Sustainable Knowledge Systems and Resource Stewardship

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Dedicated toDedicated toDedicated toDedicated to

ןיועל אל

my wifemy wifemy wifemy wife Sally Sally Sally Sally ,,,, and and and and the peoples of Hithe peoples of Hithe peoples of Hithe peoples of High Asiagh Asiagh Asiagh Asia who who who who allallallall

taught taught taught taught me to hearme to hearme to hearme to hear different drummer different drummer different drummer different drummerssss

http://www.neevia.com

#EMPQYNGFIGOGPV

KK

#%−019.’&)’/’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James and Dolly Knapp (and Ros) for their help and company in the Minyak Valley


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6#$.’ 1( %106’065 #%−019.’&)’/’065........................................................................... KK #%410;/5............................................................................................... (1065 75’& ............................................................................................. 6#$.’ 1( %106’065............................................................................

(KIWTGU .................................................................................................... 6CDNGU...................................................................................................... 2NQVU ....................................................................................................... /CRU ......................................................................................................

%*#26’4 1 +0641&7%6+10................................................................................ 1

1.1 +0641&7%6+10 ............................................................................................... 1 1.2 ,756+(+%#6+10................................................................................................. 2 1.3 %10%’267#. 14+)+0..................................................................................... 4 1.4 6*’ 4’5’#4%*................................................................................................ 5 1.5 6*’ 567&; #4’#............................................................................................ 5

%*#26’4 2 %10%’265.......................................................................................... 9

2.1 −019.’&)’ #0& −019.’&)’ 5;56’/5.............................................. 9 2.1.1 −PQYNGFIG .................................................................................................... 9 2.1.2 −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU QT 9QTNFXKGY.............................................................. 10

2.2 2#4#&+)/5.................................................................................................... 12 2.3 6;2’5 1( −019.’&)’ 5;56’/............................................................... 16

2.3.1 /QFGTP −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU ....................................................................... 16 2.3.2 %NCUUKECN '0QP-YGUVGTP' −PQYNGFIG ........................................................... 18 2.3.3 +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG................................................................................ 18

%*#26’4 3 '9’56’40' −019.’&)’ 5;56’/5 #0& 6*’+4

+0(.7’0%’ 10 ’08+410/’06#. #0& &’8’.12/’06 &+5%1745’20

3.1 6*’ ’0.+)*6’0/’06 #0& /1&’40+6; ............................................... 20 3.1.1 +PVTQFWEVKQP ................................................................................................ 20 3.1.2 /QFGTPKV[, VJG 8GPGVKCP 1NKICTEJ[ CPF VJG 0CTTCVKXGU QH ,QJP .QEMG ...... 20 3.1.3 ,QJP .QEMG .................................................................................................. 23

’XQNWVKQP.......................................................................................................... 25 /GEJCPKUVKE TGFWEVKQPKUO ................................................................................ 26 0CVWTG .............................................................................................................. 26 .KDGTCN RQNKVKECN RJKNQUQRJ[............................................................................. 27 2TQRGTV[ ........................................................................................................... 28

3.1.4 &GXGNQROGPV CV VJG '’PF' QH /QFGTPKV[ ...................................................... 30 3.2 2156/1&’40+6;......................................................................................... 33 3.3 ’08+410/’06#.+5/, &’8’.12/’06 #0& 0#674’ ........................ 35

3.3.1 /CKPUVTGCO '5WUVCKPCDNG' &GXGNQROGPV ..................................................... 38 3.3.2 ’PXKTQPOGPVCN &KUEQWTUG ........................................................................... 41 3.3.3 0CVWTG &KUEQWTUG ........................................................................................ 42 3.3.4 ’EQ-URKTKVWCN CPF *QNKUVKE-QTICPKE 2CTCFKIOU .......................................... 43

vii

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6JTGCVU CU C TGUWNV QH UVCVG KPVGTXGPVKQP .......................................................... 72 )NQDCN VJTGCVU .................................................................................................. 73 6JTGCVU HTQO 'XQNWPVCT[' CEEWNVWTCVKQP ............................................................ 75

%*#26’4 5 (14’564;........................................................................................ 78

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5.8 2156-/1&’40 (14’564;.......................................................................... 92 5.9 2156-4+1 (14’564; 2#4#&+)/5 ............................................................ 93

5.9.1 6JG ’VJPQ-HQTGUVT[ #RRTQCEJ ..................................................................... 95 5.9.2 6JG (QTGUV 8CNWGU #RRTQCEJ ...................................................................... 96

%*#26’4 6 /’6*1&5 #0& /’6*1&1.1);............................................ 100

6.1 +0641&7%6+10 ........................................................................................... 100 6.2 (14’56 8#.7’5 .......................................................................................... 103 6.3 /’6*1&5 ...................................................................................................... 104

6.3.1 /GVJQF 1: %QIPKVKXG /CRRKPI.................................................................. 104 6.3.2 /GVJQF 2: )GQUVCVKUVKEU ............................................................................ 107

#PKUQVTQRKE 5GOKXCTKCPEG 5WTHCEG /CRU....................................................... 108 6JG XCTKQITCO ............................................................................................... 108 −TKIKPI........................................................................................................... 108 %QTTGNQITCOU................................................................................................. 109 $GCTKPI CPCN[UKU ............................................................................................ 109 9KPFTQUG %QTTGNQITCOU ................................................................................ 109 $GCTKPI EQTTGNQITCOU.................................................................................... 109 #PIWNCT EQTTGNQITCOU ................................................................................... 109

6.3.3 /GVJQF 3: $QWPFCT[ #PCN[UKU .................................................................. 110 5RCVKCNN[ EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI .................................................................... 110

viii


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6.6 (+’.& 6’56+0) +0 7− #0& %*+0#........................................................... 118 6.6.1 (KGNFYQTM KP 7− ....................................................................................... 119 6.6.2 (KGNFYQTM KP %JKPC................................................................................... 121

6.7 51(69#4’ ’8#.7#6+10 ......................................................................... 124

%*#26’4 7 %*+0# #0& 6+$’6........................................................................ 128

7.1 +0641&7%6+10 ........................................................................................... 128 7.2 ’%1-52+4+67#. &+5%1745’..................................................................... 132

7.2.1 &CQKUO...................................................................................................... 133 7.2.2 (GPIUJWK ................................................................................................... 137

7.3 &+5%1745’5 1( 0#674’ .......................................................................... 142 7.3.1 #UKCP %QPEGRVU QH 0CVWTG ......................................................................... 142 7.3.2 0CVWTG KP %JKPGUG .KVGTCVWTG, #TV CPF 4GCNKV[ ......................................... 142 7.3.3 6JG ’EQNQIKECN 1TKGPVCN CPF VJGKT %CTG QH 0CVWTG................................... 143 7.3.4 6JG 4G-QTFGTKPI CPF 6COKPI QH 0CVWTG KP 6KDGV ...................................... 145

7.4 4#%+#. #0& ’6*0+% /+014+6; &+5%1745’ ...................................... 150 7.4.1 %JKPGUG '’VJPKE' 0CVKQPCNKVKGU .................................................................. 151 7.4.2 /KPQTKV[ 2QNKEKGU ...................................................................................... 153 7.4.3 5WRGTUVKVKQP............................................................................................... 156 7.4.4 6KDGVCP 4GURQPUGU VQ %JKPGUG /KPQTKV[ &KUEQWTUGU................................. 159

4KVWCNU QH RTQVGUV............................................................................................ 163 4KVWCNU QH FGHKCPEG ......................................................................................... 166

7.5 %*+0’5’ ’08+410/’06#. &+5%1745’ .............................................. 169 7.5.1 ’PXKTQPOGPVCN %QPUEKQWUPGUU .................................................................. 170 7.5.2 ’PXKTQPOGPVCN /QXGOGPVU ....................................................................... 171 7.5.3 5VCVG-2WDNKE &KCNQIWG............................................................................... 174 7.5.4 %JKPGUG ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQVGUV ................................................................ 175 7.5.5 6KDGVCP ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQVGUV CPF %QRKPI 5VTCVGIKGU ............................ 179

.QECN RTQVGUV .................................................................................................. 179 +PVGTPCVKQPCN RTQVGUV ...................................................................................... 183 +PVGTPCVKQPCN HQTC .......................................................................................... 187 )TGGP 6KDGVCP FKUEQWTUG................................................................................ 188

7.6 ’08+410/’06#. #0& (14’564; 21.+%; ......................................... 188 7.6.1 6JG %JCNNGPIGU HQT %QPUGTXCVKQP, 0CVKQPCN 2CTMU CPF 6QWTKUO ............. 191 7.6.2 (QTGUV 2QNKEKGU .......................................................................................... 194

6JG )TGCV 9GUVGTP &GXGNQROGPV 5VTCVGI[..................................................... 194 6JG .QIIKPI $CP ........................................................................................... 195 0CVWTCN (QTGUV 2TQVGEVKQP 2TQITCOOG ......................................................... 201 7RNCPF %QPXGTUKQP (CITKEWNVWTG VQ HQTGUV) .................................................... 202 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCVKQP...................................................................................... 206

ix


%QPVGPVU

Z

7.7 %10%.75+105.............................................................................................. 209

%*#26’4 8 (14’56 8#.7’5 +0 ’#56’40 −*#/: 4’57.65 1(

%1)0+6+8’ /#22+0)........................................................................................ 213

8.1 −*#/ ............................................................................................................. 213 8.1.1 −JCO......................................................................................................... 213 8.1.2 6JG −JCODC 2GQRNGU ................................................................................ 215 8.1.3 −JCO *KUVQT[............................................................................................ 217 8.1.4 −JCODC +FGPVKV[........................................................................................ 219 8.1.5 ’PXKTQPOGPVCN &GITCFCVKQP ..................................................................... 220 8.1.6 %NKOCVG %JCPIG ........................................................................................ 222 8.1.7 6JG (NQQFU ................................................................................................ 224

