological characteristics of upstream, downstream and estuary
will also be changed. All these could result in ecological environment changes of
the whole river.
（2） Impacts of inundation. After dam construction, many people will be resettled. This
issue is more severe in China for its large population. Besides, the rising water level
will inundate farmlands, mineral resources and culture relics. Especially, for some
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remote area, reservoir inundation may destroy the particular local culture heritage.
（3） Impacts on biodiversity in the river basin area. The construction of dam and the
existence of reservoir could lead to rapid changes of ecological environment in
dam-site area and reservoir area. The natural habitat may be damaged. Plant and
animalcule resources may be seriously affected which might even lead to the lost of
some species. At present, the most concerned problem is the impact on migrating
fish. Besides, the impact on forest resources by civil works such as: excavation,
slop cutting, access road construction, etc. is also one of the important issues.
（4） Geological disaster caused by reservoir. After dam construction, the variation of
hydrological and geological environment in reservoir area may lead to some
geological disasters caused by reservoir impoundment, such as: landslide, bank
collapse, etc.
（5） Water interception or river break caused by water diversion project or diversion
type power station. Water diversion project and diversion type power station that
are not properly planned could lead to water interception of the river. It may cause
ecological problems and difficulties for local people’s livelihood.
（6） Ecological impacts of dam-site area caused by civil works. Construction of large-
scale hydropower project will involve many civil works, such as: slope cutting,
quarry or borrow area excavation, river diversion, spoil dumping, etc. Improper
dealing with these works will cause soil erosion or mud-rock flow. At the same
time, the vegetation and landscape will also be affected. Besides, improper dispose
of the redundant excavated material or discarded concrete will also have some
impacts on environment.
（7） Dam breaching. After dam construction, the safety of dam will be a kind of risk
that may cause fatal flood to the people living downstream. If the safety measures
and mitigation measures are not sufficient, it may bring about great losses of
people’s life and properties.
In the past practices of hydropower project construction in China, the basic principals are
safety, economic and technically feasible. With the social progress and economic
development, environment protection in hydropower development is greatly concerned. In
recent years, the report of feasibility study or preliminary design of a hydropower project
must include an independent chapter on environment assessment. But even though, in most
of the cases, ecological and environmental problems are still not highly emphasized in
decision making. In the design and construction of future’s hydropower project, the
requirement on economic, social, ecological will be higher and higher. So, environment
problem should be put in a very important (or principal) position. In every stage, like:
planning, investigation, design, construction and operation, ecology and environment
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protection should be considered with priority. This is a win-win strategy for resources
development and ecological environment protection.
3. CONSTRUCTION OF AN ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY PROJECT
To construct an environment friendly hydropower project, the most important aspect is the
idea of decision makers. Actually, every hydropower project has multi-functions. For the
past projects, economic benefit is more emphasized. In the future, the construction goal of
all the hydropower projects must follow the principal of sustainable development and the
factors of social, ecology and environment should be put in an important and conditional
position.
Construction of an environment friendly hydropower project should consider many
influential factors. In the engineering design of a project, the concept of ecological design,
which is accepted in industry in 1990’s, should be used for reference. Ecological design,
also called green design, life circle design or environment design, is a kind of design
method that could include ecological factors in consideration and help designer to
determine the correct direction in decision making. Ecological design request the factors of
environment be considered in the every stages of the project and to mitigate environment
impacts in the whole life circle of the project. All these efforts will finally lead to a
sustainable hydropower project.
By taking examples of embankment dam and rockfill dam, several aspects on environment
issues in the design and construction of hydropower project are discussed as follows:
3.1. Determination of dam site and dam type
In conventional design concept of earth and rockfill dam, dam site and dam axis are mainly
determined by topography, geology, general layout and construction conditions. For
different dam site, its environmental and ecological impacts could not be the same. In the
planning and design, several possible plans should be presented for comparing the
ecological and environment impacts. The final decision will be made by integrated
consideration of ecological, environmental, economic and technical aspects. Here, the main
considerations on ecological environment are: inundation of natural habitat for wildlife and
plants, protection of peculiar terrestrial wildlife, protection of culture relics, avoiding soil
erosion, etc. Inundation caused by dam construction is unavoidable. In some cases, by
creating artificial ecological protection area, the environment losses could be partly
compensated. But the adjustment of dam site or reservoir water level may be the ultimate
solution, although it may cause some economic losses.
In the design of earth and rockfill dam, the most commonly used dam types are:
homogenous earth dam, central core or inclined core rockfill dam, concrete faced rockfill
dam, etc. As a dam mainly use local materials, earth and rockfill dam usually have great
advantages in economic comparison. But as its large volumes and most of the construction
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materials will come from excavation, the construction impacts on ecological environment
are also obvious. For some cases, the clay core material may take from arable lands, which
could directly destroy farmlands. Thus, for dam type selection, local situations and
material sources should be fully considered to minimize the impacts on ecological
environment, such as: using sandy gravel material in flood plain, using excavated material
of tunnel or spillway excavation, using other materials substitute the clay core by meeting
the same requirement for strength and permeability.
As the relatively weak scour resistance of earth and rockfill dam, it cannot bear reservoir
water overflow. For reducing breaching risk, the selection of dam site and dam type will
also need careful studies on reservoir bank stability, to let the dam site keep a certain
distance from the potential landslide area.
3.2. General layout
In addition to dam, the general layout of a hydropower project will also includes flood
discharge structures, powerhouse, navigation structures, fish pass, etc. Besides, it also
involves: cofferdam, diversion structures, access road, etc. A rational layout of hydropower
project should minimize the impacts on environment.
In the layout of rockfill dam, there are four kinds of powerhouse, which are: bank side
powerhouse, downstream powerhouse, separate bank side powerhouse and underground
powerhouse. For the bank side powerhouse, it usually involves high slope excavation. To
avoid this effect, the powerhouse could be arranged at downstream side of the dam or
underground by considering the topography and geology conditions.
Figure 1 Typical underground powerhouse
In the construction of hydropower project, the arrangement of access road and camps will
also have certain effects on the environment of dam site area. The access road should keep
away from the ecological corridor of wildlife to minimize the related impacts. When
necessary, tunnel connecting can be used for avoiding large-scale excavation. At the same
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time, the road engineering should also ensure proper drainage to protect natural waterways
and minimize erosion.
In the layout of flood discharge structure, the effect of scouring and atomized rain is one of
the main reasons for causing bank slide. For rockfill dam, whether the spillway is properly
designed will directly relate to the safety of the dam.
3.3. Section design and material sources
In the section design of rockfill dam, the main target is the zoning of different materials. In
the past, some research works were carried out in rational utilization of different materials
for the dams. But the start point for these research works are mainly focus on economic
benefit or due to the lack of available materials. Problems on ecological environment are
seldom considered as the main factor in decision-making.
Figure 2 Typical section of rockfill dam
Except for the homogenous earth dam, most of rockfill dams are generally composed with
different material zones, which include: impermeable zone, filter zone, transitional zone
and permeable zone. For rockfill dam, especially for high rockfill dam, this zoning
structure is very important. In the zoning design, the basic principal is try to use local
materials adequately, and rational put the materials in different zones according to its
engineering properties, distribution in time and space and the impacts on dam structure. In
the consideration of environment, the primary issue is the source of construction materials.
As the large volume of rockfill dam, the amount of fill material is huge. What material can
be used? Where these materials come from? The decision of the questions will definitely
have direct impacts on environment of engineering area. In the past practices, core
materials are usually taken from the deep overburden area near dam site. These areas are
usually suitable for plant growth. Large-scale excavation may destroy the original plant
ecology. Besides, in some cases, the core material is directly taken from farmland. This
could destroy many arable lands and further affect local people’s livelihood and cause
social problems. The rockfill material of rockfill dam may involve large-scale quarry
excavation and thus may cause the damage of natural habitat and biodiversity. By
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considering the above facts, in the dam section design, the selected materials should have
less environment impacts. And on the other hand, the range of materials usage could also
be expanded by further research on the engineering properties of construction materials. In
this field, Chinese scholars have done a lot of research works and made fruitful
achievements. Such as: the weathered rock material was used as core material in Lubuge
Project, wide gradation gravelly soil were used as core materials in Pubugou Project, soft
rock materials were used in Daao, Yutiao and Panshitou CFRDs.
For reducing the environmental impacts of quarry and borrow area excavation, the
excavated materials from the construction of other structures should be fully used to get a
balance between excavation and fill. By using the excavated materials sufficiently, the
amount of quarry excavation will be reduced or even not be used. For example, for
Tianshenqiao-1 CFRD, the spillway was arranged at a solution limestone saddle with
large-scale excavation of approach channel. Although the excavation amount was
increased, all the excavated materials were use for dam construction. The 180 million
cubic miters rockfill of the dam was mainly come from spillway excavation. Another
example is the Ming tomb pumped storage station. The upper reservoir was formed by
excavation. All the excavated materials were used for dam construction. No special quarry
was used. Thus, the environment and landscape of the circumjacent area were protected.
For the fully use of the excavated material, the zoning and slope of the dam were also
modified in the final design.
In planning the source of construction material, the quarry and borrow area should be set in
the upstream inundated area. If the topography and geology condition are not allowed,
corresponding ecological compensation measures should be considered in the planning.
Such as: to creation artificial wetlands with the function of ecological improvement by
using the low areas formed by material excavation.
Figure 3 Ming Tomb pumped storage station
3.4. Application of the ecological friendly construction methods
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The principals for building an environment friendly hydropower project should be: to
minimize the damage of the natural environment, to harmonize the engineering structure
and environment.
Specially, the every aspects of construction process should be restricted by the
requirements of environment protection. The construction organization and
implementation must be elaborate. By using information technology and GPS technology,
the scale of excavation and fill should be accurately controlled. For the contractors,
effective review and supervision should be carried out in camp setting, auxiliary facilities,
waste dispose, waste water treatment, management of workers, etc.
For the application of construction material, it should be keep in mind the principal of
harmony with natural environment. The green and ecological friendly materials should be
used with priority. When building slope protection or earth retaining structures, proper
drainage passage should be arranged. The best materials for this structure should be that
with pore canal, easy for plant growing, accord with living environment of local aquatic
animals or amphibious animals. An example is shown in Fig. 4. The protection of slope
foot is a placed rockfill structure. The material and appearance of this structure has a
natural form. The gaps can be used for plant growth and animal living.
Figure 4 Earth retaining structure by placed rockfill
Besides, for the structure of riverbank protection, gabions made by high strength
geosynthetic are usually better than concrete structure in adapting environment. As its
flexibility in adapting deformation and friendly for plant growth, gabion structure always
provides better landscape. Also, the earth retaining structures constructed by geosynthetic
or geo-grid and the slope protection net made by geodynthetic can adapt the topography
conditions of engineering site. At the same time, the surface of the structure can be jetted
with grass seed or planted with tress. When grasses or trees grow up, the structure will get
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along the surrounding environment. In addition to the function of landscape, it can also
provide living environment for small animals or insects.
Figure 5 Bank protection by gabion Figure 6 Culvert pipe passage
For keeping biodiversity in dam site area, the natural passage of animals should not be
blocked by access road construction. The original waterway system in dam site area will
also be protected. These passage or drainage could be established by bridge or culvert pipe.
3.5. Ecological rejuvenation after construction
From the procedures of hydropower project development, although some environmental
protection measures are applied in design and construction, the impacts on ecological
environment still cannot be fully avoided. As compensation measures, ecological
rejuvenation after construction should also be considered in the construction of an
environment friendly project. For this purpose, the first thing is the clear classification of
the ecological and environmental damages caused by project construction. Ecological
rejuvenation and treatment measures should be considered in advance during design and
construction. And the measures will be properly applied after project construction. The
main contents of ecological rejuvenation will be: recovery of forest resources, recovery of
landscape, setting artificial fish hatcheries, setting protected area for wildlife rescue, waste
water treatment, recovery of the quarry or borrow area pits or using it to create artificial
wet lands. Here, ecological rejuvenation does not only means recovery or compensation.
With proper measures, a more beautiful ecological environment can be created. Such as:
create valuable lands by using waste rockfill or by leveling the quarry or borrow area, keep
the cultivated soil of the quarry surface and pave it on the ground for agriculture, soil and
water conservation measures at dam site, developing new scenery sight by using dam
created lake, etc.
4. CONCLUSION
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In summary, the development of hydropower resources needs comprehensive consideration
and review of the social, economical and ecological factors. By investigating the past
experiences and applying proper mitigation measures, the negative impacts of hydropower
project construction can be minimized to an acceptable level while its huge economic
benefit and positive ecological effects can be fully bring into play. The key for this goal is
to establish a design principals based on sustainable development. Former engineers
mainly care on how to construct a safe and economic viable dam. The development of
future’s hydropower project requires engineers to responsible both on hydropower
construction and environment protection. To establish a framework on ecological friendly
hydropower project construction is the only way to harmonize the resources development
and ecological environmental protection.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author thanks Professor Jiang Guocheng’s comments on the paper and also appreciates chief
engineers He Shaoling and Yang Xiaoqing’s review.
REFERENCES
Proceedings of Symposium on Environmental Considerations for Sustainable Dam Project,
ICOLD 72nd Annual Meeting, May 16-22, 2004, Seoul, Korea.
Final Proceedings of Symposium on Benefits and Concerns about Dams, 13th Sept. 2001,
Dresden.
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST
– 6TH
, 2014
Integrated Water Resource Planning for South Africa: Water Use Efficiency hhdTTjjhkljdjjsgshjhfsdkjhskslsl;s;s;;s;;s;;sjsjkjffffrtttttttfggjfgjgkfkjkjf fffffjfjjfkkfjjj
T Nditwani, Chief Water Resource Planner, Directorate: National Water Resource Planning Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Private Bag X313, Pretoria 000, Republic of South Africa (RSA)
ABSTRACT Until recently, public safety has been a rather neglected topic in Slovenia. To ensure public safety, safety-aware companies have used the existing legislation governing the provision of safety in construction sites and on identified bathing waters. As in Slovenia, water and waterside land (watercourses, water bodies) is mostly characterised as public asset, there was, in general, a lack of legislative basis that would enable the managers to restrict movement and activities in the areas lying within close proximity to dams. However, the accident at the Blanca HPP and the recent review of the state of water management works in Slovenia have shown the necessity of dedicating more attention to the problem of public safety and public awareness. As an upgrade of the analysis of the current state and instructions for improvement of public awareness and emergency procedures for the population, an on-line presentation of dams, their characteristics and problems associated with their existence, which also touched upon the problems originating from insufficient maintenance, problems and risks caused by improper operation, exploitation of the dams and the reservoir area was prepared for the Ministry of Defence. The paper presents the current situation of public safety in Slovenia and searches for the opportunities to make a better use of the existing legislation and for rapid actions that could contribute to improve the situation in this area. Keywords: Dam safety, upgrade of the monitoring system, operative monitoring, early warning system, public defense
For a long time in Slovenia, the problem of public safety around dams had been somehow misunderstood and only partially treated. This aspect of safety was often confused with the aspect of public protection. The attempts to raise public awareness often revolved around the discussion about the impact of the dam on the environment and space. However, the majority of the owners and managers adopted some basics measures to ensure better public safety. Accidents that occurred in the last years on some of the dams as well as the recent review of the state of the Slovene dams with water management purpose have prompted the reflection and discussion about the responsibility for such accidents, resulting in people and owner awareness that something should be done to increase and encourage a broader view of the problem. In recent decades, several accidents occurred on the dams in Slovenia: • Mavčiče (1993) as a consequence of irregular operation of hydro mechanical
equipment • Drtijščica (2010) as a consequence of improper design of dam evacuation structures • Formin (2012) as a consequence of improper operating regime of a hydropower plant
chain during extreme floods
Luckily, only material damage was caused in all the events, despite the potential threat to human life based on the degree of the events. Of more concern are cases that caused human casualties through negligence and disregard of safety measures of participants in the accidents: • Blanca (2008) – the accident caused 13 fatalities due to disregard of safety protocols
and failure to comply with restrictions of movement at the HPP Blanca construction site
• Solkan (2012) – the accident caused one fatality due to disregard of warning signs regarding the risk of operational waves downstream the dam
It is only after the accident on the Blanca dam that the responsible parties – the authorities and involved organizations – started to look at the problem as a whole, not only from the perspective of ensuring the safe operation and prevention of access by unauthorized persons to vital equipment or parts of the dam, but also from the perspective of identifying the possible hazards and ensure safety of the beneficiaries of dams and reservoir and of the river as well as the safe use of the reservoir and possible consequences of interaction between the public and the dam, reducing in this way the possibility of occurrence of situations that could cause significant damage on the dam, the population and stakeholders. 2. THE IMPACT OF THE PURPOSE ON THE APPROACH OF PUBLIC
SAFETY There are over 68 dams in Slovenia, 39 of them are large dams according to the current ICOLD categorization (35 higher than 15 m). The first dam was constructed in 1769, while the majority of dams were constructed between 1950 and 1990. While smaller reservoirs are mainly intended for water management and irrigation, among large reservoirs those intended for hydro power production prevail. The primary purpose of 54% of aforementioned 39 large dams is hydropower production, 35% of dams were constructed for flood protection, water management and irrigation, and 5% of the dams were constructed for commercial purposes such as recreation. In many cases different during the
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life of a dam unforeseen uses of the reservoir (for example recreation, nature protected areas) and in dam influence area join the basic design purpose of the dam; indeed,this unforeseen “associated uses” of the reservoirs have significant affect on the normal operation and maintenance and can even cause major problems.
Figure 1: Dams in Slovenia A major part of large dams in Slovenia is state-owned, i.e. only few are owned by private companies or municipalities. According to legislation, the owner is responsible for dam safety and also for the safety of the facility in terms of safe use and exploitation. In most cases the management and operation is entrusted to different public and semi-private companies (hydro power companies and water management companies etc.). These companies take care of the operation and maintenance of the dams as well as the performance of monitoring. However, there is a major difference between the dams for hydropower production and the dams for water management purposes: the dam meant for hydropower production are handed over to the concessionaires with a full concession, which transfers all the obligations of the owner to the concessionaires, including the management of the financial assets. In these cases the concessionaire is responsible for dam and public safety in the area of influence. Dams for water management purposes rarely have incomes as high as dams for hydropower purposes; the funds for regular maintenance and also the activities to ensure safety of dams and public safety, as well as the approval of all activities depends on the government services. Therefore, the responsibility itself is shared and unclear. Large dams are under the supervision of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Environment (2012) and the Inspectorate of RS for Agriculture and the Environment. The emergency
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preparedness plans are under the supervision of the Ministry of Defence. Smaller and medium size dams are not explicitly subject to Inspectorate’s supervision. But the supervision covers mainly the basic control of proper operation and the availability and the adequacy of the operational documentation, rather than the safety aspect of the dams and proper use of the reservoir. At first sight more attention to public safety is being paid on the dams for hydropower production. The access to the dam site is in most cases completely restricted. Indeed, the recent accident on HPPs excluded the liability of the operators who are under a legal obligation to define the platform for provision of public safety at the stage of spatial contextualisation of dams and the elaboration of the EIA study (Environmental Impact Assessment). On the other hand, dams for different water management purposes are easily accessed. Access is limited only in areas of lifting mechanisms and to the control facility. The range of measures to ensure public safety is therefore somewhat limited, but jet far from being absent and sometimes oriented even more in elimination of possible hazards.
