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Chapter 9

Sundarbans and the remote Islanders

Introduction9.1The present day is seeing economicintegration on an unprecedented scale.Regional economic activity is being largelydriven by markets outside and nationaleconomies are being increasinglydovetailed into the world market. Suchrapid integration is undoubtedly helped bythe revolution in information technologywhich drasticallyreduced the transactioncosts that till recentlyhad prevented highdegree of localspecialization. Inrecognition of thepotential of suchintegration towardsreducing world poverty,the World DevelopmentReport (WDR 2008) hasadvocated the integrationof local agriculture withworld market. This can enable subsistencefarming to diversify into High Value Crops(HVC) which are often labour-intensive inproduction and remunerative to poorfarmers. But being perishable in nature,such diversification requires establishment

of modern supply chain as a precondition.Realization of this potential is being

fostered by a concerted effort of variousagencies, led mostly by the government.The provision of infrastructure liketransport, power, irrigation as well aseducation and health are essential for suchintegration of local economies into the

broader outside market that brings changesin local production pattern and throws upnew earning opportunities for the localstakeholders.

India, making strides in the economicfront today, is experiencing such changes

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in many of its parts. Rural life isbreaking its inertia and coming toterms with the pace of urban life. Thechanges are brought about byincreased interaction with urbancenters through improvedtransportation and communication,and penetration of media into ruralcorners. Rural India is aspiring formore entitlements - aspirations thatmay not be distant dreams.

Yet some pockets of isolationremain. For some of them, the maincause of isolation is geographic. Mostpart of the Indian archipelago namedSundarbans, though situated close toKolkata – the largest metropolitan cityand commercial hub in eastern India– is remote and largely isolated. Dueto the topographical specificities ofthe region – part of world’s largestmangrove delta region – Sundarbans isnot holding a promise of bridging thisdistance in the near future even withtoday’s technology and engineering

progress. The region consists of 102islands out of which 54 are inhabited. Theremoteness of the area is amply understoodby the fact that in 4500 sq.km. inhabitedareas, there is only 42 km. of railway lineand about 300 km. of pucca road network.The only means of communication betweenthe islands is through the waterways whichis poorly organized and people have todepend on mechanized private boats.

Still the area is home to over 3.9 millionpeople. It is spread over 13 administrativeblocks out of 29 in the district of South24 Parganas. Human development of thedistrict loses its relevance if theseislanders are left out. But a model of ruraldevelopment successfully executedelsewhere, might not be applicable inSundarbans due to problems specific to thisregion with special geo-climaticcharacteristics. It calls for a deeper insightof the social and economic life of thepeople of Sundarbans – and this chaptertries to capture a glimpse of that.

Sundarbans and the District9.2Sundarbans is the world’s largestprograding delta region that spreadsover India and Bangladesh coveringaround 25,500 sq. k.m. The Indian partis approximately 9,630 sq. k.m. The

Indian part of Sundarbans is not confinedto one single district. Sundarbans alsocovers 6 administrative blocks of theadjacent North 24 Parganas district,besides 13 blocks in South 24 Parganas

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The socio-economic profile ofSundarban’s inhabitants and the bottlenecksto their development are very similar acrossthe two districts. In recognition of it, theGovernment of West Bengal had set up theSundarban Development Board in 1973under the administrative control ofDevelopment & Planning Department for acomprehensive development of the region.With further emphasis on the developmentof this region, a new Department of

Sundarban Affairs was created in 1994 andSundarban Development Board was placedunder its administrative control. With sucha focused administrative approach towardsoverall developmental needs and specificproblems of the region, it is difficult andoften unwarranted to discuss Sundarbansonly partially, confining within theadministrative boundaries of South 24Parganas. The introduction to Sundarbans –its climate, ecology and history cannot be

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described within this district limit.However, being part of the District HumanDevelopment Report, the data regarding thesocio-economic profile of the region, asreported in this chapter, are based on thisdistrict’s share of Sundarbans.

Presently Sundarbans has a forest cover of10,200 sq. km. shared between India andBangladesh. India’s share of this forest areais around 4,200 sq. km.

Indian Sundarban also includes around 5,400sq. km. area outside the forest cover thatincludes inhabited lands along the north andnorth-western boundary of the forest

The Location and Physiography9.3

The Indian Sundarbans is formallydemarcated by River Hooghly in the west,Bay of Bengal in the south, RiversHarinbhanga and Raimangal in the east(marking the international border betweenIndia and Bangladesh) and the Dampier-Hodges line in the north. The last one isan imaginary line, passing through 24

Parganas South and North districts, whichindicates the northern-most limits ofestuarine zone affected by tidalfluctuations.

The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengalhas evolved through quaternary (beganabout 2 million years ago and extends tothe present) sediments deposited mainlyby the mighty river Ganges, Brahmaputra,

Meghna and their numerous distributaries.The building up of this estuarine area isconsequently not complete. The mangrove-dominated delta is a complex ecosystemcomprising one of the three largest singletract of mangrove forests of the world. Thephysiography is dominated by deltaicformations that include innumerable

drainage lines. TheSundarbans’ floor varies from0.9 m to 2.11 m above sealevel. Tidal saline water,pushed into from the Bay ofBengal, alternately drowns andexposes the islets twice a day

throughout the year. The average tidalamplitude in the estuaries of the Sundarbansranges from 3.5 m to 4.0 m. The highestfluctuations in the water level are generallyexperienced in August - September whenthe highest tide level attained is in excessof 4.0 m. Most of the low-lying inhabitedisland sections are lower than the averagetide level of the surrounding rivers.

