Survey of Modern Psychology

Personality

Personality

Personality generally refers

to the “distinctive patterns

(including thoughts as well

as ‘affects,’ that is, feelings

and emotions and actions)

that characterize each

individual enduringly.”(Mischel, 1999)

Personality Psychology

•Personality psychology examines a person’s traits that are considered to be consistent across situations. •Social Psychology focuses on how the situation causes individuals to behave a certain way•Behavior is seen as primarily a function of the situation rather than individual characteristics

•Personality Psychology emphasizes the importance of individual differences

Approaches to Personality

There are five main approaches to the

study and interpretation of personality:

1.Psychodynamic

2.Trait and Biological

3.Phenomenological

(Emphasizes the individual's

experience and how he or she

perceives it)

4.Behavioral

5.Social Cognitive-Affective

Tables from Mischel, 1999

Causes of Behavior

Psychodynamic Underlying stable motives and their unconscious transformation

Trait and Biological Generalized (consistent, stable) dispositions; biochemical (genetic) causes for some (most) dispositions

Phenomenological Self-concepts, feelings and conflicts, attributions, free choices (not mechanistically determined)

Behavioral Prior learning and cues in a situation (including the behavior of others)

Social Cognitive-Affective Reciprocal interaction between person and situation, mediated by the person variables interacting within the Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS

Behavioral Manifestations of Personality

Psychodynamic Symptoms, “mistakes,” dreams, fantasies

Trait and Biological Direct signs of traits

Phenomenological Private experiences, perceptions, and interpretations

Behavioral Stable behavior equated with personality

Social Cognitive-Affective Stable patterns of person-situation interactions; distinctive configurations of if… then… relationships(i.e., she does X when Y; but she does A when B)

Preferred Data Sources

Psychodynamic Interpretations by expert judges (clinicians)

Trait and Biological Test responses (on questionnaires); trait ratings, behavior genetics research, twin studies

Phenomenological Self-disclosure and personal constructs (about self and others); self-reports

Behavioral Direct observations of behavior in the target situation

Social Cognitive-Affective Measures of person variables in interaction with one another and relevant situations

Research Focus

Psychodynamic Personality dynamics and psychopathology; unconscious processes; defense mechanisms; the fragmented self

Trait and Biological Measurement (test construction), description of individual differences and their patterning; taxonomy of traits; heritability of personality

Phenomenological Self-concepts; self-awareness and expression; human potential and self-actualization; emotion; attribution

Behavioral Behavior change; analysis of conditions controlling behavior

Social Cognitive-Affective Refining theories about underlying processes and discovering practical implications (for health, for risk prevention in vulnerable individuals)

Approach to Personality Change

Psychodynamic By insight into motives and conflicts underlying behavior

Trait and Biological Not much concerned with change; search for consistent, stable characteristics; biochemical treatments for disorders

Phenomenological By increased awareness, personal honesty, internal consistency, and self-acceptance; by modifying constructs; by alternative construals

Behavioral By changing conditions; by experiences that modify behavior

Social Cognitive-Affective By changing underlying person variables (e.g., focusing on alternative possible selves; modifying efficacy and outcome expectations and processing dynamics)

Role of Situation

Psychodynamic Deliberately minimized or ambiguous

Trait and Biological Acknowledged but of secondary interest until recently

Phenomenological As the context for experience and choice; focus on the situation-as-perceived

Behavioral Extremely important; regulates much behavior

Social Cognitive-Affective Provides psychological cues and information that activate Cognitive-Affective Personality System dynamics and dispositions

Contradictions in Personality Theory

Personality is both stable

and capable of change

Contradictions in Personality Theory

Dispositions and

situations are both

important

Contradictions in Personality Theory

Behavior depends on the

social environment;

genetic and biological

factors are also

foundations of social

behavior

Contradictions in Personality Theory

People are both

consistent and

inconsistent

Contradictions in Personality Theory

Humans are cognitive

and emotional beings

Contradictions in Personality Theory

Behavior can be both

rational and irrational

Personality Tests

Discussion: What do you

know about personality

tests?

Personality Tests

Projective Tests:

Present the individual with material

that’s open to interpretation. The

tests are based on the assumption

that the responses reveal

information about the respondent’s

personality

Personality Tests

Objective/standardized/structured

tests:

Materials are standardized and give

a structured set of potential

responses (ex. true/false,

always/sometimes/never, don’t know,

etc.)