8.2 4’57.65 ........................................................................................................ 225 8.2.1 6JG (QTGUV 8CNWGU 7UGF HQT %QIPKVKXG /CRRKPI ...................................... 226 8.2.2 )GQITCRJKECN %QXGTCIG............................................................................ 227 8.2.3 /WNVKFKOGPUKQPCN 5ECNKPI ......................................................................... 230 8.2.4. (QTGUV 8CNWGU +PENWFGF KP VJG %QIPKVKXG /CRRKPI .................................. 234

.KHG UWRRQTV XCNWGU......................................................................................... 234 %QPUGTXCVKQP XCNWGU....................................................................................... 234 5RKTKVWCN CPF UCETGF XCNWGU ........................................................................... 235 (QTGUV RTQFWEVU .............................................................................................. 238 +PFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP ..................................................................................... 238 5QEKCNKUO........................................................................................................ 238 *WPVKPI HQT HQTGKIP GZEJCPIG ........................................................................ 239 2NCEG CVVCEJOGPV XCNWGU ................................................................................ 241

8.2.5 &KUCIITGICVGF %QIPKVKXG /CRRKPI........................................................... 241 ’VJPKEKV[ ......................................................................................................... 242 )GPFGT ........................................................................................................... 244 #IG ................................................................................................................. 246 %QWPVKGU ......................................................................................................... 249 9CVGT ECVEJOGPVU........................................................................................... 251 6JG −JCODCU NKXKPI KP VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV .............................................. 253

8.2.6. 8CNWGU +FGPVKHKGF KP VJG (QTGUV 8CNWG 5WTXG[ DWV PQV +PENWFGF KP %QIPKVKXG

/CRRKPI............................................................................................................. 254 %QOOGTEKCN XCNWGU ........................................................................................ 254 %WNVWTCN, JKUVQTKE, U[ODQNKE CPF GOQVKQPCN XCNWGU ........................................ 255 9KNFGTPGUU XCNWGU .......................................................................................... 255

8.2.7 (QTGUV 8CNWGU +FGPVKHKGF KP VJG %QPVGZVWCN 5VWFKGU................................... 256 .GCTPKPI XCNWGU (QT YC[U QH MPQYKPI)........................................................... 257 +PVTKPUKE XCNWGU............................................................................................... 260 (WVWTG XCNWGU ................................................................................................. 261 4GETGCVKQP CPF VQWTKUO.................................................................................. 261

8.2.8 %QIPKVKXG &QOCKPU CPF (QTGUV 8CNWG 2CTCFKIOU .................................... 261

%*#26’4 9 52#6+#. #0& $170 #0#.;5+5 ................................... 267

9.1 )’156#6+56+%#. #0#.;5+5.................................................................... 267 9.2 52#6+#. #0#.;5+5..................................................................................... 274

9.2.1 %QTTGNQITCOU............................................................................................ 275


%QPVGPVU

9.2.2 $GCTKPI #PCN[UKU....................................................................................... 276 9.2.3 9KPFTQUG %QTTGNQITCOU ........................................................................... 278 9.2.4 $GCTKPI %QTTGNQITCOU.............................................................................. 279 9.2.5 #PIWNCT %QTTGNQITCOU ............................................................................. 280 9.2.6 %QPENWUKQPU .............................................................................................. 281

9.3 $170 #0#.;5+5 .............................................................................. 284 9.3.1 5RCVKCNN[ %QPUVTCKPGF %NWUVGTKPI ............................................................. 284 9.3.2 9QODNKPI.................................................................................................. 286

(QTGUV XCNWGU.................................................................................................. 286 (QTGUV XCNWGU D[ EQWPV[ ................................................................................. 287 (QTGUV XCNWGU D[ YCVGTUJGF ........................................................................... 288 (QTGUV XCNWGU D[ NCPIWCIG CTGC..................................................................... 289

9.3.3 1XGTNCR #PCN[UKU....................................................................................... 290 (QTGUV XCNWGU CPF YCVGTUJGFU........................................................................ 291 (QTGUV XCNWGU CPF FKCNGEVU ............................................................................. 292 (QTGUV XCNWG CPF HQTGUV EQXGT ........................................................................ 294 (QTGUV XCNWG CPF HQTGUV V[RG .......................................................................... 295 &KUVCPEG DGVYGGP RTQXKPEKCN ECRKVCNU (2T%) CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU ..................... 297

9.4 %10%.75+105.............................................................................................. 298

%*#26’4 10 (14’56 8#.7’5 +0 6*’ 9+&’4 %106’:6...................... 301

10.1 5;0’4)+56+% $4+&)+0) $’69’’0 (14’56 8#.7’ 5;56’/5..... 303 10.1.1 6JG &CPIGTU QH +PVGITCVKQP .................................................................... 303 10.1.2 ’RKUVGOQNQIKECN CPF 2U[EJQNQIKECN ,WUVKEG............................................ 304

10.2 (14’56 8#.7’5 ........................................................................................ 309 10.2.1 *WOCP &KOGPUKQP : 2U[EJQEWNVWTCN &QOCKP......................................... 310

.GCTPKPI XCNWG ............................................................................................... 310 %QPUGTXCVKQP XCNWGU CPF DKQFKXGTUKV[............................................................ 311 5RKTKVWCN CPF UCETGF XCNWGU ........................................................................... 314 +PVTKPUKE XCNWGU............................................................................................... 322 (WVWTG XCNWGU ................................................................................................. 324 %WNVWTCN, JKUVQTKE, CGUVJGVKE CPF VJGTCRGWVKE XCNWGU ...................................... 325 9KNFGTPGUU XCNWGU .......................................................................................... 328 2NCEG CVVCEJOGPV XCNWGU QT UGPUG QH RNCEG .................................................... 332 4GETGCVKQP...................................................................................................... 335

10.2.2 *WOCP &KOGPUKQP : 5QEKQ-GEQPQOKE &QOCKP........................................ 336 %QOOGTEKCN XCNWGU ........................................................................................ 336 +PFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP ..................................................................................... 338 5QEKCNKUO........................................................................................................ 342 *WPVKPI HQT HQTGKIP GZEJCPIG ........................................................................ 343

10.2.3 0CVWTCN &KOGPUKQP : ’PXKTQPOGPVCN CPF 5WDUKUVGPEG &QOCKP.............. 344 .KHG UWRRQTV.................................................................................................... 344 (QTGUV RTQFWEVU .............................................................................................. 346

10.2.4 (QTGUV 8CNWGU D[ ’VJPQ-NKPIWKUVKE )TQWR............................................... 349 10.2.5 (QTGUV 8CNWGU D[ )GPFGT ........................................................................ 353

%*#26’4 11 %10%.75+105 ............................................................................ 361

11.1 (14’56 8#.7’5 +0 ’#56’40 −*#/ ................................................... 361

xi


%QPVGPVU

11.2 (14’56 8#.7’ ’.+%+6#6+10................................................................. 364 11.2.1 ’NKEKVCVKQP ............................................................................................... 364 11.2.2 6JG +ORQTVCPEG QH VJG 4GUGCTEJ ............................................................. 364

11.3 #&126+10 1( (14’56 8#.7’ 2#4#&+)/5 (14 (14’56

56’9#4&5*+2 ................................................................................................... 365 11.3.1 #FQRVKQP +PVGTPCVKQPCNN[......................................................................... 365 11.3.2 #FQRVKQP KP %JKPC CPF −JCO ................................................................. 366

11.4 −019.’&)’ 5;56’/5 #0& &+5%1745’5......................................... 367 11.4.1 9GUVGTP −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU................................................................... 367 11.4.2 %JKPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU............................................... 368

11.5 +0&+)’0175 −019.’&)’ #0& 0#674#. 4’5174%’5................ 369 11.5.1 +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG FKUEQWTUG ............................................................ 369 11.5.2 +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR ..................... 369 11.5.3 +ORNKECVKQPU HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN (QTGUVT[.................................................. 370 11.5.4 5[PGTIKUVKE $TKFIKPI ............................................................................... 372

11.6 (+0#. &+5%755+10.................................................................................... 375 11.6.1 (WVWTG 4GUGCTEJ &KTGEVKQPU.................................................................... 375 11.6.2 1XGTCNN %QPENWUKQPU ............................................................................... 376

#&&’0&7/............................................................................................................ 378

$+$.+1)4#2*;.................................................................................................... 382

+0&’: ...................................................................................................................... 428

#22’0&+: 1 : %1)0+6+8’ /#22+0) 5+6’5 (%*+0#)................................ 438

#22’0&+: 2# : (14’56 8#.7’ 5%#.+0) ................................................... 440

#22’0&+: 3 : %1)0+6+8’ /#22+0) 5748’;............................................ 442

#22’0&+: 4 : %106#%65 .................................................................................. 444

(KIWTGU (KIWTG 6-1 %QIPKVKXG CPVJTQRQNQI[ (VGZV KP TGF D[ CWVJQT)........................................ 101 (KIWTG 6-2 4KGOCPP 5RCEG......................................................................................... 105 (KIWTG 8-1 )GPGVKE RTQHKNG QH UGNGEVGF GVJPKE ITQWRU................................................. 225 (KIWTG 9-1 #PKUQVTQRKE UGOKXCTKCPEG UWTHCEG OCR CPF RTQHKNG QH OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU268 (KIWTG 9-2 #PKUQVTQRKE OQFGN QH OGCP HQTGUV XCNWG FCVC .......................................... 269 (KIWTG 9-3 +UQVTQRKE OQFGN QH OGCP HQTGUV XCNWG FCVC ............................................... 270 (KIWTG 9-4 )QQFPGUU-QH-HKV OQFGN WUGF HQT EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI ........................... 284

