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Subsistence SystemsSubsistence Systems
Making a Living Cross-CulturallyMaking a Living Cross-Culturally
What are Subsistence Systems?What are Subsistence Systems?
Ways of making a living--directlyWays of making a living--directly Types of subsistence SystemsTypes of subsistence Systems Foraging/Hunting and GatheringForaging/Hunting and Gathering HorticultureHorticulture Intensive Cultivation or AgricultureIntensive Cultivation or Agriculture PastoralismPastoralism Equestrian HuntingEquestrian Hunting
Why Study Subsistence Systems?Why Study Subsistence Systems?
Kingdom: Animalia:Kingdom: Animalia: We cannot produce food by photosynthesis--no We cannot produce food by photosynthesis--no
chlorophyllchlorophyll Therefore, we ultimately rely on plantsTherefore, we ultimately rely on plants We are how we produceWe are how we produce Foragers are organized around the hunting and the Foragers are organized around the hunting and the
gatheringgathering So are horticulturists in horticultureSo are horticulturists in horticulture So are all the othersSo are all the others
Subsistence Systems and Subsistence Systems and AdaptationAdaptation
Culture is largely adaptiveCulture is largely adaptive Main locus of adaptation: subsistenceMain locus of adaptation: subsistence As subsistence systems become more complexAs subsistence systems become more complex Societies become more complexSocieties become more complex Therefore societies evolve from the simple to Therefore societies evolve from the simple to
the complexthe complex
OverviewOverview
Subsistence systemsSubsistence systems Principles of cultural materialismPrinciples of cultural materialism Cultural EvolutionCultural Evolution Cultural EcologyCultural Ecology History of evolutionary thoughtHistory of evolutionary thought
Types of Subsistence SystemsTypes of Subsistence Systems
Foraging or Hunting GatheringForaging or Hunting Gathering: Hunting : Hunting animals, gathering plantsanimals, gathering plants
Horticulture: Horticulture: Cultivation with digging stick, Cultivation with digging stick, hoe, or other hand tool(s)hoe, or other hand tool(s)
Intensive Cultivation: Intensive Cultivation: Cultivation with high-Cultivation with high-yield technology: irrigation, plowyield technology: irrigation, plow
Pastoralism: Pastoralism: Herding large animalsHerding large animals Equestrian Hunting: Equestrian Hunting: Hunting using draft Hunting using draft
animals (horse, reindeer)animals (horse, reindeer)
Foraging: Main FeaturesForaging: Main Features
Food is where you find itFood is where you find it Direct dependence on naturally available plants Direct dependence on naturally available plants
and animalsand animals Plant foods (like these mongongo nuts gathered Plant foods (like these mongongo nuts gathered
by !Kung women) by !Kung women) Form 80% of the diet among most foragersForm 80% of the diet among most foragers Near total reliance on hunting is rare (as among Near total reliance on hunting is rare (as among
the seal-hunting Inuit here)the seal-hunting Inuit here) Fluctuation of food sources by place, season, Fluctuation of food sources by place, season,
and yearand year Means of meat storage rare or nonexistentMeans of meat storage rare or nonexistent Foragers do have wide variety of foodForagers do have wide variety of food
Foraging: Carrying CapacityForaging: Carrying Capacity
Population limited byPopulation limited by Carrying capacity: population resources can Carrying capacity: population resources can
supportsupport Density of social relationsDensity of social relations Liebig’s Law of the MinimumLiebig’s Law of the Minimum Populations may not increasePopulations may not increase Beyond the minimum amount of critical resourcesBeyond the minimum amount of critical resources That an environment yieldsThat an environment yields
Liebig’s Law of the Minimum Liebig’s Law of the Minimum IllustratedIllustrated
The lowest stave of a The lowest stave of a barrel limits its capacitybarrel limits its capacity
Crops can yield only as Crops can yield only as muchmuch
As the amount of a As the amount of a critical nutrientcritical nutrient
Applies to carrying Applies to carrying capacity limitscapacity limits
Foraging: Sharing and PropertyForaging: Sharing and Property
Sharing ethic: shared according Sharing ethic: shared according to rulesto rules
Netsilik Inuit: Partnerships by Netsilik Inuit: Partnerships by seal anatomyseal anatomy
!Kung: Hunters and owner of !Kung: Hunters and owner of arrow “own” the gamearrow “own” the game
Owner is only stewardshipOwner is only stewardship Game is shared by definite Game is shared by definite
obligationsobligations Property: CommunalismProperty: Communalism
Foraging: Other Derived Foraging: Other Derived CharacteristicsCharacteristics
EgalitarianismEgalitarianism No incentive to hoardNo incentive to hoard Social class differences minimalSocial class differences minimal Work timeWork time Average: 15-20 hours/weekAverage: 15-20 hours/week Nonintensive labor with other activitiesNonintensive labor with other activities Domestic mode of production: work done until Domestic mode of production: work done until
needs are metneeds are met
Foragers: Contemporary Foragers: Contemporary Ancestors?Ancestors?