Scoring is based on a given set of

specific criteria and is not open to

broad interpretation

Projective Tests - Rorschach

•Consists of 10 cards with

vertically symmetrical inkblots

•The respondent looks at the

inkblots one at a time and is asked

to say everything the inkblot could

resemble or look like

•The examiner usually asks for

details about the interpretation of

the inkblot

Projective Tests - RorschachResponses are scored based on:

• Location (the part of the card that the

respondent refers to)

•Physical aspects of the inkblot (shape,

suggestion of movement)

•Originality

•Content

These responses are generally compared

to those of respondents of a similar age

group

Projective Tests - Rorschach

The examiner interprets the

responses as related to

personality, creative capacity,

contact with reality, and anxiety

Rorschach TestThere is debate as to whether the results

have any true meaning

•Mixed results on inter-rater reliability

•A more intelligent or creative person

may give a higher number of

interpretations, meaning that there’s a

higher chance some will be considered

pathological

•Cross culturally, different people may

focus on different aspects of the same

inkblot

Rorschach Test

Often, more can be inferred from

how the respondent verbalizes

their response rather than the

answer itself

•For example, a more vivid

description of the same image

could indicate a higher IQ

Factors other than pathology may influence how we interpret inkblots

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

•The test contains a series of picture cards

presented one at a time

•It is described as a story telling test, and

the respondent is asked to make up a

story for each picture telling:

1.What led up to the event shown in the

picture

2.What is happening in the picture at the

moment

3.What the characters are feeling and

thinking

4.What is the outcome?

TAT•The task is timed from before the

respondent begins the story to the end

of the story

•It studies how people interpret an

ambiguous stimuli

•The themes are assumed to reflect the

respondent’s underlying conflicts and

problems

•Results are generally interpreted based

on the clinician’s judgments rather than

a formal scoring method

TAT

•Images include adults, children,

men, women, and ambiguous

figures

•Originally, 10 cards were selected

out of the possible 31 and were

matched to the respondent based

on age and gender

Problems with the TAT

•The story a person tells does not

necessarily reflect a permanent

inner state

•For example, a person who has

recently lost a loved one might

tell a sad story with a

bereavement theme because it

has recently been on their mind,

not because they are a generally

depressed person

Problems with the TAT

•Original images were made in the

1930s and had white people, which

may influence the interpretations

for non-white test takers

•Some of the images are now

considered outdated, which may

bias results

•The interpretation of the story is

generally left up to the examiner

Problems with Projective Tests

•They are open to the

interpretation of the examiner

•Does the same response always

mean the same thing?

•It’s usually easy to “fake good” or

“fake bad”

The Big Five

In research, when people are asked

to describe themselves they tend

to cluster their descriptions around

these five categories (on different

points of a spectrum)

The Big Five

1. Neuroticism

2. Extraversion

3. Openness to Experience

4. Agreeableness

5. Conscientiousness

Neuroticism

•Negative emotions, e.g., anxiety,

depression

•In this spectrum:

•Calm vs. worrying

•Unemotional vs. emotional

•Secure vs. insecure

•Not envious vs. jealous

Extraversion

•Positive emotionality

•In this spectrum:

•Quiet vs. talkative

•Aloof vs. friendly

•Inhibited vs. spontaneous

•Timid vs. bold

Openness to Experience

•Vs. closed-mindedness

•In this spectrum:

•Conventional vs. original

•Unadventurous vs. daring

•Conforming vs. independent

•Unartistic vs. artistic

Agreeableness

•Vs. antagonism

•In this spectrum:

•Irritable vs. good natured

•Uncooperative vs. helpful

•Suspicious vs. trusting

•Critical vs. lenient

Conscientiousness

•Vs. undirectedness

•In this spectrum:

•Careless vs. careful

•Helpless vs. self-reliant

•Lax vs. scrupulous

•Ignorant vs. knowledgeable

The Big Five

•This list was constructed using

Factor Analysis

•Patterns of responses that tend to

go together

•Particular adjectives are strongly

correlated with other adjectives;

those characteristics make up that

particular trait

The Big Five

•Inter rater reliability tends to be

good

•Test-retest reliability is high

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

(MMPI)

The MMPI is one of the most

extensive, popular, and widely

studied personality questionnaires

MMPI

•Consists of 550 statements

•Gives the answer options of:

•True

•False

•Cannot say (undecided)

