Sweet RevolutionRise of the West: Sugar

ConsumptionAim: To examine how sugar was produced, the

way it changed the nature of work, and its role

in global trade.

Aim: To examine how sugar was produced, the way it

changed the nature of work, and its role in global trade.

“I do not know if coffee and sugar are essential to the happiness of Europe, but I

do know well that these two products have accounted for

the unhappiness of two great regions of the world:

America has been depopulated so as to have

land on which to plant them; Africa has been depopulated so as to have the people to

cultivate them.”

- from Volume 1 of J.H. Bernardin de Saint Pierre’s

Voyage to the Isle de France, Isle de Bourbon, The Cape of

Good Hope… (1773)

“I do not know if coffee and sugar are essential to the happiness of Europe, but I

do know well that these two products have accounted for

the unhappiness of two great regions of the world:

America has been depopulated so as to have

land on which to plant them; Africa has been depopulated so as to have the people to

cultivate them.”

- from Volume 1 of J.H. Bernardin de Saint Pierre’s

Voyage to the Isle de France, Isle de Bourbon, The Cape of

Good Hope… (1773)How do these

documents reflect the importance and

impact of the sugar trade?

Sweet Revolution

Sweet Revolution

Early History and Growth of the Sugar Market:• Sugar first domesticated in India (3000BCE) – slowly reached China, Japan, Middle East• Arabs were the first great sugar cultivators. Introduced to Europe during the Crusades• Italy prospered by controlling European sugar trade during Middle Ages• Rise of Ottoman Empire deprived Italy from sugar sources causing Italy and Portugal to look elsewhere

Early History and Growth of the Sugar Market:• Sugar first domesticated in India (3000BCE) – slowly reached China, Japan, Middle East• Arabs were the first great sugar cultivators. Introduced to Europe during the Crusades• Italy prospered by controlling European sugar trade during Middle Ages• Rise of Ottoman Empire deprived Italy from sugar sources causing Italy and Portugal to look elsewhere

Migration of Sugar Cultivation, 7Migration of Sugar Cultivation, 7thth to to 1717thth centuries centuries

Sugar as a Consumer Item• When it was first introduced, sugar was grouped with spices such as pepper and ginger. Rare, expensive, tropical, and used sparingly by those who could afford it.

• In 13th and 14th centuries, used to make marzipan and molded into sculptures. The preciousness of the ingredients and the large amount required confined such practices to the king, nobility, and church. To be able to provide one’s guests with such attractive (and unnecessary food) displayed the host’s wealth, power, and status.

• In the 16th century, no longer considered a spice. Began to be used as a condiment. Used for special dishes for the holidays such as gingerbread cookies. This was because more sugar was now available.

• As sugar diffused more widely, becoming cheaper and more ordinary, its once enormous symbolic importance as an icon of prosperity and power declined. Became an item of mass consumption.

Went from spice and condiment to decorative substance, to preservative to sweetener, and eventually to food rather than mere sweetener.

Portuguese Dominance

• Discovered and used islands of Madeira and Sao Tome for sugar production• To meet high demands, revolutionized sugar production by using African slaves on plantations• Expanded plantations to Brazil• Portuguese dominated sugar trade for 100 years (until mid 1600s when the Caribbean dominated)

* TRULY GLOBAL* Asian plant, European capital, African labor,

American soil

Plantations Become Proto-Factories

• Sugar production brought slavery and industrial capitalism together.

• Consisted of a large disciplined labor force, specialization, integration of tasks – assembly line fashion.

• Required sophisticated refining techniques and expensive equipment.

Division of Labor

- Sugar refining needs skilled labor – distillers, boilers, coopers, stone masons, managers. Can be as

high as 20-30% of men in skilled positions.

- Another element of the sugar revolution is a managerial revolution. Need agents, bookkeepers,

attorneys, black drivers…..

COMPARISON OF LABOR NEEDS

Sugar needs 1 per person per acre, preferably two per acre.

Wheat needs 1 person per 6 or 7 acres.

Cotton needs 1 person per 5 acres.

Holing a Cane Field, Antigua, 1823Holing a Cane Field, Antigua, 1823

We see a black driver pointing something out. See the gang labor.

Digging Cane Holes, Trinidad, Digging Cane Holes, Trinidad, 1830s1830s

Plows didn’t work well in tropical soils. Made more sense to use hand tools.

Plows didn’t work well in tropical soils. Made more sense to use hand tools.

Field Gang, Martinique, 1826Field Gang, Martinique, 1826

Large gangs, highly regimented. Shift position – marching people in lockstep. Notice that there are many women. Many

men were in skilled positions.

Large gangs, highly regimented. Shift position – marching people in lockstep. Notice that there are many women. Many

men were in skilled positions.

Harvesting the Sugar Cane, Antigua, Harvesting the Sugar Cane, Antigua, 18231823

Note the height of the cane. Usually 7-8 feet, as much as 12feet high. Here too we see a white man, could be a manager or an

overseer. Driver talking to him.