6CDNGU 6CDNG 2-1 %QPVTCUVU DGVYGGP RQUKVKXKUO CPF RQUV-RQUKVKXKUO ..................................... 14 6CDNG 6-1 (QTGUVT[ UVWF[ KP &GPIMQ .......................................................................... 115 6CDNG 6-2 (QTGUVT[ RTQHKNG KP &GPIMQ ........................................................................ 116 6CDNG 6-3 .WIW .CMG GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ UVWF[................................................................. 117 6CDNG 6-4 .WIW .CMG HQTGUV XCNWG TCPMKPI UVWF[ ....................................................... 117 6CDNG 6-5 .WIW .CMG HQTGUV XCNWG TCPMKPI................................................................. 118 6CDNG 6-6 (QTGUV XCNWG KFGPVKHKECVKQP KP VJG 0GY (QTGUV, 7−.................................... 119 6CDNG 6-7 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UWTXG[ QH HQTGUV XCNWGU KP VJG 0GY (QTGUV, 7−.......... 119

xii


%QPVGPVU

6CDNG 6-8 (QTGUV XCNWG KFGPVKHKECVKQP KP %JKPC .......................................................... 121 6CDNG 6-9 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UWTXG[ KP %JKPC .......................................................... 122 6CDNG 6-10 %CPFKFCVG UQHVYCTG UJQYKPI UGNGEVGF UQHVYCTG KP DQNF V[RG CPF WPFGTNKPGF

........................................................................................................................... 127 6CDNG 8-1 (QTGUV XCNWGU CFQRVGF HQT EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI HTQO 1999-2005................. 226 6CDNG 8-2 (QTGUV XCNWGU (P=54 f=26) CV .WIW .CMG D[ IGPFGTGF TCPM QTFGT........... 246 6CDNG 8-3 (QTGUV XCNWG EQIPKVKXG FQOCKPU CPF RCTCFKIOU......................................... 265

2NQVU 2NQV 6-1 QH EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI KP VJG 0GY (QTGUV, 7− .............................................. 120 2NQV 6-2 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI KP &GMC VQYPUJKR.......................................................... 123 2NQV 8-1 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH ’CUVGTP −JCO UJQYKPI 15 XCNWGU KP 3 FKOGPUKQPU......... 231 2NQV 8-2 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH ’CUVGTP −JCO UJQYKPI 15 XCNWGU KP 2 FKOGPUKQPU......... 232 2NQV 8-3 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH ’CUVGTP −JCO UJQYKPI 17 HQTGUV XCNWGU KP 2 FKOGPUKQPU232 2NQV 8-4 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH ’CUVGTP −JCO UJQYKPI &KOGPUKQP 3 CPF 4 .................... 240 2NQV 8-5 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU COQPI −JCO URGCMGTU................... 243 2NQV 8-6 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI RNQV QH 15 OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU QH 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU....... 243 2NQV 8-7 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU HQT CNN OGP...................................... 245 2NQV 8-8 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU HQT CNN YQOGP................................. 245 2NQV 8-9 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH 17 HQTGUV XCNWGU QH [QWPI TGURQPFGPVU ............................ 248 2NQV 8-10 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH 17 HQTGUV XCNWGU QH QNF TGURQPFGPVU............................... 248 2NQV 8-11 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI RNQV QH 15 XCNWGU KP ;CLKCPI %QWPV[........................... 249 2NQV 8-12 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU KP <JQPIFKCP %QWPV[ .......................... 251 2NQV 8-13 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU KP VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV .................... 252 2NQV 8-14 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU KP VJG ;CPIV\G ECVEJOGPV.................... 252 2NQV 8-15 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI QH −JCO URGCMGTU KP VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV .............. 254 2NQV 9-1 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH MTKIGF HQTGUV XCNWGU DGNQY 2.11 KP ECVGIQT[ 1 CTGCU. ..... 273 2NQV 9-2 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH MTKIGF HQTGUV XCNWGU QH 2.40+ KP ECVGIQT[ 3 CTGCU............ 273 2NQV 9-3 %QTTGNQITCO CPCN[UKU QH CNN HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU (105 RCKTU) ........................... 275 2NQV 9-4 $GCTKPI CPCN[UKU QH CXGTCIG HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU HQT −JCODC URGCMGTU (P=65)

........................................................................................................................... 276 2NQV 9-5 $GCTKPI CPCN[UKU QH CXGTCIG HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU HQT 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU (P=21).

........................................................................................................................... 277 2NQV 9-6 /QTCP'U + YKPFTQUG EQTTGNQITCO HQT CXGTCIG HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU (P=86). ...... 279 2NQV 9-7 # DGCTKPI EQTTGNQITCO HQT CXGTCIG HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU (P=86). ..................... 280 2NQV 9-8 #PIWNCT EQTTGNCVKQP HQT HQTGUV-6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO (P=86)............................ 281

/CRU /CR 1-1 /CR QH 9GUV %JKPC, %WNVWTCN 6KDGV CPF −JCO ............................................... 8 /CR 8-1 QH 9GUVGTP CPF ’CUVGTP −JCO (GCUV QH VJG ;KCPIV\G 4KXGT) ....................... 214 /CR 8-2 6JG NCPIWCIG ITQWRU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO ....................................................... 216 /CR 8-3 ’CUVGTP −JCO UJQYKPI VJG TGUGCTEJ CTGC KP TGF CPF EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UKVGU CU

TGF USWCTGU ......................................................................................................... 228 /CR 8-4 6JG EQWPVKGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO .................................................................... 229 /CR 8-5 6JG YCVGT ECVEJOGPVU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO...................................................... 230 /CR 9-1 +UQVTQRKE MTKI RNQV QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU FKURNC[GF KP 20 ECVGIQTKGU............... 271 /CR 9-2 +UQVTQRKE MTKI RNQV QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU (3 ECVGIQTKGU)................................... 272 /CR 9-3 UJQYKPI FKTGEVKQPCN VTGPFU CPF ENKPGU HTQO URCVKCN CPCN[UKU ....................... 283

xiii


%QPVGPVU

/CR 9-4 %QPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI QH OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU ............................................. 285 /CR 9-5 (QTGUV XCNWGU ((8) RQKPV YQODNKPI ............................................................ 287 /CR 9-6 /GCP HQTGUV XCNWGU D[ EQWPV[ RQN[IQP........................................................ 288 /CR 9-7 /GCP HQTGUV XCNWGU D[ OKETQ YCVGTUJGF RQN[IQP........................................ 289 /CR 9-8 /GCP HQTGUV XCNWGU D[ NCPIWCIG RQN[IQP .................................................... 290 /CR 9-9 (QTGUV XCNWGU (J) CPF YCVGTUJGF ECVGIQTKGU (I) QXGTNCR .............................. 291 /CR 9-10 (QTGUV XCNWGU (J) CPF FKCNGEV ECVGIQTKGU (I) QXGTNCR.................................. 293 /CR 9-11 (QTGUV XCNWGU (J) CPF HQTGUV EQXGT (I) QXGTNCR........................................... 295 /CR 9-12 (QTGUV XCNWGU (J) CPF HQTGUV V[RG (I) QXGTNCR............................................. 296 /CR 9-13 2TQXKPEKCN ECRKVCN FKUVCPEG (I) CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU (J) QXGTNCR .................... 297 /CR 10-1 QH OKITCVKQP TQWVGU QH 5KPQ-6KDGVCP RQRWNCVKQPU ($KPI 5W GV CN 2000)..... 350

xiv


%JCRVGT 1 +PVTQFWEVKQP

AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA 2CIG 1

%*#26’4 1 +0641&7%6+10

1.1 +0641&7%6+10

#NVJQWIJ VJG PGGF VQ RC[ CVVGPVKQP VQ VJG WPKSWG EWNVWTCN CPF GEQNQIKECN KPVGTHCEG

DGVYGGP KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG (+2) CPF VJGKT GPXKTQPOGPV JCU DGGP KPETGCUKPIN[

GORJCUKUGF KP VJG NCUV VGP [GCTU, KV UVKNN TGOCKPU JKIJN[ EQPVGUVGF1. 6JKU KU KP URKVG QH VJG

HCEV VJCV PWOGTQWU UVWFKGU QP DQVJ KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG (+−) CPF HQTGUVT[ UVGYCTFUJKR

TGXGCN C YGCNVJ QH KPHQTOCVKQP QP HQTGUV RTQVGEVKQP, WUG CPF EQPUGTXCVKQP, CPF EQPHKTO

VJG KORQTVCPV TQNG KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG JCXG RNC[GF KP HQTGUV RGTRGVWCVKQP CPF DKQFKXGTUKV[

OCKPVGPCPEG. 5QOG RQNKE[-OCMGTU, RTQLGEV RNCPPGTU CPF FGXGNQROGPV QTICPKUCVKQPU CTG

EQPXKPEGF VJCV, VJG HCKNWTG QH VJG PGY UQEKQ-GEQNQIKECNN[ UGPUKVKXG UVTCVGIKGU EQ-QRVGF D[

'RTQHGUUKQPCN' HQTGUVT[ EQWNF DG DGVVGT CFFTGUUGF D[ KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUVT[. 6JG[ DGNKGXG

VJCV KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUVT[ OKIJV CUUKUV YKVJ VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH UWEEGUUHWN HQTGUVT[