MMPI

•The MMPI was originally used to

classify psychiatric patients on

multiple dimensions

•Items ask about attitudes,

emotional reactions, psychiatric

symptoms, the respondent's past,

and more

MMPI Sample Items:

•Sometimes I think I may kill

myself

•My greatest troubles are inside

myself

•I certainly have little self-

assurance

•I wish I were not so awkward

•I am shy

Questions are purposely vague and

do not describe situations

Similar Items to MMPI Anxiety Measures

Item High Anxiety Response

I rarely get really tired False

I am not a worrier False

I cannot keep my mind focused on anything

True

I almost never blush False

Often I cannot keep from crying

True

It’s hard for me to attend to a job

True

Often I think I am no good True

MMPI

•The MMPI is sorted into 10 scales

with 3 control scales

•Results provide comparisons

against norms (averages) and

provide information based on

people who give similar answers

MMPI – 10 Scales1. Hypochondriasis

2. Depression

3. Hysteria

4. Psychopathic Deviate

5. Masculinity – Femininity

6. Paranoia

7. Psychasthenia

8. Schizophrenia

9. Hypomania

10. Social Introversion

MMPI Scales

Hypochondriasis

Neurotic concern over bodily

functioning

MMPI Scales

Depression

•Poor morale, lack of hope in the

future, and a general

dissatisfaction with one's own life

situation

•High scores may suggest clinical

depression

•Lower scores reflect more general

unhappiness with life

MMPI Scales

Hysteria

•Extreme reaction to stressful

situations

•Often with a 'normal' façade but

break down with stress

•People who tend to score higher are

often brighter, better educated and

from higher social classes

•Women tend to score higher*

MMPI Scales

Psychopathic Deviate

•Measures social deviation, lack of

acceptance of authority, dislike of the

status quo, and amorality

•Adolescents tend to score higher

•This is part of a normal questioning of

authority as one gets older

•Black people often score higher than

white people*

MMPI Scales

Masculinity – Femininity

•Was originally intended to differentiate between

heterosexual and homosexual men

•Has not been found to be effective

•Looks at how much a person endorses gender

norms

•Extremely high scores for men or women suggest

rejection of traditional gender roles

•Well educated and higher socio-economic status

men tend to score higher

MMPI Scales

Paranoia

Paranoid symptoms such as

ideas of reference, feelings of

persecution, grandiose self-

concepts, suspiciousness,

excessive sensitivity, and rigid

opinions and attitudes.

MMPI Scales

Psychasthenia

•Originally characterized by

excessive doubts, compulsions,

obsessions, and unreasonable fears

•It is now closest to Obsessive

Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Also shows abnormal fears, self-

criticism, difficulties in concentration,

and guilt feelings

MMPI ScalesSchizophrenia

•Originally developed to identify schizophrenics 

•Variety of content areas, including bizarre thought processes

and peculiar perceptions, social alienation, poor familial

relationships, difficulties in concentration and impulse control,

lack of deep interests, disturbing questions of self-worth and

self-identity, and sexual difficulties

•Misinterpretations of reality, delusions, and hallucinations

may be present

•Ambivalent or constricted emotional responsiveness is

common

•Behavior may be withdrawn, aggressive, or bizarre

•Age, race, and socio-economic status tend to play a role in

scores

MMPI Scales

Hypomania

Tests for elevated mood,

accelerated speech and motor

activity, irritability, flight of ideas,

and brief periods of depression

MMPI Scales

Social introversion

•Tests for a person's tendency to

withdraw from social contacts and

responsibilities

•Includes a measure of social

participation and one of general

neurotic maladjustment and self-

depreciation

MMPI – 10 Scales

The scale names are based

on the questions’

correlations with other

indices and do not

necessarily indicate that

symptom

MMPI 3 Control

Scales

1. Lie scale

• Tendency to lie by “faking good”

2. K Scale

• Defensiveness and trying to appear more

socially desirable

3. F Scale

• Measure of whether the respondent is

answering items in a careless or confused

fashion

What This Means

Self-reported answers on

personality measures tend to be

stable over time.

However, answers on

questionnaires do not necessarily

predict our behavior.

We may consistently rate ourselves

the same, but behave differently.

What This Means

•Results from the MMPI correlate

well with other appropriate

measures

•i.e., the anxiety measures

correlate well with other anxiety

inventories

What This Means

While it is more difficult to

fake answers on the MMPI,

the questions are still fairly

transparent