Picture 2: The dams for water management are easily accessible – signs warning about dangers, and restriction of movement
For the dams owned by private owners, the extent of measures to ensure public safety still vary depending on operator awareness, but is in general much more limited than in both cases mentioned above and sometimes even absent.
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Figure 3: Privately owned dam very poorly mantained – a picnic area downstream of the dam
3. OVERVIEW OF THE PUBLIC SAFETY AROUND DAMS AND CURRENT SITUATION
Already before Slovenia’s declaration of independence, there were no legal provisions that would refer only to measures for public safety around dams and many owners have relied on other provisions and acts, such as the former Construction Act and Occupational Safety Act and Rules on the provision of security in mobile construction sites. Today we still lack provisions that would stipulate the requirements for the provision of measures to ensure public safety. Although the requirements have not changed much, a look at the current state of public safety reveals that the measures for public safety around dams in Former Yugoslavia were conceived wider and were stringent than they are now in Slovenia. If we give a very general overview of the measures that were intentionally or unintentionally adopted and implemented on the dams in the past, we can say that the level of care for public safety (although taken to protect the equipment more than to protect the beneficiaries from injuries or damage) was higher in the Former Yugoslavia, since already the access to the infrastructure and facilities was more restricted than nowadays. Today, as in the past, the scope of the measures for provision of safety depends on the purpose of the dam. The range of measures that were in some way related to the security and public safety was understandably higher for the dams for hydropower production already in Former Yugoslavia. The reason for this less strict approach could be found in the change of the classification and definition of these structures, particularly the dams retaining water. The water is defined as a public good by the Water law. That means that the infrastructure that was once classified as the infrastructure of national importance is now considered as water infrastructure in many cases and therefore the object of public good or the area of influence is considered such. The decision to limit the access to the dam site and to the impact area and restriction of activities in the areas of influence is therefore hardly made by the owner (especially when the owner is the state itself).
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Figure 4: Restriction of the access to the mechanical equipment On the other hand, parties such as environmentalists and fishermen, supported by the Environment Protection Act and Nature Conservation Art, are very firm and opinionated when setting the conditions that can also affect the operation and maintenance of the dam. When comparing the dams built in the former country to the dams built after the independence we can see that:
• The dams built after the independence are easier accessible and less protected • There are less restrictions in terms of use and associated use (recreation, fishery
ect.) • Due to unregulated property ownership, there is high interference of owners of the
land in proximity of the dam and the reservoir and in the impact area As in the past, today the care for public safety is higher on dams for hydroelectric production, but it is still largely based on the aspect or principle of preventing direct access of unauthorized persons to the dam site and equipment, and not on the identification of hazards that could lead to malfunction, damage and, finally, injuries or casualties. Therefore associated uses of the reservoir, the recreation areas downstream of the dam or navigation in the reservoir still remain improperly addressed – with inadequate or absent signs, audio signals and detected (unpunished) access and without a legal basis for objection to environmentalists conditions (e.g. the expansion of Natura 2000 sites is underway without regard to other stakeholders). After the accident on the Blanca dam, an attempt has been made by the Ministry of Defence to raise the public awareness and to draw the owners and public attention to the problem of ensuring dam safety and safe operation. As a result of the study, some recommendations were elaborated to ensure safe operation and appropriate action in
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response to all the situation a dam may face. In addition, some proposals to improve public safety in normal and exceptional conditions have been prepared. Although the attempt to inform the people – both those who deal with dams on a daily basis and those who are only occasional users – about the hazards and possible measures resonated strongly, the awareness, particularly of general population, visitors and users still fail to detect the hazards associated with improper use of the dams. This mainly reflects in the setting-up of public areas (picnic places, cottages etc.) where people gather and stay downstream of the dams, where the impacts of the operation of the facilities can be still detected, or in sailing, swimming or navigation in close proximity to the facilities for the evacuation of water, gates etc.
Figure 5: Children paddling upstream of the gates
As mentioned, the main problem of providing public safety is that dams retaining water have been classified as water infrastructure and that water is defined as public good. This is one of the main reasons why restrictions of movement in dam areas are rarely put in place. Most dams can be easily reached from land or water and are often seen by the public as a great place for leisure activities and recreation. 4. UTILIZATION OF EXISTING LEGAL PROVISIONS GRANTING SAFE USE
AND PUBLIC SAFETY
The legislation concerning dam safety may be scattered and loose, but there is, in fact, no legislation addressing the problem of public safety around the dams. Despite the absence of the legislation covering the public safety directly, we can find many provisions that can be used as a basis for provision of public safety around dams.
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Even though it is written for employers and employees, the basis of public safety is laid down by the Occupational Health and Safety Act which imposes the employer to provide the necessary actions to ensure the safety of workers and other persons present in the work process, including prevention, elimination and control of hazards at work, information and training, with proper organization and necessary material resources. The employer should take into account the following basic principles:
- Avoiding hazards; - Risk assessment; - Managing the risks at source; - Adapting to Technical Progress; - Replacing the dangerous by the non-dangerous or the less dangerous; - Developing a comprehensive security policy; - Giving collective protective measures priority over individual protective measures; - Giving appropriate instructions and information to workers.
The Construction Act stipulates that each construction should meet one, several or all of the following essential requirements in all phases of life, i.e. mechanical resistance and stability, fire safety, hygiene and health protection, environmental protection, and safety of use. According to the Waters Act everyone has the duty to protect the quality and quantity of water and reduce the environmental consequences to a minimum. The law imposes to the owners of the infrastructure intended for hydropower production, irrigation to ensure safety of the facility and equipment from harmful effects of water, and sets the restrictions associated with the general use of water and water infrastructure that offer the basis for public protection. For the dams with the reservoirs retaining water the Act on Protection against drowning should be considered, as well as the Rules on technical measures and requirements for the safe operation of natural and organized pools and nevertheless the Act on natural and other disasters protection. The Act on Protection Against Drowning says that the owner or other person entitled to water and waterside land or the water rights holder must ensure the conditions for the prevention or mitigation of drowning and conditions for water rescue. The laws mentioned above are complemented by the Penal Code (the section thirty “Offences against the general safety of people and property deals with and section thirty two “Offences against the environment and natural resources”), as well as the Rules on technical measures and requirements for the safe operation of natural and organized pools and, last but not least, the Protection Against Natural and Other Disasters Act (Regulation on the provision of occupational health and safety at temporary or mobile construction sites). The listed provision set the basis for the organisation of Public Safety around dam, but on the other hand, the Water law demands from the owner of the dam and reservoir, coastal or other land also to permit harmless passage over the property to the water and allow the general use of water, unless the water, coastal or other facilities are meant for the use of water, to ensure the safety of navigation and protection against drowning in natural pools, constructions intended for the protection of waters against pollution, and constructions
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intended for national defence, protection and rescue of people, animals and property. He also must allow the use of coastal land for gathering, disposal of items for swimming, diving, ice skating, sailing, etc and other activities, i.e. if with such use no damage is caused to the owner of the waterside land. According to the law, it is not allowed to place obstacles that would prevent free passage to or next the water. Indeed, these stipulations make it harder to adopt and implement restrictions and measures needed for provision of public safety. Even though the legislation stipulates that water infrastructure may be used for other purposes, if these purposes are not in contradiction with, or restricting, the activities for which the infrastructure was originally built – despite the fact that the owner of the structure is given the opportunity to exclude any general use at the site of the structure if this is necessary due to protection of human life and health – in the case of state-owned dams for water management purposes, the state rarely resorts to such measures. Apart the free passage and use of the waterside for the activities of general use, the law also allows for the construction of additional agro-forestry buildings at the waterside land in the floor width of 15 metres from the boundaries of the land to the outer limits of coastal land in the water policy areas outside the village and in this way expands the possibility of improper use and access of non-authorized persons.
Figure 6: Additional use – Reservoir used for fish breeding
5. CONCLUSIONS
For a long time in Slovenia, the problem of public safety around dams had been misunderstood and neglected. This aspect of safety was often confused with the aspect of public protection in cases of extreme conditions or natural disasters connected with dam break of floods. Accidents that occurred in the last years on some of the dams as well as
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the recent review of the state of the Slovene dams with water management purpose have prompted the reflection and discussion about the responsibility for such accidents, resulting in people and owner awareness that something should be done to increase and encourage a broader view of the problem., but accidents. The overview of the legal provisions shows there is no legislation addressing the problem of public safety around the dams directly. Despite the absence of the legislation covering this aspect of safety, we can find many provisions that can be used as a basis to ensure of public safety around dams. The main problem is the classification water and water courses as public good. This definition reflects on both: the dams with water management, as well as the dams using water (i.e. hydropower production), since the range of actions to prevent injuries and fatalities is limited by the provisions relating to water as a public good. The other problem is the still is still not sufficient public and owners awareness about the possible hazards that a dam and its operation may bring along. REFERENCES Rajar, R, Kryžanowski, A., (1994): Self-induced opening of spillway gates on the Mavčiče
dam – Slovenia, 18th Congress on large dams ICOLD, Vol.1, Q68, Durban, South Africa
Humar, N., Žvanut, P., Detela, I., Širca, A., Polič, M, Ravnikar - Turk, M., Kryžanowski, A., (2013): VODPREG - state of dams for water management purpose in Slovenia, Ministry of defence of Republic of Slovenia, Slovenia
Humar, N., Kryžanowski, A. (2012): Drtijjščica case study – restoration of the stilling basin for improvement of hydraulic conditions, 24th Congress on large dams ICOLD, Q94, Kyoto, Japan
Occupational Health and Safety Act – Official Gazette N°56/1999 and amendments 64/2001, 43/2011
Water act – Official Gazette N°67/2002 and amendments 57/2008, 57/2012, 100/2013 Construction Act – Official Gazette N°110/2002 and amendments 97/2003, 41/2004,
ABSTRACT: Indonesia, as one of the developing countries, in the process of growing, hence needs huge amount of electrical energy supply. Specifically for the Java-Bali region, the peak load in 2012 reached 21.237.000 MW, an increasing of 7.59%. In order to meet the electricity needs during peak hours, PT PLN (Persero) is building Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower 4x260MW. This power plant is the first pump system in Indonesia. The working principle is storing energy in the form of water pumped from the lower reservoir into the upper reservoir during off-peak load and at high electrical demand (peak load), the water released from the upper reservoir into the lower reservoir to generate electricity. It will always change the reservoir water level fluctuations at 19,5 meters in 6,5 hours. Changes in water level fluctuations can rapidly influence reservoir slope stability, thereby potentially having catastrophic landslideExamination
. of the reservoir slopes through investigations Light Detection and Ranging(LIDAR)
Map, Study of Watershed Management Plan, Previous Reports, and the physical properties of geological parameters. Based on these data, further modeling is conducted using the program Slope / W, it was found that there is potential land slide due to the low safety factor. Through this research, it can be seen the influence of the pumped storage operating system on the reservoir slopes. Prevention of lanslide is done by involving the community through disaster prevention, emergency response, rehabilitation, etc. Thus, the slopes of which may potentially collapse can be done early treatment, so the slopes are out of landslide danger and no fatalities when the upper cisokan pumped storage hydropower operating
.
Keywords: Pumped Storage System, Water level fluctuations, Safety Factor, Slope Stability, Community Development 1. INTRODUCTION Hardiyatmo (2006) states that the mass movement of soil or often called a landslide is one of the natural disasters that frequently hit the hills in the wet tropics. This mass movement is the process of establishing equilibrium in the world caused by a variety of factors, both natural factors and human factors. Cruden (1991, in Deasy, 2010) briefly explain that the landslide is the movement of a mass of rock, debris or soil material down the slope.
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2
Terzaghi cause avalanches divide into two, namely: 1. External effect: the effect of shear forces resulting in increased without any change
in the shear strength of the soil. For example: sharpen the slope of the cliff, deepening the excavation and erosion of the river;
2. Internal effect: increasing the influence of pore water pressure in the slope. According to Terzaghi, which became one of the causes landslide is the increasing influence of pore water pressure in the slope (Hardiyatmo, 1992). Lower water levels suddenly (rapid drawdown) resulted in the addition of loads by heavy layers previously submerged land becomes submerged. Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower is a power plant with the first pump system in Indonesia. With the principle works, it will always be a change of reservoir water level fluctuations, both at the upper reservoir and lower reservoir. Changes in water level fluctuations that can rapidly affect the stability of slopes around the reservoir. 2. GEOLOGICAL CONDITION Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower will be located in the Cisokan River which has a mountainous topography with altitude ranging from 700 m to 1000 m. As one of the tributaries of the Citarum River, Cisokan River comes from Sukanegara and meandering in a deep gorges. Strata of geological formations including Oligosen (Rajamandala Formation), Miocene (Citarum Formation), Pliosen (Pb Formation), as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Geological map in Area of Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower
3. LAND USE CONDITION Interpretation of satellite imagery results produce land use maps of 7 classes of land use, such as: forest, garden / farm, residence, rice, bush / scrub, moor / farms and water bodies, as can be seen in Table.1 and Figure 2.
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No. Table 1. Land Use Condition
Land Use Wide (Ha) Percentages 1 Forest 14.915 39,85%
Figure 2. Land use satellite imagery interpretation
3. LANDSLIDE AVALANCHE The selection of areas which may experience sliding slope under the influence of the upper reservoir water level fluctuations are determined for the slopes (7 pieces area) which located around the area of the Upper Reservoir based on sliding trail has gone before, as shown in Figure 3. The slope piece then modeled using program Slope / W to determine the stability of the slope on the pieces. As each piece in each area shown in Figure 4.
Figure 3. Traces of previous avalanches
Forest40%
Garden/ Farm16%Residence
3%
Rice16%
Bush/Scrub16%
Moor/farm8%
Water bodies1%
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4. SLOPE MODELLING USING SLOPE/W Slope stability analysis was conducted using slices ( Slice Method) with a field of circular sliding through the program Slope / W analysis of the slope stability due to the change of water level fluctuations in the upper reservoir modeling performed with several conditions , among others : First , Low Water Level ( LWL ) the height of the water surface elevation of 777.5 above sea level. Secondly , the High Water Level ( HWL ) with a height of water level of 796.5 above sea level. Third , Full Water Level ( FWL ) the height of the water surface elevation of 799.5 above sea level. In this condition that the modeled water surface elevation exceeds the elevation of HWL due to very high rainfall and ground water level equal to the height of the soil surface . Fourth , Low Water Level ' ( LWL ' ) which is the current state of the model has undergone rapid drawdown of the initial height above sea level of 796.5 and the final height of 777.5 above sea level. The physical properties of geological input parameters include: unit weight , cohesion and friction angle . The physical properties of each geological layer on slopes that were analyzed are described in Table 2.
Rock Class Table 2. Physical properties of geology
CL D Top Soil Unit Weight (kN/m³) 25 23 15.64 ~ 16.30 Cohesion (MPa) 0.5 0.1 17 ~ 18 Friction Angle (degree) 38 36 28.5 ~ 30.1
Figure 4. Map of Potential Sliding Area
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4. RESULT OF SLOPE MODELLING The results of the calculation of slope stability analysis using program Slope / W which covers the area around the Upper Reservoir experienced a catastrophic landslide potential are presented in Table 3. Table 3. The Value of Safety Factor Base on Slope
AREA DAN POTONGAN FAKTOR AMAN PADA SETIAP KONDISI MUKA AIR LWL HWL FWL LWL'
AREA A 1-1' 4.00 1.84 1.74 0.75 2-2' - 3.18 3.31 1.79
AREA B 1-1' 2.15 2.08 2.09 1.49 2-2' 2.80 2.79 2.79 1.68
AREA D 1-1' 7.01 1.30 1.42 0.35 2-2' - 2.21 3.77 2.68
AREA E 1-1' 1.05 2.02 1.95 1.41 AREA F 1-1' 10.44 2.74 3.23 1.30
2-2' 4.92 2.45 2.48 1.28 AREA G 1-1' 3.01 1.99 2.06 1.26
2-2' 0.96 1.63 1.64 0.99 5. LANDSLIDE PREVENTION BASED ON COMMUNTY DEVELOPMENT One way to prevent the occurrence of landslides is to empower the community . This method provides the opportunity for the public to participate directly in the avalanche prevention programs . The detailed stages of the process of empowerment is through the facility to : 1 . Policing needs and participatory problem analysis 2 . Formulation of alternatives and the selection of actions based on priorities 3 . Action plans ( activities , outcomes , ukutan success , time , person in charge , location
and cost ) 4 . Developing the capacity and capability of community groups 5 . Implementation of action plan 6 . Cooperation and information networks as well as access to venture capital 7 .Strengthening community institutions to study and determine the water resource
management decisions are made and action plans 8 . Periodic monitoring and evaluation of participatory 9 . Independent Community empowerment assumes and believes that people have the ability to solve their own problems through certain facilities by other parties . That means there must be mutual
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6
trust between the companion and the accompanying ( departments, agencies , NGOs , companies , etc. ) who do empowerment Build participation is determined by the type of participation that will be realized . Some types of participation reflects the different degrees of involvement , such as : 1 . Manipulative and decorative 2 . Passive 3 . Provide information and consultation 4 . Material incentives 5 . Functional 6 . Interactive participation 7 .Self Mobilization
Figure 5. Flowchart of stakeholder participation on PLTA Cisokan
6. CONCLUSION Some of the conclusions obtained from the results of the study are as follows: 1. Based on observations, it is known that the reservoir area Upper Cisokan Pumped
Storage Hydropower potential is experiencing catastrophic landslide in Upper Reservoir area, it is marked with a landslide scars that are found in the area;
FORUM SADAR BENCANA
COMPANY (BUMN)
VILLAGE
HIGHER EDUCATION
PROVINCE ADMINISTRATION
DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION
DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION
COMDEV DONOR AGENCIES
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7
2. Modeling using program Slope / W to get that on the slopes (7 pieces area) around the upper reservoir was found as a result of fluctuations in the potential sliding the upper reservoir when the water level of Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydropower operational, namely: Area A (piece 1-1 '), area C (pieces 2-2 '), area D (pieces 1-1'), area E (pieces 1-1 ') and area G (pieces 2-2');
3. In general, potential landslide dominated when the reservoir water level decline (rapid drawdown) at the level of a LWL 'than when impounding at an altitude of LWL
4. landslide prevention through community development programs proven to be effective in order to prevent a sustainable basis. besides it along with environmental protection, stakeholders can also empower the local community progress.