RTQLGEVU VJCV CTG GEQNQIKECNN[ UWUVCKPCDNG CPF UQEKQ- RQNKVKECNN[ GSWKVCDNG2. +P URKVG QH VJG

EWTTGPV CVVGPVKQP VQ +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG3 KP OWEJ QH VJG YQTNF, VJG FGXGNQROGPV

KFGQNQIKGU QH ECRKVCNKUO, UQEKCNKUO, /CTZKUO-.GPKPKUO, %CTVGUKCP 5EKGPEG, HQTOCN

VGEJPQNQIKGU, IQXGTPOGPV KPVGTXGPVKQPU, CPF VJG 'UEKGPVK\CVKQP QH CNVGTPCVKXG MPQYNGFIG

U[UVGOU '4, EQPVKPWG VQ EQNQPK\G VJG EQPUEKQWUPGUU QH OCTIKPCNK\GF RGQRNGU. #U C TGUWNV

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CTG TGFWEGF VQ C UKPING 'DCEMYCTF' FGUETKRVKQP CPF URGEKHKE

HQTGUV-TGNCVGF MPQYNGFIG EQPVKPWGU VQ DG XKGYGF CU KPHGTKQT CPF KP PGGF QH 'GNGXCVKQP'

CEEQTFKPI VQ VJG NQIKE QH VJG UWRGTKQT MPQYNGFIG CPF 'TGCN' UEKGPEG5. 5QOG HQTGUVGTU JCXG

CVVGORVGF VQ 'GNGXCVG' KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG VJTQWIJ 'KPVGITCVKQP' QT 'KPEQTRQTCVKQP' CPF

GXGP UWIIGUVGF VJCV KV OKIJV TGRTGUGPV C 'RCTCFKIO UJKHV'. 4CVJGT VJCP TGRTGUGPVKPI C

'RCTCFKIO UJKHV', KPVGITCVKQP CRRGCTU KP EQOOQP YKVJ 'RCTVKEKRCVKQP' CPF

'EQ-OCPCIGOGPV' VQ DG [GV CPQVJGT 'YGUVGTP V[TCPP['6 . +PVGITCVKQP, HTQO VJKU RGTURGEVKXG

EQPVCKPU VJG KORNKEKV CUUWORVKQP VJCV VJG EWNVWTCN DGNKGHU CPF RTCEVKEGU MPQYP CU HQTGUVT[

1 ,QPCU 2004, XCP .GGWYGP 1998, 2QUG[ 1999 2 &CXKU 2004, 7OCPU 1992 3 /’# 2004, &GK GV CN 2000 4 *QYCTF 1994 5 ’UVGXC 1985 6 *KNF[CTF 1998, −CKOQYKV\ 21 ,WPG 2001




MPQYNGFIG EQPHQTO VQ YGUVGTP EQPEGRVKQPU CDQWV 'MPQYNGFIG' CPF RQYGT TGNCVKQPU CPF

KV VGPFU VQ XKGY VTCFKVKQPCN HQTGUVT[ MPQYNGFIG HTQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH C

YGUVGTP/VTCFKVKQPCN FKEJQVQO[, QPN[ CU 'FCVC' WUGHWN HQT HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV

DWTGCWETCEKGU QT KPFWUVT[7. +P QTFGT VQ NGCTP HTQO KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUVT[ U[UVGOU, VJG

CEEWNVWTCVKQP QH HQTGUVGTU KP VJG XGTPCEWNCT EWNVWTG QH VJG HQTGUV WUGTU KU CP GUUGPVKCN

RTQEGUU HQT WPFGTUVCPFKPI/KPVGTXGPKPI KP C NQECN HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV EQORNGZ.

#EEWNVWTCVKQP GPVCKNU PQV QPN[ OQTG CVVGPVKQP VQ VJG KOOCVGTKCN EWNVWTCN TGCNO8, DWV CP

WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH OWNVKRNG TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR, CPF 'RTCEVKEGU QH ECTG' DCUGF QP

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+V YKNN GZCOKPG, KP IGPGTCN, NGCTPKPI CPF VJG CEEQOOQFCVKQP QH XCTKGF YC[U QH NGCTPKPI,

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MPQYNGFIG VQ GZQIGPQWU GOKE ECVGIQTKGU, VJCV CTG FKUGODGFFGF HTQO VJGKT

UQEKQ-EWNVWTCN EQPVGZV CPF VJG GPXKTQPOGPV, VQ GZRNQKVCDNG TGUQWTEGU, FGXQKF QH OGCPKPI

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7 5JKXC 2000, &CXKU 2004 8 6JGUG KPENWFG YQTNFXKGYU, RCTCFKIOU, EQIPKVKXG CPF GRKUVGOQNQIKECN HTCOGYQTMU. 9 4QUG 2001, 7OCPU 1992 10 5JKXC 2000 11 $T[CPV 1998, CPF UGG RCIGU 2, 79, 332 CPF 420 12 &CXKU 2004, /’# 2004, 4KUV GV CN 2004 13 *CTOQP 1998




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CPF KPFKIGPQWU UQEKGV[.

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KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG, KPVGNNGEVWCN RTQRGTV[, IGPFGT TQNGU CPF UGNH-GUVGGO. 4CVJGT VJCP

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RQNKVKECN CPF ENCUU U[UVGOU15. +P TGURQPUG VQ VJGUG RTQDNGOU, PGY EQPEGRVU QH

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RCTCFKIOU VJCV PQV QPN[ JCXG IQQFPGUU-QH-HKV YKVJ KPFKIGPQWU EWNVWTG DWV ECP DG FTCYP

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14 ’EQPQOKE ITQYVJ, ITQYVJ YKVJ GSWKV[, DCUKE PGGFU, RCTVKEKRCVQT[ FGXGNQROGPV , CPF UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV (#ITCYCN 1995C). 15 (TCPM 1967C + D 16 2QUVEQNQPKCNKUO, RQUVFGXGNQROGPV, EQOOWPKVCTKCPKUO 17 #U C RQUUKDNG RNCVHQTO VQ HKIJV JWPIGT, RQXGTV[ CPF WPFGTFGXGNQROGPV. 18 %JCODGTU 1983, &CXKU 1998, ’CFG 1997, 1'4KQTFCP 1981, 5JKXC 1989, 5NCVGT 1995 19 6JG[ NCEM C OGVCVJGQTGVKE CPF GRKUVGOKE DCUG.




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6JG 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCPE[ (60%)28 KP 2002, HKGNF TGUGCTEJ29 CPF RGTVKPGPV RCRGTU30.

20 $GVYGGP 1984 CPF 1991 21 6Q RCTCRJTCUG *GPT[ &CXKF 6JQTGCW (1854). 22 09 0GRCN 23 5VWFNG[ 1992 24 1993-1996 25 5VWFNG[ GV CN 1995 26 +P 1994/1995 CPF 1998/1999. 27 (WPFGF D[ &(+& KP 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005 28 #P 0)1 HTQO 75#. 29 +P 1995, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 30 5VWFNG[ GV CN 1995, 5VWFNG[ GV CN 1996 C+D, 5VWFNG[ 1999 C+D, 2000, 2002 C+D, 2004 E..H




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Chapter 1 Introduction

Map 1-1 Map of West China, Cultural Tibet and Kham

Page 8AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA


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2.1.2 −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU QT 9QTNFXKGY

