advances.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/5/1/eaau7126/DC1 Supplementary Materials for Medieval women’s early involvement in manuscript production suggested by lapis lazuli identification in dental calculus A. Radini, M. Tromp, A. Beach, E. Tong, C. Speller, M. McCormick, J. V. Dudgeon, M. J. Collins, F. Rühli, R. Kröger, C. Warinner* *Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]Published 9 January 2019, Sci. Adv. 5, eaau7126 (2019) DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aau7126 The PDF file includes: Supplementary Text Fig. S1. Radiocarbon date for Dalheim individual B78 bone collagen. Fig. S2. Distribution of dental calculus deposits on the dentition of individual B78. Fig. S3. Comparison of blue particle appearance following HCl decalcification versus sonication in ultrapure water. Fig. S4. Comparison of the effects of 0.05 M HCl, 0.1 M EDTA, and saliva on reference pigments. Fig. S5. In situ distribution of blue particles in the dental calculus of B78 following sonication in ultrapure water. Fig. S6. Blue particles recovered from lips and saliva during lapis lazuli grinding experiment. Fig. S7. Elemental composition of additional reference pigments. Table S1. Blue mineral pigments known in medieval Europe. Table S2. Mean size of archaeological blue particles and reference pigments. Table S3. Characterization of airborne dust on lips and in saliva during lapis lazuli grinding. Other Supplementary Material for this manuscript includes the following: (available at advances.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/5/1/eaau7126/DC1) Data file S1 (Microsoft Excel format). Archaeological blue particle size and count. Data file S2 (Microsoft Excel format). Elemental composition data generated by SEM-EDS for archaeological blue particles and reference pigments. Data file S3 (Microsoft Excel format). Raman spectral data for archaeological particles and reference lapis lazuli.
Published 9 January 2019, Sci. Adv. 5, eaau7126 (2019)
DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aau7126
The PDF file includes:
Supplementary Text Fig. S1. Radiocarbon date for Dalheim individual B78 bone collagen. Fig. S2. Distribution of dental calculus deposits on the dentition of individual B78. Fig. S3. Comparison of blue particle appearance following HCl decalcification versus sonication in ultrapure water. Fig. S4. Comparison of the effects of 0.05 M HCl, 0.1 M EDTA, and saliva on reference pigments. Fig. S5. In situ distribution of blue particles in the dental calculus of B78 following sonication in ultrapure water. Fig. S6. Blue particles recovered from lips and saliva during lapis lazuli grinding experiment. Fig. S7. Elemental composition of additional reference pigments. Table S1. Blue mineral pigments known in medieval Europe. Table S2. Mean size of archaeological blue particles and reference pigments. Table S3. Characterization of airborne dust on lips and in saliva during lapis lazuli grinding.
Other Supplementary Material for this manuscript includes the following: (available at advances.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/5/1/eaau7126/DC1)
Data file S1 (Microsoft Excel format). Archaeological blue particle size and count. Data file S2 (Microsoft Excel format). Elemental composition data generated by SEM-EDS for archaeological blue particles and reference pigments. Data file S3 (Microsoft Excel format). Raman spectral data for archaeological particles and reference lapis lazuli.
Supplementary Text
1. Excerpts from selected primary sources
Die Reinhardsbrunner Briefsammlung (Collectio Reinheresbrunnensis), ca. 1140-1168
Pair of letters (numbers 35 and 97, see ref. 3) exchanged between Sindold, armarius — the
keeper of the monastery’s book collections, also normally charged with procuring and
correcting texts, as well as with overseeing the liturgy (1, 2) — at the men’s monastery of
Reinhardsbrunn, to “N”, a religious woman at Lippoldsberg, located 70 km east of Dalheim.
The text of both letters is provided in the original Latin (3), together with an English
translation of the relevant sections.
Letter 35, from Sindold to sister “N” Note: “Tres ordines” (line 5) is obscure. Ordines is
used once for columns in the twelfth century. Philip
of Harvengt uses ordines to describe the multiple
columns of Origen’s Bible in the Responsio de damnatione Salomonis, PL 203:652. However,
copying only the opening of the psalms in three
columns makes no sense. Ordo can also mean “rank,
series,” and Sindold seems to mean that the initials
should be three “ranks” or sizes bigger than the
normal body of the letters.
LATIN
“…De cetero ad matutinalem meum XIIII tibi
quaterniones, corium, colorem et sericum transmisi,
quem velim mi fenestella affabre perficias ordine quo
tibi disposui, et in scribendo psalterium in quaque
pagina tres ordines tantummodo per initia versuum
facias, sed ymnarium loco vel modo, quo tibi videtur,
scribas. In nataliciis vero sanctorum apostolorum VIII
lectiones de passionibus eorum, quia apocrife sunt,
excepta passione sancti Andree, non scribas, et in
natalitiis martyrum, confessorum ac virginum,
exceptis qui proprium cantum habent, idem facias,
quia eedem VIII lectiones lectionibus de apostolis,
martyribus, confessoribus ac virginibus in suo loco
communiter scribendis suppleri possunt.”
ENGLISH
“…As for the rest, I have sent you twenty-four
quaternions [of parchment], leather, pigment, and silk
for my Matutinal, which I would like you to execute
skillfully for me, my own good scribe, according to
the layout that I set out for you. In writing the psalter
part on each page, you should make only the
beginning of the verses three lines [tall], but do write
the hymnal part in the position and size which seems
best to you. You should not copy the eight readings
from the passions of the apostles for their nativities
because, except for the Passion of St Andrew, they are
apocryphal. For the nativities of the martyrs,
confessors, and virgins -- except for those who have
their own song -- you should do the same, because
these same eight readings together can be replaced by
the readings about the apostles, martyrs, confessors,
and virgins generally to be copied in the appropriate
place.”
Letter 97, from sister “N” to Sindold
LATIN
“S. fratri suo in Christo dilecto H. soror orationum
suarum devocionem.