Note the height of the cane. Usually 7-8 feet, as much as 12feet high. Here too we see a white man, could be a manager or an

overseer. Driver talking to him.

Sugar-cane harvest, Trinidad, 1830sSugar-cane harvest, Trinidad, 1830sAgain, note the height. Also, see how it needs to be shipped out – juice needs to be extracted within 24 hours of cutting.Again, note the height. Also, see how it needs to be shipped out – juice needs to be extracted within 24 hours of cutting.

ProcessingProcessing

Sugar Mill, driven by oxen, French Sugar Mill, driven by oxen, French Antilles, 1665Antilles, 1665

Typical mill: out in the open, 3 vertical rollers, copper vats (produced in Europe). Some expensive, elaborate equipment.

Typical mill: out in the open, 3 vertical rollers, copper vats (produced in Europe). Some expensive, elaborate equipment.

Sugar Works, French West Indies, 17Sugar Works, French West Indies, 17thth centurycentury

Slaves feeding cane stalks into vertical-roller mill; note,

trough through which the cane juice flows to the boiling house ("sugar

works").

Slaves feeding cane stalks into vertical-roller mill; note,

trough through which the cane juice flows to the boiling house ("sugar

works").

Sugar Mill, Antigua, 1823Sugar Mill, Antigua, 1823Wind powered sugar mill .

Canes being brought in on ox-pulled carts, slaves "heading"

canes into the mill rollers, women stacking cane bunches in foreground; black driver to left and at base of windmill, white owner or manager in

lower left overseeing the scene.

Wind powered sugar mill . Canes being brought in on ox-pulled carts, slaves "heading"

canes into the mill rollers, women stacking cane bunches in foreground; black driver to left and at base of windmill, white owner or manager in

lower left overseeing the scene.

Sugar Boiling House, Sugar Boiling House, Antigua, 1823Antigua, 1823

Caption: "Exterior of a Boiling House, on Weatherell's Estate" slaves hauling cane trash to fuel furnace, ox carts, white

overseer/manager. Works through 24 hours.

Caption: "Exterior of a Boiling House, on Weatherell's Estate" slaves hauling cane trash to fuel furnace, ox carts, white

overseer/manager. Works through 24 hours.

Interior of a Boiling House, French Interior of a Boiling House, French West Indies, 1762West Indies, 1762On the left (B) is the tank that receives the cane juice flowing from

the mill where the sugar cane juice was extracted. In the center are the coppers where the sugar juice is boiled (C) with slaves moving the crystallized sugar from one to the other with giant ladles (D).

On the lower right are the sugar pots into which the raw sugar will be placed and then taken to the curing house to drain out the

molasses.

On the left (B) is the tank that receives the cane juice flowing from the mill where the sugar cane juice was extracted. In the center are the coppers where the sugar juice is boiled (C) with slaves moving the crystallized sugar from one to the other with giant ladles (D).

On the lower right are the sugar pots into which the raw sugar will be placed and then taken to the curing house to drain out the

molasses.

Wow! These giant ladles are heavy!

Interior of Boiling House, Antigua, Interior of Boiling House, Antigua, 18231823

Captioned "Interior of a Boiling House," this is a detailed view of the process of sugar making and the coppers (large vats) in which

the sugar was processed. Mostly male workers – skilled labor.

Captioned "Interior of a Boiling House," this is a detailed view of the process of sugar making and the coppers (large vats) in which

the sugar was processed. Mostly male workers – skilled labor.

Sugar Curing House, 1762Sugar Curing House, 1762

Shows sugar pots and jars; the geographical area is unidentified. After the sugar is processed in the boiling house, the raw

(Muscavado) sugar is poured into the conical pots and the molasses drains into the jars below. Although a European is shown in this

illustration, the job was commonly performed by slaves in the Caribbean and Brazil.

Shows sugar pots and jars; the geographical area is unidentified. After the sugar is processed in the boiling house, the raw

(Muscavado) sugar is poured into the conical pots and the molasses drains into the jars below. Although a European is shown in this

illustration, the job was commonly performed by slaves in the Caribbean and Brazil.

Rum Distillery, Antigua, 1823Rum Distillery, Antigua, 1823Slaves in foreground feeding cane trash into the furnaces, people

rolling hogsheads of rum, cattle carts hauling the hogsheads, white overseers/managers; in background windmills used for

grinding the sugar cane. The marketing of the byproducts created a new level of craft. Need coopers, distillers…

Slaves in foreground feeding cane trash into the furnaces, people rolling hogsheads of rum, cattle carts hauling the hogsheads, white overseers/managers; in background windmills used for

grinding the sugar cane. The marketing of the byproducts created a new level of craft. Need coopers, distillers…

Interior of rum distillery, Antigua, Interior of rum distillery, Antigua, 18231823

Caption: "Interior of a Distillery, on Delaps Estate...," shows slaves at work filling hogsheads with rum, cooper

making barrels, etc.; also, white overseer/manager.