'−PQYNGFIG U[UVGO' CPF 'YQTNFXKGY' YKNN DG WUGF KPVGTEJCPIGCDN[ VJTQWIJQWV VJKU UVWF[

FGURKVG UNKIJV FKHHGTGPEGU KP VJGKT CPVJTQRQNQIKECN OGCPKPI. '−PQYNGFIG U[UVGOU' CTG VJG

EQNNGEVKXG EQOOWPKVKGU QH MPQYNGFIG, EQIPKVKXG HTCOGYQTMU CPF UETGGPU QH RGTEGRVWCN

EQPUEKQWUPGUU VJCV CTG UJCTGF D[ C RCTVKEWNCT UQEKGV[ VJCV VJG[ JQNF CDQWV VJGKT YQTNF, CDQWV

TGCNKV[, CPF D[ YJKEJ VJG[ QTFGT VJGKT NKHG GZRGTKGPEGU51. 6JG RTQEGUUKPI QH MPQYNGFIG52 ECP

DGUV DG WPFGTUVQQF KP VJG EQPVGZV QH VJG 'YQTNFXKGY', 'MPQYNGFIG U[UVGO' , 'NKHG-YQTNF' ,

'EQIPKVKXG U[UVGOU' QT VJG EWNVWTG QH VJG RGQRNG YJQ UJCTG KV53. #NVJQWIJ VJG VGTO 'EWNVWTG' KU PQV

GCU[ VQ FGHKPG, DGECWUG QH FKHHGTGPV GORJCUKUG54 + ECPPQV CITGG YKVJ $CPWTK VJCV 'EWNVWTG' KU

U[PQP[OQWU YKVJ YQTNFXKGY55. 6JGTG CTG OCP[, YJQ + CITGG YKVJ, VJCV TGICTF EWNVWTG CPF

YQTNFXKGY CU FKUVKPEV ECVGIQTKGU56. /QTG RTQRGTN[ YQTNFXKGY EQWNF DG TGICTFGF CU C

HQWPFCVKQPCN GNGOGPV QH EWNVWTG. 6JG VGTO EWNVWTG YKNN DG WUGF KP VJKU UVWF[: VQ TGHGT

EQNNGEVKXGN[ VQ C UQEKGV[ CPF KVU YC[ QH NKHG; VQ EQORTKUG YJCV RGQRNG VJKPM, YJCV VJG[ FQ, CPF

VJG OCVGTKCN RTQFWEVU VJG[ RTQFWEG; CPF DG EQPUKFGTGF CU C NGCTPGF UQEKCN RJGPQOGPQP57. (TQO

VJKU XKGY, EQIPKVKXG RTQEGUUGU, DGNKGHU, XCNWGU, MPQYNGFIG, YQTNFXKGYU CPF RCTCFKIOU CTG CNN

GNGOGPVU QT UWD-UGVU QH EWNVWTG. 6JG EQPEGRVWCN DCUKU QH 'YQTNFXKGY' KU FGTKXGF HTQO CP

GZVGPUKXG NKVGTCVWTG KP UQEKQNQI[, RU[EJQNQI[, CPF CPVJTQRQNQI[58. /QUV QH WU CTG PQV EQPUEKQWU

QH QWT YQTNFXKGY. 9G FQ PQV NGCTP KV UQ OWEJ CU CDUQTD KV HTQO QWT UWTTQWPFKPI EWNVWTG. +V KU

RCUUGF QP HTQO IGPGTCVKQP VQ IGPGTCVKQP YKVJ OKPKOCN EJCPIG, VJG CUUWORVKQPU TCTGN[ DGKPI

TGXKGYGF QT TGXKUGF. # YQTNFXKGY IKXGU C EWNVWTG UVTWEVWTG, C UWDEQPUEKQWU NGIKVKOCE[ KP VJG

OKPFU QH VJG RGQRNG. +V UGTXGU CU VJG DCUKU HQT GXCNWCVKPI, LWFIKPI CPF XCNKFCVKPI GZRGTKGPEG. +V

KU C [CTFUVKEM YKVJ YJKEJ RGQRNG OGCUWTG GXGPVU CPF EKTEWOUVCPEGU KP VJG EWNVWTG RTQXKFKPI

ETKVGTKC QH CEEGRVCDKNKV[. +V RTQXKFGU RU[EJQNQIKECN TGKPHQTEGOGPV HQT C UQEKGV['U YC[ QH NKHG. +V

ETGCVGU C 'YG-VJG[' F[PCOKE; VJTQWIJ C EQOOQP YQTNFXKGY RGQRNG KFGPVKH[ YKVJ VJGKT UQEKGV[

CU QRRQUGF VQ CNN QVJGT UQEKGVKGU. # YQTNFXKGY RTQXKFGU CP KPVGITCVKPI HWPEVKQP HQT PGY

KPHQTOCVKQP, XCNWGU, RJKNQUQRJKGU QT GZRGTKGPEGU. #EEQTFKPI VQ 5EJWV\ (1962) MPQYNGFIG KU

51 $CPWTK CPF /CTINKP 1993 52 1WT QYP CPF QVJGTU. 53 $CPWTK 1990 54 *KUVQTKECN ()GGTV\ 1973), DGJCXKQWTCN, PQTOCVKXG, HWPEVKQPCN, OGPVCN CPF UVTWEVWTCN (.GXK-5VTCWUU 1974). 55 $CPWTK 1990 R 76 56 ’CVQP 1998, 5CJVQWTKU 1995 57 $QFNG[ 1997 58 &WTMJGKO 1933 , )GGTV\ 1973, /GCF 1934, 9GDGT 1930,


%JCRVGT 2 %QPEGRVU


QTICPK\GF KP URCVKCN CPF VGORQTCN '\QPGU ', QT FQOCKPU QH FKHHGTGPV FGITGGU QH TGNGXCPEG.

’XGT[FC[ NKHG KU FQOKPCVGF D[ VJG UQNXKPI QH RTCEVKECN RTQDNGOU CPF VJKU QEEWRKGU C RTQOKPGPV

RNCEG KP C RGTUQP'U MPQYNGFIG. +VU XCNKFKV[ KU VCMGP HQT ITCPVGF WPVKN QPG GPEQWPVGTU C RTQDNGO

VJCV ECPPQV DG GCUKN[ UQNXGF. 6JKU TGSWKTGU QVJGT OQTG GZRNQTCVKXG V[RGU QH MPQYNGFIG, CPF

QHVGP TGSWKTGU EJQKEGU DGVYGGP CNVGTPCVKXGU. 6Q FQ VJKU YG KPVWKVKXGN[ FTCY WRQP GZKUVKPI

UVQEMU QH MPQYNGFIG, QP RTGHCDTKECVGF UVTCVGIKE OQFGNU, QT CNNQY QWTUGNXGU VQ DG IWKFGF D[

EGTVCKP PQTOCVKXG XKGYU QT UQEKCN EQOOKVOGPVU.

$GIKPPKPI KP EJKNFJQQF GCEJ RGTUQP KPVGTCEVU YKVJ VJGKT RJ[UKECN CPF UQEKCN GPXKTQPOGPV, CPF

VJTQWIJ VJKU O[TKCF QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN KPVGTCEVKQPU, YQTNFXKGY RTGUWRRQUKVKQPU CTG

WPEQPUEKQWUN[ EQPUVTWEVGF. 6JG RTQEGUU QEEWTU QXGT C NQPI RGTKQF QH VKOG, YKVJ VJG HQTOCVKXG,

EJKNFJQQF [GCTU DGKPI VJG OQUV KORQTVCPV. 5QEKCNK\CVKQP CPF UEJQQNKPI CPF HQTOCN GFWECVKQP

EQPVTKDWVG VQ YQTNFXKGY FGXGNQROGPV CPF YQTNFXKGY RTQXKFGU C HQWPFCVKQP WRQP YJKEJ

EQIPKVKXG HTCOGYQTMU CTG DWKNV FWTKPI VJG NGCTPKPI RTQEGUU. #V UQOG RQKPV QH OCVWTKV[ VJG

OCNNGCDKNKV[ QH C YQTNFXKGY DGIKPU VQ FGETGCUG CPF [GV C YQTNFXKGY JCU CP CFCRVKXG HWPEVKQP

YJKEJ CNNQYU GXGP CFWNVU VQ CFLWUV VQ PGY GPXKTQPOGPVU. 6JWU, YJKNG YQTNFXKGY

RTGUWRRQUKVKQPU CTG UVTQPIN[ JGNF VJG[ CTG PQV KOOWVCDNG. 6JG UVTGPIVJ YKVJ YJKEJ C OCVWTG

YQTNFXKGY KU JGNF CRRGCTU VQ DG KPXGTUGN[ TGNCVGF VQ VJG FGITGG QH JGVGTQIGPGKV[ KP C EWNVWTG.

6JG OQTG JGVGTQIGPGKV[, VJG NGUU UVTQPIN[ C YQTNFXKGY KU CRV VQ DG JGNF. 6JG RTQEGUU QH

YQTNFXKGY FGXGNQROGPV CPF EJCPIG KU MPQYP CU 'FKCNGEVKECN EQPUVTWEVKQPKUO'59 YJKEJ

TGUQPCVGU YKVJ 'IGPGVKE GRKUVGOQNQI['60 CPF EQPUVTWEVKQPKUV VJGQT[ QH NGCTPKPI61. +P JWOCP

OGPVCN CTEJKVGEVWTG, YQTNFXKGY62 KU VJG HQWPFCVKQP WRQP YJKEJ EQIPKVKXG CPF RGTEGRVWCN

HTCOGYQTMU CTG DWKNV. +P EQPUVTWEVKXKUV VJGQT[, EQIPKVKXG HTCOGYQTMU CTG C ETWEKCN HCEVQT KP VJG

CUUKOKNCVKQP QH PGY MPQYNGFIG63 CPF KP HQTOKPI CVVKVWFGU CPF KPVGTGUVU. +V HQNNQYU VJGP VJCV

YQTNFXKGY CU C HQWPFCVKQP HQT EQIPKVKQP CPF RGTEGRVKQP JCU C UKIPKHKECPV KPHNWGPEG QP NGCTPKPI

CPF CVVKVWFG FGXGNQROGPV.

59 −GCTPG[ 1984 60 2KCIGV 1971 61 #WUWDGN GV CN 1978 62 #PF KVU EQPUVKVWGPV RCTCFKIOU. 63 6QDKP 1993


%JCRVGT 2 %QPEGRVU


$CUGF QP YQTNFXKGY VJGQT[, KPFKIGPQWU, OQFGTP CPF RQUV-OQFGTP EQOOWPKVKGU CTG PQV LWUV

FKHHGTGPV RQNKVKECN ITQWRU, DWV VJG[ GODQF[ FKHHGTGPV U[UVGOU QH MPQYNGFIG, FKHHGTGPV YC[U QH

WPFGTUVCPFKPI, RGTEGKXKPI, GZRGTKGPEKPI, KP UWO, QH FGHKPKPI TGCNKV[. 6JKU KPENWFGU PQV QPN[

PQVKQPU QH QPG'U TGNCVKQPUJKR VQ VJG UQEKCN OKNKGW, DWV CNUQ VJG URKTKVWCN CPF PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV.

#P WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH YQTNFXKGY VJGQT[ KU KORQTVCPV KH YG YCPV VQ WPFGTUVCPF QWT YQTNFXKGY,

KPVTC-YQTNFXKGY XCTKCVKQP QP VJG DCUKU QH IGPFGT QT COQPI KPUVKVWVKQPCNN[ VTCKPGF HQTGUVGTU DWV

KV KU ETWEKCN KH YG YCPV VQ KPVGTRTGV KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF RTCEVKEG HTQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH

VJG NQECN KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CPF HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU RTGFKECVGF QP PQTOCVKXG RNWTKHQTOKV[.