Climate of Sundarban• Annual average Maximum Temperature 35oC.• Average humidity is about 82% which remains more or

less constant due the region’s proximity to the sea.• Average annual rainfall 192 cm out of which 75% is

received during June to September.

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Ecological Significance and Biodiversity9.4

The Sundarbans is rich in biodiversity and thebiotic factors here play a significant role inphysical coastal evolution and for wildlife.It has significant ecological implicaton formarine life and livelihood of coastalcommunities for a large part of south-eastAsia. The mangrove vegetation itself assistsin the formation of new landmass and theintertidal vegetation plays an important rolein swamp morphology. The Sundarbansincludes 26 true mangrove species, 29mangrove associates, and 29 back mangrovespecies of 40 families and 60 genera.

In terms of faunal endowment Sundarbanis famous for Royal Bengal Tigers. It is theonly mangrove forest in the world that hoststigers. It is also the single forest tract wherethe largest number of tigers is found. As perDecember 2001 census, the number of

tigers in Indian Sundarban is 271. It is alsohome to a good number of globallyendangered animals like estuarine crocodile,fishing cat, Gangetic dolphin, olive ridleyand green sea turtles etc. Several birdspecies are found including a large numberof migrants from the higher latitudes thatvisit the area in winter. Numerous speciesof phytoplankton, fungi, bacteria,zooplankton, invertebrates, molluscs,reptiles, amphibians and mammals are alsofound here. Species composition andcommunity structure vary from east to west,and along the hydrological and salinitygradients. All these make Sundarban abiodiversity hotspot and its conservation isa global concern. Its conservation is closelymonitored by the Government of India andthat of the state of West Bengal.

Faunal Diversity in SundarbanVertebrate Species = 481Hemichordate Species = 1

Invertebrate Species = 1104Protozoan Species = 106

Mammals = 58Birds = 248

Reptiles = 55

Species that gone extinct in the lasthundred years with human invasion

Javan Rhino

Wild Buffalo

Barking Deer

Swamp Deer

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History of Human Settlement9.5An understanding of the region’s socialfabric is necessary for an optimaldevelopment strategy. This calls for a briefintroduction to the history of humansettlements in the region. The presentpopulation influx in the region is fairlyrecent and does not involve a long traditionof rulers, landlords, intermediaries andclass exploitation on the scale thatmainland India had witnessed for thousandsof years.

Some scattered historical findings in theregion bear solid evidence that the area hadbeen populated even at the time of Asoka(273-232 BC), though the evidences so farfail to add up to a comprehensive accountof continued civilization in this deltaregion. However, it is well established thatdue to a series of natural calamities theregion was gradually losing its populationduring the Middle Ages. Eventually, afterthe invasion of Portuguese and Arakanpirates in the waters of the delta, the areawas depopulated for all practical purposes.The forest reclaimed the previouslyinhabited area and when the British EastIndia Company set up their headquarters atCalcutta in 1757, it was at the edge of theforest.

9.5.1 Recent HistoryThe recent history of human settlementin the Sundarbans dates from the treaty of1757 signed by Mir Jafar, through whichthe lands of undivided 24 Parganas, thenpractically depopulated, were ceded tothe East India Company. Clearing theforest and introducing human settlementin the area was done in a planned wayunder the British rule where the motivationsolely was increasing revenue collection.The present settlements originate fromthe plan conceived by Clod Russell, thenCollector General in 1771, whereby theforest land had been divided into plots tobe leased out to prospective landlords.

Clearing of forest effectively startedfrom 1781 by Tillman Henkel, thenmagistrate of Jessore district. Thereafterthe forest line was being continuouslypushed back from its western and northernfronts. Initially forest was cleared mostlyin its northern part and by 1873 the blocksof Hasnabad, Bhangar, Haroa, Hingalgunj,Minakhan (N 24 Parganas) and Canning,Joynagar, Mathurapur and Sagar (S 24Parganas) had been fully or substantiallycleared of forest. In this first phase ofunregulated deforestation, much of the

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revenue came from forest productsincluding timber. However, it was graduallydeclining and the need for conservationwas voiced from within the administration.Consequently, the first initiative forconservation was also mooted under theBritish rule.

In 1875-1876 the government declaredthe un-leased forest area as reserved, andplaced them under the jurisdiction of the

Forest Department. Still, the area whichwas already leased out by that timecontinued to attract population at the costof the forest. Between 1873 to 1939,much of the interior blocks ofSandeshkhali, Kakdwip, Patharpratima,Basanti, Kultali and Gosaba (all under S 24Parganas) had been cleared of forest tomake room for human settlements.