Some societies may reflect early foragersSome societies may reflect early foragers QualificationsQualifications Foragers could be Foragers could be deculturateddeculturated !Kung may have been herdsman once!Kung may have been herdsman once Reduced to foraging by Bantu expansionReduced to foraging by Bantu expansion Foragers occupy margins of earthForagers occupy margins of earth Desert (SW Africa, Australia, Nevada basin)Desert (SW Africa, Australia, Nevada basin) Extremely cold regions (Arctic regions)Extremely cold regions (Arctic regions)
Food-Producing SocietiesFood-Producing Societies
First indications: Neolithic ca 10,000 First indications: Neolithic ca 10,000 BP BP
In the Fertile Crescent, Near EastIn the Fertile Crescent, Near East CharacteristicsCharacteristics Domestication of Plants (emmer Domestication of Plants (emmer
wheat), animals, or bothwheat), animals, or both Human control over food productionHuman control over food production Quantities of food greater than foragersQuantities of food greater than foragers Settled communities (except herders)Settled communities (except herders) Increases in populationIncreases in population Complex social structures.Complex social structures.
HorticultureHorticulture
DefinitionDefinition Cultivation of crops Cultivation of crops Carried out with hand toolsCarried out with hand tools Such as digging sticks or hoesSuch as digging sticks or hoes Neither plows or irrigation systems are usedNeither plows or irrigation systems are used Best known type of cultivation involves use of Best known type of cultivation involves use of
slash-and-burn slash-and-burn or or swiddenswidden cultivation cultivation
Basics of Slash-and-Burn Basics of Slash-and-Burn CultivationCultivation
A site is cleared of brush and A site is cleared of brush and treestrees
Trees are felled, brush stackedTrees are felled, brush stacked Once dried, the brush and trees Once dried, the brush and trees
are set afire (top photo).are set afire (top photo). Planting beginsPlanting begins Usually, crops are interplantedUsually, crops are interplanted Once soil is exhausted, site is Once soil is exhausted, site is
abandoned (bottom photo)abandoned (bottom photo) Cultivators clear a new site Cultivators clear a new site
Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Adaptive SignificanceAdaptive Significance
Most slash-and-burn cultivation is practiced in Most slash-and-burn cultivation is practiced in the tropicsthe tropics
Tropical climate is extremely hard on soils Tropical climate is extremely hard on soils Intense heatIntense heat Heavy rainfallHeavy rainfall Chemical reaction from heat and rainChemical reaction from heat and rain Slash-and-burn is best adapted to this climate--Slash-and-burn is best adapted to this climate--
which the following will showwhich the following will show
Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Intense HeatIntense Heat
Plant and animal matter decompose to form Plant and animal matter decompose to form humus humus or or topsoiltopsoil
Humus formatio virtually stops if soil reaches 77 Humus formatio virtually stops if soil reaches 77 degrees Fahrenheitdegrees Fahrenheit
Decomposition of humus exceed formationDecomposition of humus exceed formation Humic materials break down to gases: ammonia, Humic materials break down to gases: ammonia,
nitrogen, carbon dioxidenitrogen, carbon dioxide Gases escape into the atmosphereGases escape into the atmosphere
Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Constants of Tropical Rainforest: RainfallRainfall
Rainfall acts on the soil in two Rainfall acts on the soil in two waysways
Erosion: Erosion: Rainfall carries away soil particlesRainfall carries away soil particles Particles themselves scour surface]Particles themselves scour surface] Abrasion carries off even more soilAbrasion carries off even more soil LeachingLeaching Warm water dissolves water-Warm water dissolves water-
soluble nutrientssoluble nutrients Nutrients seep into subsoilNutrients seep into subsoil
Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Constants of Tropical Rainforest: LaterizationLaterization
Laterite: the oxides of Laterite: the oxides of minerals minerals
Such as iron oxide at top layer Such as iron oxide at top layer (photo) (photo)
Combined heat and moisture Combined heat and moisture creates oxidescreates oxides
Process is irreversibleProcess is irreversible Removes phosphorus, an Removes phosphorus, an
essential nutrientessential nutrient Cannot absorb other nutrientsCannot absorb other nutrients
A Long-Term Constant: Age of A Long-Term Constant: Age of SoilSoil