2.2 2#4#&+)/5

6JG VGTO RCTCFKIO EQOGU HTQO VJG .CVKP RCTCFKIOC CPF )TGGM RCTCFGKIOC64 CPF KU FGHKPGF

OQUV QHVGP CU C 'RCVVGTP' QT 'GZCORNG'. +P VJG1960'U VJG 75 JKUVQTKCP CPF RJKNQUQRJGT QH UEKGPEG

6JQOCU −WJP65, UGGOKPIN[ UJQYGF VJCV UQEKCN CPF EWNVWTCN EQPFKVKQPU CHHGEV VJG FKTGEVKQPU QH

UEKGPEG. *G CTIWGF VJCV GXGP UEKGPVKHKE MPQYNGFIG KU TGNCVKXG, FGRGPFKPI QP VJG 'RCTCFKIO' VJCV

FQOKPCVGU C UEKGPVKHKE HKGNF CV CP[ IKXGP VKOG. 5WEJ RCTCFKIOU CTG UQ FQOKPCPV VJCV VJG[ CTG

WPETKVKECNN[ CEEGRVGF CU VTWG WPVKN C 'UEKGPVKHKE TGXQNWVKQP' ETGCVGU C PGY QTVJQFQZ[ CPF C PGY

RCTCFKIO KU UGNGEVGF. −WJP'U QTKIKPCN WUG QH VJG VGTO 'RCTCFKIO' YCU PCTTQYN[ TGUVTKEVGF VQ VJG

EQPVGZV QH JKU ETKVKSWG QH RQUKVKXKUO, RCTVKEWNCTN[ KP VJG PCVWTCN UEKGPEGU, CPF KP VJKU UGPUG KV

TGUQPCVGF YKVJ 'GRKUVGOG'66.

$GIKPPKPI KP VJG 1970'U, JQYGXGT, FKURCTCVG VTCLGEVQTKGU QH VJG RQUV-OQFGTP67 DGIWP VQ

EQCNGUEG KPVQ CP GZRCPFGF FGHKPKVKQP. $CUGF QP VJKU PGY XKGY, VJQUG PQV UCVKUHKGF YKVJ 'QNF

QTVJQFQZKGU' EQWNF EJCPIG QT EJQQUG HTQO C PGVYQTM (QT UGV) QH EQ-GZKUVKPI RCTCFKIOU YKVJKP

CP[ EQPVGORQTCT[ VJGQTGVKECN QT CTVKUVKE HKGNF. #U C TGUWNV VJG VGTO YCU EQ-QRVGF D[ RQNKVKEU,

UQEKCN UEKGPEG, DWUKPGUU CPF FGXGNQROGPV UVWFKGU68. #NVJQWIJ VJG VGTO JCU URTGCF, KV KU PQV [GV

C FQOKPCPV EQPEGRV69 CPF KV EQPVKPWGU VQ DG EQPVGUVGF70 GURGEKCNN[ KP HQTGUVT[, YJKEJ KU

64 παράδειγµα KU )TGGM HQT VQ UJQY UKFG D[ UKFG. 65 −WJP 1962 66 (QWECWNV 1970 67 4COUG[ VJGQT[, )GUVCNV CPF %JCQU VJGQT[, UQEKQNQI[ QH MPQYNGFIG, CPVJTQRQNQI[ , DKQNQI[, UQEKQNQI[ CPF KPFKIGPQWU UVWFKGU. 68 %JCODGTU 1993, 2KGVGTUG 1998 69 ’URGEKCNN[ KVU RQUV-OQFGTP XKGY. 70 $GUV CPF −GNNPGT 1997, ;QWPI PF


%JCRVGT 2 %QPEGRVU


FKUEWUUGF NCVGT 71. −JWP FKF UC[ VJCV RCTCFKIOU YGTG "VJG OQUV PQXGN CPF NGCUV WPFGTUVQQF

CURGEV QH VJKU DQQM"72 CPF VJKU KU UVKNN TGHNGEVGF KP OQUV FKEVKQPCTKGU YJKEJ GKVJGT FGHKPG

RCTCFKIO CU C OQFGN, CP GZGORNCT, CP KFGCN, CP CTEJGV[RG, QT C ITCOOCVKECN VGTO73. 5QOG WUG

−WJP'U QTKIKPCN UGPUG74, DWV HGY KPENWFG C 'RQUV-OQFGTP' FGHKPKVKQP.

9JKNG KV KU VTWG VJCV UQOG RCTCFKIOU CTG GZGORNCTU QT CTEJGV[RGU, VJG[ CTG PQV U[PQP[OQWU

YKVJ 'OQFGN', 'YQTNFXKGY' QT FKUEQWTUG, CNVJQWIJ RCTCFKIOU QHVGP OQWNF QT CTG OQWNFGF D[

FKUEQWTUG, CU GZGORNKHKGF D[ HGPIUJWK75 KP EJCRVGT 7 (UGEVKQP 7.2.2) CPF GZRNQTGF HWTVJGT KP

EJCRVGT 8 (UGEVKQP 8.1.8).

&TCYKPI QP %CRTC76 CPF −WJP77 + QHHGT VJG HQNNQYKPI FGHKPKVKQP:-

# RCTCFKIO KU C EQPUVGNNCVKQP QH EQPEGRVU, XCNWGU, DGNKGHU, RGTEGRVKQPU,

OGVJQFQNQIKECN CUUWORVKQPU CPF RTCEVKEGU UJCTGF D[ C EQOOWPKV[, KPUETKDGF KP

C NCTIGT YQTNFXKGY YJKEJ HQTOU C RCTVKEWNCT XKUKQP QH TGCNKV[ VJCV KU VJG DCUKU QH

VJG YC[ C EQOOWPKV[ QTICPKUGU KVUGNH

%WTTGPV VJKPMKPI UWIIGUVU VJCV KV KU PQV CU −WJP (1962) UWIIGUVU VJCV 'OQTG OCVWTG' RCTCFKIOU

TGRNCEG 'KOOCVWTG' RCTCFKIOU YJKEJ VJGP UWDUWOG CPF GZRNCKP GXGP OQTG QH VJG FCVC QH

GORKTKE QDUGTXCVKQP, TCVJGT VJGTG CTG CP[ PWODGT QH EQ-GZKUVKPI RCTCFKIOU PQPG QH YJKEJ ECP

GPEQORCUU CNN QH VJG FCVC. 6JG PWODGT QH RQUUKDNG RCTCFKIOU FGRGPFU QP VJG PWODGT QH

GNGOGPVU KP C UGV, VJG TWNGU QH RGTEGRVKQP WUGF, KVU IGQOGVT[ KP 'RJCUG URCEG',78 CPF WRQP

RCTVKUCP JWOCP KPVGTGUVU. 5WEJ C VJGQT[ FGEGPVTGU OQUV QH VJG ECPQPU QH OQFGTP UEKGPEG, UWEJ

CU NKPGCTKV[, NQIKECN EQPUKUVGPE[ CPF EQJGTGPEG, VJG OGVJQF QH UWEEGUUKXG CRRTQZKOCVKQPU,

71 5GG UGEVKQP 5.7.3 72 −WJP 1970 RCIG 187 73 &KEVKQPCTKGU :- /GTTKCO-9GDUVGT %QNNGIKCVG &KEVKQPCT[ 2001, JVVR://YYY.HCEVOQPUVGT.EQO , 6JG 1ZHQTF ’PINKUJ 4GHGTGPEG &KEVKQPCT[ (1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU 1996), 6JG 2QEMGV 1ZHQTF &KEVKQPCT[ QH %WTTGPV ’PINKUJ (1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU 1996), # &KEVKQPCT[ QH )GQITCRJ[ (5WUCP /C[JGY 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU 1997), 6JG 2GPIWKP &KEVKQPCT[ QH 5QEKQNQI[ (0 #DGTETQODKG GV CN 1994), 6JG 2GPIWKP &KEVKQPCT[ QH 2U[EJQNQI[ (#TVJWT 4GDGT 1995), %CODTKFIG +PVGTPCVKQPCN &KEVKQPCT[ QH ’PINKUJ 74 CU CP GXQNXKPI RCVVGTP QH UEKGPVKHKE VJQWIJV CPF KPXGUVKICVKQP. 75 6JG %JKPGUG CTV QT RTCEVKEG QH RQUKVKQPKPI QDLGEVU, GURGEKCNN[ ITCXGU, DWKNFKPIU, CPF HWTPKVWTG, DCUGF QP C DGNKGH KP RCVVGTPU QH [KP CPF [CPI CPF VJG HNQY QH EJK VJCV JCXG RQUKVKXG CPF PGICVKXG GHHGEVU. 76 %CRTC 1997 RCIG 6 77 −WJP 1970 RCIG 175 78 RJCUG URCEG KU C EQPUVTWEV WUGF KP OCVJGOCVKEU CPF RJ[UKEU VQ FGOQPUVTCVG CPF XKUWCNKUG VJG EJCPIGU KP C IKXGP U[UVGO, VJCV JCU CRRNKECVKQP VQ RCTCFKIO VJGQT[ QT EQIPKVKQP (5GG XCP )GNFGT CPF 2QTV (GFU.) 1995).

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%JCRVGT 2 %QPEGRVU


RTGFKEVCDKNKV[, TGRNCEGCDKNKV[, HCNUKHKCDKNKV[, CPF CP[ ITCPF WPKHKGF VJGQTKGU79. +P QTFGT VQ UGNGEV

(QT 'UJKHV' VQ) QPG UWDUGV QWV QH VJG VQVCN UGV QH RCTCFKIOU YG JCXG VQ VWTP VQ VJG UQEKQNQI[ QH

MPQYNGFIG VQ UWEJ EQPEGRVU CU EWNVWTG, UQEKQ-NKPIWKUVKEU, U[ODQNKE KPVGTCEVKQP, EQIPKVKXG CPF

GRKUVGOQNQIKECN U[UVGOU, EQPUVTWEVKQP VJGQT[, KPVGTGUV VJGQT[ CPF UVTCVKHKECVKQP VJGQT[. +V KU

CTIWCDN[ VJG UVTCVKHKECVKQP QH RQYGT CPF YGCNVJ YJKEJ UJCRGU VJG UGNGEVKQP CPF NGIKVKOCE[ QH

RCTCFKIOU QP VJG TQCF VQ MPQYNGFIG. −WJP'U OQTG TGEGPV YQTMU80 UWIIGUV JKU OQTG TGEGPV

RQUKVKQP KU OQTG CMKP VQ EWTTGPV VJGQT[. 6YGPVKGVJ EGPVWT[ RCTCFKIO UJKHVU CETQUU C YKFG

XCTKGV[ QH HKGNFU ECP DG UGGP CU RCTV QH C NCTIGT UJKHV (5GG 6CDNG 2-1) HTQO RQUKVKXKUO VQ

RQUV-RQUKVKXKUO81.