The forest boundary took a further

Sir Daniel Hamilton and his Island Experiment

The forested islands of Sundarban could be populated in the early days only by successful communitycooperation. This was pioneered by Sir Daniel M. Hamilton who is a legendary figure among theseislanders even today. Hamilton was a Scottish businessman and made a good fortune out of hisshipping business in Calcutta. After retiring from the business, he wished to implement his idea ofcooperative community living in a self-sustained way in the deltaic islands of Sundarbans. In thispursuit he took lease of three uninhabited islands Gosaba, Rangabelia and Satjelia (now under GosabaBlock) in 1903. He then formed Bengal Young Mens Zamindary Co-operative Society which also hadsupport from the government. To make these mud-flats and forest land habitable, a huge labour-inputwas required. Sir Hamilton brought labourers from the mainland who were given reasonable provisionsfor livelihood for an initial period. They were required to erect embankments all around the islandsto protect the land from saline water before agriculture could be started. Besides, he established freeschools and dispensaries and built freshwater ponds for rainwater harvesting.All these efforts were directed towards establishing a self-sufficient island economy with exchangebetween the islanders. To finance the developmental activities and facilitate the local commerce,he introduced what came to be known as Gosaba Currency. The Estate Office of the Society actedas the central bank in this respect. Hamilton’s own money of eleven hundred rupees (coins – legaltender) acted as the base on which he issued his own notes. It is interesting to note the wordswhich appeared on his note issue. On one side it stated:“Sir Daniel Mckinnon Hamilton promises to pay the Bearer, on demand, at the Co-operativeBhundar. in exchange for value received, one rupee‘s worth of rice. cloth, oil or other goods.‘’(Signed) D. M. Hamilton.Written on the back of the notes were more interesting words – which reflects his philosophy behindthis island-experiment:“The value received in exchange for this Note may be given in the form of bunds constructed, ortanks excavated, or land reclaimed or buildings erected or in medical or educational service. TheNote may be exchanged for coin, if necessary, at the Estate Office. The Note is made good, notby the coin, which makes nothing, but by the assets created and the services rendered. The Noteis based on the living man, not on the dead coin. It costs practically nothing, and yields adividend of One Hundred percent in land reclaimed, tanks excavated, houses built, etc. and in amore healthy and abundant LIFE.”These notes were willingly accepted by the workers on the island and villages were built, eachwith its school, and eventually what was formerly an uninhabited area achieved a considerablepopulation which could sustain itself on those remote islands.

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beating after India’s independence due tothe Partition of Bengal. Between 1951 to1971, this area was forced to accommodatea huge influx of refugees from East Pakistan(Bangladesh) and some forested islandswere cleared for human settlement.Presently, out of 102 islands in the deltaregion, 54 are populated while theremaining 48 are reserved with forestcover.

In the initial years of settlement, clearingthe marshy mud-flats and making themhabitable was an act of extreme hardship ina hostile environment. The lease-holders,who were mostly upper caste moneyed

Hindus, had lured the poorest tribal peoplefrom Chhottanagpur, Ranchi and Hazaribagregion in the Indian mainland to settle intheir area. They were lured throughpackages of initial provisions and somecultivable land for their own. Also the areaexperienced migration of poor people fromthe adjoining district of Midnapur in thewest, which is a coastal district with ahistory of repeated cyclone disasters.Finally, a significant section of localpopulation consisted of migrants fromneighbouring districts of Bangladesh in theeast.

Sundarban Administration9.6The developmental activities of around5400 sq. km of populated area withinSundarban is financed and supervised bythe Sundarban Developent Boardunder the Department ofSundarban Affairs in the stateadministration (Government ofWest Bengal). However, forreaching a harmony betweendevelopment and conservation,the Government of Indiaconstituted the SundarbanBiosphere Reserve (SBR) in1989 which includes the human settlementsas well as 4200 sq. km. of reserve forestarea headed by Chief Conservator of Forest

Composition of Protected AreaNearly 40 per cent of the reserved forest area has beenbrought under Protected Area network that includes:

Sundarban National Park (1330 sq.km);Sajnekhali Wildlife Sanctuary (362 sq.km);Lothian Wildlife Sanctuary (38 sq.km); andHaliday Wildlife Sanctuary (6 sq.km).

Out of this total recorded forest area, 55 per cent is underland vegetation cover and the remaining 45 per cent is underwater body/ inter-tidal zone.

(South). The reserve forest area includesthe Tiger Reserve under the direct controlof Field Director, Project Tiger and the

Divisional Forest Officer (South 24Parganas) who is in-charge of the rest ofthe reserve.

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Demography9.7In Sundarbans, the coexistence of humansettlements and reserve forest is unique inthe sense that unlike other forests, there isno human settlement within the reserveforest area. The human habitat and the forestare always separated by rivers. Along thenorth and western boundaries of the reserveforest, under the Biosphere Reserve, humansettlements can be classified into two partsdepending on their geographic location.Some of them are now parts of the mainlandwhich are connected by roads and havingother infrastructural facilities typical oftheir rural counterparts in India. UnderSouth 24 Parganas, the areas under theAdministrative Blocks of Canning,Joynagar, Mathurapur, Kakdwip andNamkhana fall almost entirely in thiscategory. The people living in these areasare not in close proximity with the forestand their living conditions and livelihoodoptions are similar to that of other areasin the district.

But the Blocks of Basanti, Gosaba,Kultali, Patharpratima and Sagar, togetheraccounting for around 40% of total area inthe district, call for a special understandingof the people, their livelihood and threatperceptions. They are almost entirelydetached from the mainland and live under

much different conditions unmatched in therest of India.