REFERENCES Ambarsari, Deasy, 2010, Evaluasi dan Analisis Stabilitas Lereng Di Desa Tenglik
Kecamatan Tawangmangu Karanganyar Jawa Tengah, Jurusan Teknik Sipil dan Lingkungan FT UGM, Yogyakarta.
Anonim, 2004, Geostudio Tutorials, Geo-slope International Ltd, Alberta, Canada Bowles, Joseph E., 1984, Sifat-Sifat Fisis Dan Geoteknis Tanah (Mekanika Tanah), Edisi
2, Erlangga, Jakarta. Hardiyatmo, H.C., 2006, Penanganan Tanah Longsor dan Erosi, Edisi Ke-4, Gadjah Mada
University Press, Yogyakarta. Karnawati, D., 2005, Bencana Alam dan Gerakan Massa Tanah di Indonesia dan Upaya Penanggulangannya, Jurusan Teknik Geologi FT.UGM,Yogyakarta. PT PLN (Persero), Suplementary Study of Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydroelectric
Power Plant Project, Newjec. United States Geological Survey, 2011, Lanslide Types and Processes,
ABSTRACT: Public awareness relating to dams and reservoirs has become one of the main concerns of professionals and therefore of ICOLD and National Committees. The evolution of society in this subject has gone from a clear support to the construction of large dams to provide water needed for life and human and social development, to a contrary position. Especially in countries with a high level in the development of their water resources, this allows them to think that these needs are already resolved. This approach has two serious drawbacks: 1) in many countries water is needed to have a reasonable standard of living and to alleviate the effects of arid climates and droughts, and 2) the expected effects of climate change make it clear that we need to adapt the strategy in water management to a new scenarios, even in developed countries, as seen in the flooding of large areas of Europe and America in the years 2012 and 2013. . Given these new situations ICOLD, through its Department of Communication and its Committee on Public Awareness and Education (COPAE), is developing a comprehensive information strategy to provide the public with objective data on the benefits of dams, reservoirs and regulating rivers. This strategy is being implemented in some countries by their National Committees. A good example of these new activities is the SPANCOLD mirror Committee of COPAE, named CIPE, which has a composition in which, besides engineers (some with extensive experience in communication), there are journalists, environmentalists, historians, geographers and other professionals with experience in communication. The strategy implemented by SPANCOLD and its special features are given in this paper. Keywords: public awareness, benefits of dams, communication with media
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INTRODUCTION Public awareness relating to dams and reservoirs has become one of the main concerns of professionals and therefore of ICOLD and National Committees. The evolution of society in this subject has gone from a clear support to the construction of large dams to provide water needed for life and human and social development, to a contrary position. Especially in countries with a high level in the development of their water resources, this allows them to think that these needs are already resolved. This approach has two serious drawbacks: 1) in many countries water is needed to have a reasonable standard of living and to alleviate the effects of arid climates and droughts, and 2) the expected effects of climate change make it clear that we need to adapt the strategy in water management to a new scenarios, even in developed countries, as seen in the flooding of large areas of Europe and America in the years 2012 and 2013. Given these new situations ICOLD, through its Department of Communication and its Committee on Public Awareness and Education (COPAE), is developing a comprehensive information strategy to provide the public with objective data on the benefits of dams, reservoirs and regulating rivers. This strategy is being implemented in some countries by their National Committees. A good example of these new activities is the SPANCOLD mirror Committee of COPAE, named CIPE, which has a composition in which, besides engineers (some with extensive experience in communication), there are journalists, environmentalists, historians, geographers and other professionals with experience in communication. The communication strategy is divided into a set of strategies that should cover the following aspects: direct and clear information to the public, information through the media, dissemination of positive news about the dams and reservoirs, collection and dissemination of historical data, frequent relationship with the media (to be always available to answer their questions or doubts) and to support the media giving them accurate information to help them to present it in the right way (verbal notes, figures, graphics, photos, videos, documentaries, etc..) depending on the medium to be used (press, radio, TV, case reports, monographs, etc.).
Then, these strategies are described below.
LESSONS LEARNED IN COMMUNICATING TO SOCIETY 2.0
Some years ago, the communication to the public was given only by the traditional media mentioned above. Today´s society called 2.0 has new available communication tools (blogs, social networks, etc.) and we have to use them to communicate the benefits of dams and reservoirs. These new tools allow direct dialogue with the receptors of content, but this may be a double – edged sword. See Figure 1.
On the one hand provides the following benefits:
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⎯ Allows you to answer and debate with opponents of the dams, which in most cases (made based on personal experience) do not know really how dams work, how a flood can be managed or that dams have a monitoring system.
Figure 1. Society 2.0. Media available.
⎯ Allow virally spread content. A post on a topic that appeals to the public can become a viral phenomenon and reach millions of users.
⎯ SPANCOLD experience shows that when you explain face to face the operation of a dam and existing security tools to a person unaware of these issues, it is often possible to convince them. This is much more difficult but even sometimes people laden with prejudices against dams may accept some positive arguments.
The counterpart of these advantages can be summarized in the following:
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⎯ Opponents of the dams very commonly used a counterexample as strategy to discredit dams. If a thousand large dams that have worked perfectly ( regulating floods , increasing the security of supplies and irrigation , generating hydroelectric power, etc. . ) but if a dam has generated a problem, is sure they speak only about that dam, ignoring the great services that other dams have rendered to society.
⎯ Another problem in communicating the benefits of dams is the demagoguery that is determined by the use of malicious slogans, by the opponents of the dams, that easily captures the public opinion. Against that, the explanation of the benefits of dams is often filled with technical nuances that are hard to convert into easily assimilated slogans to make them have a high circulation.
⎯ Finally, dams have become more a part of the political confrontation, so that sometimes the politicians use their benefits or their problems as part of their political message in search of votes.
The lessons learned from these experiences, and we consider them very useful to communicate the benefits of dams, are:
⎯ It is necessary to value the importance of reservoirs for the society in the media. In Spain of the information given in the newspaper is the volume stored by the dams , which fortunately is an indicator of the concern that society has for existing water reserves . Apart from this interesting fact, that does not happen in almost any other country, other strategies to add value to the reservoirs can be the following two:
• Publishing Media press releases by the agencies responsible for the operation of a reservoir whenever the use of a reservoir reported a benefit to society.
• Publishing directly in social networks, like Twitter, using short and very clear (impacting) messages.
For instance, the following messages may be used by both media: traditional and social networks:
• Every time a reservoir (or set of reservoirs) regulates a flood. In this case there is the possibility of using slogans and catchy phrases for the public such as:
• "The reservoir received water entries higher than 2,000 m3/s, maintaining at all times an outlet lower than 200 m3/s, avoiding major damage downstream.
• "The large amount of incoming water in the reservoir was controlled at all times and the simultaneous use of several dams allowed to store all the water."
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• "Despite the severe weather drought, the water impounded will ensure irrigation season."
• "The abundant reserves in reservoir XXX this year are recharging the aquifer YYY" .
• The existence and location of reservoirs to hold top-level sporting or popular events.
• World championship triathlon in a reservoir allows press releases such as "The XXXX reservoir hosts world championship triathlon"; "over a thousand athletes participated in the event" "an economic impact of XXX million Euros are expected" Obviously if there was no dam could not do the championship, and this represents a generation of economic benefits to be transmitted to the community surrounding the reservoir.
• Even can be used for other popular events well known by the public. For example, in Asturias (Spain) the first weekend of August there is an international canoe race attracting a lot of tourist coming to " The Sella River race". When there are drought the upstream water reservoirs of the stretch where the event takes place increase the flow during the race and it is held successfully.
STRATEGIES TO MEDIA
As for the press and media, SPANCOLD has decided to launch, through its Spanish Committee on Public Awareness (named CIPE in Spanish) the following activities to convey to the public the benefits , the usefulness and necessity of the construction of dams and the maintenance and conservation of existing dams and reservoirs .
First, CIPE has conducted an approach to specialized journalist working in issues of public infrastructures and environment both major national agencies (EFE, Europa Press, Colpisa, Servimedia ) and in the major national newspapers (El País, El Mundo, ABC, La Razón).
CIPE is also approaching to specialized journalists working in financial newspapers (Expansión, Cinco Días, El Economista), or in large regional media (Vanguardia, El Periódico, Voz de Galicia, El Correo, ... ) , as well as radios, TVs and larger audience digital media.
Once identified these journalists CIPE has developed a list that, besides these journalists, it has been included the main columnists, radio commentators and TVs and other leading opinion makers.
Every 15 days, it is sent via email to this list of journalists a comprehensive summary of the most important news related to dams and a series of articles on topics related to dams.
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This email consists of headlines and summaries, on which interested journalists can click for the full news or article.
News relating to matters such as new construction projects of dams, maintenance and repair, technical improvements, operation of early warning systems (SAIH), contribution of dams and reservoirs in flood prevention, irrigation, power generation, recreation, fishing, water sports, etc.
This summary includes headlines and also a short summary of various articles written by members of CIPE about history and culture related to the dams (Roman dams in Spain, dams of particular cultural or technological value,...).
SPANCOLD is considering to held annually a breakfast briefing with the media in which an annual report on all activity related to dams in the relevant year will be presented . The contents of this report will also be used for publication in subsequent press releases that will be dosed properly for a period of one or two months to keep the attention of the media.
The report will be also distributed to SPANCOLD members and will serve as a working document but also giving prestige to the sector. The report will be presented to the media, and also to the sector at a side event.
Periodically, it will be organized “one to one” meetings to present the world of dams and reservoirs to the journalists who figure in the list of media. The objective is to become a reference on dams, prescriber and source of opinion and information for the media at the time of writing or making articles, reports or add additional information when related to the world of dam’s news.
SPANCOLD, through its CIPE experts will develop an agenda to be sent to the media with the names and contact addresses of the members of CIPE. These experts will be ranked according to their specialties, their academic records and outstanding professionals.
Through this agenda, it will be possible to strengthen the contact with the media and to facilitate the work of journalists. Thus, they will have within their reach in newsrooms a tool that allows them to find information sources for reports, news or monographs.
Another foreseen action that will perform to help spread among the general public the benefits and advantages of dams and reservoirs for the society is the call for a journalism awards for the best information on dams.
These annual awards, would have a cash prize not too high but that makes them interesting, where there is a winner and several accesits, and can be established for different categories, such as newspaper articles, radio or TV reports.
With these awards it would be possible to encourage journalists to publish articles and make programs and reports glossing benefits of dams and reservoirs, as well as increase the level of awareness of the work on dams by the media.
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Both the presentation of the awards as the ceremony will be also utilized to turn them into events that convene every journalist in the water and energy sector, and where they can meet with policymakers, with officials from the sector: administration, water supply, hydropower, engineering, construction, maintenance of dams and reservoir management, with the assistance of engineers and technicians in the field of dams.
Finally, SPANCOLD will contact Network Television to explore the possibility that these chains produce and broadcast documentaries on construction and operation of dams, flood management by watershed, functioning SAIH in periods of heavy rainfall , new techniques to repair dams, developed by Spanish companies, etc. CONCLUSSION Social networks ironically very used against technological advances and in particular against dams and reservoirs, are a powerful tool that our sector have to use to transmit directly to the public the benefits of dams. For this purpose, a short message spread virally is much more effective than any technical report full of good details that neither the public nor the media can understand. At the same time, it is our duty to help the media and to prepare good and easy to understand information to support them in the correct transmission of the benefits of dams and reservoirs to the public. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author wishes to express his gratitude to the members of CIPE (Spanish Committee on Public Awareness and Education) and also acknowledges the special contributions made by engineers E. Echeverría and P. Sánchez-Ortega, and journalist D. Jalón. REFERENCES ICOLD COPAE (Committee On Public Awareness and Education) Meetings Minutes, Kyoto 2012 and Seattle 2013.
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST – 6TH , 2014
Multi-Criteria Studies for the Sustainable Management of Excavation Waste
from three major Pumped Storage Power Plant Projects in Spain.
ABSTRACT: In order to meet the challenge of integrating renewable energy into an efficient and flexible electricity market, Gas Natural Fenosa is developing three major Pumped Storage Power Plant (PSP´s) Projects in Galicia (North-western Spain): PSP Belesar III with 212 MW, PSP Salas-Conchas with 371 MW and PSP Edrada with 763 MW. For the design of the three aforementioned projects, Gas Natural Fenosa has been reviewing the state of the art of technology and has included sustainability and security criteria. The necessary construction work to build these new projects will involve the execution of approximately 22 km of tunnels as well as several shafts and caverns. These actions will generate a significant volume of excess excavation material of around 3,600,000 m3 for which a final deposit will need to be found if its re-use as a raw material is not possible. Both the high volume of material to be managed as well as the complex orography and social dispersion in the territory in addition to the significant natural, sociocultural and landscape wealth of the area around the three sites have made it necessary to conduct an extensive study of alternatives to define the most appropriate locations for the deposit of these materials and the final distribution as well as the rehabilitation projects associated with each one. Thus, the result aims to not only take into account traditional technical and economic criteria such as the proximity to the extraction points, morphology and capacity of the final deposits, etc. but also other factors such as landscape integration, biodiversity projection and the minimisation of disturbances to the resident population and heritage-related elements. Keywords: Hydroelectric, sustainability, excavation materials, mine waste management 1. INTRODUCTION Hydroelectric energy has had different roles throughout the history of Spanish electricity generation. In the first third of the 20th century, Spain was an eminently hydroelectric power producer. With the passing of time, hydroelectric energy made room for co-existence with different energy sources which were on the rise.
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In the 21st century, Spain faced a new challenge: the integration of different renewable energy sources which have significantly increased as far as their participation in the Generation System, especially wind energy which is non-manageable. This new context includes, among other elements:
a very diversified generation “mix” with non-manageable energies very demanding greenhouse gas reduction objectives and the highest environmental quality standards
.
Hydroelectric energy can introduce a stabilizing and organization function to the system with one of the already contrasted technology: “Pumped Storage Power Plants”. Thus a new generation of large power hydroelectric projects is developed which will be implemented in parallel to the new wind energy projects, with the technical and environmental optimisation of the already existing infrastructures as the main design criteria. In this context, Gas Natural Fenosa has three major pumped storage power plant projects underway in north-western Spain: Belesar III PSP with 210 MW (Fig.1), Salas-Conchas PSP with 380 MW (Fig.2) and Edrada PSP with 770 MW (Fig.3). The main characteristics of these power plants are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of the GNF PSPs in Spain Belesar III PSP Salas-Conchas PSP Edrada PSP Situation Miño River Salas and Limia rivers Mao and Sil
rivers Upper Reservoir Belesar Salas Edrada Lower Reservoir Peares Conchas San Esteban Flow rate (m3/s) Turbine mode 180 150 150 Pumping mode 167 124 115 Max turbine output power (MW) 210 380 770 Tunnel length (km) 4 10 8 Power plant type Cavern Cavern Cavern The underground work necessary to build these new projects will generate a significant volume of excess material for which a final deposit will be needed if it cannot be re-used as raw material. This article outlines all of the criteria that have been considered when selecting the different areas, as well as the preventive and corrective measures proposed, so the new generation of Gas Natural Fenosa hydroelectric projects in Spain provide an example of sustainable technological development.
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Figure 1. General isometric sketch and characteristics of the Belesar III PSP Project
Figure 2. General layout and characteristics of the Salas-Conchas PSP Project
Figure 3. General isometric sketch and characteristics of the Edrada PSP Project
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2. ISSUE The works necessary to build these new projects involve the execution of approximately 22 km of tunnels (between permanent hydraulic or access tunnels, and auxiliary tunnels for the construction phase), in addition to several shafts and caverns. These actions will generate a significant volume of excess excavation material of around 3,600,000 m3 (Table 2) for which a final deposit will be needed. The bulking factor considered to estimate the final volume needed was 1.6.
Table 2. Excavation material volume Belesar III PSP Salas-Conchas PSP Edrada PSP Situation Lugo Orense Orense Excavation material volume (m3)
608,000 1,880,000 1,100,000
The high standards required in order for the projects to be considered Environmentally Feasible, such as those outlined and the Gas Natural Fenosa corporate policy, have meant that environmental and socio-cultural criteria must be taken into consideration along with the traditional technical and economic criteria during the design and selection of alternatives phase for these deposit areas (Fig. 4).
Figure 4. Limiting environmental and socio-cultural factors for the selection of alternatives. 3. STUDIES DEVELOPED Both the high volume of material to be managed as well as the complex orography and social dispersion seen in the territory, added to the important natural, socio-cultural and landscape wealth of the environment at the three sites, have made it necessary to conduct a broad study of alternatives to select the most appropriate areas to deposit these materials,
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and decide upon the final conformation as well as the restoration projects associated to each one of them. An exhaustive analysis and selection work plan has been followed to conduct the specific studies of deposit area alternatives for the materials, including the following phases:
1. Phase I: Identification of potential material deposit areas.
Firstly, the volume of material to be deposited was analysed and a preliminary territory study was conducted to identify the population centres and the presence of natural spaces as environmental conditioning factors.
Later, the corresponding field work was done for in situ reconnaissance of the territory and to verify the environmental conditioning factors identified.
Based on the results obtained from these preliminary studies, a first proposal of areas that could potentially hold the materials from the excavation of these sites was made.
2. Phase II: Selection of material deposit areas.
The following limiting environmental and socio-cultural conditioning factors were considered in order to estimate the feasibility or exclusion of the different areas identified in the prior phase (Fig. 5):
The material deposit areas will be situated as close as possible to the worksite, so as to reduce the haulage distance from the extraction point to the deposit point as much as possible.
To the extent possible, the accesses to these surface areas will be already existing roads that are feasible for use by lorries, with the aperture of a new one only proposed if essential, and as long as the environmental feasibility is guaranteed.
Crossing villages while transferring the materials will be avoided to the extent possible, meaning the accesses to the surfaces selected from the excavation area are to be outside said villages.
No protected areas or unique natural assets of high ecological interest will be affected.
No historical or archaeological heritage elements will be affected.
The possible landscape impacts that may be considered severe or critical will lead to the rejection of the enclave. This impact rating is understood to be after any landscape integration measures are applied.
The morphological conformation of the deposit area will be respected, avoiding any surfaces with strong slopes which could compromise the stability or where the stabilisation measures would be complicated and very costly, as long as there are other more reasonable alternatives.