6CDNG 2-1 %QPVTCUVU DGVYGGP RQUKVKXKUO CPF RQUV-RQUKVKXKUO

2QUKVKXKUV

2QUV-RQUKVKXKUV

0GWVTCN

8CNWG-EQPUEKQWU

1PG QDLGEVKXG OCVGTKCN TGCNKV[

/WNVKRNG UWDLGEVKXG TGCNKVKGU (OCVGTKCN CPF URKTKVWCN)

(TCIOGPVGF

+PVGITCN - CEVKQP QTKGPVCVGF

’VKE TGUGCTEJ

’OKE TGUGCTEJ

3WCPVKVCVKXG JCTF FCVC

3WCNKVCVKXG UQHV FCVC

4GRTGUGPVCVKXKV[ QH FCVC

#WVJGPVKEKV[ QH FCVC

6JGQTGVKECN DCEMKPI CPF XCNKFCVKPI QH *[RQVJGUKU

(GGFDCEM QH KPHQTOCVKQP VQ CEVQTU/ RGQRNG

+PHQTOCVKQP HQT GZVGTPCN KPVGTXGPVKQP

+PHQTOCVKQP HQT UGNH-FGVGTOKPCVKQP

5WDLGEV-1DLGEV TGNCVKQPUJKR

5WDLGEV-5WDLGEV TGNCVKQPUJKR (.GCTPKPI 2TQEGUU)

(QEWU QP EQPVTQN

(QEWU QP WPFGTUVCPFKPI

6QR-FQYP

$QVVQO-WR

79 $GUV CPF −GNNPGT 1997, ;QWPI PF 80 −WJP 1970, 1977C + D, 1979 81 $GTOCP 1981, %CRTC 1983, /GTEJCPV 1992


%JCRVGT 2 %QPEGRVU


#NVJQWIJ FQOCKP CUUWORVKQPU, DGNKGHU, XCNWGU, ETKVKSWGU, FKUEQWTUG CPCN[UKU, 'CVVTCEVKXG

HGCVWTGU', CURKTCVKQPU CPF PQTOCVKXG QTKGPVCVKQPU CTG QHVGP EQORQPGPVU QH RCTCFKIOU, VJG[ FQ

PQV KP VJGOUGNXGU EQPUVKVWVG C RCTCFKIO CPF VJG KPVGITCVKQP QH 'PGY' MPQYNGFIG KPVQ CP GZKUVKPI

RCTCFKIO FQGU PQV WUWCNN[ TGRTGUGPV C 'RCTCFKIO UJKHV'82.

(QT CP[ RJGPQOGPC, FQOCKP, YQTNFXKGY 'UWD-UGV', QT OGVCRJQT, VQ DG CEEGRVGF CU C RCTCFKIO

KV OWUV OGGV C PWODGT QH TGSWKTGOGPVU83. +V OWUV:

• 2TQXKFG C EQJGUKXG OWVWCNN[ UWRRQTVKPI OGVCVJGQT[

• $G EQPUKUVGPVN[ HTGG QH OCLQT EQPVTCFKEVKQPU

• )WKFG GZRGEVCVKQPU

• *GNR CFJGTGPVU VQ UQTV, QTICPKUG CPF ENCUUKH[ KPHQTOCVKQP

• 2TQXKFG CP GZRNCPCVQT[ HTCOGYQTM VJCV FGHKPGU RTCEVKEG

• $G CEEGRVGF D[ C EQOOWPKV[ QH CFJGTGPVU

• $G CRRNKGF KP RTCEVKEG

• +PENWFG GZGORNCTU VJCV ECP DG JGNF WR CU RCTCFKIOU KP RTCEVKEG

• .GPF KVUGNH VQ KPVGTTQICVKQP (NGCTPKPI HTQO) QP VJG DCUKU QH EQIPKVKQP, OGVCEQIPKVKQP CPF

GRKUVGOKE EQIPKVKQP

• $G KPUETKDGF YKVJKP CPF JCTOQPK\G YKVJ C YQTNFXKGY

• +PHQTO CFJGTGPVU QH YJCV KU KORQTVCPV CPF NGIKVKOCVG YKVJQWV JCXKPI VQ TGHGT VQ NGPIVJ[

PQTOCVKXG CPF OGVJQFQNQIKECN FKUEWUUKQPU

2CTCFKIOU KPENWFG F[PCOKE OGEJCPKUOU VJCV GPCDNG PGY KFGCU CPF VGEJPQNQIKGU VQ DG

CEEGRVGF QT TGLGEVGF, CPF KVGTCVKXG HGGF-DCEM OGEJCPKUOU VJCV CNNQY HQT UQOG OQFKHKECVKQP.

9JGP OCLQT CPQOCNKGU QT KPEQPUKUVGPEKGU CTKUG YKVJKP C IKXGP RCTCFKIO VJCV RTGUGPV RTQDNGOU

YG CTG WPCDNG VQ UQNXG, QWT XKGY QH TGCNKV[ OWUV EJCPIG, CU OWUV VJG YC[ YG RGTEGKXG, VJKPM CPF

XCNWG VJG YQTNF. 9G OWUV VCMG QP PGY FQOCKP CUUWORVKQPU CPF GZRGEVCVKQPU, CPF VJKU TGSWKTGU

VJG UGNGEVKQP (UJKHV QT EJCPIG) QH CP CNVGTPCVKXG OQTG CRRTQRTKCVG RCTCFKIO. 6JKU GSWCNN[

CRRNKGU KP C 'ETQUU-EWNVWTCN' EQPVGZV KH YG CTG UGGMKPI VQ CFQRV, DWKNF QP, NGCTP HTQO, QT

WPFGTUVCPF GPFQIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG QT RTCEVKEGU QP VJG DCUKU QH CNKGP YQTNFXKGYU QT RCTCFKIOU

82 2KGVGTUG 1998, 9KGTUWO 2000 83 %JCODGTU 1993


%JCRVGT 2 %QPEGRVU


2.3 6;2’5 1( −019.’&)’ 5;56’/

#NVJQWIJ VJG VGTOU 'YGUVGTP', 'UEKGPVKHKE', 'ENCUUKECN', CPF 'KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG' U[UVGOU, YKNN

DG WUGF VJTQWIJQWV VJKU UVWF[, CU EQPUVTWEVU, KV UJQWNF DG WPFGTUVQQF VJCV VJGTG KU C OWNVKRNKEKV[

QH NQIKEU CPF RTCEVKEGU VJCV WPFGTNKG VJG ETGCVKQP CPF OCKPVGPCPEG QH GCEJ U[UVGO. %GTVCKP

EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU HTQO GCEJ U[UVGO YKNN, JQYGXGT, DG JKIJNKIJVGF HQT VJG RWTRQUG QH EQORCTKUQP.

6JG VGTOU 'YGUVGTP' CPF 'KPFKIGPQWU' CTG RCTVKEWNCTN[ RTQDNGOCVKE CPF VJKU UVWF[ YKNN CTIWG VJG

PGGF VQ OQXG CYC[ HTQO VJG UVGTKNG FKEJQVQO[ DGVYGGP KPFKIGPQWU CPF 9GUVGTP MPQYNGFIG.

# PGY XKGY QH UEKGPEG84 YJKEJ TGUQPCVGU YKVJ RQUV-OQFGTP UEKGPEG, TGEQIPK\GU 'OWNVKRNKEKV[,

RCVEJKPGUU CPF JGVGTQIGPGKV[' KP FKUEWTUKXG 'TGUGCTEJ URCEG', QHHGTU C TGUQWTEG VQ DWKNF PGY

GRKUVGOKE HQWPFCVKQPU. +V KU QPN[ YJGP YG DGIKP VQ TGEQIPK\G KPVTC-ITQWR FKHHGTGPVKCVKQP CPF

YJGP YG UGGM QWV DTKFIGU85 CETQUU VJG EQPUVTWEVGF EJCUO DGVYGGP VJG VYQ, VJCV YG YKNN KPKVKCVG

C RTQFWEVKXG FKCNQIWG VQ UCHGIWCTF VJG KPVGTGUVU QH VJQUG YJQ CTG FKUCFXCPVCIGF86.

2.3.1 /QFGTP −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU

#NVJQWIJ VJG VGTOU 'OQFGTPKV[' QT 'OQFGTP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU' CTG WUGF WPKXGTUCNN[ VJG[ CTG

D[ PQ OGCPU JQOQIGPQWU, CPF DQVJ KPENWFG FKURCTCVG GNGOGPVU CPF EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU. 6JG

EQPUVGNNCVKQP QH DGNKGHU, VTCKVU, UEKGPVKHKE VJGQTKGU CPF OGVCRJQTU VJCV WPFGTRKP 'OQFGTP

MPQYNGFIG' YGTG HQTOWNCVGF KP VJG UKZVGGPVJ CPF UGXGPVGGPVJ EGPVWTKGU. $GVYGGP 1500 CPF

1700 VJGTG YCU C FTCOCVKE UJKHV KP VJG YC[ RGQRNG WPFGTUVQQF CPF KPVGTRTGVGF VJG YQTNF. 6JKU

PGY QTVJQFQZ[, V[RKHKGF D[ VJG '%CTVGUKCP YQTNFXKGY', RTKXKNGIGF KVUGNH CDQXG CNVGTPCVKXG

'OQFGTP' VTCLGEVQTKGU, CPF ICXG YGUVGTP EKXKNK\CVKQP VJG EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU QH VJG OQFGTP GTC. 6JGUG

EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU KPENWFGF VJG WUG QH VJG YQTNF-OCEJKPG CU VJG FQOKPCPV OGVCRJQT QH VJG CIG CPF

VJG 'CUEGPFCPE[ QH JWOCPMKPF'87.