These are people living in islands on thefringes of Reserve Forest. The islands oftenface the forest on the other side of theseparating river. The history of these islandsettlements does not date back to more thanhundred years. Almost none of these islandshas any electricity connection and otherinfrastructural facilities like transport andcommunication. The settlers initially livedmostly on agriculture with some viableamount of reclaimed cultivable land foreach household.

After independence, these islands saw asteady influx of migrants from adjoiningdistricts in mainland. Specially, the

History of Forest Conservation in Sundarban1875-1876: The British government rolled back thepolicy of leasing out forest land and brought theremaining forest under the jurisdiction of ForestDepartment.1926: The remaining forest was declared as ReserveForest, boundaries of the Reserve were fixed.1973: Sunderban Tiger Reserve was constituted byGoI under Project Tiger scheme1987: Sunderban National Park, forming the corearea of Sunderban Tiger Reserve, receivedrecognition as World Heritage Site, by UNESCO1989: Sunderban Biosphere Reserve wasconstituted by Government of India (GoI) toestablish a formal mechanism for coordinating andintegrating diverse activities of conservation andharmony between man and environment. SundarbanTiger Reserve became a part of it.2001: Received the recognition of UNESCO, underits Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme.

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partition of Bengal resulted in an influx ofrefugees from erstwhile East Pakistan (nowBangladesh). The late-comers were leftwith little or no landholding and fell backon the forest for its products and on therivers for fish and crab. Also, withsubdivision and fragmentation oflandholding through generations, the landedhouseholds gradually turned marginal andcould hardly sustain with agriculture alone.Consequently, fishing became the secondmost important occupation for theseislanders. The heavy dependence on forestfor the landless or marginal households isalso perceptible in absence of any power-driven industry in these islands. Thisbackground also explains the spatialdistribution of population within theseislands. Households which directly dependon forest and rivers (mostly landless andmarginal), are concentrated on the banks ofthe rivers bordering the forest. The landed

households are mostly placed in theinteriors or towards the mainland.

Overexploitation of forest and river(fish) resources is already showing in termsof decreasing yield. For islands in theperiphery of the reserve forest, there is nourban centre nearby to market their productthrough crop diversification. These isolatedisland settlements are brimming over theirsustainable level of population with limitedlivelihood options. As a result, recent yearshave seen an increasing flow of out-migration of local youth from these islandsinto different parts of India. Almost threequarters of total Sundarban population of3.76 million (Census 2001) live within theSouth 24 Parganas district. Also, out of thedistrict’s total 6.9 million people (Census2001), 40% belong to Sundarbans. Thepopulation intersection between Sundarbanand South 24 Parganas is around 2.8 millionspread over 730 villages, out of which

Fig 9.2 Growth of Population in Indian Sundarban

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nearly 30% belong to the isolated islands.Going by the Census estimates (2001) forthe district, the population density inSundarban is approximately 934 per sq. kmand the number of females per thousandmales stands around 946.

The settlement history in Sundarbansexplains the presence of a relatively largerproportion of lower-caste people in thisregion. Nearly 36.5% of its populationbelong to SC/ST category compared to thestate average of 25.6%.

Fig 9.3 Distribution of Sundarban PopulationBetween Two Districts (Census 2001)

Fig 9.4 Distribution of South 24 ParganasPopulation Between Sundarban Area and Outside

Infrastructure9.8The remoteness and isolation of most partsof Sundarban left the region crippled interms of infrastructural provisions. Thedevelopment potential for a region isclosely linked with such provisions. Therelative underdevelopment of Sundarbanscan largely be explained by its poorinfrastructure. In the 4,500 sq.km ofinhabited area, there are only 42 km ofrailway line and about 300 km. of metalledroad network. Almost all the islands are

devoid of any conventional electricitysupply. Governmental effort to providesolar energy systems at subsidized rate hasalso not been much successful because ofthe very little purchasing power of theislanders.

At least five of the thirteen Sundarbanblocks are entirely or mostly constitutedby islands which do not have a direct road-link with the mainland. These are Gosaba,Basanti, Kultali, Patharpratima and Sagar.

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Among them, the first four are on theboundary of the reserve forest. For theseblocks the only means of communicationwith the mainland as well as with otherislands is through long journeys throughriver channels. Such transport is not well-organized and people have to depend onthe private mechanized boats which areoften overloaded while negotiatingtreacherous waters. Few islands have pucca/well-maintained jetties. Few islands haveinland transport in the form of cycle-van,while others do not have any mode oftransport at all.

Sagar, though itself an island, issomewhat different from the other fourisland blocks. While other island blocksare close to the forest and surrounded byrivers carrying saline water, Sagar is locatedat the mouth of the mighty river Hooglywhich carries freshwater. So, the livelihoodoptions are marginally different in Sagar.

Directly forest-dependent poor people arenot seen in Sagar. Also, this island isvisited by over a million pilgrims from allaround India for the annual occasion ofSagar-Mela. This religious tourism hadhelped Sagar to develop someinfrastructure on the island over time.Other Sundarban blocks have been graduallylinked with the mainland over time and theinfrastructural provisions improved. Thisresulted in more livelihood options for thepopulation of these blocks. But even thesenot-so-remote Sundarban blocks comparevery unfavourably in terms of variousinfrastructural indicators when comparedto the rest of the blocks in the district.