This process has been going for centuriesThis process has been going for centuries Soil is mostly clay and sandSoil is mostly clay and sand Plant and animal life is limited in proteinPlant and animal life is limited in protein Most plants reproduce by vegetative meansMost plants reproduce by vegetative means Seeds involve large amounts of proteinSeeds involve large amounts of protein Animals are smallAnimals are small Gregarious (herding) animals are rareGregarious (herding) animals are rare
Adaptation of Tropical Adaptation of Tropical RainforestsRainforests
Protective canopy of leaves and epiphytic Protective canopy of leaves and epiphytic plantsplants
Rate of growthRate of growth Juxtaposition of different types of treesJuxtaposition of different types of trees
Protective CanopyProtective Canopy
Mature forests contain trees with thick foliage at Mature forests contain trees with thick foliage at their topstheir tops
Thick network of leafy branchesThick network of leafy branches Epiphytic plants that derive nutrients from rain Epiphytic plants that derive nutrients from rain
and airand air Protective functionsProtective functions Provide protective shade from sun, allowing Provide protective shade from sun, allowing
humus to accumulatehumus to accumulate Lessens action and amount of rainfall Lessens action and amount of rainfall
Rate of GrowthRate of Growth
Rate of growth is spectacularRate of growth is spectacular Enables rapid use of nutrients before they disappear Enables rapid use of nutrients before they disappear
through erosion or leachingthrough erosion or leaching Litter fall of animal remains and dead vegetationLitter fall of animal remains and dead vegetation Is four times of woodland in New York stateIs four times of woodland in New York state Rainfall also captures nutrients from airRainfall also captures nutrients from air 75% of potassium in soil, 40% of magnesium, and 75% of potassium in soil, 40% of magnesium, and
25% of phosphorus come from rainwater25% of phosphorus come from rainwater
Species JuxtapositionSpecies Juxtaposition
Different tree species have different nutrient Different tree species have different nutrient requirementsrequirements
Some require more phosphorus than othersSome require more phosphorus than others Other require more potassiumOther require more potassium Nutrient left by one tree is taken by othersNutrient left by one tree is taken by others Dispersal of same species is protection against Dispersal of same species is protection against
pests and diseasespests and diseases
Clean clearing wouldClean clearing would
Compact the soil due to heavy rainfallCompact the soil due to heavy rainfall Erosion via runoff would increaseErosion via runoff would increase Minimize or eliminate formation of humusMinimize or eliminate formation of humus Leach the soilLeach the soil Convert the soil into lateriteConvert the soil into laterite Overall: reduce its fertilityOverall: reduce its fertility
Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Slash-and-Burn Cultivation TechniqueTechnique
Review of distinctive featuresReview of distinctive features Cutting and burning vegetation prior to plantingCutting and burning vegetation prior to planting Shifting to new site after 2 or 3 cropsShifting to new site after 2 or 3 crops Mundurucú practicesMundurucú practices Site selection: sloping, well-drained areaSite selection: sloping, well-drained area ClearingClearing
Removal of shrubs and small treesRemoval of shrubs and small trees Felling of trees by keystone methodFelling of trees by keystone method
Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Technique: Burning and PlantingTechnique: Burning and Planting Mundurucú practices (con’t)Mundurucú practices (con’t) BurningBurning
Vegetation allowed to dry: 2 monthsVegetation allowed to dry: 2 months Fire set on day of slight breeze to fan flamesFire set on day of slight breeze to fan flames
PlantingPlanting Begins at first rains: no cultivationBegins at first rains: no cultivation Hole made with digging stickHole made with digging stick Cuttings or seeds inserted and coveredCuttings or seeds inserted and covered Manioc and sweet potatoes in centerManioc and sweet potatoes in center Other crops planted at edgesOther crops planted at edges
Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Weeding and HarvestWeeding and Harvest
WeedingWeeding Done twice during growing seasonDone twice during growing season HarvestHarvest Planting is staggered; so is harvestingPlanting is staggered; so is harvesting Harvesting done as need arisesHarvesting done as need arises Entire crop is not removed at one timeEntire crop is not removed at one time Manioc replanted immediately after harvest to Manioc replanted immediately after harvest to
ensure permanent supplyensure permanent supply