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Figure 5. Result of the study to choose the material deposit areas for the Salas-Conchas PSP which
considers environmental, social and archaeological aspects. The ideal situation would be to be able to find degraded areas (old quarries, mainly) near the worksite which could hold the excavation volume or a good portion of it, and later backfill it and complete the landscape integration. This would meet a dual objective, situating a significant volume of material in an area already affected by prior activity, and recovering said space in the environment. One example of this is the old Belesar dam quarry, which will be restored with materials from the Belesar III PSP underground works to recover the landscape by integrating it into the environment.
Below is an example of the results obtained to identify the material deposit areas for the Salas-Conchas PSP (Fig. 6).
Figure 6. Salas-Conchas PSP deposit area selection criteria.
FEASIBLE ALTERNATIVE
.
NON-FEASIBLE ALTERNATIVE
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3. Phase III: Landscape integration.
With an aim to reduce the impact on the landscape in the deposit areas selected, a series of measures is proposed for its integration and restoration.
These measures have been established individually for each specific surface, in accordance with the different environmental characteristics and their locations.
Firstly, the deposit surfaces have been sized considering the slope and land topography, on the one hand, and the material height limits on the other. Thus, the aim is to achieve topographic integration into the environment so the visibility is as low as possible.
Later, and in order to achieve total environmental integration, the accumulations formed will be re-planted with native and easily-rooted plant species.
Below is an example of the landscape integration in a deposit area (Fig. 7). Advanced infographic simulation technologies were used to optimise the results of this integration.
Figure 7. Landscape integration of the Edrada PSP deposit area. Current situation, situation without applying any type of measure, and future situation with landscape integration measures.
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4. RESULTS AND SPECIAL CASES The resources and knowledge invested have made it possible to find the best locations for the deposit areas as well as for the most suitable connecting roads from the worksite generation point, in the effort to seek the least possible environmental and social impact, and incorporating territorial sustainability. Below are some cases that need to be highlighted: A) Recovery of degraded areas There was a search for degraded sites such as old abandoned quarries (Fig. 8), some of which had even remained following the construction of the original dams and reservoirs to repair the topography with the excess excavation materials from new projects and thus correct the impacts of the construction of the infrastructures completed decades before.
Figure 8. Current and future situation of the old Belesar dam quarry which will be restored with
materials from the Belesar III PSP project work, thereby recovering the landscape. Nonetheless, some of these quarries over time have become ideal habitats for species of high ecological interest and are now classified as protected. These naturalised quarries have been excluded as deposit areas (Fig. 9).
Figure 9. Salas-Conchas PSP. A naturalised quarry protected as a priority habitat (“temporary Mediterranean lagoons”) near the Salas reservoir.
B) Environmental restrictions on deposit area delimitations. In the particular case of deposit areas A.13 and A.17 for the Salas-Conchas PSP, the size was restricted to prevent potential environmental effects. To minimise the impact on the Corga de Dormes creek “reception basin” in the case of area A.13 and the future use of the area partially re-populated with pine trees by the government in the case of A.17. (Fig. 10).
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Figure 10. Delimited material deposit areas. C) Special measures for hauling the excess excavation material. In the specific case of the Edrada PSP project, the main material outlet will be situated next to the “San Esteban" lower reservoir which is hidden in a deep valley near protected areas, with important natural and landscape value. The difference in level that must be overcome between the bottom of the valley and the upper plateau would require opening up new roads on the slope and intense lorry traffic, which would cause significant effects on the well-conserved natural and social environment. To prevent this situation, a system has been planned to evacuate more than half of the excavation materials by means of conveyor belts that will run through the open corridor of an existing penstock on the slope (Fig. 11).
Figure 11. System to bring up excavation materials from the Edrada PSP project through the existing penstock corridor on the slope (left image shows the current state and the right image shows the state
expected with a conveyor belt). D) The opening of new roads to minimise the environmental and socio-cultural impacts of
hauling the material. The opening of new access proposed for the Salas-Conchas PSP project was designed to avoid affecting the nearby population centres, the local cultural heritage and high quality tree masses (Fig. 12), and thus seeking the lowest possible environmental and social impact.
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Figure 12. New layouts for the Salas-Conchas PSP accesses.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SIMILAR CASES Considering prior experience with power plants of this type, companies must help improve and optimise the technology and project designs by introducing environmental, social and cultural aspects in the early phases of the work. The significant volume of excess excavation material generated with this kind of work, along with the high environmental standards required by all parties involved in this type of project, means more and more detailed studies and analyses are required in order to determine the final destination for these materials from the design phase. Conducting multi-criteria studies to select material deposit alternatives, as well as the participation of a multi-disciplinary environmental and socio-cultural team are key during the design phases to reaching the best solution possible in all areas, and preventing problems in the procedural phase (denial of environmental feasibility or longer processing periods) as well as in the construction phase (work stopped because impacts were not adequately forecasted). In order to do these studies, environmental and social surveys are required to provide data from representative periods so the infrastructure can be well fitted during the design phase. The selection criteria used in these studies, as well as the preventive and corrective proposed measures, will along with the rest of the aspects considered in the design phase, contribute to make the new generation of hydroelectric projects in Spain an example of sustainable development. REFERENCES
GNF Engineering (2010): Estudio de Impacto Ambiental de Belesar III Peares III, Spain.
GNF Engineering (2011): Estudio de Impacto Ambiental de CHR Salas - Conchas”, Spain.
GNF Engineering (2012): Estudio de Impacto Ambiental de CHR Edrada, Spain.
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST – 6TH , 2014
Blasting Vibration Control in Residential Area near Cheragh - Vays Dam
Amir Hafezquran Mahab-Ghodss Consulting Engineers, Cheragh-Vays dam, Saqqez, Kurdistan, Iran
ABSTRACT Blasting operation for rock excavation is a most common activity in dam construction projects. The reduction of ground and air vibration to the defined level and control of fly-rock phenomena are important environmental aspects of rock blasting near residential area. Geological conditions, distance of existing structures from the blast point, structures resistance degree and charge weight per delay are the most important parameters that should be considered in blasting design to ground vibration control. The design of blasting parameters for rock quarry of Cheragh-Vays dam is studied in this paper from environmental point of view. Two villages with weak clay houses, dam structures and an earth materials slope with critical potential to sliding are the main structures that should be considered in defining of ground and air vibration levels. Keywords: blasting, ground vibration, environmental aspects, dam. 1. INTRODUCTION Blasting operation is a most common and economic method for rock excavation during dam, tunnel, highway, mining and foundation construction activities. Detonation of confined charges can produce high under-pressure gas and expand the blast-hole up to 10 times from the original volume in a very short time (Matti 1999). This process cause crack propagation in surrounding rock and finally yield to rock breaking. Based on early studies only 20% to 30% of explosive energy are used for rock fragmentation (Singh et al. 1993). The rest energy generates undesirable environmental effects such as ground vibration, fly-rock, air blast and noise (Duncan et al. 2004). Blasting program near residential area should be accurately planned to protect peoples and structures from undesirable and deleterious effect of blasting environmental damages (Mostafa 2000 and Birol et al. 2010). The parameters which affect the blast induced vibration are classified in controllable and uncontrollable categories (Lopez et al. 1995). The controllable are parameters mainly related to blasting design and explosive characteristic
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and uncontrollable parameters mainly are geological and topographical conditions. (Mostafa 2000 and Birol et al. 2010) 2. A REVIEW TO THE GROUND VIBRATION CRITERIA Ground vibration is a major environmental problem in blasting operation. Although ground vibration can be described in terms of displacement, velocity and acceleration of the ground particles, but particle velocity is the best predictor for measurement of structural damage from blasting vibrations (Siskind et al. 1976, ISRM 1992, Dowding 1996 and Hustrulid 1999). The particle velocity is a measure of the ground particle velocity during passage of the shockwave. The main parameters that affect particle velocity include: Explosive charge weight per delay, Distance from blast point and frequency of vibration (Hustrulid 1999). Several researchers have studied ground vibrations from blasting and have developed empirical formulas for ground vibration estimation. The general form of these formulas can be described as follows:
푉 = 퐾푄 푅 (1) Where: Vp (mm/s) is the peak particle velocity; Q (kg) is the maximum charge weight per delay; R (m) is the distance from blast point; K, m and n are empirical site constants. For determining the constants for a given site, number of blast tests are performed and the peak particle velocities of the ground are recorded. Then, the peak particle velocities (PPV) are plotted on log-log scaled axes as a function of scaled distance (R/Qs) based on 95% confidence level, where s is a root scaling. The square-root, cubic-root and two-thirds scaling equations which are the widely used formulas for determining of the particle velocity are summarized in table 1(Liang 2011).
Table 1. The Widely Predictor Equation for Particle Velocity Square-root scaling formula proposed by USBM Vp = K1(Q1/2/R)α1
Cubic-root scaling formula Vp = K2(Q1/3/R)α2 Two-thirds scaling formula proposed by Indian Standard Vp = K3(Q2/3/R)α3
Where K and α are the site constants. Based on Liang et al (2011), both cubic-root and square-root scaling formulas give good fitting results, whereas two-thirds scaling formula produce poor fitting result. They recommended square-root scaling formula for scaled distance less than 0.1 and cubic-root scaling formula for otherwise. The Office of Surface Mining (1983) has established the following peak particle velocities (PPV) for safe blasting near residential area as a function of distance from blasting site. This reference also has proposed the scaled distance factor (SD) as a safe blasting criterion in absence of seismic monitoring based on square-root scaling function (see table 2). The U.S. Bureau of Mines (1971) defines three types of structural damages due to blast induced vibrations as follow: Cosmetic or Threshold damage, Minor damage and Major damage. The USBM (1971) also has established damage criterion for residential dwellings based on peak particle velocity (see table 3).
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Table 2. The Recommended SD and PPV as a Function of Distance from Blasting (OSM, 1983)
Distance from Blast Point (m) PPV (mm/s) SD (m/kg1/2) 0-90 41 18.1
Table 3. The Damage Criterion based on PPV (after USBM, 1971 PPV(mm/s) Damage
<51 No damage 51 - 102 Plaster cracking 102 - 178 Minor damage
>178 Major damage Despite that the allowable level of ground vibration criteria has been proposed by several organizations, this was not enough to protect structures from blast induced vibration damages, because the vibration frequency and type of structure has not been seen in this criteria (Abdel-Rasoul 2000). Mostafa (2000) has summarized the most important peak particle velocities limit criteria based on vibration frequency and type of structure (figure 2 and table 4).
Figure 2. The OSM and USBM frequency-depended criteria for safe blasting
Based on table 4, different peak particle velocities levels for safe blasting near different types of structures are suggested by different standards. Svinkin (2007) has compared the OSM criteria with the German standard for example. He concluded that the German standard criteria for residences are very conservative and its specified limit levels are not damage-based. The German standard criterion intends to minimize human perceptions and complaints; therefore the German standard and the OSM criteria have the different applications. According to Svinkin (2007), measurement of ground vibrations is not an appropriate approach for protecting of structures form blasting damages, because ground vibration criteria does not take into account soil-structure interaction and natural frequencies
19 mm/s
50 mm/s
2.5
25
250
0.1
1
10
1 10 100
PPV
(mm
/s)
PPV(
in/s
)
Blast Vibration Frequency (Hz)
Maximum Allowable Parrticle Velocity (OSM 1983)
13 mm/sPlaster
Drywall19 mm/s
50 mm/s
2.5
25
250
0.1
1
10
1 10 100
PPV
(mm
/s)
PPV
(in/s
)
Blast Vibration Frequency (Hz)
Maximum Allowable Particle Velocity (USBM, 1980)
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of structures. He proposed the direct measurement of structural vibrations as a good criterion for safe blasting near different types of structures and defines the frequency-independent safe limit of 51 mm/s for multi-story residential, commercial and industrial buildings.
Table 4. The Most Important PPV Limit Criteria based on Structure Type and Frequency Office of Surface Mining Standard (OSM, 1982)
Type of structures PPV (mm/s) in frequency range <10 Hz 10 – 40 Hz >40 Hz
Sensitive or protected structures 13 13 13 Older homes more than 20 years old 19 25 51 Modern homes less than 20 years old 25 38 51 Structures with safety consideration 51 51 51 Structures resistant to dynamic loads PPV determined by engineer
British Standard Type of building PPV (mm/s) in frequency range
4 to 15 Hz 15 Hz and above Reinforced or framed structures. 50 50
Unreinforced or light framed structures. 15 to 20 20 to 50 Indian Standard
Owner Type of structures PPV (mm/s) in frequency range <8 Hz 8 – 25 Hz >25 Hz
Critical slopes should be protected from high vibration velocity, because these slopes may be unstable under high dynamic loads. Unfortunately, the few existing criteria of blast induced vibrations for soil and rock slopes are still questionable, and further investigations need to solve this problem (Wong 2000, Svinkin 2007 and Choi et al, 2012). Svinkin (2007) has collected numbers of case histories which studying the effect of blast induced vibration on soil slopes. Qasimi (2005) and Charlie (1992) have reported blast induced vibration limits of 130 and 160 mm/s for occurrence of zero effective stress condition in loose and dense saturated sand, respectively. Choi et al (2012) have mentioned the problem of establishing safe ground vibration limits for cut slopes. They reported the Russian criterion as an only clear blast vibration criterion for pit slopes. The peak particle velocity of 60 mm/s and 120 mm/s for repetitive blasting conditions has proposed by Russian criteria for saturated sandy slopes and soil slopes, respectively. Blasting operation near uncured concrete is a most common activity in almost all of dam construction projects. Under these circumstances, explosive charge weights per delay should
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be designed based on the age of the concrete, the distance of the concrete from the blast, and the type of structure in order to protect uncured concrete from blast induced vibration damages (Duncan et al. 2004). Table 5 show the peak particle velocity limits based on the concrete age. In this table, df is a frequency attenuation factor as a function of distance from blasting, and equal to 1 for distance below 15 meters and decrease to 0.6 for distances over 80 meters (Oriard et al. 1980). Table 5. The Peak Particle Velocity for Blasting near Uncured Concrete (Oriard et al, 1980)
Time from batching (hours)
PPV for non-structural fill, mass concrete (mm/s)
PPV for structural concrete walls and slabs (mm/s).
0-4 100df 50df 4-24 25df 6df
24-72 40df 25df 72-168 75df 50df
168-240 200df 125df >240 375df 250df
3. CHERGH-VAYS DAM SPECIFICATIONS The Cheragh-vays dam is under construction in the northwestern Iran at Kurdistan province (see figure 2). The dam is clay core rock-fill dam type with a height of 67 meters, 980000 cubic meters embankment volume and 270 meters crest length. The dam is designed for supplying drinking water of Saqqez city and irrigation purposes.
Figure 2. The general view of under-construction Cheragh-vays dam 4. BLASTING PROGRAM OF ER QUARRY The rock-fill materials of Cheragh-Vays dam are supplied from the ER quarry located 500 meters upstream the dam axes. The quarry is located in the Sanandaj - Sirjan zone and consists of strong grano-diorite to diorite igneous rocks with seams of schist and hydrothermal quartz. The blasting program for rock-fill material excavation from ER quarry planned based on the probability of vibration damage to near structures. The project aims to limit blasting to one blast per day, carried out during afternoon hours, in order to minimize
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impacts on residents. ANFO, gelatin dynamite and electric delay detonator were used as explosives in ER quarry blasting. The main structures that should be considered in defining of vibration level are presented in table 4 (see also figure 3).
Table 4. The Main Structures near ER Quarry Structure type Minimum distance from blasting site (m)
Cheragh-vayse village 350 Mazoj-dareh village 1200
Dam body 300 to 500 landslide 150
structural concrete of bottom outlet 250 The ER quarry is divided in three zone (1 to 3) based on structure resistance and distance from near structures. The Cheragh-vays village, the bottom outlet structural concrete and the landslide area are the important structures witch affect the maximum charge weights per delay based on structure resistance and/or distance from blasting point (figure 3)
Figure 3. The plan view of structures near ER quarry Before to define a safe blasting program for ER quarry, the safe vibration limit of individual structures should be determined based on the Iranian Standards (Code No. 410). This standard propose the square-root scaling distance method for the peak particle velocity limits. The maximum charge weights per delay at ER quarry is determined based on the scaled distance method (SD) because of absence of seismic monitoring data. 4.1. Residential Area Two villages with old weak clay houses are located in south and east of the ER quarry at the minimum distance of 400 and 1200 meters, respectively. Before starting the blasting, houses
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of the villages have inspected and several old cracks have found in the walls of the houses (figure 4). Svinkin (2007) has points out that structures with existing damage may be affected by blast in a greater degree than sound and it is necessary to inspect such structures before and after blasting. The safe vibration limit based on the Iranian standard is 50 mm/s for new drywall houses. This standard also has proposed 25 and 12.5 mm/s as a safe vibration limits for old wet hoses under single and repetitive blasting, respectively.
Figure 4. The picture of weak clay house at Cheragh-vays village Figure 5 shows the peak particle velocity limits against scaled distance for Cheragh-vays village, landslide area and structural concrete of bottom outlet structure. The peak particle velocity of 15 mm/s is selected for safe vibration limit in weak clay houses near ER quarry, based on Iranian standard. The scaled distance of 36 m/kg0.5 was selected to protect village’s houses from blast vibration damages. This value is selected based on the OSM (1982) criterion for square-root scaling in absence of seismic monitoring, as proposed by Iranian standard. Figure 6 shows the maximum allowable charge weights per delay as a function of distance from Cheragh-vays village, landslide area and bottom outlet structural concrete, based on peak particle velocity proposed in figure 5. Comparing Figures 5 and 6 show that the maximum charge weights per delay for zones 1 to 3 of ER quarry were 120, 190 and 280 kilograms respectively, in order to protect villages’ houses from blast vibration damages. In zones 1, the vibration limit of Cheragh-vays village houses is the most effective parameter in determining the allowable charge weights per delay due to their distance from blasting site. In zone 2, the maximum charge weight per delay was determined based on the vibration limits of bottom outlet structure or Cheragh-vays village, depending on the age of concrete in bottom outlet structure. In zone 3, the maximum allowable charge weights per delay are determined based on uncured concrete (age 1 to 7 days) of bottom outlet, landslide in rainy condition and Cheragh-vays village houses, respectively. In absence of uncured concrete in bottom outlet structure, the allowable charge weight per delay in zone 3 was determined based on landslide area vibration limit in rainy condition and Cheragh-vays houses vibration limit in dry conditions.