The relative disparity in infrastructuralprovisions in Sundarbans can be amplyseen from Table 9.1 which directlycompares the island blocks with the restof Sundarban and with the rest of thedistrict in terms of four basic indicators

Infrastructural provisions Island-blocks Other Rest ofaround forest Sundarban South

boundary Blocks 24 Parganas% of households with accessto electricity 0.70 9.18 29.34Length of surfacedroad (in km.) per sq. km. area 0.36 0.95 2.59No. of bank branches per10000 population 0.26 0.30 0.49Irrigated area as % ofnet area under cultivation 21.13 15.99 48.42

Table 9.1:Intra-district Divergence in Infrastructural Provisions

Sources: BAES, GoWB; Census of India, 2001.

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of infrastructure. It shows the sharp deficitin infrastructural provisions in Sundarbanregion and even across blocks within it. Itundoubtedly explains the region’s relative

impoverishment. It also points out thepriorities towards which any plannedeffort towards the region’s developmentshould be directed to.

Livelihood9.9Part of Sundarban population lives withinthe mainland and their livelihood patternare similar to the rest of the ruralpopulation in the district. It is the islandvillagers whose way of living andentitlements are considerably differentfrom that of their mainland counterparts.The livelihood options in these remoteislands are indeed very limited till date.

Typically in the delta region rain-fed,single-crop agriculture and fishing are thetwo main sources of livelihood. Nearly 95per cent of the population primarily dependon agriculture. About 50 per cent ofagriculturists are landless labourers. Forthe blocks bordering the reserve forest,during agricultural lean season, substantialpart of the population depends on forestand river resources. During April - May,some people enter the forests with permitsfor collection of honey and bee-wax whichis partly purchased back by ForestDepartment. Besides, some householdsentirely and some partially engage incatching fish and crab in the rivers andcreeks. Both of these operations are

perceived to involve considerable dangerdue to tigers in the forest and crocodilesin the rivers. It can be perceived that thesepeople directly depend on the forest as alast resort for their livelihood and arealmost always very poor with nil orunsustainable landholding.

Income from these occupations is oftensupplemented by catching “meen”, the localterm for shrimp seedlings. The spawns oftiger prawn, which are hatched in thesesaline waters are much in demand by theinland prawn farms and fetch hard cash forthe poor. A large section of women andchildren from poor households catch thesetiny prawn seedlings with fine nets, whichare then sold to ‘bheries’ (water bodies forgrowing fish) to grow in brackish water.The estimated value of shrimp trade fromthe delta, including exports, is worth overRs.100 crores. However, the realbeneficiaries are mostly the middlemenand exporters.

Cultivation of crops, mainly paddy, ismostly for self consumption. This applieseven for vegetables. The remoteness of

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island blocks and absence of any urbanmarket within a viable distance explainsthis feature.

Though barter exchange is not verypredominant in the village, the majority ofintra-village transactions are carried out byinformal credit system. Discussion withlocal traders suggests that the island-villagesare net importers of agriculturalcommodities while the major means of netcash inflow are fishing, prawn-fry collectionand remittances from outside.

It is recognized that nature-basedtourism in Sundarban has a great potentialto generate local earning opportunities.However that potential is yet to be realizedto any significant extent. This is mostlybecause of the lack of infrastructure suchas proper transport facilities andelectricity. Tourist arrival in Sundarban ispresently concentrated almost entirelyduring three winter months. Moreover, lackof information dissemination and shortageof good accommodation facilities forcemost of the visitors to avail some ‘packagetours’ which are mostly operated by outsideagencies. The residents of the island

villages have little opportunity to take partin such tourism-related business. It shouldbe noted in this connection that bigcorporate investment has been proposed todevelop tourism in Sundarban, but this isaimed at catering to the wealthy visitorswith all modern hospitality provisions.Apart from its questionable impact on thefragile mangrove ecosystem, suchinitiatives will not have the support fromthe local villagers in these islands as theycould see little scope to becomestakeholders in such big corporateinitiatives. What is required is acomprehensive plan for a spatiallydispersed eco-tourism development whichnecessarily integrates the island villagersas stakeholders.

Empirical analysis of availablesecondary data (Census 2001; RuralHousehold Survey 2005, Office of theDistrict Magistrate of South 24 Parganas)underscores the point that the people livingin the island blocks have significantly lesserlivelihood options compared to the rest ofSundarban blocks. Some interestingfindings are as follows

Landholding pattern Island-blocks Other Sundarban Blocksaround forest boundary

% of households which are landless 35 56% of households having Irrigatedland less than one acre or non-irrigatedland less than two acres 51 35

Table 9.2:Intra-region Disparity in Landholding

Source: Rural Household Survey 2005, Office of the District Magistrate, South 24 Parganas

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This reversal of distribution ofhouseholds across the two types of blocksfor the two lowest-ranking rural assetholding class is not paradoxical and indeedtells something about the local livelihoodopportunities in the two sub-regions withinSundarban. The islands came up with settlerspractising agriculture which was practicallythe only livelihood in the initial phase.Later on, fishing and more lately shrimp-farming and prawn-fry collection emergedas significant alternative livelihood options.However, lack of transport and electricityresulted in very little scope fordevelopment of commerce or ruralinformal manufacturing sector. Whateverlittle scope of non-farm livelihood existsin these islands cannot sustain a largelandless population. On the other hand,Sundarban blocks which are connected tothe mainland with improved infrastructurecould accommodate a larger share oflandless population through many more

non-farm livelihood options. It isperceivable that most of the landlessrefugees who took shelter in Sundarbanblocks in later days, located themselves inthe connected blocks rather than in theisolated remote islands.