Matutinalem librum, quem vestra caritas aput nos
scribi postulavit, sciatis me summo cum studio usque
ad Christi resurrectionem et non ultra perduxisse.
Hiemis enim tempore, ne scriptura obscuraretur, atque
illa et illa scribendo, usque in pascha insistere huic
operi non potui. Spero autem in nativitate beate
virginis Marie nuncio vestro ad nos misso librum iam
ENGLISH
To S, her beloved brother in Christ, sister H sends the
devotion of her prayers.
You should know that with the greatest effort I have
taken the Matutinal that your charity requested be
written in our house up to Christ's resurrection [i.e.,
the Easter liturgy], and no further. For during the
winter, so that the handwriting not become unclear,
and writing this and that, I was unable to work on this
project until Easter. But I hope that if your messenger
perfectum reportare posse.
Et quia ad tres quaterniones de pergamento mihi
deesse video, per nuncium vestrum quantum sufficiat
et duos libellos de preceptis dictaminis G. sorori
nostre et herbam que ientiana dicitur transmittite.
comes to us on the feast of the nativity of the blessed
virgin Mary [8 September], he can return with the
already completed book.
And because I see that I lack almost three quaternions
of parchment, send via your messenger however much
might suffice, as well as two little books on the rules
of dictamen [the art of formal letter-writing] for our
sister G, and the herb known as gentian.
Liber de lapidibus by Marbod of Rennes, eleventh century
Written in verse, this early European lapidary is based on earlier Greek and Arabic sources
and includes an entry for sapphirus, understood to be Latin for lapis lazuli. Originally
composed ca. AD 1090, more than one hundred copies survive today. The text is provided in
Latin, together with an English translation by C.W. King (4).
LATIN
“V. De sapphiro
Sapphiri species digitis aptissima regum,
Egregium fulgens, puroque simillima coelo,
Vilior est nullo virtutibus atque decore.
Hic et Sirtites lapis a plerisque vocatur,
Quod circa Sirtes Lybicis permixtus arenis,
Fluctibus expulsus, fervente freto reperitur.
Ille sed optimus est, quem tellus medica gignit.
Qui tamen asseritur nunquam transmitter visum,
Quem natura potens tanto ditavit honore,
Ut sacer et merito gemmarum gemma vocetur;
Nam corpus vegetat, conservat et integra membra.
Et qui portat eum nequit ulla fraude noceri.
Indiviam superat, nullo terrore movetur,
Hic lapis, ut perhibent, educit carcere vinctos,
Obstructasque fores, et vincula tacta resolvit,
Placatumque deum reddit, precibusque faventem.
Fertur et ad pacem bonus esse reconciliandam;
Et plusquam reliquas amat hanc nigromantia
gemmam,
Ut divinia queat per eam responsa mereri.
Corporeis etiam morbis lapis iste medetur.
Scilicet ardorem refrigerat interiorem,
Sudorem stringit nimio torrente fluentem,
Contritus lacti superillitus ulcer sanat,
Tollit et ex oculis sordes, ex fronte dolorem;
Et vitiis linguae simili ratione medetur.
Sed qui gestate eum, castissimus esse iubetur.”
ENGLISH
“V. Sapphire [lapis lazuli]
Fit only for the hands [fingers] of kings to wear,
With purest azure shines the Sapphire rare:
For worth and beauty chief of gems proclaimed,
And by the vulgar oft Syrtites named.
Oft in the Syrtes midst their shifting sand
Cast by the boiling deep on Lybian strand;
The best the sort that Media’s mines supply,
Opaque of colour which excludes the eye.
By nature with superior honours graced,
As gem of gems above all others placed;
Health to preserve, and treachery to disarm,
And guard the wearer from intended harm:
No envy bends him, and no terror shakes;
The captive’s chains its mighty virtue breaks;
The gates fly open, fetters fall away,
And send their prisoner to the light of day.
E’en Heaven is moved by its force divine,
To list to vows presented at its shrine.
Its soothing power contentions fierce contols,
And in sweet concord binds discordant souls;
Above all others this Magicians love,
Which draws responses from the realms above:
The body’s ills its saving force allays
And cools the flame that on the entrails preys.
Can check the sweats that melt the waning force
And stay the ulcer in its festering course:
Dissolved in milk it clears the cloud away
From the dimmed eye and pours the perfect day;
Relieves the aching brow when racked with pain
And bids the tongue its wonted vigour gain,
But he who dares to wear this gem divine
Like snow in perfect chastity must shine.”
Physica, by Hildegard of Bingen, twelfth century
Hildegard of Bingen, Benedictine abbess of Disibodenberg and later founder and magistra of
a women’s monastery at Rupertsberg, wrote many important works, including Scivias, an
illustrated account of her visions for which some copies utilize lapis lazuli pigment (5), and
the medical text Physica, which includes an entry on sapphirus, a stone thought to
correspond to lapis lazuli. Composed in the mid-twelfth century, Physica describes the
medical use of lapis lazuli primarily as an amulet stone. The text is provided below in Latin
(6), together with an English translation by Priscilla Throop (7). Several colloquial Middle
High German terms are left untranslated in the text, including gicht, a humoral affliction
corresponding to a suite of illnesses ranging from gout to arthritis, and virgichtiget, the state
of being afflicted with gicht (7).
LATIN
“Cap. VI – De Sapphiro
Saphhirus calidus est; secundum tempus meridianum
crescit, cum sol in ardore suo tam fortiter ardet quod
aer aliquantum de ardore ejus obstruatur, et tune
splendor solis de nimio ardore, quem tunc habet,
aerem ita transverberat, quod idem splendor tunc tam
pleniter non apparet ut tunc facit cum aer aliquantum
temperatus est; et ideo etiam turbidus est, et etiam
magis igneus, quam aereus aut quam aquosus; et
plenam charitatem sapientiæ designat.