Old Crack
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Figure 5. Peak particle velocity against scaled distance for structures near ER quarry
Figure 6. The maximum charge weight per delay as a function of distance from structures 4.2. Landslide Area During the excavation of diversion tunnel portal, the rock wedge failure was take place with a volume of 2000 cubic meters, and therewith about 140000 m3 earth material with an average depth of 12 m slide for about 1 to 2 meters. Figure 6 shows the longitudinal section of the landslide area. This landslide is stabilized temporarily, by removal of about 40000 m3 of soil materials, for dam construction period. With refer to figure 4, the distance of ER quarry from landslide area is between 150 to 450 meters. The peak particle velocity of 70 and 120 mm/s were selected for safe ground vibration levels for landslide area at rainy and dry conditions, respectively. Figure 5 shows the maximum charge weights per delay for landslide area at saturated condition based on safe vibration limit of 70 mm/s and square-root scaling method. Comparing Figures 3 and 6 show that only in rainy condition and absence of uncured concrete in bottom outlet structure, the landslide
15
36
70
12.5
25
5025.310
100
10
PPV
(mm
/s)
SD (m/kg0.5)
village houses and bottom outlet concrete (age 1 to 3 days)
landslide (rainy conditon)
bottom outlet concrete (age 3 to 7 days)
Zone 3
250350
Zone 2Zone 1
150250350450550 450
250350450550
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
350 450 550 650
Max
imum
char
ge p
er d
elay
(kg)
Distance from structuers (m)
Cheragh-vays villagelandslide (rainy condition)bottom outlet concrete (age 1 to 3 days)bottom outlet concrete (age 3 to 7 days)
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may be the most effective structure for determining the maximum charge weight per delay in zone 3.
Figure 6. The longitudinal section of the landslide area 4.3. Bottom outlet structure Bottom outlet structure consist of 900 cubic meters structural concrete located at distance of 250 to 300 meters from ER quarry. Blasting in ER quarry is not allowed if the age of structural concrete is below 24 hours. The particle velocity and the allowable charge weights per delay for structural concrete of bottom outlet structure, based on the age of concrete and distance from blasting site, is shown in figure 5 and 6, respectively. Due to the low volume of concrete in bottom outlet structure, number of blasting limitations due to this structure was not considerable compared to other structures. 5. CONCLUSIONS The blasting program for ER quarry is planned based on near structures resistance to ground vibration. The vibration limit for clay houses of Cheragh-vays village was the effective parameter in determining the allowable charge weights per delay. The peak particle velocity of 15 mm/s and scaled distance of 36 m/kg0.5 were selected based on the OSM (1982) criterion for square-root scaling in absence of seismic monitoring, as proposed by Iranian Standard. This approach was very conservative and increased the rock excavation costs for about 30 percent. Although, the uncured concrete of bottom outlet structure is more sensitive to blast vibration than other structures, but because of the low concrete volume of bottom outlet structure, number of blasting limitations due to this structure was not considerable compared to others.
6. REFERENCES Al-Qassimi, M.E., Charlie, W.A., and Woeller, D. (2005): Blast Induced Ground Motion
and Pore Pressure Measurements. Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, V. 28, No. 1: pp. 9-21.
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Abdel-Rasoul, E. (2000): Measurement and Analysis of the Effect of Ground Vibrations Induced by Blasting at the Limestone Quarries of the Egyptian Cement Company, Proceedings of ICEHM 2000, pp. 54- 71, Cairo University, Egypt.
Birol, E. and Ercan, A. (2010): Evaluation of Parameters affected on the Blast Induced Ground Vibration (BIGV) by using Relation Diagram Method (RDM), Acta Montanistica Slovaca, pp. 261-268, www.actamont.tuke.sk.
Choi, B.H., Ryu, C.H., Deb, D., Jung, Y.B. and Jeong, J.H. (2012): Case Study of Establishing a safe Blasting Criterion for the Pit Slopes of an Open-Pit Coal Mine, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, Vol. 53, pp. 1-10, Elsevier.
Charlie, W.A., Jacobs, P.J. and Doehring, D.O. 1992. Blast-Induced Liquefaction of an Alluvial Sand Deposit. Geotechnical Testing journal, ASTM, V.15, No.1: 14-23.
Dowding, C.H. (1996): Construction Vibrations, Prentice –Hall Inc., New Jersey. Duncan C. W. and Christopher W. M. (2004): Rock Slope Engineering, based on the third
edition by Hock, E. and Bray, J., Spon Press, London. Hustrulid, W. (1999): Blasting Principles for Open Pit Mining, A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam. International Society for Rock Mechanics, (1992): Suggested Method for Blast Vibration
Monitoring, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science, Vol. 29, pp. 143-156, Pergamon Press Ltd, Great Britain.
Kumar, K. B. (2010): Blast Vibration Studies in Surface Mines, bachelor thesis, Rourkela National Institute of Technology, India.
Liang, Q., An, Y., Zhao, L., Li, D. and Yan, L. (2011): Comparative Study on Calculation Methods of Blasting Vibration Velocity, Journal of Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Vol. 44, pp. 93-101, Springer.
Lopez, C.E., Lopez, J.E. and Javier, F.A. (1995): Drilling and Blasting of Rocks, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Matti H. editor in chief (1999): Rock Excavation Handbook, Sandvik -Tamrock Corp., www.metal.ntua.gr
Oriard, L.L. and Coulson, J.H. (1980): Blast Vibration Criteria for Mass Concrete. Minimizing Detrimental Construction Vibrations. ASCE Preprint 80-175, ASCE, pp. 103–23. New York.
Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSM, 1982): Use of Explosives and Training, Examination, and Certification of blasters, Proposed Regulations, US Dept. of the Interior, Surface Mining Law Regulations, Federal Register, Vol.47, No. 57 http://arblast.osmre.gov/
Svinkin, M.R. (2007): Assessment of Safe Ground and Structure Vibrations from Blasting, Vienna Conference Proceedings, European Federation of Explosives Engineers.
Singh, B., Pal RoY, P., Singh, R.B., Bagchi, A., Singh, M.M. and Nabiullah, M. (1993): Blasting in Ground Excavation and Mines, A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam.
The Iranian Ministry of Industries and Mines. (2008): Technical Regulations for Explosives and Rock Blasting in Mines (Code No. 410), http://www.mim.gov.ir.
Tantawy Mohamed, M. (2010): Vibration Control, Chapter 16, www. intechopen.com Wong, H. and Pang, P. (2000): Assessment of Stability of Slopes subjected to Blasting
Vibrations, the Government of the Special Administrative Region, Hong Kong.
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST
– 6TH
, 2014
A survey about passive defense, and lake dam's requirements to water fronts
hhdTTjjhkljdjjsgshjhfsdkjhskslsl;s;s;;s;;s;;sjsjkjffffrtttttttfggjfgjgkfkjkjf fffffjfjjfkkfjjj and how to construct a floating waterfronts in accordance with changes in
2(14pt)
Water levels in dams
Meysam Rezaei Ahvanouei MA student Azad University of Semnan-Iran, Director Manager of Sad Rah Abnie co.
Hamid Ehsani head of department, Semnan regional water authority
Mahyar Rezaei Ahvanouei MA student, Azad University of Damghan, board of directors of Sad Rah Abnie co
ABSTRACT
Design, accomplishment, and construction of floating water fronts in order to innovation,
localization, technical knowledge transition, and alignments of those aims with current needs in
dams, make movements and national efforts in comparison with Islamic Republic of Iran principles
and macroeconomic policies, and at last, the unique feature of this kind of structures like flexibility,
safety, strength, and longevity, reducing the costs and preventing exit exchange, fast constructions,
… are just parts of good results of powerful and active personnel of Sad Rah Abnie co. in this
country. Profile design, construction and accomplishment, and benefits of using this kind of water
front structures, that has been using for the first time in dam waters, are concluded in this article.
Keywords: water front, float, dam, passive defense
INTRODUCTION
Passive Defense and depending on it, implementation of hydraulic structures in order to
achieve the objectives of passive defense has been always of special importance, but
because of its difficulty to implement Hydraulic Structures, less contractors are willing to
implement these projects. Engineering company of Sad,Rah,Abnie (SRA) arrived on this
realm by timely understanding of the role and importance of wharf on dam to connect land,
water and lake patrolling and after a short time due to the presence in the manufacturing
processes of several dams of the country, including dam of Damghan, Kaboudval, Qara
Aghach, Kine vars, Changureh etc. and also activities in the form of contractors of
operation, maintenance and repair in Reservoir Dam of Damghan and having experienced
workers, necessary expertise and identifying the problems in country dams achieved the
technical knowledge of the work and is capable to design, implement and support the
project of pontoon piers in all hydroelectric installations of Iran.
1 - Introduction to Passive Defense
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It is referred to a set of actions that doesn’t require using weapons and one can avoid
financial losses to critical military and civilian equipment and installations and also human
casualties and minimize the damages and casualties by implementing it. Expediency
Discernment Council defines passive defense as:
A package of non-military measures that increases deterrence, reduces vulnerability,
sustains necessary activities, promotes national stability and facilitates crisis management
in the face of enemy threats and military actions is called passive defense.
2. Introduction of wharf
Warf is a structure along the beach which forms and constitutes the boundary between land
and sea or lake and it is almost the most important components of a port. (Figure 1
Figure1. Wharf executed by the company Sad,Rah,Abnie (SRA) on Damghan lake dam.
3 - Types wharf in terms of use
Based on type of use and regional conditions and its material, Wharf has different types:
Wharfs are divided into following types based on their application:
1. Commercial wharf: as its name implies, it is used for the transport of goods from land
to sea or vice versa, and it plays an important role for exporting as a key and effective
element in country economy.
2. Military wharf: it is used to transport military equipment and instruments.
3. Fishing wharf: it is used for berthing boats of fishermen.
4. Petroleum wharf: it is used for berthing and anchorage of oil tugs and of particular
types to transport petroleum materials.
5. Resort wharf: as its name suggests, it is used for public use and tourism and also as
stations for sport and sailing and also for berthing paddle, bicycle, wind and other boats.
4. Types of wharf in terms of structural specifications.
In designing the wharf installation, selecting the type and also wharf structure information
generally is of great importance. In other words, different factors such as geotechnical
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characteristics, financial credit, economic factors, executive facilities etc. should be
considered in designing.
Most wharfs are composed of different types as follows:
1 – Wharf with foundation consisted of steel piles
2 - Wharf with foundation consisted of reformer concrete piles with cylindrical steel
surfaces
3 - Wharf with foundation consisted of prefabricated concrete pile
4 – Polymeric (synthetic) wharfs
1-4 Steel Wharfs
This type of wharf is one of the most commonly used types of docks. Since many of
constructed wharf in the world have been constructed by such a structure, contractors have
sufficient experience in manufacturing this kind of docks and in addition to a problem
which exists in the construction such as need for infrastructure and piling, steel structures
are highly susceptible to mechanical and chemical corrosion in aqueous environments and
even using different methods of cathodic, epoxy and resin protection and due to the many
problems in maintenance, durability of such foundations are not satisfactory and it is
relatively short.
2-4 Concrete wharf with steel surface This type of structure has better tolerance to corrosion than the two previously mentioned,
but the same infrastructure problems and implementation difficulties of wharf still remain.
3-4 Prefabricated concrete wharf
This type of wharf had been widely used in the past, but its use has declined gradually.
This structure include problems such as transportation and displacement after raising and
also the difficulty or impossibility of increasing the length of piles during construction, as a
result of arisen changes in consisting materials of land, these piles are susceptible to
mechanical and chemical corrosion especially in areas where tidal waves hit the
foundations.
4-4 Polymeric Wharf
This type of wharf is of the new generation of wharfs and is constructed by using special
polymeric materials and in floating form and in terms of application, it is divided into a
variety of recreational, passenger, fishing, rescue, etc. floating wharf.
As you know building a wharf by destroying terrains needs drying water areas and piling
for making infrastructure, causing environmental adverse and especially that it is not
possible to pile behind dams and creating vibrations due to special conditions.
This made Design engineering Company of Dam, Road and Buildings (Sara) to study types
of wharf in order to preserve natural resources and optimal use of environment without
destroying it and avoid making any damage and artificial side effects and especially type of
use in dams and among which tries to develop and implement polymeric pontoon piers.
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The company of Dam, Roads, and Buildings is proud to take a major step in the innovation
process in our beloved homeland by design and implementation of this kind of wharf after
dehydrating on the surface of slope upstream dam (rip rap) for the first time in Iran dams.
5 – Polymeric floating wharf
In general, floating docks in the present century, for reasons previously mentioned, are
considered as the main rival of fixed docks and among which polymer pontoon piers are
better accepted in polypropylene wharf environment, etc. to (HDPE). In general these
kinds of docks are usually produced using raw material of HDPE as cube -shaped tanks,
nearly all four floating vessels form together a cube with dimensions of 100 cm. Each tank
has four earrings to connect to other tanks. This connection is done with the help of
another piece called pins. In order to increase resistance to hit and connecting boats to the
wharfs, the other pieces have been used called bumpers and hooks.
6 - The main reasons to select polymer pontoon piers in dams
1 - To avoid artificial effects
2 - No need for piling and drying Lake Floor
3 – No need to special and significant preparation on the ramp and the dam body
4 – Resistance of wharf parts against climate changes especially damaging ultraviolet
radiation (UV) with respect to additives used in polymer structure
5 – Possibility to increase dimension and area of wharf in future development plans
6 - Resistant to various chemical and mechanical corrosions
7 – Wharf pieces can be used in special seasons or can be transported somewhere else
due to its easy installation and collection
8 – Its easy anchorage
9 - The possibility of replacing the defective parts with ease and no disruption of wharf
servicing
7 – Design of pontoon piers at Dam
Factors influencing the design can be defined as follows:
1 - The dead loads: consist of weight of the wharf main body and all its associated
accessories
2 - Live loads: consist of weight of the equipment on it and weight of moving persons
3 - Environmental loads: that can influence wharf in different ways. Most notably are
wind, water flow, and waves.
4 - Coastal slope of implementation place
5 - Suitable anchorage of wharf
6 - Considering the safety
The design of this structure was done based static load carrying capacity of at least 320 kg
per square meter of pontoon piers. In addition due to the lack of proper infrastructure in rip
rap slope and on the rocks, geotextile fiber technology also called the land cloth has been
used with polymer thread and coating, resistant to sunlight (Anti UV) and rot and capsules
filled with sand. (Figure 2)
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Figure2. Design of pontoon piers at Dam
This material is made of polyester and polypropylene filaments and due to its
characteristics such as very fast implementation, comfortable, low weight, high strength,
low cost, long lasting, non- environmental degradation, and uniformity in implementation
and due to physical, mechanical, hydraulic conditions and needed durability to protect the
body of wharf against the massive stone, geotextiles have been considered as the most
appropriate option in design for the company of Sad, Rah, Abnie (SRA). Also, considering
the tensile force applied to the anchorage, a concrete structure was used in the vicinity of
the dam crest and due to the special design system; anchorage has been executed securely
from above. In wharf slope, using special polymer stairs and aligner plate and polymeric
railings designed for this task has established a safe approach to traffic.
CONCLUSIONS However, any maneuver on lakes of dams by staff of exploitation including passive
defense, collecting illegal fishing gears, patrolling to investigate environmental factors on
the lake, the possibility of recreational trip, tourists visit the lake behind dams . . . the
existence of wharf on dam and water installations seems necessary and the company of
Sad, Rah, Abnie (SRA) knows it as his function to be pioneer in country in the design,
manufacture and installation of wharf on dam according to different development projects
and maintenance, repair, installation of instrumentation, exploitation and data processing
of instrumentation in dams which this was accomplished in Shahid Shahcheraghi Reservoir
Dam of city of Damghan-Iran for the first time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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At the end, we would like to appreciate the unsparing guidance and cooperation of
respected employer and supervisor of the time of implementing project (Regional Water
Authority Company, Semnan) and his bravely welcomes of the implementation of above
schemes that was conducted for the first time in the country dams.
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THE KARALLOE MULTIPURPOSE DAMFOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND RAW WATER DEVELOPMENT
Agus Setiawan1, Hariyono Utomo1, Eka Rahendra1, Subandi1,Andika Kuswidyawan2 & Arif Paputungan3
1)The Pompengan Jeneberang Large River Basin Organization, Makassar, Indonesia2)Water Resources Engineering Student, Muhammadiyah University, Makassar, Indonesia
3)Water Resources Consultant of Pompengan Large River Basin Organization , Makassar, [email protected]
ABSTRACTThe serious problem of Jeneponto regency is a raw water crisis and the environmental decreasingduring dry season. No secure water to the existing Kelara irrigation, rice cropping is not sufficient.Existing irrigation system uses the open channels with a lot of risk: evaporation, infiltration andillegal pumping. The Local Government Raw Water Treatment Plant (RWTP) cannot supply the clearwater to the costumers as a target. In rainy season, the regulate flooding inundates public facilities inthe rural and urban area for a long time. To solve the problem, it will be applied 3 terms; (1) in theshort term, in the middle of 2014, the Karalloe multipurpose dam will be constructed a concretefaced rock fill type, continued with conservation development works to increase existingenvironmental and secure water to the reservoir. The reservoir will restore 30 million m3 water fromKaralloe river. 50% of raw water will be supplied to 7.199 ha of existing Kelara irrigation area and50 % will be supplied to RWTP for increasing the clear water for the urban (2) in the middle time, theconstruction will be continued by the improvement of existing irrigation. (3) In the long term, waterresource structure will be constructed like the sediment control dams, sand pocket dams in theupstream of the dam to anticipate erosion and sedimentation to the dam, and construction ofreinforced concrete pipe or the raw water transmission main to supply the reservoir water to RWTP.The construction will be continued by Jeneponto river improvement as a recharge of raw water. In thefuture, the expected result with the karalloe multipurpose dam will solve the raw water crisis for theexisting environmental, clean water and irrigation development.
The Jeneponto regency has a serious water crisis to be solved by the Karalloe dam. Highestdeforestation and eroded has a high sedimentation to damage the lowest area so the regulateflooding inundate urban area for a long time during rainy season. During the dry season theraw water crisis to the regency (district) is a serious problem too. A Jeneponto river is a jointriver between Karalloe River and Kellara River, which come from Lompo Batang mountain,flows to Bontosunggu, a capital city of Jeneponto regency. In the upstream (U/S) ofJeneponto regency, no reservoir to restore those rivers so that in dry season, the existing rawwater is not enough to be supplied to the raw water treatment plant and not enough to besupplied to the existing Kellara technical irrigation area so the rice cropping is not optimizealthough existing Kellara and Karalloe weirs are facilitated to support the irrigation area wereconstructed in 1976. In the rainy season, regulate flooding inundate the urban and ruralJeneponto. In related with the problem mentioned above, on July 4, 2012, the governmentdeclared that the Karalloe Multipurpose Dam will be constructed to solve the raw water crisis
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and regulate flooding. The problem will be managed by sustainable, integrated waterresources management, in the short term, the middle term and the long term.
2. SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF DAM
Systematically, social and environmental aspects of the karalloe multipurpose dam as asolution for the environmental and raw water development in Jeneponto regency will relatedto greenhouse gas effect of Karalloe multipurpose dam, public participation for the Karalloemultipurpose dam and Kellara irrigation scheme, institutional aspects on the Karalloe dam,land acquisition and resettlement for the Karalloe dam, Environmental management duringKaralloe dam construction will be written briefly:
2.1. Greenhouse Gas Effect of Karalloe Multipurpose Dam
For securing and sustainable raw water in the Karalloe multipurpose reservoir, conservationmust be developed. Conservation development can increase O2 and reduce CO2 to secure theexisting environmental and raw water in reservoir for increasing irrigation and clear water.The concentration of Green House Gas in the atmosphere had been increasing slowly.Anomalies in the concentration patterns of CO2 and CH4 have been correlated with thedevelopment of existing Kellara irrigation, agriculture, floras, fauna and human life.Theoretically, the greenhouse gas effect of dams is the principal cause of climate change.Some regions of the world are experiencing heat waves, severe droughts, and wildfires whileother regions are facing unusually strong monsoons, widespread flooding, and rain-inducedlandslides. For these extreme events, people around the world are facing some form ofclimate related crisis with increasing frequency. International efforts to advise countries on
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how to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and cope with climate change are ongoing.National strategies for sustainable development are being implemented by many countries aswell as programs to monitor and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Winning the battle toslow down and cope with climate change will be a long term challenge which will likelyrequire substantial changes in the behavioral patterns of society. Climate change is giving riseto all kinds of environmental changes. It results in heat waves, droughts and fires in someregions, and in other regions, floods and freak storms. Even though not everyone isconvinced that the changes in climate are abnormal or anthropogenic, there is widespreadevidence from many independent sources suggesting that the earth is getting warmer.Temperatures over land and ocean are rising. Temperature records are being exceeded inmany regions of the world; extreme events are becoming more frequent. Some of the inter-annual climate variations, which are sometimes attributed to climate change, are undoubtedlydue to events such as El Nino. However, it has recently been hypothesized that the frequencyof El Nino events, which has almost doubled since 1980, might be due to the increase in theconcentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In this presentation of the greenhouseeffect, discuss the main causes of climate change, present information on the magnitude andimpact of climate change, mention some of the international efforts to deal with climatechange, and present some strategies for minimizing the increase in the atmosphericconcentration of greenhouse gases. Many technical solutions are being advanced by thescientific community to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and to help adapt to climatechange, but these are unlikely to be sufficient to stop more global environmental changesunless tremendous progress is made in using resources more sustainably. The temperature ofthe Earth depends on the energy budget at the Earth's surface. The main source of energy isthe incoming short wave radiation from the sun.Approximately 30% of this radiation is reflected back into space by clouds and the Earth'ssurface. Having been warmed by the sun's radiation, the Earth cools itself by emitting longwave radiation back into space. Part of the long wave radiation emitted by the Earth isabsorbed by heat trapping gases in the Earth’s atmosphere such as water vapor (H2O), carbondioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3) and re-emitted in alldirections, including back towards the Earth's surface. Because it is analogous to the wayglass greenhouses trap solar energy, this phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect andthose heat trapping gases in the atmosphere are known as greenhouse gases. The globalwarming potential of a gas gauges its effectiveness in warming the atmosphere. It is differentfor all Green House Gas, and CO2 is used as the reference. For example, over a century, akilogram of N2O is 298 times more effective at warming the atmosphere than a kilogram ofCO2. Hence the CO2 equivalent (CO2e) of N2O is 298. It is interesting to note that withoutthese greenhouse gases the temperature at the earth's surface would be about 33oC cooler. Forexample, from 8,000 to 2,000 years ago an anomalous increase in the atmospheric CO2 untilthe 1970s, as much CO2 concentration of about 40 ppm (parts per million) has beenattributed to forest clearing for the development of agriculture in Europe and China. A similarincrease in the concentration of methane of 250 parts per billion, which took place 5,000 to1,000 years ago has been ascribed to the spread of irrigated rice farming in Asia. It has beenestimated that the increase in concentration of these two gases increased the Earth'stemperature by about 0.8oC during that period. It had been released into the atmosphere fromthe clearing of land as from the burning of fossil fuels. However, since then, the contributionof fossil fuel combustion has become much more important. For example, over the past 20years, of the CO2 This large increase in energy-related CO emissions are estimated to havecome from the combustion of fossil fuels and the remainder from land use changes. The shareof Green House Gas emissions related to fossil fuel combustion is now growing at anaccelerating rate. During the last two centuries and particularly during the last 3 to 4 decades,
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the atmospheric concentrations of CO emissions are closely associated with the increase inthe world's population.
2.2. Public Participation for the Karalloe dam and Kelara Irrigation Scheme
The most significant part of the Water User Association for the Kellara Irrigation scheme(The irrigation) is in water scheduling and distribution. When irrigation water availability isadequate or between 4 and 6 m3/second, three Water User Association divides irrigationsupplies at the major diversion structure in proportion to their areas and then guard thosesettings. When the available water falls below 4 m3/Sec, the Water User Association switchto irrigation rotational procedures, involving 2.5, 2 and 2.5 days allocation for each of thethree Water User Association. Within each Water User Association sub-command, scheduleshas been developed for sharing water between day blocks and night blocks. Each block issplit again into roughly 1/3rd of their areas, with each sub-area getting an allocation for the1st, 2nd or the 3rd day. The Water User Association proposes the schedules and the gateoperators carry out their instructions for the setting of the gates. This kind of waterscheduling needs a high degree of cooperation among water users. It is unlikely thatgovernment operators could achieve satisfactory performance levels at the irrigation schemewithout the involvement of the Water User Association.
The federation leaders ensure that their members obey the scheduling rules and havedeveloped sanctions for persistent offenders. As can be seen from the description of theorganization for O&M described above, it is still in the process of adapting to the newnational policies. Farmers will continue to participate in irrigation O&M activities in severalways: (1) Farmers are mobilized on a voluntary group basis under traditional practices for
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twice a year, before the start of the planting to undertake light maintenance work in thesecondary canals, such as clearing sediment, grass cutting, small lining repairs. (2) Thefarmers decide on cropping patterns and water distribution schedules, and the head of regencyissues appropriate instructions based on these group decisions. The the Water UserAssociation have agreed on sanctions to be imposed on farmers who do not follow the agreedcrop and water schedules and then waste valuable water. (3) In previous years, farmerscollected funds informally for use in O&M where they saw a need. In 2005, the former alobbied to change the bylaws about water user fees going to the regency accountssuccessfully. Under the revised procedures, the Water User Association keeps the funds fortheir own internal the Water User Association. In 2006, the farmers will strictly enforcepayment by members of at a level of Rp.25,000/season/ha and 20% of members have so farpaid these amounts. (4) The farmers have greatly expanded the area cultivated in secondcropping (palawija) during the dry season so that more area can be planted. In 2005 thispalawija area had increased to 2,500 ha, with only 1,500 ha of paddy. (5) In 2003, theKaralloe weir sluice gate stems seized up and could not be closed. The government at thattime had no funds for repair so the farmers paid for the repair themselves. (6) The end of2005, a serious landslide with the sedimentation deposit into the main canal, cutting offirrigation flows at a critical time before wet season plantings. The irrigation maintenancefunds through national budget, but no money available for this work. At the initiative of theWater User Association leaders, reparation of landslide work was initiated by requestingregency assistance with heavy equipment and the Water User Association arranged to providethe necessary labor to clear the blockage.Lessons and learned in the irrigation: (1) Rehabilitation of an operating irrigation needs fullparticipation of the beneficiaries and a multidisciplinary approach involving farmer groupstrengthening, improved agricultural practices, training in O&M and repairs to the irrigationinfrastructure. Placing a lot of emphasis on construction works at the expense of thesepreceding activities can lead to disappointing results. (2) The whole-heat support of localgovernment is an essential prerequisite for successful participation. The JenepontoGovernment leader must give his full attention and support to the improvement measuresproposed for the irrigation scheme. (3) The appropriate emphasis for improvement worksshould be improving the water management and crop production development. An overallwater management study, carried out before improvement works start will be highly usefuland effective in producing a successful strategy. Full consultation is needed with allstakeholders to be focused for the real problems and proposing real solutions. (4) Thepromise of funds for rehabilitation can be a great incentive for farmers to change negativeperceptions and increasing participation in necessary irrigation O&M activities. (5)Participation must be meaningful and involve empowerment of farmers. Previous attempts touse the Water User Association as a government tax collector failed because the benefits ofparticipation were one sided. (6) Participation can be improved by the sustained use ofneutral groups as who can be trusted by farmers (consultants or NGOs) as an intermediariesand a facilitator for irrigation scheme improvements. (7) The participation model must besuitable for local conditions, not a standard and uniform system imposed from above. Forexample, in the irrigation scheme, the sizes of the Water User Association areas are not equal,the main canal was left out of the water scheduling, and efforts were made to ensure that thetraditional local leaders were involved from an early stage, thereby co-opting potentialopposition. (8) Designing the Water User Association sub-commands of unequal sizes areasis not a problem. It is much more important that the Federations are granted total control ofthe water in their areas (9) A step-by-step approach to initiating irrigation physical,organizational and management improvements is recommended. At the irrigation scheme, therehabilitation was carried out in several separate stages, with the early stages generating
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significant benefits for all, which in turn led to a greater willingness to participate andcooperate in future activities and stages. (10) Continued support and training after physicalworks are completed generate positive additional impacts on active participatory watermanagement and outcomes. (11) comparative study conducted outside of the geographicalscheme area, including alternative cultural settings, proved to be highly effective indemonstrating modern O&M practices, the farmers were comparative studied to East Javairrigation schemes where the Water User Association leaders had a high level of positiveinvolvement in O&M matters.The Kellara irrigation schemes lies wholly within the Jeneponto regency within 5 Sub districtand 24 Villages. The scheme area covers 7,199 ha, divided into 2,157 tertiary blocks, with 51the Water User Association and 11,264 farmers. In an attempt to resolve the dilemmasituation to maintain sustainable rice production on the one hand, while keeping pace theproductivity level with the increasing population growth on the other, an emphasis has beengiven to irrigation development and management based on a participatory approach. Theprogram had been set up to reduce central government's burden on Operation andMaintenance (O&M) costs, aiming for sustainable irrigation O&M by virtue of ParticipatoryIrrigation Management approach. Under the said program, a number of policy adjustments onwater resources had been enacted. Further to this, Participatory Irrigation Managementattempts have also been carried out including: turning over to the Water User Association , ofsmall irrigation schemes; encouragement of Irrigation Service Fee; Irrigation ManagementTransfer ; Participatory design and construction program; field laboratories for visual processof learning by doing, and other such government initiatives. However, it turned up that theattempts has been going very slowly and yet, still tended to be sustainable. This has beenpartially suspected by the fact that the economy of the farmers and farming conditions underthe fragmented land ownership, which in fact, are already small, has been marginalized. Inthe water resources development within thirty years until 1997 through government leddevelopment projects. However, the institutional development to sustain this progress gotinsufficient attention. From the lessons learned before the multidimensional crisis, it has beenrecognized that the severe crisis had been due to the chronic neglect of the farmers roles inalmost the entire process of development, rehabilitation, and routine operation andmaintenance of irrigation infrastructures.At the present time, access road to the Karalloe multipurpose dam has been completed to becontinued to the dam construction. The dam is constructed by the Pompengan JeneberangLarge River Basin Organization under Directorate General of Water Resources, Ministry ofPublic Works to restore water of Karalloe river. In the future time , about 30 million m3water come from the reservoir will irrigate the 7,004 ha Kelara irrigation area through 70 kmsecondary canals. The last time, without the Karalloe dam, the irrigated area had declined toless than 1,000 ha or which is equivalent to 16% designed capacity every year so farmersneed additional water and irrigation improvement. The shortage of water led to permanentsocial discord and the farmers themselves destroyed and damaged the irrigation works inattempts to divert water away from their neighbors’ lands and into their own fields. Therewere no water sharing plans or staggered plantings and coordination of irrigation and watermanagement was poor. A storage dam was proposed as a solution to the water shortages byKaralloe dam. It was recognized that the existing irrigation and agricultural land resourceswere vastly underutilized due mainly to poor water management. Better irrigation and watermanagement was not possible without full commitment, cooperation and participation of thefarmers and the local community. Hence a study was undertaken between 1998 and 2000,with the aim to clarify the real causes of the water shortages by collecting and analyzing dataand information on the project from both government officials and local farmers, and bymaking recommendations for improvements. Measures aimed to improve irrigation and water
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management were implemented between 1999 and 2002 using participatory methodologiespromoting farmer participation. Based on the WMIS, indicate that (1) The main canalcarrying capacity was too small, reduced to 25% of the total requirement by defects in thecanal, and limited to 50% by the carrying capacity of the tunnels. (2) The secondary systemwas in a poor condition, with heavy sedimentation and sanitation, and many broken andleaking (3). The tertiary system was either non-existent or in a poor state of repair. (4). Watermanagement was very problematic due to a lack of farmer commitment and involvement,possibly arising from the continuing shortages of water and the special character of the localpeople.
2.3. Institutional Aspects on the Karalloe Multipurpose Dam
Based on The No.7 Law of 2004 on water resources, O&M responsibility is assigned by threeadministrative levels. It is (1) Central (2) Province (3) District or regency with thedesignation of responsibility depending on schemes area as (a) >3,000 ha (b) 3,000-1,000 ha(c)<1,000 ha. The Water Use Association is delegated the responsibility for the constructionand O&M of tertiary systems. Under the revised arrangements, the central government willtake responsibility for the irrigation scheme, given its size.
The mechanisms and organizations are still evolving, but will certainly involve partnerships,mutually agreed between the different administrative levels for implementation of O&M,depending on the abilities and willingness to participate of each level. Given the positiveexperience and clear benefits of good water management practices seen over the past eightyears, the provincial and district governments, the Water Use Association and the farmerbeneficiaries are all well prepared and ready for whatever the new arrangements will bring
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and hopefully the outcome will lead to a further increase in productivity of the irrigationsystem.
2.4. Land Acquisition and Resettlement for the Karalloe Multipurpose Dam
The Karalloe multipurpose dam is feasible to be constructed to solve the raw water crisis andto the regulate flooding. Based on data of the Karraloe dam that the dam will be constructedusing a rock fill dam with concrete face type, to store Karalloe river located in Gowa regency.The height, crest width and length of the dam is 75.18 m, 11 m, 325 m.
The dam is supported by 182 km2 Catchment area, 22 km Karalloe river length with 2.495mm/year annual average rainfall, 28.47 m3/second Q max, 3 m3/Sec Q min, 239.65 mmaximum water level, 89.20 m minimum water level. The reservoir has 30 million m3effective storage capacities with 1.6 km2 surface area will be inundated 3 villages, thegovernment will provide land acquisitions of the inundation villages and relocate about 90families to new location (resettlement Site).
2.5. Environmental Management During Construction of the Karalloe Dam
The Karalloe multipurpose dam will store 30 million m3 raw water to be constructed in hillyarea located in Taring Village, Biringbulu Sub District, Gowa Regency, located in the upperstream of Jeneponto regency to supply the raw water to the rural and urban Jenepontoregency for example 15 m3/Sec raw water for 7.199 ha of the existing technical irrigationarea, 0.3 m3/Sec for clean water, 380 Volt 50 Hz for micro hydro electricity power, 30 m3
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for flood control including flushing of drainage. Another purpose of the raw water will beused tourist development. The sketch informs the development of water resources structureswill be constructed and developed after the final construction of the dam for instanceconstruction of the Sediment Control Dam, Sand Pocket Dam, Conservation Dam, includingdevelopment of conservation and reforestation are located in the U/S of the dam to preventand minimize the sedimentation in the reservoir. Construction of Raw Water TransmissionMain including construction of Raw Water Treatment Plant will be located in the D/S of thedam to support increasing of clean water. During construction, environmental improvementworks or conservation development must be done to anticipate next disaster, an erosion or alandslide in the upper of the dam and to secure water to reservoir for existing irrigation andenvironmental development.
3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The 30 million m3 of raw water come from Karalloe reservoir constructed in Gowa regencyis the best solution for securing and providing a sustainable existing environmentalprotection and the existing Kellara irrigation development in Jeneponto regency so the damwill be constructed in 2014. It is recommended that during and after the completed ofconstruction, all exiting water resources in Jeneponto including the Karalloe dam, Kelarairrigation scheme and such river as Karalloe, Jeneponto, Kelara must be managed by theenvironment, sustainable integrated water resources management for sustainable existingenvironmental protection and raw water development including the conservation orforestation development.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks to a committee of the 82nd ICOLD Annual Meeting and symposium to approve andlet this paper to be presented at the meeting for transferring and sharing the dams in globalenvironmental challenges knowledge among participants.
REFERENCES
A. Hafied A. Gany, (2007): Problems and Perspectives of Participatory IrrigationManagement Under The Small Land Holding Condition: with a Special Reference toIndonesian Practice, ICID Publisher, Tehran, Iran
Agus Setiawan, Hariyono Utomo, Subandi and Zainal Arifin, (2013): Karalloe MultpurposeReservoir for Raw Water Crisis, Indonesia Hydraulic Engineers AssociationPublisher, Jakarta, Indonesia
Anonym, (2012): No. 7 of 2004 Indonesia Law on Water Resources, DGWR Publisher,Jakarta, Indonesia
Andal Persada Utama Consultant PT, (2012): Environmental Risk Analysis of KaralloeMultipurpose Dam, Andal Persada Publisher, Makassar, Indonesia
Bintang Tirta Pratama PT, (2013): Detailed Design of Karalloe Dam Supletion Channel, BTPPublisher, Makassar, Indonesia
Biosfera Widhy Engineering Consultant PT., (2012): Study of Land Acquisition andResettlement Action Plan of the Karalloe Multipurpose Dam, BWEC Publisher,Makassar, Indonesia
CTIE Co., Ltd and associates with Indonesia Consultant, (2000): Consulting Services onComprehensive Water Resources Management Plan Study for Maros JenepontoWatershed, CTIE Publisher, Makassar, Indonesia
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Directorate General of Water Resources, Yayasan Air Adi Eka and JICA, (2013): RiverManagement in Indonesia, DGWR Publisher, Jakarta, Indonesia
INACOLD, JBIC, DISIMP and Nippon Koei, Co.Ltd., (2005): Workshop on Concrete FacedRockfill Dam (CFRD), Hand out of Design and Construction CFRD, ICOLDBulletin, DGWR Publisher, Jakarta, Indonesia
Mettana Engineering Consultant PT, (2012): Detailed Design Review of KaralloeMultipurpose Dam, Mettana Publisher, Makassar, Indonesia.