Also, in the absence of alternativelivelihood options, agricultural land is heldby rural households as valuable assets –even if its size became economically non-viable. With subdivision of landholdingsthrough generations, all of the agriculturalhouseholds in the region must haveexperienced dwindling size of averagelandholding. However, in a mostly rain-fedagricultural region producing a single crop,irrigated land of less than one acre or non-irrigated land of less than two acres canhardly sustain a household. With alternativeearning opportunities, such non-viablelandholdings are expected to be sold offand the household is expected to shift toother non-farm activities. But in the island-

Main Occupation Island-blocks Other Sundarban(as % of total workers) around forest Blocks

boundary

Cultivators (own + leased land) 34 20Agricultural and other daily physical labour 48 55Self-employed rural artisans / hawkers(those who do not employ others) 5 8Labour oriented regular job in ruralunorganized sector 5 7Other occupations 8 10Total 100 100

Table 9.3: Occupational Distributions in two regions of Sundarban

Source: Rural Household Survey 2005, Office of the District Magistrate, South 24 Parganas.

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blocks of Sundarban, very limitedalternative earning opportunities must haveprompted a large percentage of householdsto retain their non-viable marginal land.Clearly, these households sustainthemselves by supplementing their earningfrom other locally available part-timeoccupations – which often involves prawn-fry collection and fishing. These are in turngradually reducing the sustainability of this

delicate mangrove ecosystem.The conjecture can be substantiated by

empirical observation if we look at theoccupational pattern of households acrossthe two categories of blocks in Sundaban.Looking at Table 9.3, it is evident that inblocks which are connected to themainland, larger percentage of the totallocal workforce is sustained by all types ofnon-farm livelihood options.

HDI in Sundarban9.10Earlier chapters in this report had dealtwith the components of HumanDevelopment Index (Standard of living,Health and Education) in details at blocklevel and the Sundarban blocks weretogether considered as Region III in thatanalysis. It was already noted thatSundarban, as a region in that three-regionsegmentation of the district, is the mostbackward in terms of most of thecomponents and the overall HDI. It will

be redundant to repeat the component-wiseanalysis of HDI for all the Sundarban blocksagain. Instead, a brief introspection intothe pattern of intra-regional disparity withinSundarban would be meaningful, based onthe block-wise indicators already reportedin earlier chapters. It would drive home therelative deprivation of island blocks, apoint that has also been underscored in theprevious sections of this chapter. However,it is interesting to note that the five island

Provisions for Island-blocks Other Sundarban Blocksprimary education around forest boundary

Average population served perprimary school 1688 1878Average distance covered bystudents to reach the school (km) 3 2% of schools not havingdrinking water facility 22 24% of schools not havingsanitation facility 33 34

Table 9.4: Inter-regional Disparity in Provisions regarding Primary Education Infrastructure

Source: Office of the District Project Officer, Sarva Siksha Abhijan

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blocks in Sundarban compare favourablywith the rest of the region in terms ofsome basic provisions for primaryeducation. This is evident in Table 9.4At least part of this favourable score of theisland blocks in terms of educationalachievement can be related with theirhistory which saw Christian missionaryactivity in blocks like Gosaba. Also,establishing primary education centres thatcater to local population in an island is amore economically feasible socialinvestment than building road-links with

mainland or provision of electricity.Accordingly, these island blocks show littledifference in terms of educationalachievement indicators like enrollment andliteracy, when compared to the rest ofSundarban blocks.

However, the score of the island blocksin terms of primary health provisions isnot up to the mark. Table 9.5 underscoresthe relative deprivation of the island blockseven within the Sundarban region, on thiscount.

Provisions for primary health care Island-blocks Other(Rural Hospitals + Block Primary Health around SundarbanCentres + Primary Health Centres) forest boundary Blocks

Number of beds per thousand population 0.232 0.299Number of Medical Officers per thousandpopulation 0.030 0.052Number of Health Assistants (male + female)per thousand population 0.227 0.285

Table 9.5: Inter-regional Disparity in Provisions of primary health care

Source: Office of CMOH; Health on the March, 2006

Table 9.6: Inter-regional disparity in some indicators of standard of living

Source: Rural Household Survey 2005, Office of the District Magistrate, South 24 Parganas

Standard of living indicator Island-blocks Otheraround forest Sundarban

boundary Blocks% of localities that are fully covered byprovision of safe drinking water 38.8 41.4% of households that are homeless 5.3 3.8% of households that live in huts withonly one room 71.7 60.4% of households having less than twogarments per member 12.3 9.3% of households having two to fourgarments per member, but withoutany winter garment 35.6 30.6

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Turning to some standard of livingindicators, from Table 9.6, it can be readilyseen that the island blocks are laggingbehind compared to the rest of Sundarbanblocks. The table summarizes their statusacross five such indicators which can beconsidered as basic requirements forhuman living.