Et homo qui vell in oculo habet, sapphirum in manu
sua teneat, et eum in ipsa sive igne calefaciat, et vell in
oculo suo cum lapide madido tangat, et sic per tres
dies in mane et in nocte faciat, et vell minorabitur, et
evanescet.
Et si alicui oculi præ dolore rubent et seregent, aut cui
caligant, sapphirum jejunus in os suum ponat, et de
saliva oris sui madidus fiat, et tunc de eadem saliva
qua idem lapis madefactus est digito accipiat, et
oculos suos circumliniat, ita quod etiam oculos
interius tangat, et sanabuntur, et clari erunt.
Sed et homo qui totus virgichtiget est, ita quod in
capite et in reliquo corpore suo per nimiam
oppressionem patientiam habere non potest, eumdem
lapidem in os suum ponat, et gicht in eo cessabit.
Homo quoque qui bonum intellectum et bonam
scientiam habere desiderat, sapphirum in mane diei,
cottidie cum de lecto surgit, jejunus in os suum ponat,
et eum ita per brevem horam, scilicet tam diu in ore
teneat dum de saliva qua ille madefactus est
sufficienter in se trabat, ac eum deinde de ore suo
tollat, et modicum vini teneat ad ignem et in vasculo
calefaciat, atque ipsum in fumum ejusdem vini teneat,
ut inde sudando madefiat, et sic lingua sua de
humiditate illius linguat, ac etiam de eodem vino
salivam, de qua idem lapis incaluit, in ventrem illius
hominis ducit, et sic ille purum intellectum et puram
scientiam habebit, et etiam stomachus ejus ex hoc
sanus erit.
ENGLISH
“VI. Sapphire [lapis lazuli]
Sapphire [sapphirus] is hot and develops after
noontime, when the sun burns ardently and the air is a
bit obstructed by its heat. The splendor of the sun,
from the extreme heat that it then has, pierces through
the air. The splendor is not as full as it is when the air
is a bit cool. Sapphire is turbid, indeed more fiery than
airy or watery. It symbolizes a complete love of
wisdom.
A person who has a sty in his eye should hold a
sapphire in his hand and warm it, by holding it either
closed in his hand or near a fire. He should touch the
sty in his eye with a damp stone in the morning and at
night, for three days, and the sty will grow smaller and
disappear.
One whose eyes are red and painfully inflamed, or
whose vision is obscured, should place a sapphire in
his mouth before breakfast. It should become damp
from his saliva. Then, taking on his finger the saliva
which dampened the stone, he should smear it around
his eyes, so that it even touches the inside of his eyes,
which will be healed and will become clear.
One who is completely virgichtiget and unable to
endure the great oppression in his head and the rest of
his body should place a sapphire in his mouth, and the
gicht will stop.
A person who desires to have a good understanding
and knowledge should place a sapphire in his mouth
every morning, and upon getting out of bed and while
fasting. He should hold it in his mouth long enough
for it to absorb the saliva which moistens it. He should
take it from his mouth, then warm a bit of wine in a
metallic vessel over the fire. He should hold the stone
in the vapor of that wine so that, by sweating, it
becomes damp. Then he should lick off some of that
moisture and the saliva, which had heated the stone,
and swallow it, and he will have pure understanding
and knowledge. Even his stomach will be healed by
this.
Sed et qui stultus est, ita quod omnis scientia in eo
deficit, sed tamen prudens esse vellet et prudens esse
non potest, nec post maliciam repicit, nec se ad eam
extendit, iste linguam sapphiro jejunus sæpe ungat,
quod calor et virtus cum calida humiditate salivæ
noxios humores qui intellectum hominis opprimunt
fugant, et sic homo bonum intellectum capit.
Et qui in ira valde movetur, sapphirum in os suum
mox ponat, et ita exstinguetur, et ab eo cessabit. Quod
si lapis iste in purissimum, scilicet gebrant golt, annulum, absque blech mal positus est, et si etiam sub
eodem lapide nihil aliud est, quam aurum, tunc homo
eundem absque blech mal, in quem lapis iste positus
est, in os suum pro medicina ponat, et ei non oberit; si
autem quidquam aliud ibi est quam aurum, tunc non
valet, et eum in os suum non ponat, quia diversitas ibi
in annulo est.
Et si aliquis homo in maligno spiritu possessus est,
alius homo faciat sapphirum in terram poni, et terram
illam in corio sue, et ita ad collum illius suspende et
dic: «O tu, turpissime spiritus, ab hoc homine
festinanter recede, sicut in primo casu tuo gloria
splendoris tui a te citissime cecidit;» et malignus ipse
spiritus multum torquebitur, et ab eodem homine
recedet, nisi acerrimus et nequissimus spiritus sit; et
melius habebit.
Quod si etiam dyabolus virum aliquem ad amorem
alicujus feminæ instigaverit, ita quod, absque magicis
et absque invocationibus dæmonum, in amorem illius
insanire inceperit, et si mulieri hoc molestum fuerit,
ipsa modicum vini super sapphirum ter fundat, et
totiens dictat: «Ego vinum hoc in ardentibus viribus
super te fundo, sicut Deus splendorum tuum,
prævaricante angelo, abstraxit, ut ita amorem libidinis
ardentis viri hujus de me abstrabas.» Quod si femina
illa hoc facere noluerit, alius homo, cui amor ille
molestus est, pro ipsa idem faciat, et viro illo, jejuno
aut pranso, et aut scienti aut ignoranti, per tres dies ant
plures, ad bibendum det. Sed si etiam femina in amore
alicujus viri ardet, et viro hoc molestum est, ipse
eædem feminæ cum vino et sapphiro faciat, ut
prædictum est, incensus amor ille cessabit.”
Also, for one who is a fool, in whom all knowledge is
lacking, and who nevertheless desires but is unable to
be wise: If he neither contemplates malice nor reaches
out toward it, he should often rub his tongue, while
fasting, with a sapphire. Its heat and strength, with the
moisture of his saliva, will chase off noxious humors
which oppress the person’s understanding, and the
person will receive good understanding.