Mohamad Hasan and Syamsudin Mansoer, (2007): Participatory Irrigation Management InKelara Karalloe Irrigation Project, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, ICID Publisher,Tehran, Iran
Nippon Koei Co., Ltd and associates with Indonesia Consultant , (2008): Consulting Serviceson SSIMP-III, Kellara Karalloe Dam Study/Design of Canal and Related Structures ofKelara Primary Canal, Nippon Koei Co., Ltd Publisher, Makassar, Indonesia
R. L. Desjardins, (2013): Climate Change - A Long-term Global Environmental Challenge,Elsevier International Journal Publisher, San Diego, CA 92101, USA
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THE SADDANG MULTIPURPOSE DAM FOR ANTICIPATEFLOODING AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT
Sumardji1, Eka Rahendra1, Subandi1, Andi M. Irham1,M. K. Nizam Lembah2 & Sukarman3
1)The Pompengan Jeneberang Large River Basin Organization, Makassar, Indonesia2)Directorate of Rivers and Coastal, Directorate General of Water Resources, Jakarta, Indonesia
3)Water Resources Consultant of Pompengan Large River Basin Organization , Makassar, [email protected]
ABSTRACTA case of Saddang river is serious problem, not only in rainy season but also in dry season. Floodingof the river cannot be controlled by the Benteng barrage, nothing to be done by the farmers exceptwaiting for flooding escape. In the dry season, it is not enough water to irrigate all fields because ofwater lost so that no increasing of rice cropping. Briefly, the flood and irrigation water crisis inconnection with the global climate change, caused of: (1) Saddang dike over-topping so that about3.951 ha of 93.724 Ha of irrigation structures in a bad condition (2) A lot of sedimentation depositedin the existing irrigation channel (3) No integrated and sustainable in operation dan maintenance ofthe channel (4) All irrigation channel are opened channel with the risk of water lost caused of illegalirrigation pumping, evaporation and infiltration. To solve the problem mentioned above: (1) In shortterm; Saddang dike and irrigation channel must be repaired urgently and Environmentalimprovement work must be done, a good conservation must be developed to stabilize the the riverdischarge, it will be useful to anticipate next flooding (2) in the middle term; a multipurpose dammust be constructed in the upper stream of the existing Benteng barrage to store and to controlSaddang river (3) In the long term; the existing opened Irrigation channel must be changed with theclosed irrigation channel by the concrete reinforce pipe to anticipate: illegal irrigation pumping,evaporation and infiltration. The result expected that with these methods: No flooding, no illegalirrigation pumping, no evaporation, no infiltration, securing water for food and rural communityunder climate change, increasing of food cropping, securing water to 7,574 km2 of The River Basinfor environmental development.
Saddang river’s 150 km length cover to the 5,453 km² watershed is the biggest river amongrivers in the Saddang river basin, the river crosses the South Sulawesi and the West SulawesiProvince. This basin covers 7,574 km² area and consists of 74 watersheds. Noted that themore than 10 existing rivers flow to estuary through saddang river. In the present, Saddangriver has a serious problem, not only in rainy season but also in dry season. Flooding inundateabout 93.724 Ha fields, it is not be controlled by the Benteng barrage, nothing to be done bythe farmers except waiting for flooding escape. In the dry season, it is not enough water toirrigate all fields because of water lost so that no increasing of rice cropping. Briefly, theflood and irrigation water crisis in connection with the global climate change, caused of: (1)Saddang dike over topping so that about 3.951 ha of 93.724 Ha of irrigation structures in abad condition (2) A lot of sedimentation deposited in the existing irrigation channel (3) Nointegrated and sustainable in operation and maintenance of the channel (4) All irrigationchannel are opened channel with the risk of water lost caused of illegal irrigation pumping,evaporation and infiltration. To solve the problem mentioned above: (1) In short term;Saddang dike and irrigation channel must be repaired urgently and Environmental
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improvement work must be done, a good conservation must be developed to stabilize the theriver discharge, it will be useful to anticipate next flooding (2) in the middle term; amultipurpose dam must be constructed in the upper stream of the existing Benteng barrage tostore and to control Saddang river (3) In the long term; the existing opened Irrigation channelmust be changed with the closed irrigation channel by the concrete reinforce pipe toanticipate: illegal irrigation pumping, evaporation and infiltration.
The result expected that with these methods: No flooding, no illegal irrigation pumping, noevaporation, no infiltration, securing water for food and rural community under climatechange, increasing of food cropping and securing water to 7,574 km2 of the existing RiverBasin for environmental development.
2. SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF SADDANG DAM
Systematically, social and environmental aspects for the saddang multipurpose dam foranticipate flooding and environmental development will be related with green house gaseffect of dam, public participation for a proposal of multipurpose dam and existing irrigationscheme, institutional aspects on the dam, land acquisition and resettlement for the dam andenvironmental management during dam construction will be written briefly:
2.1 Green House Gas Effects of Saddang Multipurpose Dam
In related with the proposal of The saddang multipurpose dam for anticipate flooding andenvironmental development, the green house gas effect of the Sadang multipurpose must beconsidered that the conservation improvement work for securing water of the reservoir and to
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anticipate flooding with restore the Saddang flooding, because to increase Oxygen (O2) andto reduce dioxide (CO2) for sustainable existing environmental. Theoretically, that inlandwater bodies, such as freshwater lakes, are known to be net emitters of CO2 and methane(CH4). In recent years, significant greenhouse house gas emissions from tropical, arboreal,and mid-latitude reservoirs have also been reported. The extended version of the MERGE(Model for Evaluating the Regional and Global Effects of Greenhouse Gas ReductionPolicies) has been used to project Indonesian’s energy production, consumption and export tothe year 2100, for a reference scenario and mitigation scenarios. In addition to theinternational trade of energy, coal has been included in this version. The study also analyzesthe interaction between the forest sector and energy policy and finally analyzes the directeffect of international climate policy on deforestation in Indonesia.
Then, the MERGE has been extended to analyze emissions of air pollutants. The model usesthe base scenarios from IPCC 2000, with extensions to include mitigation scenarios, toproject concentrations of air pollutants and their impacts on human health and the economy.In the Indonesian energy sector, coal production grows gradually and gas production morestrongly in the reference scenario, whereas oil production falls rapidly. Oil imports increase,while coal exports decrease; gas is imported later. If all countries reduce their emissions,including Indonesia, coal production increases slightly less than in the reference scenariotowards the end of century. Oil imports are higher and gas imports slightly lower than in thereference scenario. The effects of fossil fuel emission reduction on deforestation are slightlyless than in the reference case. The cost of slowing deforestation in Indonesia increasesexponentially by a factor of approximately 20 by the year 2100. Saddang river basin wouldgain the profits from slowing deforestation since the revenue from slowing deforestation ishigher than the costs. The health problems associated with sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
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dioxide (NO2) concentrations resulting from fossil fuel use reach higher levels if OECDcountries reduce their emission, since Indonesian oil imports increase. However, if allIndonesia river basin adopt the Kyoto protocol, the health problems are lower than in thereference case. Human activities are increasingly modifying the Earth’s climate. Theseeffects add to natural influences that have been present over Earth’s history. Human impactson the climate system include increasing concentrations of atmospheric greenhouse gases(e.g., carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons and their substitutes, methane, nitrous oxide, etc),air pollution, and land alteration. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have increasedsince the mid-1700s through fossil fuel burning and changes in land use, with more than 80%of this increase occurring since 1900. Moreover, research indicates that increased levels ofcarbon dioxide will remain in the atmosphere for hundreds of years. It is virtually certain thatincreasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases willcause global surface climate to be warmer. The 1992 United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change states as an objective the “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrationsin the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with theclimate system”. Developed countries and countries with economies in transition are requiredto reduce their aggregate net emissions. Indonesia has the fourth biggest population in theworld, and is one of the countries prepared to meet its commitment as a party to theConvention. Furthermore, Indonesia has significant reserves of coal, natural gas, and oil assources of energy and also as emissions. The emissions from forestry and land use changecan also affect climate change be significantly. Scientists’ understanding of the fundamentalprocesses responsible for global climate change has greatly improved during the last decade,including better representation of carbon, water, and other biogeochemical cycles in climatemodels. Yet, model projections of future global warming vary, because of differing estimatesof population growth, economic activity, greenhouse gas emission rates, changes inatmospheric particulate concentrations and their effects, and also because of uncertainties inclimate models. The MERGE is a powerful tool for analyzing mitigation policies to deal withthe global climate change issues. The MERGE consists of four major parts: (1) economicmodel, (2) energy model, (3) climate model, and (4) climate change impact (damage) model.In the MERGE model, Indonesia is included only in the Rest of the World (ROW) region.However, an analysis of the individual role of Indonesia in relation to international climatepolicies is important for the country to develop a meaningful national climate policy. Themain question is whether Indonesian national policy has a significant impact on internationalclimate policies and global climate change. To study this question, we add a separate regionfor Indonesia in MERGE as a tenth region. The MERGE model to include coal as a tradablegood and added a new forest model to analyse forest change, especially for Indonesia.Finally, we applied the reference scenarios from the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC, 2000) and the IPCC scenario with various mitigation scenarios, in order toestimate air pollution.
2.2. Public participation for Saddang Multipurpose Dam
Public participation concept approach is a consequence of the intervention of the governmentfor these decades in irrigation management system, while the farmers has been neglected, ofwhich make them has a new mindset, that the operation and management system of theirrigation system, even in the tertiary system is the responsibility of the government as theauthority. When the quantity of water became not sufficient as result of the decreasingservice capability of the infrastructure, the farmers just waiting for the government to repair,even just for the tertiary canal or cleaning the canal, while the tight money policy after theeconomic and financial crisis, the government become more difficult to handle these matter.
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As the result, so many people speak about the failure of the government in agriculturalsystem, which means the prepare own rice has been failed. Thus the government must importrice. To avoid this situation, idea about farmers participation rise up. At the beginning,participation concept approach, starting with the result of a study, that the farmers notparticipate and to take the responsibility, because the infrastructure of which has been builtnot suitable to the needs of the farmers. So the recommendation said, that the farmers must beinvolve since planning and design, Implementation and Operation and Maintenance System(IOMS) in order to get the participation from the farmers. Actually right, because when theyinvolve in the work they will have the sense of belongings, and than they will participate inIOMS, especially at the tertiary system. Water resources participation implementation is theparadigm in irrigation management as a part of the management in, is a consequence ofseveral phenomenon in all over the world, such as; human right with the democratic process,the right to have access to fresh water, the demand of fresh water, quantity and qualitybecome increase while the supply become decrease.
Participatory irrigation management for many years, during the early stage of irrigationdevelopment, the farming community considered irrigation as an “art” rather than“technology”. During which, most of irrigated agricultural undertakings were conducted bythe community members on the basis of mutual assistance. However, as irrigationdevelopment become more and more expanded to larger areas, the operation andmanagement become hardly conducted by the farming community on mutual assistance. Atthis stage, the operation and management of irrigation were then centered on technologicalapplication with subsequent subsidies by the government for both development andmanagement. Except for small scale irrigation, the operation and management were thenincreasingly dependent upon special irrigation technology, while the farming communities
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are still performing on the basis of the previous experiences. For which, irrigation operationand maintenance were conducted without much involving the farming communities as well asother stakeholders. As a result, many irrigation schemes, ranging from medium to large scalewere reportedly lack of operation and maintenance.
Being under the poor performance, the role of irrigation water for food production, health andenvironment has increasingly become susceptible in terms of accessibility to adequatequantity and reasonable quality, as well as timely distribution. Being the case, it is essential togive special thought about the new approach toward efficient irrigation water management,involving the water users, planners, and decision makers at all levels (participatory irrigationmanagement). Under the participatory irrigation management, the issues to address are notonly about irrigated agricultural engineering, sociology economics in isolation. Rather, itconcerns the challenging management issues, involving strategic approach, institutional, aswell as psycho-graphic elements of actors surroundings. The participatory approach involvesthe new and important roles of the water resources institutions, and most significantly, as thefundamental reform of the role sharing amongst the relevant government institutions as wellas the stakeholders.
2.3. Land Acquisition and Resettlement for Saddang Multipurpose Dam
Consequently, proposal of new multipurpose dam in upper site of existing Benteng barragemust be studied seriously because the construction of Saddang dam will be related with theland acquisition and resettlement problems. The main problems and constraints associatedwith land, soil and drainage among others are: (1) Lack of appropriate land resources, (i) Inmany areas of the developing world, there are few new areas of suitable agricultural landwhich can be economically developed using existing water resources; (ii) Marginal lands are
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being over-exploited and degraded under excessive population pressures. Productive land isbeing lost to rapid urban and industrial development; (2) Water quality constraints, (i) Some30 million hectares of land world wide are affected by continuing problems of water loggingand salinity; (ii) In water-short areas, soil is being degraded by irrigation with brackish water;(iii) In arid areas, the long-term effects on soil structure of irrigating with low quality urbaneffluent are uncertain; (3) Soil conservation technology, (i) Lack of appropriate techniquesfor reclaiming large areas of problem soils have still to be developed, while the provision offood supplies can hardly waiting till appropriate technique be developed; (ii) Problemsrelated to excessive water requirement for the newly developed agricultural lands.
2.4. Institutional Aspects on the Saddang Multipurpose Dam
Institutional aspects on the dam is Institutional demands for irrigation development andmanagement. Due to the dynamic shifts on a number living and livelihood aspects of thepeople, along the escalating growth of population, the economic and technologicaldevelopment, are becoming imperative. These include operation and management ofirrigation, both the perspective of technical and non technical concerns. For consistentimplementation of irrigation development as well as efficient operation and maintenance, it ishighly essential to have a well established institutional arrangement. For example, inattempting to set up an appropriate institution, a current institutional arrangement is currentlybeing undertaken in Saddang river basin. The activities are conducted in accordance with thegrowing demands and changes in irrigated agriculture. Under the dynamic progress ofinstitutional arrangement, it has been evident that the underlying changes and application ofirrigated agricultural technology are the determinant factors in the shaping the institutionalarrangement. The underlying approach for institutional adjustment has been on the basis ofappropriate balance between the economic demand and supply of irrigated agriculture in linewith the major principles of technological innovation. However, it is not unusual that theinstitutional set up is often determined by the political will of the ruling elite for insistingchange of the relevant regulatory instruments. Beside, the influence of certain politicalideology with adequate budgetary power could also become determinant factor that shouldnot be overlooked or under estimated.
2.5. Environmental Management During Saddang Multipurpose Dam Construction
Environmental management during construction must be implemented because the irrigationrelated with environmental problems are dominant with : (1) Water bond diseases. Inadequatemaintenance leads to silted and weeds in the gated channels, encouraging water-relateddiseases like malaria; (2) Silt transportation. Reservoirs are silting up at increasing rates ascatchments are denuded. Between 1980-2000, global storage capacity increased 25%,whereas lost capacity increased 140%, to stand at 10% of total capacity; (3) Agrochemicalcontaminants. Increased use of agrochemicals. Long-term impacts on human health and theenvironment are unknown. In the short term, fertilizers/pesticides end up in drains, promotingaccelerated growth of weeds and algae, and in aquifers; (4) Outbreak of plant disease lifecycle. Genetic diversity is being reduced as a few high yielding crop varieties predominate.The impact of a sudden outbreak of disease could be potentially devastating. Geneticallymodified crops offer potential but also bring extra risks to farmers’ livelihood, as well as tothe environment; (5) Impacts of saline water. Reuse of saline water can create long-termproblems. Disposal of saline water to sinks creates permanent degraded sites, with risks forfuture groundwater quality; and (6) Heath impacts on black water utilization. Food grown onblack water and sewage sludge potentially involves risks to human health. Increasingly tight
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standards of hygiene in industrialized nations may bar developing countries from exportingtheir agricultural production. Ecological aspects of irrigation is environmentally friendlyirrigation water management on paddy field, coping with water scarcity constraint, therewould be not much available alternatives but emphasizing the agricultural production systemfor applying for water saving effort, while the demands for production function as well as forenvironment must become the major consideration for determining the real time waterallocation. For rice cultivation, however, the water application principles have been by itsnature met several prerequisites for environmental conservation. However, with theescalation of chemical fertilizer application on agricultural lands, a number of negativeimpacts have been identified, including the growing up of nitrogen and phosphorusconcentration in surface and ground waters. These nutrients induced of water bodies.Furthermore, the prolong application of chemicals such as pesticides and weed control,pollutes rivers and lakes through runoff, or groundwater leaching. Given such negativeconsequences, the environmentally friendly irrigation development for paddy field becomesignificantly important goals in the near future. This is particularity true for the fact thatpopulation growth would always followed by escalation of food demands. In spite of thedeterminant factors, it is equally important to ensure the effective instruments for mitigatingthe water constraints, minimizing the negative impacts while enhancing the positive aspectsfor environmental sustainability.Enhancement of bio-environment functions of irrigated paddy field, since early time, thehuman nature has been attached to the behavior of consuming up the available naturalresources without considering the needs for minimizing or conserving extra consumption ofwater for socioeconomic livelihood. Consequently, the genetics’ diversities, species, andsustainable ecosystem have been under the outrageous threat. For a long time, the productionfunction of irrigated paddy fields have been maintained at the high level of productivity,which have also been conducted in complementary with the enhancement of ecology,environment and other external functions. Today, however, the external function of irrigatedpaddy field is regarded by many people as an intangible and less important, relative to theproduction functions. Therefore, external function of irrigation for public services, has onlybeen regarded as the secondary or even tertiary function, with subsequently addressed as thevery low development priority. In an attempt to preserve irrigated agricultural ecosystemtogether with the efforts to enhance conservation of bio-diversities, a number of endeavorscould be implemented. These among others are diversification of perennial plant varieties,with special scrutiny on the aggro-based environmental and hydro-based tourism industry.This arrangement could eventually attract domestic as well as foreign tourist to enjoy aggro-based recreation, water-based as well as bio-environment amenities, and other such leisureagriculture, as amongst the multifunctional and external functions of irrigated agriculture. Ingeneral, in environmentally friendly reservoir operation, the policy for operation ofmultipurpose reservoir is mostly geared toward the demands for fulfilling the water allocationas previously determined in the design, including the water supplies for irrigated agriculture,raw water for domestic and municipalities, industries and other such targets. Theconventional reservoir operations today, however, in most cases are not considering the waterallocation for maintaining the appropriate balance of water ecology and water forenvironmental sustainability. With the increasing concerns and problems associated withenvironmental impacts, the reservoir operation should also be adjusted in such a manner thatthe future reservoir operation has to incorporate the water allocation for maintaining theappropriate balance of water ecosystem, in particular, and environment in general. For futurereservoir operation, therefore, must strictly consider the multiple impacts of reservoiroperation. All the relevant parameters (tangible as well as the intangible one) should be takeninto consideration and incorporate them into the objective analysis. This aspect sounds,
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simple, but in reality it would become dilemma-tic challenges for future reservoir operators.This is particularly the case for reservoirs that had previously been designed and operated forsupporting the optimum internalize functions only, so that there is not much potential wateravailable for reservoir operation to meet the externalize functions.