The combined score of the islandblocks, across the three components ofhuman development as well as the aggregateHuman Development Index, thus comparespoorly with the rest of Sundarban, whichin turn is the relatively deprived regionwithin the district of South 24 Parganas.Table 9.7 summarizes the indices acrossthis categorization of blocks. Each of theindices has a highest possible value ofunity. Each of the 29 blocks in the districtis also ranked according to each of theseindices with ‘1’ standing for the highestand ‘29’ standing for the lowest rank. The

‘average rank’ is the average of such ranksfor blocks combined under the threecategories. This average rank will also helpbringing out the relative differences acrossthe three categories.As was indicated in earlier analysis, it isclear that there is a great deal ofheterogeneity in terms of provisions andachievements within the blocks ofSundarbans. The five island blocks arelaggards in terms of indicators of humandevelopment, except primary education.The average rank of these blocks in termsof other indicators as well as overall HDIis more than 23 out of 29 blocks in thedistrict of South 24 Parganas. This callsfor a differential treatment of these islandblocks in a comprehensive developmentalplan for this region. A uniform distributionof plan- resources across blocks inSundarban will fail to take care of theinter-regional disparity.

Indicator Island-blocks Other Rest of Southaround forest Sundarban 24 Parganas

boundary BlocksEducation Index Average Score 0.87 0.83 0.86

Average rank of blocks 10.20 19.00 14.50Health Index Average Score 0.44 0.55 0.53

Average rank of blocks 23.60 13.13 13.25Standard of Living Average Score 0.34 0.38 0.48Index Average rank of blocks 25.20 20.75 8.94Human Development Average Score 0.55 0.59 0.62Index Average rank of blocks 24.20 17.00 11.13

Table-9.7: HDI and its components : intra-district comparisons

Source: Calculated on the basis of data obtained from different sources identified previously

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Threats to Sustainability9.119.11.1 Climate Change Impacts

It is scientifically established by this timethat the greatest threat to the future ofSundarbans is posed by the continued

Global Warming and the resulting sea levelrise. Past century saw an increase in averageglobal temperature by 10C. At the presentrate the temperature is slated to increaseby another 3.50C in next fifty years. Themelting of polar ice cap is a direct andcertain fallout and much of the coastal lowlying areas in the world is threatened bypossible submersion. Along the Indiancoastline, the sea level is estimated to berising at the rate of 2.5 mm per year.Research from Jadavpur University’sCentre for Oceanographic Studies hasestimated that along the eastern coast ofIndia, this rise is even faster at a rate of 3.14mm per year. It is estimated that by 2020,around 15% of Sundarban area will be

submerged and an estimated 70,000 peoplewill be ‘environmental refugees’. The threatis evident from the latest GeographicInformation Systems (GIS) report whichshowed that in the past 70 years, 220 sq kmof forest land had been submerged.

Apart from sea level rise, more immediatethreat to human lives and livelihood can comefrom an increased frequency of cyclones andeven super-cyclones. The area is cyclone-prone and historically these natural calamitiescame with devastating consequences for theislanders. With global warming and climatechange, the frequency of such calamities isestimated to increase.

9.11.2 Anthropogenic Stress onEnvironment: Biodiversity Loss

Since the human settlements began inSundarban under the British rule, aconsiderable loss in faunal diversity of theregion has already taken place. Followinga 1878 account, “Tigers, Leopards,Rhinoceros, Wild Buffaloes, Wild Hogs,Wild Cats, Barasinga, Spotted Deer, HogDeer, Barking Deer, and Monkeys are theprincipal varieties of wild animals found inSundarbans”. However, due to habitatdegradation and ecological changes, someof these animals in Sundarbans becameextinct during the last hundred years.

Another problem threatening the

Tale of a Sinking IslandGhodamara, a tiny island within the river Hooghlyfalls on the western boundary of Sundarban delta.Ghodamara has been steadily sinking for the past25 years. Fifteen to 20 years ago, the island had apopulation of about 20,000. According to the 2001Census, it now holds only 5,236 people. Expertssay that Ghodamara was reduced to 59 per cent ofwhat its size was in 1969 and it will go under inanother 14 years. The prediction is that the risingsea level will sink a dozen more islands in 15 years,half of which are presently inhabited.

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CH9Sunderbans’ mangrove ecology is thecollection of tiger prawn seeds. Burdenedby poverty, over two lakh people haveturned to collecting tiger prawn seeds,using nylon nets, which are dragged alongthe river banks. In the process, apart fromdestroying mangrove seedlings andeliminating the possibility of aregeneration of mangroves along the riverbanks, at least 74 species of fish are alsodestroyed. Estimates by the MarineBiological Research Institute, 24 Parganas(South), revealed that in the process ofcollecting 519 prawn seeds, on an average5,103.25 gm of other seed varieties thatsustain different categories of fish aredestroyed. Gradually, the food chain of thisecosystem is breaking down. The effect is

already evident by a dwindling fish yield inthe delta region. It has already threatenedone of the principal livelihood options inthe region. Also, the ecological significance of theSunderban mangroves is immense. Apartfrom serving as a shield against naturalcalamities, it checks atmospheric pollution.It has a seemingly unlimited capacity toabsorb pollutants from both air and water.But a 2007 report by UNESCO has statedthat a 45-cm rise in sea level (likely by theend of the twenty-first century, accordingto the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange), combined with other forms ofanthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans,could lead to the destruction of 75% of theSundarbans mangroves.