One who is much moved with wrath should
immediately place a sapphire in his mouth. The wrath
will be extinguished and will go from him. If this
stone is placed on a ring of the purest gold, without
tin, and there is nothing but gold under the stone, then
a person may place the stone in his mouth as
medicine, and it will not harm him. If anything but
pure gold is in it, then it is of no use, and one should
not place it in it, then it is of no use, and one should
not place it in his mouth, because that ring is harmful.
If a person is in the power of an evil spirit, another
person should place a sapphire on some earth, then
sew that earth into a leather sack, and hang it from his
neck. He should say, “O you, most wicket spirit,
quickly go from this person, just as, in your first fall,
the glory of your splendor very quickly fell from you.”
The evil spirit will be greatly tortured. He will depart
from that person, who will be better, unless it is a very
cruel and most good-for-nothing spirit.
If the devil should incite a man to love a woman so
that, without magic or invocations of demons, he
begins to be insane with his love, and I this is an
annoyance to the woman, she should pour a bit of
wine over a sapphire three times and each time say, “I
pour this wine, in its ardent powers, over you; just as
God drew off your splendor, wayward angel, so may
you draw away from me the lust of this ardent man.”
If the woman is unwilling to do this, then another
person for whom that love is a problem should do it
for her. He should give the wine to the man to drink
for three or more days, whether he’s eating or not, and
whether he knows about it or not. If a woman burns
with love for some man, and this is an annoyance to
the man, he should do the same thing with the
sapphire and the wine, and the burning passion will go
away.”
Circa Instans, twelfth century
This popular twelfth-century lapidary attributed to Matthaeus Platearius of Salerno, Italy
catalogues the properties and uses of gemstones. Lapis lazuli is described as a treatment for
melancholy, and practical instructions are given for its use. The text, which is partially
corrupt, is provided in Latin (8), together with English translation.
LATIN
De lapide lazuli
Lapis lazuli frigidus est et siccus; similiter lapis
Armenicus; sed excessus eorum non determinatur ab
auctoribus. Lapis lazuli vena terrae est, de que fit
lazulum. Similiter lapis dicitur Armenicus, qui
maxime in Armenia reperitur. Non sophisticatur.
Est autem lapis lazuli eligendus, qui multum
assimilatur colori coelesti et habet in se quaedam
corpuscula quasi aurea; ille autem, qui quasi
subalbidum habet colorem, habet in se plus
terrestritatis. Lapis Armenicus levior est et
subalbidum habet colorem. Possunt autem diu servari
sine corruptione. Lapis autem Armenicus citius
corrumpitur, maiorem habet terrestritatem. Purgat
autem melancoliam.
Contra melancolicam passionem detur cum
decoctione sene. - Contra quartanam detur cum
decoctione aliqua purgante melancoliam. - Contra
vitium splenis et haemorrhoidas detur cum
decoctione sene vel decoctione seminis feniculi. -
Contra cardiacam passionem detur cum succo
boraginis, cum pulvere ossis de corde cervi; et –
breviter dicam – valet contra omnes passiones factas
de melancholia. – Cum in medicinis receptio
<reperitur>: conficiatur pulvis: cum decoctione non
ponatur, sed detur post decoctiones.
Notandus est modus abluendi lapidem lazuli et
Armenicum et dandi – drachmae dua possunt dari -:
in aliquo vase solido vel cifo argenteo ponatur pulvis
eorum vel alterius subtilissimus, et cum pistello
conficiatur in aqua, donec aqua inficiatur; illa aqua
abiciatur, et postea alia imponatur; et sic fit decies
vel vicesies. Signum perfectae loturae est, cum aqua
aut modicum aut nihil inde inficitur. Nota, quod non
debet dari in decoctione, quia in fundum descenderet.
Unde antequam detur decoctio, detur cum cocleareo
vel cultello; postea detur decoctio. Vel melius:
quando datur ad purgationem melancoliae, prius
detur decoctio; post quattuor vel quinque sellas detur
lapis lazuli: miro modo tunc purgat melancoliam.
ENGLISH
From lapis lazuli
Lapis lazuli is cold and dry; similarly lapis
Armenicus; but their excess properties are not
specified by the authorities. Lapis lazuli is a vein of
the earth, from this [the blue color; cf. azure]
lazulum comes. Lapis Armenicus is called similarly,
which is mostly found in Armenia. It should not
altered [i.e., used to make more complex substances
of simples.]
The lapis lazuli should be selected that looks much
like the color of heaven and which contains in it
certain particles that look like gold. The lapis lazuli,
however, that has a whitish color, contains more
earth. Lapis Armenicus, by comparison, is lighter
and has a whitish color. Both stones can be stored for
a long time without spoiling. Lapis Armenicus,
however, spoils faster because it contains more earth.
It purges melancholy.
Give lapis lazuli with a decoction of senna against
suffering caused by melancholy. For a four-day
fever, give lapis lazuli with any decoction that purges
melancholy. Against complaints of the spleen and
hemorrhoids, or give lapis lazuli in a decoction of
senna or fennel seeds. Against heart complaints give
lapis lazuli with borage juice with powder of a bone
[cartilage?] from the heart of a deer; and – let me
speak succinctly – this helps against all other
complaints that are caused by melancholy. A When
its being taken is found in medical recipes: let the
powder be crushed, let it not be placed with a
decoction, but give it after the decoction.
It is important to note here the method by which lapis
lazuli and lapis Armenicus are washed and
administered – two drams [~5-10 grams] can be
given: in some strong vessel or in a silver bowl add
the very fine powder of the stones or of one of them
and crush with the pestle under water until the water
becomes cloudy, then take the water away and pour
new water into it, and repeat this ten or twenty times.