Slash-and-Burn Cultivation as Slash-and-Burn Cultivation as Imitation of RainforestImitation of Rainforest
Crops are intermixed, each with different Crops are intermixed, each with different nutrient requirementsnutrient requirements
Reduces competition for same nutrientReduces competition for same nutrient Dispersal of same plants retard disease, pestsDispersal of same plants retard disease, pests Staggering planting and harvest minimizes soil Staggering planting and harvest minimizes soil
exposureexposure Burning slash returns nutrients to soilBurning slash returns nutrients to soil
Slash and Burn Cultivation as Slash and Burn Cultivation as ImperfectImperfect Imitation of Rainforest Imitation of Rainforest
Decomposition of stumps and branchesDecomposition of stumps and branches Attract pests away from cropsAttract pests away from crops Supply added nutrientsSupply added nutrients Weeding of mixed valueWeeding of mixed value Minimizes competition for nutrientsMinimizes competition for nutrients Reduces shade and protection from erosionReduces shade and protection from erosion Imitation not the real thingImitation not the real thing Yield declines by 3rd year--time to moveYield declines by 3rd year--time to move
Yanomamo VariationsYanomamo Variations
Techniques essentially the sameTechniques essentially the same Plantains augment manioc as staplePlantains augment manioc as staple When soil deterioratesWhen soil deteriorates Thorny shrubs grow, scratching bare skinThorny shrubs grow, scratching bare skin Some plants continue yieldsSome plants continue yields New clearing is made adjacent to old siteNew clearing is made adjacent to old site Done so over the yearsDone so over the years New sites cleared only under compulsionNew sites cleared only under compulsion
The Protein debateThe Protein debate
Harris: arises when game is scarceHarris: arises when game is scarce Chagnon: conflict sparked by abduction of Chagnon: conflict sparked by abduction of
womenwomen Good: Good:
Weighed every game animal on scaleWeighed every game animal on scale Weighed every Yanomamo villagerWeighed every Yanomamo villager Findings: Yanomamo were short on proteinFindings: Yanomamo were short on protein Could not link this fact with warfareCould not link this fact with warfare
Debate remains open: Tierney’s viewDebate remains open: Tierney’s view
Intensive CultivationIntensive Cultivation
DefinitionDefinition Embers’: Food production characterized by the Embers’: Food production characterized by the
permanent cultivation of fieldspermanent cultivation of fields Primary attributesPrimary attributes TechnologyTechnology
IrrigationIrrigation PlowPlow
Staple crops: rice, corn, wheat, potatoesStaple crops: rice, corn, wheat, potatoes Risks of famine through disease, pestsRisks of famine through disease, pests
Intensive Cultivation: Secondary Intensive Cultivation: Secondary AttributesAttributes
Permanent settlements of high densityPermanent settlements of high density Emergence of full-time nonfarm occupationsEmergence of full-time nonfarm occupations Rise of specialization and tradeRise of specialization and trade Rise of complex societiesRise of complex societies CitiesCities StratificationStratification Codified LawCodified Law States and the militaryStates and the military
PastoralismPastoralism
DefinitionDefinition Animal husbandry as the main or sole source Animal husbandry as the main or sole source
of subsistenceof subsistence Animals: cattle, horses, sheep, goats, camelsAnimals: cattle, horses, sheep, goats, camels All parts of animal is consumedAll parts of animal is consumed Meat and dairy products, bloodMeat and dairy products, blood HidesHides Even dung for fire and building materialEven dung for fire and building material
Pastoralism: Secondary Pastoralism: Secondary CharacteristicsCharacteristics
Environment: semi-arid grasslands; other regions Environment: semi-arid grasslands; other regions unsuitable for agricultureunsuitable for agriculture
Nomadic:Nomadic: Transhumance: seasonal migration between Transhumance: seasonal migration between
different environmental zones.different environmental zones. Property and valuables are portableProperty and valuables are portable Dependence on settled communitiesDependence on settled communities Agriculture and manufactured productsAgriculture and manufactured products Mixed economy lessens dependenceMixed economy lessens dependence
Pastoralism: Secondary Pastoralism: Secondary Characteristics (Con’t)Characteristics (Con’t)