3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Regulate Saddang flooding is a problem for existing Saddang irrigation area in the rainyseason. Learning from the implementation experiences about the participation of the WaterUse Association in O&M system since HPSIS up to the WISMP and PISP except the WaterUse Association participation. The placement of CO, TPM have give much benefit becausethey work side by side with the farmers but the success of every places not the same, itdepends on the quality of CO/TPM and they personality, also the characteristic of thecommunity. In WISMP and PISP there is an increasing of the Water Use Associationparticipation, because they can do the construction work by direct pointed. It is recommendedthat to reach the target about the sustainable irrigation in the future, the farmers knowledgeabout agriculture and O&M system must be improve. . It is recommended that (1)empowering farmers or the Water Use Association must be done continual (2) The farmersmust be trainings on agriculture and irrigation system. (3) The recruitment of CO/TPM mustbe through a selection with certain criteria because they play an important role as themotivator and facilitator (4) The Saddang multipurpose dam must be constructed in upstreamof the existing Benteng barrage for anticipating the regulate flooding and for the irrigationdevelopment including the existing environmental protection.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks to committee of the 82nd ICOLD Annual Meeting and symposium to approve and letthis paper to be presented in the meeting for transferring and sharing the dams in globalenvironmental challenges knowledge among participants.
REFERENCES
A. Hafied A. Gany, (2007): Problems and Perspectives of Participatory IrrigationManagement Under The Small Land-Holding Condition: with a Special Reference toIndonesian Practice, ICID Publisher, Tehran, Iran
A. Hafied A. Gany, (2013): Potensial Impacts Mitigation and Adaptation of Climate Changeson Resources and Irrigated Agriculture in Indonesia, INACID-ICID Publisher, Jakarta,Indonesia
Anonym, (2012): No. 7 of 2004 Indonesia Law on Water Resources, DGWR Publisher,Jakarta, Indonesia
Armi Susandi, (2004): The Impact of International Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction onIndonesia, Max-Planck-Institut für Meteorologie Publisher, Hamburg, Deutschland
DGWR, Yayasan Air Adi Eka and JICA, (2013): River Management in Indonesia, DGWRPublisher, Jakarta, Indonesia
EV Arntzen, S Niehus, BL Miller, M. Richmond and AC. O. Toole, (2013); EvaluatingGreenhouse Gas Emissions from Hydropower Complexes on Large Rivers in EasternWashington, Elsevier International Journal Publisher, San Diego, CA 92101, USA
Nippon Koei Co., Ltd in associated with Local Consultant, (1999): Consulting EngineeringServices for Decentralized Irrigation System Improvement Project in Eastern Region ofIndonesia Phase II (DISIMP II), Nippon Koei Publisher, Makassar, Indonesia
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Philip H. Brown, Desiree Tullos, Bryan Tilt, Darrin Magee and Aaron T. Wolf, (2008):Modeling the costs and benefits of dam construction from a multidisciplinaryperspective, Elsevier International Journal Publisher, San Diego, USA
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INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON
Bali, Indonesia, June 1ST
– 6TH
, 2014
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT hhdTTjjhkljdjjsgshjhfsdkjhskslsl;s;s;;s;;s;;sjsjkjffffrtttttttfggjfgjgkfkjkjf fffffjfjjfkkfjjj ON THE PRE-CONSTRUCTION STAGE OF UCPS HEPP DEVELOPMENT
2(14pt)
[Blank line 11 pt]
T. Indora, A. Heryana & A. Nugroho PT PLN (Persero)UIP VI , Bandung, Indonesia
Electrical energy demand in Indonesia will increase along with the increasing of
population and economic development. Based on the Power Supply Business Plan 2012-
2021, with projected population growth by an average of 1.6 to 1.7% and an average
economic growth of 6.9%, the projected electricity needs in 2021 amounted to 358, 3 TWh
(see Table 1.).
Electrical energy demand is not proportional to the availability of primary energy,
particularly derived from fossil. Meanwhile the primary energy from non-fossil has not
been fully utilized. Unconformity between the need and availability of the energy can pose
a threat the energy crises. Therefore, the government will not allow anymore power plant
development that would use fuel oil in its operations.
According to the Minister of Economy, Hatta Rajasa, in order to conserve the use of fuel in
this country, power plants must be built using the potential that exists in the area of
development. Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources, Jero Wacik, has four ways to
overcome the problem of energy in Indonesia. One way is to encourage the massive
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development of new and renewable energies. Among them are geothermal (30.000 MW),
hydropower (75.000 MW) and solar energy (50.000 MW).
Hydropower potential in Indonesia according to Hydro Power Potential Study (HPPS) in
1983 was 75.000 MW, and the figure is repeated again on the Hydro Power Inventory
Study in 1993. However on the report Master Plan Study for Hydro Power Development in
Indonesia by Nippon Koei in 2011, hydropower potential after further screening was
26.321 MW, consisting of projects that have been operating (4.338 MW), projects that
have been planned and are being constructed (5.956 MW) and new potential (16.027 MW).
Based on RUPTL 2012-2021, stated that PLN will prioritize the development of
geothermal and hydropower. These two types of energy can go into the power system
whenever they are ready, even though still must consider the power demand and the plan
of another power plant development. In the RUPTL 2012-2021 also mentioned that if there
is a potential, PLN prefer the power generation using hydro energy, such as pumped
storage, peaking hydroelectric power plant with the reservoir.
Table 1. Estimated Electrical Energy Demand and Electrification Ratio Growth Rates
2. UCPS HEPP
Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Power Plant (UCPS HEPP) will be
established with the main objective to improve the reliability of the electrical system of the
Java-Bali and bears peak loads. UCPS HEPP will utilize the hydropower potential of
Cisokan River and other nearby river flow located on the Sub Watershed of Cisokan
upstream areas. UCPS HEPP will be constructed in the geographic area of West Bandung
Regency and Cianjur Regency, West Java Province.
UCPS HEPP is designed using pumped storage system which is a system that is the first
and largest HEPP in Indonesia. UCPS HEPP will use two reservoirs, upper reservoir which
has the highest water level around 796.5 masl, will be made by stemming the Cirumanis
River (a tributary of Cisokan) and will be a puddle of ± 80 Ha, meanwhile the downstream
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reservoir (lower reservoir) which has the highest water level around 499,5 masl, will be
created by stemming the Cisokan River and will be a puddle of ± 260 Ha.
At peak load, the water will flow from the upper reservoir to the lower reservoir to
generate electricity of 1.040 MW. While at base load, then the water will be pumped from
the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir. The advantages to be gained from this
hydropower system is the revenue while generating electrical energy (when electricity
rates are high due to in the peak load time) after reduced by the cost to pump water from
the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir (when electricity rates are lower due to in the
base load time) and also reduced by other operating expenses.
Figure 1. Upper Reservoir and Lower Reservoir of UCPS HEPP
One of the advantages of UCPS HEPP is a necessity of smaller puddle than Saguling
HEPP or Cirata HEPP (see Table 2.).
Table 2. Comparison of Hydropower and Land Area
PT PLN (Persero) Unit Induk Pembangunan VI (PLN UIP VI) is given the task to control
the UCPS HEPP construction.
3. ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES
Each power plant development will have an impact on the environment. PLN has a
challenge to be able to control even minimize the impact that will result from development
the power plant. UCPS HEPP development is in an area that has great potential impacts on
the environment, consisting of the changes in Geology-Physics, Biology and Social-
Economic-Culture. Since the funding for UCPS HEPP development comes from the loan
No. HEPP
Installed
Capacity
[MW]
Area of
Reservoir
[Ha]
Catchment
Capacity of Water
[million m3]
1 Saguling 700 5,600 614
2 Cirata 1,000 6,300 704
3 UCPS 1,040 340 79
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of World Bank, the concern about the environment is given by the Government of
Indonesia as well as by the World Bank. The World Bank pays close attention for the
impact that will arise from projects which use their loans. The World Bank has a policy to
support projects that will result in significant environmental degradation. Considering the
environmental problems due to development UCPS HEPP is very broad, then in this paper
will be presented a general overview of the challenges related to environmental
requirements in the pre-construction phase of UCPS HEPP development as follows:
3.1. EIA
In preparation for the construction of UCPS HEPP, PLN has conducted EIA studies in
2007, which was fitted with a study for the construction of 500 kV SUTET (2008) and
Acess Road development, Quarry and Fly Ash (2011). The challenges contained in the
EIA documents in the pre-construction phase, as shown in Table 3. below:
Table 3. Large and Important Impact On Pre-Construction Phase
3.2. Land Acquisition and Resettlement Action Plan (LARAP)
The purpose of the preparation of the Land Acquisition and Resettlement Action Plan
(LARAP) of the Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage HEPP is to prepare a report relating to
land acquisition and resettlement for people who their land will be used by PLN (Persero)
in the project planning and decision-making as a tool for the prospective donor. The
objective as follows:
1. To mitigate negative impacts of land acquisition activities, as a result the Project
Affected People (PAP) will not decrease the level of their life.
2. To give opportunity to the PAP to participate in the development process.
3. To obtain accurate data about the PAP and other data in accordance with the guidelines
applied in Indonesia and guidance of the prospective donors (World Bank), as
consideration for the implementation of LARAP.
4. To disseminate LARAP to the public associated with the transfer of assets, with the
aim to obtain the same perceptions and early get feedback from the PAP.
5. To develop guidance / general propose of the resettlement plan for displaced PAP.
6. To provide grievance redress mechanism and monitoring and evaluation procedure of
the LARAP implementation.
7. To formulate policies on complying the needs between GOI’s regulation and the World
Bank.
No. Activity
1. 1. Social unrest ofthe Project Affected People due to the administrative
requirements of land rights on the land acquisition process + the emergence of
land speculators.
2. Social unrest of the land owners due to the compensation that does not comply
with community expectations.
3. Social unrest of cultivators of land (landless) because it does not have the land to
stay or to earn a living.
4. Reduction in land ownership lead to reduction in revenue.
2. 1. Social unrest in the plans area of inundation because of concerns about
resettlement and life in a new place.
2. Social unrest in the resettlement plan (the recipient resident).
Big and Important Impact
Land Acquisition
Resettlement
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From the results of the LARAP there are some important things that need to be followed
up, as follows:
1. Community Response to Resettlement Plan
2. Formation of Land Acquisition Committee (LAC/P2T)
3. Formation of Independent Appraisal Agency licensed of the National Land Agency
(BPN)
4. Formation of Resettlement Policy Formulating Team (RPFT) and Resettlement
Implementing Team (RIT)
5. Formation of Grievances Task Force
6. Formation of Independent Monitoring Agency
7. Report Submission of Involved Institution
3.3 Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
UCPS HEPP has a comprehensive scheme of environmental management plan set out in
the Environmental Management Plan (EMP). This Environmental Management Plan
(EMP) identifies methods for PT PLN (Persero) to control and/or minimize the
environmental and social impacts of construction and operational activities associated with
the 1.040 MW Upper Cisokan Pumped Storage Hydro Electric Power Plant and 500 kV
Transmission Line. Implementation of this EMP will ensure that PLN, its contractors,
consultants, and subsidiary companies undertake construction and operation of the Scheme
with due regard to protecting and providing for the natural and social environment.
Social and environmental aspects that were identified in EMP studies that must be
completed in the pre-construction phase are as follows:
1. Permitting
2. Land Acquisition
3. Resettlement Plan
These three things mentioned above will be studied more deeply in a separate document
which is LARAP.
In addition, there are several things that must be prepared before the pre-construction work
begins, as follows:
1. Construction and Workers’ Camp Management Plan
2. Reservoir Land Clearance Management Plan
3. Social and Community Management Plan
4. Physical Cultural Resources Management Plan
5. Biodiversity Management Plan
6. Access Road Construction Environmental Management Plan
7. Transmission Line Environmental Management Plan
8. Quarry Environmental Management Plan
9. Operational Environmental Management Plan
a. Social and Community Relations Plan
b. Biodiversity Management Plan
c. Dams and Reservoir Management Plan
d. Watershed Management Plan
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4. ACTION PLAN
4.1 EIA
Based on the Environmental Management Plan, PLN got a mandate to do things as listed in
Table 4.
Table 4. Environmental Management Plan
4.2 LARAP
4.2.1 Community response to resettlement plan
PLN pays attention to the response arising from the Project Affected People to their
resettlement plan. There are two categories of responses that arise. The first category is
Project Affected People who want their resettlement managed by PLN, and the second
category is Project Affected People who want to move on their own volition.
Steps need to be taken:
A. Resettlement site managed by the government/project
1. PLN propose a permit to the District of Bandung Barat and Province of West Java to
use Kampung Munjul, Bojong village, Rongga sub-district, West Bandung district,
Kampung Pasir Taritih, Margaluyu village, Cibeber sub-district, Cianjur district; and
Kampung Nagrak, Giri Mulya village, Cibeber sub-district, Cianjur district.,as a
proposed resettlement site.
2. After the government permit has been granted, PLN conduct a feasibility study and
environmental carrying capacity for those two resettlement sites.
3. Site visit and consultation regarding location and perception of the PAPs.
4. Decision of resettlement site based on study result.
5. Consultation with PAPs on early design on resettlement plan and associated economic
measures based on local characteristics.
No. Activity
1. 1. The initiator, through the Land Acquisition Team conduct socialization in
cooperation with relevant agencies and involve community leaders, and all
stakeholders.
2. The initiator conduct meetings with the community to be affected by the project,
to discuss issues related to determining the amount of compensation and to
provide education on the use of cash compensation and compensation for useful
purposes.
3. Land acquisition system and the amount of compensation should be guided by
the applicable laws and regulations.
4. Especially for the landless will be handled refer to the Implementation
Procedures of the World Bank OP 4.12 on involuntary resettlement.
2. 1. The initiator conduct deliberation with the communities that will be moved as
well as receiving communities to talk about resident displacement plans.
2. The initiator provide training to the people who will be moved primarily related
to new business which could be developed at the site of the new settlement.
Resettlement
Environmental Management Plan
Land Acquisition
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6. Design and physical construction of resettlement including other facilities required by
the PAPs
7. Relocation of the PAPs to the resettlement site.
8. Monitoring and “treatment” to new settlers, covering socio-psychological aspects, and
economic development.
B. Resettlement on their own
1. The government should provide the PAPs with information on the development plan of
the sites that desired by the PAPs (in the surrounding project area).
2. Guiding and giving assistance to the PAPs who want to move out on their own with
small scale economic development.
3. The PAPs who want to move out by group (minimal 30 households) will be provided
with facilities such as road, drainage, and other necessary public facilities supported
financially by the PLN. To realize this promise, the PLN will establish a resettlement
unit with close working coordination with the resettlement implementing team.
4. Monitoring on economic development.
4.2.2 Formation of Land Acquisition Committee (P2T/LAC)
PLN will hand over the responsibility to the Government of West Java Province to
establish and set the Land Acquisition Committee (LAC) in West Java province, and at the
level of West Bandung Regency and Cianjur Regency. Aside from the LAC, Joint Team of
Local Government and PLN for Non Title Holders will do tasks to comply with the World
Bank OP 4.12. Joint Team will inventory personal investment of non title holders who may
have asset in the form of physical structures or agricultural crops.
4.2.3 Formation of Independent Appraisal Agency licensed of the National Land Agency
(BPN)
Land Price Appraisal Institution (licensed by BPN) is appointed to conduct the assessment
of land prices in this project. The independent appraisal consultants will determine
eligibility by following the LARAP criteria, of non title holders who may have asset in the
form of physical structures or agricultural crop of personal investment and appraising their
asset values. They will also assess the assistance eligibility for them.
4.2.4 Formation of Resettlement Policy Formulating Team (RPFT) and Resettlement
Implementing Team (RIT)
Resettlement Policy Formulating Team is an institution, which review resettlement
formula produced by consultants of LARAP to appropriate local government policy. The
resettlement Implementation Team will coordinate all resettlement implementation activities, including through setting up assistance and restoration of social and economic
life/income of PAP after developing project.
4.2.5 Formation of Grievances Task Force
The Task Force consists of PLN Officers and the hired experts. It has two main tasks
namely the first as an accompaniment to the people or PAP during this project; and the
second to accommodate and facilitate the public grievances related to the implementation
of this project.
4.2.6 Formation of Independent Monitoring Agency
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This team has function to monitor and directly serves as the implementing agencies and
monitors the impact evaluation of the overall project implementation.
4.3 EMP
EMP is a living document. Thus, all the information in the EMP must be kept up to date on
environmental management and monitoring plan which are considered no longer in line
with the original plan. Moreover PLN need to rearrange a more implementable plan if the
management plan listed in the EMP is still a general guideline.
In outline Biodiversity Management Plan has been prepared and become one of the sub-
plans under the EMP. Biodiversity management plan requires more effort to be completed
and be implemented before construction activities begin.
BMP should provide clear guidance on how to protect and restore the habitat at the project
site, as well as protecting and managing endangered species. It is expected that
implementation of BMPs through an adaptive approach. This requires periodic monitoring
of implementation, and plans which are flexible to allow for changes in the approach
(depending on the implementation and problems in the field)
5. CONCLUSION
From the above discussion there are several conclusions as follows:
1. Environmental management in relation to the construction of a hydropower plant that
uses the World Bank funds are complex activities involving many parties.
2. The results of LARAP are details of social aspect management efforts which are not
studied exhaustively in the EIA.
3. EMP document is a guide for PLN, Supervision Consultants and Contractors in
carrying out the construction and operation of UCPS HEPP. Some parts of the EMP
document must be rearranged to obtain more implementable plans.
REFERENCES
Rencana Usaha Penyediaan Tenaga Listrik PT PLN (Persero) 2012 – 2021.
Plasadana-Content Slution Agency. (2012): Pembangkit Berbahan Bakar Minyak, Sampai
Di sini, http://plasadana.com/content.php?id=1386
Kompas.com. (2013): Empat Cara Atasi Krisis Energi ala Jero Wacik.