When the water becomes only a little or not at all
cloudy from it, this is the sign that the washing has
been completed Note that it ought not be given in a
decoction because it would sink to the bottom. Hence
before the decoction is given, give it with a spoon or
a knife; afterward give the decoction. Or, even better:
when one to gives it to purge melancholy, one should
first administer the decoction; then after four or five
bowel movements give the lapis lazuli: it then purges
melancholy wonderfully.
Il Libro dell’Arte by Cennino D’Andrea Cennini, early fifteenth century
This craftsman’s handbook contains a detailed description of the production of highly pure
ultramarine pigment using the oil flotation method (also known as the “pastille” method)
from lapis lazuli stone. The text is provided in the original Italian (9), and as an English
translation by D. V. Thompson (10).
ITALIAN
Capitolo LXII: Della natura e modo a
fare dell; azzurro oltramarino “Azzurro oltramarino si è un colore nobile,
bello, perfettissimo oltre a tutti i colori; del
quale non se ne potrebbe n è dire n è fare
quello che non ne sia più. E per la sua
eccellenza ne voglio parlare largo, e
dimostrarti appieno come si fa. E attendici
bene, però che ne porterai grande onore e
utile. E di quel colore, con l’ oro insieme (il
quale fiorisce tutti i lavori di nostr' arte), o
vuoi in muro, o vuoi in tavola, ogni cosa
risprende.
Prima, togli lapis lazzari. E se vuoi cognoscere la
buona pietra, togli quella che vedi sia più piena di
colore azzurro, però che ella è mischiata tutta come
cenere. Quella che tiene meno colore di questa cenere,
quella è migliore. Ma guar’ti che non fusse pietra
d'azzurro della Magna, che mostra molto bella all'
occhio, che pare uno smalto. Pestala in mortaio di
bronzo coverto, perchè non ti vada via in polvere; poi
la metti in su la tua pria profferitica, e triaja sanza
acqua; poi abbia un tamigio coverto, a modo gli
speziali, da tamigiare spezie; e tamigiali e ripestali
come fa per bisogno: e abbi a mente, che quanto la trii
più sottile, tanto vien l’ azzurro sottile, ma non si bello
e violante e di colore ben nero; che il sottile è più utile
ai miniatori, e da fare vestiri biancheggiati. Quando
hai in ordine la detta polvere, togli dagli speziali sei
oncie di ragia di pino, tre oncie di mastrice, tre oncie
di cera nuova, per ciascuna libra di lapis lazzari. Poni
tutte queste cose in un pignattello nuovo, e falle
struggere insieme. Poi abbi una pezza bianca di lino, e
cola queste cose in una catinella invetriata. Poi abbia
una libra di questa polvere di lapis lazzari, e rimescola
bene insieme ogni cosa, e fanne un pastello tutto
incorporato insieme. E per potere maneggiare il detto
pastello, abbi olio di semenza di lino, e sempre tieni
bene unte le mani di questo olio. Bisogna che tegni
questo cotal pastello per lo men tre dì e tre notti,
rimenando ogni dì un pezzo; e abbi a mente, che lo
puoi tenere il detto pastello quindici dì, un mese,
quanto vuoi. Quando tu ne vuoi trarre l’azzurro fuora,
tieni questo modo. Fa’ due bastoni d’ un' asta forte, né
troppo grossa, né troppo sottile; e sieno lunghi
ciascuno un pie, e fa' che sieno ben ritondi da capo e
da pie, e puliti bene. E poi abbi il tuo pastello dentro
nella catinella invetriata, dove l’ hai tenuto; e mettivi
dentro presso a una scodella di lisciva calda
temperatamente; e con questi due bastoni, da catuna
ENGLISH
Chapter LXII: On The Character of
Ultramarine Blue, and How to make it. “Ultramarine blue is a color illustrious,
beautiful, and most perfect, beyond all other
colors; one could not say anything about it,
or do anything with it, that its quality would
not still surpass. And, because of its
excellence, I want to discuss it at length, and
to show you in detail how it is made. And
pay close attention to this, for you will gain
great honor and service from it. And let
some of that color, combined with gold,
which adorns all the works of our
profession, whether on wall or on panel,
shine forth in every object.
To begin with, get some lapis lazuli. And if
you want to recognize the good stone,
choose that which you see is richest in blue
color, because it is all mixed like ashes. That
which contains least of this ash color is the
best. But see that it is not the azurite stone,
which looks very lovely to the eye, and
resembles an enamel. Pound it in a bronze
mortar, covered up, so that it may not go off
in dust; then put it on your porphyry slab,
and work it up without water. Then take a
covered sieve such as the druggists use for
sifting drugs; and sift it, and pound it over
again as you find necessary. And bear in
mind that the more finely you work it up, the
finer the blue will come out, but not so
beautifully violet in color. It is true that the
fine kind is more useful to illuminators, and
for making draperies with lights on them.
When you have this powder all ready, get
six ounces of pine rosin from the druggists,
three ounces of gum mastic, and three
ounces of new wax, for each pound of lapis
lazuli; put all these things into a new pipkin,
and melt them up together. Then take a
white linen cloth, and strain these things into
a glazed washbasin. Then take a pound of
the lapis lazuli powder, and mix it all up
thoroughly, and make a plastic of it, all
incorporated together. And have some
linseed oil, and always keep your hands well
greased with this oil, so as to be able to
handle the plastic. You must keep this
plastic for at least three days and three
nights, working it over a little every day;
mano il suo, rivolgi e struca e mazzica questo pastello
in qua e in là, a modo che con mano si rimena la pasta
da fare pane, propriamente in quel modo. Come hai
fatto che vedi la lisciva essere perfetta azzurra,
trannela fuora in una scodella invetriata; poi togli
altrettanta lisciva, e mettila sopra il detto pastello, e
rìmena con detti bastoni a modo di prima. Quando la
lisciva è ben tornata azzurra, mettila sopra un' altra
scodella invetriata, e rimetti in sul pastello altrettanta
lisciva, e ripriemi a modo usato. E quando la lisciva è
bene azzurra, mettila in su un' altra scodella invetriata:
e per lo simile fa' cosi parecchi di, tanto che il pastello
rimanga che non tìnga la lisciva; e buttalo poi via, che
non è più buono. Poi ti reca dinanzi da te in su una
tavola per ordine tutte queste scodelle, cioè prima,
seconda, terza, quarta tratta, per ordine seguitando
ciascuna: rimescola con mano la lisciva con r azzurro
che, per gravezza del detto azzurro, sarà andato al
fondo; e allora cognoscerai le tratte del detto azzurro.