WarfareWarfare Raid of villages or other nomadsRaid of villages or other nomads Predatory states: MongolsPredatory states: Mongols Warrior age grades in East AfricaWarrior age grades in East Africa Male dominanceMale dominance Warfare required male cooperationWarfare required male cooperation Animals are male propertyAnimals are male property Residence is patrilocalResidence is patrilocal Women have few rightsWomen have few rights
Pastoralism: ConclusionPastoralism: Conclusion
Incomplete food producersIncomplete food producers Animals, not plants, are domesticatedAnimals, not plants, are domesticated Archaeological evidence suggestArchaeological evidence suggest Pastoralism postdates cultivation.Pastoralism postdates cultivation. May have left settled regionsMay have left settled regions
By choiceBy choice by forceby force
Probably not a transitional form between Probably not a transitional form between foraging and agricultureforaging and agriculture
Equestrian HuntingEquestrian Hunting
DefinitionDefinition Use of animals (horse reindeer)Use of animals (horse reindeer) To hunt other animals (bison, reindeer)To hunt other animals (bison, reindeer) A rare phenomenonA rare phenomenon Plains Indians hunting complex was not Plains Indians hunting complex was not
indigenous before 18th centuryindigenous before 18th century Native horses died off long before contactNative horses died off long before contact Sources: stray horses lost by SpaniardsSources: stray horses lost by Spaniards
Equestrian Hunting: Equestrian Hunting: CharacteristicsCharacteristics
Similar to pastoralismSimilar to pastoralism Environment: grassland rendered unsuitable Environment: grassland rendered unsuitable
for hoe agriculture by sodfor hoe agriculture by sod Bison moved seasonallyBison moved seasonally Large herds in spring and summerLarge herds in spring and summer Scattered in late fall and winterScattered in late fall and winter Tribes moved accordinglyTribes moved accordingly Reminiscent of transhumanceReminiscent of transhumance
Equestrian hunting: Warlike Equestrian hunting: Warlike AttributesAttributes
Higher mobility using horse increased military Higher mobility using horse increased military superioritysuperiority
Settle peoples may have adopted horse in self-Settle peoples may have adopted horse in self-defensedefense
A causal factor: trade with whitesA causal factor: trade with whites Competition for trade center accessCompetition for trade center access Even more buffalo hunted for tradeEven more buffalo hunted for trade Horse theft for another trade goodHorse theft for another trade good Valued trade item: gunsValued trade item: guns
Subsistence, Adaptation, and Subsistence, Adaptation, and EvolutionEvolution
Cultural materialismCultural materialism:: A research strategy (or plan)A research strategy (or plan) holding that causal explanationsholding that causal explanations for similarities and differences among human groupsfor similarities and differences among human groups can best be addressed by studying the harnessing of can best be addressed by studying the harnessing of
energy energy Through interaction between existing technologyThrough interaction between existing technology And environmental limitationsAnd environmental limitations
Unilineal and Multilineal EvolutonUnilineal and Multilineal Evoluton Models of Cultural Models of Cultural
EvolutionEvolution Unilineal Evolution (Left)Unilineal Evolution (Left) All societies go through set All societies go through set
stages (foraging, stages (foraging, horticulture, agriculture)horticulture, agriculture)
Multilineal EvolutionMultilineal Evolution Societies adapt evolution Societies adapt evolution
according toaccording to Environment Environment Techniques of subsistenceTechniques of subsistence
Technology, Environment, and Technology, Environment, and SocietySociety
Environment: Limits and Potential to EnergyEnvironment: Limits and Potential to Energy Technology: Known Techniques for Energy Capture and UseTechnology: Known Techniques for Energy Capture and Use Social Interactions: Derivative Family/Kinship, Economic, Social Interactions: Derivative Family/Kinship, Economic,
Political, and Legal InstitutionsPolitical, and Legal Institutions Ideology: Psychological State, Supernatural Beliefs, The ArtsIdeology: Psychological State, Supernatural Beliefs, The Arts
Comparison and EvaluationComparison and Evaluation
Examined five broad subsistence systems.Examined five broad subsistence systems. Examined the implications of each on a Examined the implications of each on a
society and culturesociety and culture Traced their significance in Traced their significance in Local and regional adaptations (cultural Local and regional adaptations (cultural
ecology)ecology) Universal cultural evolutionUniversal cultural evolution Within intellectual historical contextWithin intellectual historical context