Caption: "Interior of a Distillery, on Delaps Estate...," shows slaves at work filling hogsheads with rum, cooper

making barrels, etc.; also, white overseer/manager.

Sweetness and Power

- Sidney W. Mintz

“Sugar cane must be cut when it is ripe, and ground as soon as it is cut. These simple facts give a

special character to any enterprise dedicated to the

production of sugar…The early Spanish plantations of Santo

Domingo probably consisted of about 125 acres of land, manned by as many as two hundred slaves

and freemen. Perhaps only a tenth of the labor force was required in the mill and the

boiling house, but their operations and those of the

cutting crews had to be coordinated, while the field labor

had to be divided not only seasonally but also between the cane and the subsistence crops

(crops to feed the workers). The specialization by skill and jobs, and the division of labor by age,

gender, and conditions into crews, shifts, and gangs,

together with the stress upon punctuality and discipline…”

1. How do sugar plantations seem to be different from regular farms?

2. With an emphasis on crews, shifts, and gangs, what other production institution does this sound like? Why?

Sugar Plantation, Cuba, 1857Sugar Plantation, Cuba, 1857

By the 19th Century – Cuba is the leader. Their sugar mills are extensive with 500-700 slaves. This shows central or yard area of the

plantation with steam-driven sugar factory, main house, various outbuildings; houses of enslaved in upper right and people reaping

cane and loading it into oxcarts in lower left.

Sugar Factory, Cuba, 1857Sugar Factory, Cuba, 1857

Shows interior of factory; enslaved in foreground are feeding sugar cane refuse into the furnaces. The plantation had 632 enslaved

laborers.

Sugar Factory, Cuba, 1857Sugar Factory, Cuba, 1857

Shows interior of sugar factory with machinery and enslaved laborers engaged in various tasks.

Sugar Factory, Cuba, 1857Sugar Factory, Cuba, 1857

Shows interior of sugar factory with machinery and slaves engaged in various tasks including boiling in large vats.

The average sugar plantation was worth $20 million. That capital

value is in present day terms. More valuable than cotton at the time.

The average sugar plantation was worth $20 million. That capital

value is in present day terms. More valuable than cotton at the time.

Fun Fact!The average sugar plantation was

worth $20 million. That capital value is in present day terms. More

valuable than cotton at the time.

View of a Sugar Plantation, French West View of a Sugar Plantation, French West Indies, 1762Indies, 1762

A generalized view of a typical sugar plantation in the French West Indies. In the upper right (1) is shown the houses of the owner and overseers (surrounded by a fence); in the lower right, the houses of the slaves, "forming one or two or more streets," depending on the size of the

plantation (2); sugar cane fields in the center and left (5); the water mill for grinding canes is on the lower left (6) and the boiling house (7) next to it;

the curing house, where the sugar is dried in pots is on the upper left (12), and fields devoted to food crops are on the upper slopes to the left (13).

Sugar Plantation, Antigua, 1801Sugar Plantation, Antigua, 1801

In the foreground are slave houses, several figures (including a woman with a pottery jar on her head); background shows plantation house on top of hill, slave houses on hillside, two windmills and other

buildings.

La Grange Plantation, St. Croix, c. La Grange Plantation, St. Croix, c. 18401840

TransportationTransportation

Moving Sugar, Country Road, St. Croix, Moving Sugar, Country Road, St. Croix, c. 1863c. 1863

Equestrian traffic and carts, including carter driving an ox team loaded with hogsheads of sugar being taken to harbor.

Equestrian traffic and carts, including carter driving an ox team loaded with hogsheads of sugar being taken to harbor.

TransportationTransportation

Carter with team of oxen, Carter with team of oxen, Bridgetown, Barbados, 1835Bridgetown, Barbados, 1835

Wagon loaded with hogsheads of sugar or rum.

Carts with hogsheads of sugar, British Carts with hogsheads of sugar, British West Indies, c. 1830sWest Indies, c. 1830s

Slaves and Sugar Hogsheads, 1780Slaves and Sugar Hogsheads, 1780

Shipping Sugar, Antigua, 1823Shipping Sugar, Antigua, 1823

Caption: "Shipping Sugar, Willoughby Bay"; shows slaves rolling hogsheads of sugar, brought to shore by ox carts, aboard lighters for

transport to ocean- going vessels.

TransportiTransporting Sugar ng Sugar

Hogsheads Hogsheads by boat, by boat, near St. near St. Vincent, Vincent,

18471847

Overall Impact• Start of the slave trade

• Change in model of empire results in full scale colonization

• Sugar becomes a major consumer good for Europeans

• Develops mercantilist and capitalist economic systems

Modern Sugar Factory