Diliberati in te medesimo di quante ragioni tu vuoi
azzurri, di tre, o di quattro, o di sei, e di quante ragioni
tu vuoi: avvisandoti che le prime tratte sono migliori,
come la prima scodella è migliore che la seconda. E
cosi se hai diciotto scodelle di tratte, e tu voglia fare
tre maniere d' azzurro, fa' che tocchi sei scodelle, e
mescolale insieme, e riducile in una scodella: e sarà
una maniera. E per lo simile delle altre. Ma tieni a
mente, che le prime due tratte, se hai buon lapis
lazzari, è di valuta questo tale azzurro di ducati otto
l'oncia, e le due tratte di dietro è peggio che cendere.
Si che sie pratico nell' occhio tuo di non guastare gli
azzurri buoni per li cattivi: e ogni dì rasciuga le dette
scodelle delle dette liscive, tanto che gli azzurri si
secchino. Quando son ben secchi, secondo le partite
che hai, secondo le alluoga in cuoro, o in vesciche, o
in borse. E nota, che se la detta pria lapis lazzari non
fusse cosi perfetta, o che avessi triata la detta pria che
l' azzurro non rispondesse violante, t' insegno a dargli
un poco di colore. Togli una poca di grana pesta, e un
poco di verzino; cuocili insieme; ma fa' che il verzino
o tu '1 grattugia, o tu il radi con vetro; e poi insieme li
cuoci con lisciva, e un poco d'allume di rôcca; e
quando bogliono, che vedi è perfetto color vermiglio,
innanzi ch’ abbi tratto l’ azzurro della scodella (ma
bene asciutto della lisciva), mettivi su un poco di
questa grana e verzino; e col dito rimescola bene
insieme ogni cosa; e tanto lascia stare, che sia asciutto
senza o sole, o fuoco, e senz'aria. Quando il truovi
asciutto, mettilo in cuoro o in borsa, e lascialo godere,
che è buono e perfetto. E tiello in te, chè è una
singulare virtù a sapello ben fare. E sappi ch' ell' è più
arte di belle giovani a farlo, che non è a uomini;
perchè elle si stanno di continuo in casa, e ferme, ed
hanno le mani più dilicate. Guar'ti pur dalle vecchie.
Quando ritorni per volere adoperare del detto azzurro,
pigliane quella quantità che ti bisogna: e se hai a
lavorare vestiri biancheggiati, vuoisi un poco triare in
su la tua pria usata: e se '1 vuoi pur per campeggiare,
vuoisi poco poco rimenare sopra la pria, sempre con
acqua chiara chiara, bene lavata e netta la pria: e se l’
and bear in mind that you may keep it in the
plastic for two weeks or a month, or as long
as you like. When you want to extract the
blue from it, adopt this method. Make two
sticks out of a stout rod, neither too thick nor
too thin; and let them each be a foot long;
and have them well rounded at the top and
bottom, and nicely smoothed. And then have
your plastic in the glazed washbasin where
you have been keeping it; and put into it
about a porringerful of lye, fairly warm; and
with these two sticks, one in each hand, turn
over and squeeze and knead this plastic, this
way and that, just as you work over bread
dough with your hand, in just the same way.
When you have done this until you see that
the lye is saturated with blue, draw it off into
a glazed porringer. Then take as much lye
again, and put it on to the plastic, and work
it over with these sticks as before. When the
lye has turned quite blue, put it into another
glazed porringer, and put as much lye again
on to the plastic, and press it out again in the
usual way. And when the lye is quite blue,
put it into another glazed porringer. And go
on doing this for several days in the same
way, until the plastic will no longer color the
lye; and then throw it away, for it is no
longer any good. Then arrange all these
porringers in front of you on a table, in
series: that is, the yields, first, second, third,
fourth, arranged in succession; and with
your hand stir up in each one the lye with
the blue which, on account of the heaviness
of this blue, will have gone to the bottom;
and then you will learn the yields of the
blue. Weigh the question of how many
grades of blue you want: whether three or
four, or six, or however many you want;
bearing in mind that the first yields are the
best, just as the first porringer is better than
the second. And so, if you have eighteen
porringers of the yields, and you wish to
make three grades of blue, you take six of
the porringers and mix them together, and
reduce it to one porringer; and that will be
one grade. And in the same way with the
others. But bear in mind that if you have
good lapis lazuli, the blue from the first two
yields will be worth eight ducats an ounce.
The last two yields are worse than ashes:
therefore be prudent in your observation, so
as not to spoil the first blues for the poor
ones. And every day drain off the lye from
the porringers, until the blues are dry. When
they are perfectly dry, do them up in leather,
or in bladders, or in purses, according to the
divisions which you have. And know that if
that lapis lazuli stone was not so very good,
or if you worked the stone up so much that
azzurro venisse lordo di niente, piglia un poco di
lisciva, d'acqua chiara, e mettila sopra il vasellino, e
rimescola insieme l' uno e l' altro: e questo farai due o
tre mute, e sarà l' azzurro bene purgato. Non ti tratto
delle sue tempere, però che insieme più innanzi ti
mosterrò di tutte le tempere di ciascuni colori in
tavola, in muro, in ferro, in carta, in pietra, e in vetro.”
the blue did not come out violet, I will teach
you how to give it a little color. Take a bit of
pounded kermes and a little brazil; cook
them together; but either grate the brazil or
scrape it with glass; and then cook them
together with lye and a little rock alum; and
when they boil you will see that it is a
perfect crimson color. Before you take the
blue out of the porringer, but after it is quite
dry of the lye, put a little of this kermes and
brazil on it; and stir it all up well with your
finger; and let it stand until it dries, without
sun, fire, or wind. When you find that it is
dry, put it in leather, or in a purse, and leave
it alone, for it is good and perfect. And keep
it to yourself, for it is an unusual ability to
know how to make it properly. And know
that making it is an occupation for pretty
girls rather than for men; for they are always
at home, and reliable, and they have more
dainty hands. Just beware of old women.
