Summary of Readings 10/19By: Sunhee Kang and Karl Magnuson

Regarding Readings:1) Richard-Amato & Snow. Ch. 2 By Gersten, B. & Hudelson, S. Development in second language acquisition research and theory: From structuralism to social participation.

2) Brandl, K. (2008). Ch. 1 Principles of communicative language teaching and task-based instruction. In Communicative Language Teaching in Action: Putting Principles to Work.

Gersten and Hudelson’s Ch.2 in Richard-Amato, Snow (2005):Historical Developments--Overviewof Second Language Learning/ESL:Traditional method

(Grammar/Trans.) 2,000+ years (!) [No/little speaking.]

“Transitional methods” (‘50s-’80s)

‘90s-present: full realization of socio-cultural purposes of language leads to improved C.L.T. and Task-Based Instruction methods and techniques.

Effects of Skinner’s Research on Language Learning in mid-20thc.Skinner, influenced by

Behaviorism of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson, applied Stimulus-Response (S-R) to language learning

Result: Audio-lingual Methodology, and the Defense Language Institute’s “Army Method” of utilizing Pavlovian principles to “drill” FL-->habit formation as means to SLA.

Weaknesses of A.L.M.:Behaviorism in FL instruction runs

counter to accepted notions of S.L.A., that Second Language Acquisition is a gradual construction of developing L2.

No room is left for refining hypotheses.No room is left for errors; that is, there is

no developmental process in A.L.M.A.L.M. is totally de-contextualized—

(Language actually grows in real-world contexts!)

Chomsky’s Linguistic Theories add to the profession:Chomsky opposes Behaviorism of

Skinner and his S-R methodsChomsky takes mentalist, or nativist

view of syntax and humans’ innate capacity for language—children equipped from birth with L.A.D., or “black box” to acquire any language.

Positive Implication: Child as language constructor/active participant within each given language.

Following Chomsky…R. Brown (1973) sees general,

predictable sequence of early childhood language development.

Clark and Clark (1977) show children’s gradual development of phonological and semantic systems of English—language learning seen as refining process of developing language proficiency.

Interactional Nature of TalkOther research since the ‘60s have

highlighted the interactional nature of talk between adult and child.

The developmental psychologist Jean Piaget did studies that showed children as active learners and hypothesizers who act on environments and gradually construct their knowledge of their L2

Psycholinguists’ contributions: Psycholinguists have said that L2

learning is a systematic, rule-governed gradual process of creative construction of the new language, requiring comprehensible input (i+1), making and trying out hypotheses, and making mistakes in the language

Psycholinguists also stress negotiation/interacting with others

Sociocultural-Sociolinguistic Approaches to L1 and L2Lev Vygotsky’s Z.P.D (Zone of

Proximal Development--> зона ближайшего развития, 1933)

--influenced how the teaching profession views social interaction in the classroom setting.

Berko-Gleason (‘89) showed that language use for social purposes more important than “grammar-only” methods.

Sociocultural, continuedScholars (Cazden, ’72 et al.)

showed that culturally diverse L2 learners needed multiple opportunities to use language

Structure of classroom is key—need to interact with more proficient adults and L1 and L2 peers in meaningful, challenging content

Literacy LearningGoodman (‘60s) hypothesized

that readers construct meaning from a text, use predicting strategies, use prior knowledge to comprehend the text.

ELLs can use writing in their still-developing new language to construct meaning (p.38, Richard-Amato, Snow).

Freire and Critical Literacy“Reading the world” (p.41, ch. 2, text)

means critiquing the world—purpose is to use literacy to better the world (Paulo Freire).

Use literacy to work for social justice (Paulo Freire).

Children are active constructors of their own literacy.

Literacy is social and cultural and political practice (Freire and Vygotsky would agree).

Brandl, 2008 article/chapter re: Principles of C.L.T. and T.B.I.Task-Based Instruction has come into

being after decades of trying other methods/techniques to teach world languages/L2s.

Previous/Present Methods mentioned: Grammar-Translation, A.L.M., Cognitive-Based Approaches, T.P.R., Direct Method, Natural Approach, Proficiency and Standards-Based Movements, etc., etc.

Shift from emphasizing learning to read/write, to learning to speak/understand spoken language in real-world contexts

Now, two-way spoken communication in a Second Language is the main focus.

More and more, syllabi are being written around speech functions (pragmatics) of communication.

Speech Acts: requesting, arguing, describing, requesting, etc. are seen as key.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)Hymes (1971) and other researchers begin the accept the new theory/paradigm that “…the primary function of language use is communication…and its goal is for learners to develop communicative competence.” (p. 5, Brandl, K., 2008)

Re-defining Language Learning

Communicative competence is now defined as “the ability to interpret and enact appropriate social behaviors, and it requires the active involvement of the learner in the production of the target language” (Canale and Swain, 1980).

CLT and its offshootsCLT has brought about various

movements: Proficiency-Based, or Standards-Based, Instruction.

Proficiency-Based Instruction focuses on measuring what learners can do in functional termsthis has provided teachers with a set of broadly-stated goals, and a sense of direction for curriculum designers (Brandl, p.6).

Methodology of CLT/Task-Based InstructionUse Tasks (of a practical, real-world

nature)Promote Learning by Doing (“hands-on”

approach to learning)Input must be “rich” (as many real-

world/authentic contexts presented as possible)

InputMeaningful, Comprehensible, Elaborated, with simplified language, repetition, enhanced enunciation, slower speech rate.

Methods of CLT/Tasks, cont’d.Promote Cooperative and

Collaborative Learning (Vygotsky’s ZPD).

“Focus on Form” (vs. “Focus on formS”)—need to be mindful of explicit, form-meaning connection, within communicative tasks

Provide Error Corrective Feedback

Methods of CLT/Tasks, cont’d.Be mindful of Affective Factors

(Stress and Anxiety Factors) of Learning

Overall, CLT is eclectic in its approach.

Conclusions from readings:

Big Picture: The profession of language teaching has moved from the 2,000+ year-old method of L2 teaching (i.e., from Grammar-Translation Method), to Task-Based/Communicative Language Teaching that VALUES/centers around the individual student and does not only privilege the subject-matter and its pre-packaged truthmeaning(s) are now democratically negotiated in dialogue/discourse.