Tourism a Viable Option for Livelihood and Conservation?– Research from an independent agency

Due to its importance as a biodiversity hotspot and World Heritage Site, there has been a substantialincrease in research interest on various aspects of Sundarbans from various agencies and individuals. Someof the research findings are publicly available and can be used as a baseline for a comprehensivedevelopmental plan for Sundarbans. One such recent study has been carried out by South Asian Networkfor Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE, www.sandeeonline.org). The study primarilyexamines the contribution of tourism towards improving the livelihoods of the local people in a remoteisland village of the Indian Sundarbans (Working Paper No. 26-07).

The study found that with the arrival of visitors in an island village bordering mangrove delta forest, thelocal people spontaneously availed the opportunity to enter into various tourism-related service provisions.Majority of them belong to landless and marginal cultivator households, a profile similar to those who mostlydepend on direct forest exploitation. The study found 78% of the local service providers/traders operatewith either very small or no capital investment. Village households that could avail tourism-related earningopportunities are found to spend 19% more on food and 38% more on non-food items per capita comparedto other similar village households. However, the study found that presently no village household subsistsentirely on tourism-based income since tourism is extremely seasonal.

The conservation effect of tourism is perceptible as the proportion of forest-dependent households isfound to be significantly lower among the participants. This is indicative of a substitution of forest-basedearnings by tourism-related earnings. However, the study found little evidence of the percolation of tourism-related income to non-participating households through intra-village transactions. While the villagers’ overallperception of tourism is found to be positive, a significant section of villagers take cognizance of the growingincome-inequalities resulting from tourism-based income. The study proposes a carefully crafted policy forpromoting nature-based tourism with more room for local participation.

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9.11.3 Threat from EmbankmentErosion

The Sundarban islands are in theirformation stage and were still young whenthey were forced to support humanhabitation and agriculture, before attainingthe necessary height through the naturalprocess of siltation. Without humaninterference, only a small part of theseislands’ upper surface can keep above thesurrounding saline water level at high tide.The salinity allows nothing but mangrovesto grow on the soil. There is no possibilityof growing food crops on such land unlessit is kept out of reach of the river waterfor a considerable time and successiverainy seasons dilute the land salinity. Thisis why the settlements could take placeonly after surrounding each island with asufficiently high earthen embankment thatcould withstand the daily onslaught of tidalwaves. More than a century later, theseembankments still stand as the chiefdefence and lifeline for the property andvillage economy in Sundarban.

Yet, these fragile acts of mankind are atthe mercy of mother nature. Continuouserosion of these embankments are as realas their existence. The physicaldevelopment processes along theriverbanks and coast are influenced by amultitude of factors, comprising wavemotions, micro and macro-tidal cycles andlong shore currents. The currents varygreatly along with the monsoon. These arealso affected by cyclonic action. Erosionand accretion through these forcesmaintain varying levels of physiographicchange whilst the mangrove vegetationitself provides a remarkable stability to theentire system. The practice of prawn-seedcollection all along these embankmentshave largely wiped out the natural mangrovegrowth, exposing their base to the constantflow of water. The community cooperationamong the islanders in jointly upkeepingthis lifeline has weakened through ages andnew institutional developments. As a result,each year, several of these islands routinelyexperience the loss of crop due to thebreaching of embankments.

A Fact-Sheet on EmbankmentsThe total length of 3,500 km of earthen river embankments and coastaldykes, along with 862 drainage sluices, are maintained by the I&WDepartment in the Sundarbans. Out of this:Length of River Embankment on Major Estuaries: 700 kmLength of River Embankment on Medium Estuaries: 2,750 kmLength of Sea Dyke on the sea coast : 50 kmPresently more than 2,000 km of this embankment network are withoutthe necessary mangrove cover.

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Saving Sundarban: Whose Responsibility?9.12This chapter has taken a closer look at thesocio-economic fact-sheet within theSundarban region. Empirical evidenceoverwhelmingly establishes the relativedeprivation of the population on the islands,mostly in close proximity to the reserveforest. Priority must be given to suchblocks to improve some of the basicinfrastructural provisions like electricityand communication. Resources at disposalto the local authority are often limited andthey usually flow to the area wheremaximum number of people can be servedby a given amount of social investment. Inremote islands, improvement in theseprovisions require a substantially largercost relative to the number of beneficiaries.Seen from this local perspective, thebackwardness of the island blocks ofSundarban can be logically explained.

Yet, neglecting these people may haveglobal implications. It is fairly establishedby empirical research from different partsof the world that “poverty is the greatestpolluter”. Poverty and underdevelopmentof a region pushes the local poor to

overexploit the surrounding naturalresources. In Sundarban’s island blockssurrounding the forest, crippledinfrastructure leaves the local poor withfew alternative livelihood options, but todepend on the forest and the rivers. TheWorld Heritage Site and a delicateecosystem’s future sustainability is at stake.This fragile ecosystem renders valuableecological services to a vast region inSouth Asia – replenishing the fish stock inthe Bay of Bengal and maintaining theregion’s biological balance. It is also hometo many endangered species, the mostfamous being the Royal Bengal Tiger. Allthese ‘user-values’ and ‘non-user-values’of Sundarban are not exclusive to the localpopulation. So, national and globalresponsibility is also called for. Financialassistance to the local authority shouldlogically flow from both national andinternational stakeholders, and should bedirected to the priority locations withinSundarban, as is indicated by the discussionsin this chapter.

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Sundarbans and the Remote Islanders

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