When you get around to wanting to use
some of this blue, take as much of it as you
need. And if you have draperies with lights
on them to execute, it ought to be worked up
a little on the regular stone. And if you want
it just for laying in, it wants to be worked
over on the stone very, very lightly, always
using perfectly clear water, and keeping the
stone well washed and clean. And if the blue
should get soiled in any way, take a little
lye, or clear water; and put it into the dish,
and stir it up well; and you will do this two
or three times, and the blue will be purified
entirely. I am not discussing its temperas for
you, because I shall be showing you about
all the temperas for all the colors later on,
for panel, wall, iron, parchment, stone, and
glass.”
2. Effect of particle extraction method on pigment recovery
Because dental calculus is a mineralized substrate, demineralizing agents are typically
employed to release entrapped microremains. Standard demineralization methods involve the
use of hydrochloric acid or the chelating agent EDTA to dissolve the calcium phosphates that
make up 80% of calculus by weight. Additionally, debris in the oral cavity is exposed to
saliva prior to incorporation in dental calculus, but the effect of saliva on mineral pigments is
unknown. In order to assess the effect of acid, chelating agents, and saliva on the stability of
blue mineral pigments, reference pigments of lapis lazuli, ultramarine ash, azurite, malachite,
Egyptian blue, smalt, royal smalt, and vivianite were treated with ultrapure water, 0.05M
HCl, 0.1M EDTA, or saliva and visualized using a Zeiss AxioZoom V16 binocular
stereomicroscope at 400x magnification at the DANTE Laboratory of Oral and Maxillofacial
Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome. For each experiment, a small amount of reference
pigment was placed on a clean microscope slide and dispersed with a sterile acupuncture
needle, and a coverslip was added and secured with a drop of clear nail polish in one corner.
Using a mechanical Eppendorf pipettor, cooled (4˚C) 0.05M HCl was injected at the edge of
the coverslip until the area under the coverslip was flooded. The slide was optically inspected
under magnification and then placed at 4˚C for 48 hours to simulate decalcification
conditions. Over the course of the experiment, the slide was inspected multiple times to
record changes in pigment color and size. The same procedure was repeated at room
temperature for 0.1M EDTA, saliva, and ultrapure water. Photographs of the reference
pigments were taken prior to start of the experiment and after 48 hours.
HCl was generally found to have a damaging effect on most reference pigments, rapidly
producing alterations in size and loss of color in lapis lazuli, ultramarine ash, azurite,
malachite, and vivianite reference minerals (fig. S4). Only smalt, royal smalt, and Egyptian
blue were unaffected. Color loss had also been observed during HCl decalcification of
calculus-embedded archaeological blue particles (fig. S3); however, it was less pronounced,
likely because the dissolution of the calcium phosphate ions from calculus eventually
neutralizes the acidity. Nevertheless, all archaeological blue particles obtained by HCl
decalcification exhibited color alteration. Because HCl decalcification results in color loss
and loss of accessory minerals, such as calcites, we do not recommend this method for
studies of mineral debris within dental calculus.
The effect of 0.1 EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, C10H16N2O8) was not as great as
0.05M HCl, but slight color alterations were visible for some pigments after 48 hours (fig.
S4). Lapis lazuli and ultramarine ash clumped to form gel-like masses of blue and white
particles, but little color alteration was observed. Vivianite changed to a dark brownish-black
color, and color leaching occurred in the liquid surrounding azurite and especially malachite
crystals (likely dissolved copper(II) chloride). Additionally, some azurite crystals became
more green in appearance, while some malachite crystals became more blue. Of the reference
pigments tested, vivianite and malachite showed the greatest alteration in EDTA. Egyptian
blue, smalt, and royal smalt appeared stable in EDTA. These results suggest that 0.1 EDTA is
not a stable environment for some blue pigments, and we do not recommend using EDTA as
a decalcifying agent for studies of mineral debris within dental calculus.
All pigments were stable in human saliva (fig. S4).
Given the damaging effects 0.05M HCl and 0.1M EDTA on reference pigments, we
recommend against using chemical decalcifying agents, if possible, and instead recommend
sonication in ultrapure water.
3. Test of airborne dust generation during lapis lazuli grinding
To test the plausibility of lazurite particles entering the oral cavity through airborne dust
generated during pigment production (Scenario 2), two simple grinding experiments were
performed: a 1-hour grinding experiment and a 4-hour grinding experiment (table S2). Prior
to the start of both experiments, the analyst performed a thorough tooth brushing for three
minutes, followed by three mouthwashes of ultrapure water. A final mouthwash of 5 ml of
ultrapure water (mouthwash blank) was then collected and centrifuged at 3600 RPM to pellet
debris. The deposit at the bottom of the tube was then removed with a pipette, mounted on a
slide, and inspected using optical microscopy. Grinding was performed using an agate stone
mortar and pestle with the following dimensions. Mortar: outer diameter, 16.0 cm; inner
diameter 11.9 cm; height, 6.4 cm; depth of bowl, 5.1 cm. Pestle: length, 14.0 cm; top
diameter, 3.3 cm. The analyst stood at a distance of 40-50 cm from the mortar during
grinding.
1-hour grinding experiment
To test the effects of short-term pigment preparation exposure, a 1-hour grinding experiment
was performed on a single lapis lazuli stone. First, the analyst crushed a lapis lazuli stone into
smaller pieces using a hammer, and the pieces were then transferred into an agate stone
mortar and slowly hand ground to a fine powder one at a time. The powder was removed at
intervals into a glass container to make room for new pieces. Complete grinding of the stone
took approximately one hour. Little visible airborne dust was produced during this process.
This experiment was repeated three more times over consecutive weeks (one experiment per
week), for a total of four replicates of the 1-hour grinding experiment.
4-hour grinding experiment
To test the effects of longer exposure to pigment preparation, a 4-hour grinding experiment
was performed on four lapis lazuli stones. First, the analyst crushed the four lapis lazuli
stones into smaller pieces using a hammer, and the pieces were then transferred into an agate
stone mortar and slowly hand ground to a fine powder one at a time. As before, the powder
was removed at intervals into a glass container to make room for new pieces. Complete
grinding of the four stones took approximately four hours. Little visible airborne dust was
produced during this process. This experiment was repeated one additional time a week later,
for a total of two replicates of the 4-hour grinding experiment.
Data collection
Upon the completion of grinding in both experiments, a 5 ml mouthwash of ultrapure water
was collected. However, for one replicate each of the 1-hour and 4-hour experiments, no
mouthwash was collected following the completion of the grinding experiment, but rather
was collected one hour later in order to evaluate the persistence of grinding dust in the mouth.
Finally, for one replicate each of the 1-hour and 4-hour experiments, fingerprint-lifting
adhesive tape was then blotted against the lips to obtain adhering dust.
All mouthwash samples were centrifuged at 3600 RPM to pellet debris, and the deposit at the
bottom of the tube was then removed with a pipette and mounted on a slide. The mouthwash
samples and adhesive tape were then analyzed microscopically for the presence of blue
particles (table S2).
Results
No blue particles were observed in any mouthwash collected prior to the grinding
experiments. After the completion of both the 1-hour and 4-hour grinding experiments, a
large number of blue particles were observed on the adhesive tape collected from the lips
(fig. S6a), and blue particles were also abundantly present in mouthwashes (fig. S6b). Blue
particles were also still present in saliva one hour after the completion of the 1-hour (fig. S6c)
and 4-hour (fig. S6d) grinding experiments.
Although many variables can affect the flux of environmental particles in the oral cavity, the
results of the lapis lazuli grinding experiments confirm that even short-term pigment
preparation is a plausible route by which lazurite and other lapis lazuli minerals could enter
the oral cavity, even when very little visible airborne dust is produced.
Supplementary Figures
Fig. S1. Radiocarbon date for Dalheim individual B78 bone collagen. Uncalibrated AMS
date is 965 ± 40 BP; 13C -20.5 ± 1.1 ‰; Laboratory reference ID: ETH-30729 (11, 12).
Calibrated date: AD 997-1162 (95% probability). Date calibrated using OxCal v.4.3.2 (13)
with the r:5 IntCal 13 atmospheric curve (14).
Fig. S2. Distribution of dental calculus deposits on the dentition of individual B78. (A)
Anterior, (B) inferior, and (C) lateral views of the maxillary dentition prior to sampling. (D)
Anterior, (E) partial posterior, and (F) lateral views of the mandibular dentition prior to
sampling. Modeling clay was used to stabilize the maxilla for photography. The dental
calculus pieces analyzed in this study were obtained from a sample pool of calculus collected
from 21 teeth (FDI: 12-16, 18, 21-24, 26, 28, 31-32, 38, 41-45, 48). Note, however, that the
majority of the calculus is concentrated on the anterior teeth. Credit: Christina Warinner,
Institute for Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.
Fig. S3. Comparison of blue particle appearance following HCl decalcification versus
sonication in ultrapure water. (A) Blue pigments isolated using HCl decalcification and
mounted in 50:50 ultrapure water and glycerol. (B) Blue pigments isolated using sonication
in ultrapure water and mounted in ultrapure water. All scale bars are 20 m. Note the
consistent color alteration observed in the particles exposed to HCl. Credit: A. Radini.
Fig. S4. Comparison of the effects of 0.05 M HCl, 0.1 M EDTA, and saliva on reference
pigments. All photographs were taken after 48 hours of incubation. Color loss was not
observed in saliva for any reference pigment. Egyptian blue, smalt, and royal smalt pigments
were stable in all media. Lapis lazuli, ultramarine ash, azurite, malachite, and vivianite
underwent rapid and nearly complete color loss following the addition of 0.05M HCl.
Alterations in these minerals were slower and more minor in 0.1M EDTA. Changes in EDTA
were greatest for malachite, in which color appeared to leach into the surrounding medium
(inset), and vivianite, which darkened to a brownish-black color. All scale bars are 40 m.
Credit: A. Radini.
Fig. S5. In situ distribution of blue particles in the dental calculus of B78 following
sonication in ultrapure water. (A) Blue particles are widely distributed across dental
calculus pieces and fragments and exhibit little evidence of clumping. (B-E) Many of the
blue particles are still attached to or partially embedded within dental calculus and other
mineral fragments. (F) Image map of selected archaeological blue and colorless particles
analyzed using SEM-EDS and micro-Raman spectroscopy. Credits: M. Tromp (A, F); A.
Radini (B to E).
Fig. S6. Blue particles recovered from lips and saliva during lapis lazuli grinding
experiment. (A) Blue particles present on the lips after four hours of lapis lazuli grinding.
(B) Blue particles present in a mouthwash after four hours of lapis lazuli grinding. (C) Blue
particles recovered from a mouthwash collected one hour after completion of a 1-hour of
lapis lazuli grinding experiment. (D) Blue particle recovered one hour after completion of a
4-hour lapis lazuli grinding experiment. Credit: A. Radini.
Fig. S7. Elemental composition of additional reference pigments. (A) Egyptian blue
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