#NVJQWIJ OQFGTPKV[ YCU FQOKPCVGF D[ VJG %CTVGUKCP YQTNFXKGY88 CPF KVU RTQLGEVU QH

ECRKVCNKUO, UQEKCNKUO CPF PGQENCUUKECN FGXGNQROGPV GEQPQOKEU, VJGTG JCXG CNYC[U DGGP

UWDFQOKPCPV VTCLGEVQTKGU VJCV JCXG EQORGVGF HQT URCEG, YKVJKP QT CU C EQWPVGTRQKPV VQ

84 2KEMGTKPI 1992 RCIG 8 85 %QIPKVKXG CPF GRKUVGOQNQIKECN. 86 #ITCYCN 1995 C + D 87 5GG 6JQOCU 1983 88 %CRTC 1982, 2KGVGTUG 2001, 5JKXC 1989


%JCRVGT 2 %QPEGRVU


OQFGTPKV[. 6JGUG JCXG TCPIGF HTQO VJG TQOCPVKEU89 VJTQWIJ %JTKUVKCP UQEKCNKUO90 CPCTEJKUO91,

HCUEKUO92, QTICPKE CPF JQNKUVKE VTCFKVKQPU93, VTCFG WPKQPKUO, VJG UWHHTCIGVVG OQXGOGPV94,

CPVK-KPFWUVTKCN ECRKVCNKUO95, CPF PQP-YGUVGTP OQFGTPKV[ UWEJ CU %JKPGUG JWOCPKUO QT

%QPHWEKCPKUO96. 6JG %CTVGUKCP YQTNFXKGY TGOCKPGF FQOKPCPV HQT QXGT VJTGG JWPFTGF [GCTU

DWV FWTKPI VJG 20VJ EGPVWT[ CP KPETGCUKPI PWODGT QH CPQOCNKGU CPF EQPVTCFKEVKQPU EQWNF PQV DG

KIPQTGF CPF KV DGECOG KPETGCUKPIN[ SWGUVKQPGF97. 6JKU TGUWNVGF KP PQV QPN[ C 'ETKUKU HQT

OQFGTPKV[' DWV C UGCTEJ HQT CNVGTPCVKXG YQTNFXKGYU VJCV TGHNGEVGF EWTTGPV TGCNKVKGU. #V VJG

DGIKPPKPI QH VJG NCUV EGPVWT[ RJ[UKEKUVU DGIWP VQ KPXGUVKICVG CVQOKE CPF UWDCVQOKE RJGPQOGPC

YJKEJ EWNOKPCVGF KP VJG VJGQT[ QH TGNCVKXKV[ CPF SWCPVWO VJGQT[. 6JG[ DGECOG CYCTG VJCV VJG

%CTVGUKCP YQTNFXKGY VJG[ JCF CFQRVGF JCF XGT[ RQQT IQQFPGUU QH HKV YKVJ VJG TGCNKV[ QH VJGKT

UVWFKGU. 6JG SWGUVKQPKPI QH VJG XGT[ DCUKU QH VJGKT OQUV EJGTKUJGF KFGCU TGUWNVGF KP C OCLQT

TGYQTMKPI QH VJGKT YQTNFXKGY98. 2J[UKEKUVU YGTG HQNNQYGF D[ CXCPV IWCTF GNGOGPVU YKVJKP

QVJGT FKUEKRNKPGU99, YJQ CFQRVGF PGY RCTCFKIOU CPF RGTURGEVKXGU, KPENWFKPI

'RQUVUVTWEVWTCNKUO'100, YJKEJ EQCNGUEGF YKVJKP YJCV DGECOG MPQYP CU C 'RQUV-OQFGTP'

YQTNFXKGY101. +P URKVG QH VJG TJGVQTKECN CUEGPFCPE[ QH 'RQUVOQFGTPKUO' VJGTG CTG VJQUG VQFC[

YJQ DGNKGXG YG JCXG PGXGT DGGP OQFGTP CPF VJQUG YJQ CTIWG VJCV YG CTG UVKNN RCTV QH VJG

EWNVWTCN RGTKQF QH OQFGTPKV[102. /CP[ FKUEKRNKPGU, GURGEKCNN[ VJQUG OQUV KPHNWGPEGF D[ VJG

%CTVGUKCP YQTNFXKGY103 JCXG PQY TGCEJGF VJG NKOKV QH VJGKT YQTNFXKGY CPF YKNN UGGOKPIN[

PGGF VQ CFQRV CP CNVGTPCVKXG RCTCFKIO VQ DG EQPUKUVGPV YKVJ OQFGTP RJ[UKEU CPF PGY TGCNKVKGU.

6JGTG KU CP CRRCTGPV PGGF HQT VJGO VQ VTCPUEGPF VJG ENCUUKECN OQFGNU, VQ IQ DG[QPF OGEJCPKUVKE

CPF TGFWEVKQPKUV RCTCFKIOU CPF GODTCEG JQNKUVKE CPF GEQNQIKECN RCTCFKIOU.

89 )QGVJG, 6JQTGCW, ’OGTUQP, 9QTFUYQTVJ 90 +PIG, $T[CPV, 6GORNG 91 )QFYKP, −TQRQVMKP 92 5EJQRGPJCWGT, 0KGV\UEJG, $GTIUQP, 5QTGN, &'#PPWP\KQ, )GPVKNG 93 4WUMKP, 5CKPV-5KOQP, %QOVG, &WTMJGKO, 6GKNJCTF FG %JCTFKP, ,WPI 94 2CPMJWTUV 95 /KNN, /QTTKU, .GYKU, 9KNNKCOU, ’NNKQV 96 ’EMGTUNG[ 1992, 6W 9GKOKPI 1998 97 %CRTC 1982 98 %CRTC 1982 99 5EKGPEG, GEQNQI[, CTV, OWUKE, CTEJKVGEVWTG, NKVGTCVWTG, RJKNQUQRJ[, RQNKVKEU CPF UQEKCN VJGQT[. 100 (QWECWNV 1970 101 .[QVCTF 1986 102 )QQFNKHH 1987, .CVQWT 1993 103 $KQNQI[, OGFKECN UEKGPEG, RU[EJQNQI[, RU[EJQVJGTCR[, GEQPQOKEU, UEKGPEG, 'UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[' CPF FGXGNQROGPV UVWFKGU.


%JCRVGT 2 %QPEGRVU


2.3.2 %NCUUKECN '0QP-YGUVGTP' −PQYNGFIG

(QT VJG RWTRQUG QH VJKU UVWF[ + UJCNN OQFKH[ VJG VGTO 'ENCUUKECN MPQYNGFIG' WUGF D[ *CXGTMQTV

GV CN (1999) VQ FGUETKDG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU FGXGNQRGF WUWCNN[ D[ VJG 'TWNKPI ENCUUGU'104 KP VJG

'PQP-YGUVGTP' YQTNF' DGVYGGP EC 1766 $% CPF 1500 #&, CPF YJKEJ QHVGP TGOCKP KP C TGUKFWCN

HQTO GXGP VQFC[105. %NCUUKECN MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU EQPVKPWG VQ UWTXKXG VQFC[ CPF QHVGP QXGTNC[

CPF KORCEV KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU. 6JG[ CTG DGKPI KPETGCUKPIN[ GZCOKPGF CU VJG DCUKU

HQT OQTG JQNKUVKE RCTCFKIOU QH UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV.

2.3.3 +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG

6JG VGTOU 'KPFKIGPQWU'106 'PCVKXG' CPF 'VTKDCN' YKNN DG WUGF KPVGTEJCPIGCDN[ FGURKVG UNKIJV

FKHHGTGPEGU KP VJGKT CPVJTQRQNQIKECN OGCPKPI. #NVJQWIJ FGHKPKPI 'KPFKIGPQWU' JCU RTQXGF

RTQDNGOCVKE HQT KPVGTPCVKQPCN QTICPKUCVKQPU, KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU JCXG RTQXKFGF UGXGTCN

FGHKPKVKQPU107. 6JG 9QTNF %QWPEKN QH +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU JCU CFQRVGF VJG HQNNQYKPI

FGHKPKVKQP:-

"+PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CTG UWEJ RQRWNCVKQP ITQWRU YJQ HTQO CPEKGPV VKOGU JCXG KPJCDKVGF

VJG NCPFU YJGTG YG NKXG, YJQ CTG CYCTG QH JCXKPI C EJCTCEVGT QH QWT QYP, YKVJ UQEKCN

VTCFKVKQPU CPF OGCPU QH GZRTGUUKQP VJCV CTG NKPMGF VQ VJG EQWPVT[ KPJGTKVGF HTQO QWT

CPEGUVQTU, YKVJ C NCPIWCIG QH QWT QYP, CPF JCXKPI EGTVCKP GUUGPVKCN CPF WPKSWG

EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU YJKEJ EQPHGT WRQP WU VJG UVTQPI EQPXKEVKQP QH DGNQPIKPI VQ C RGQRNG, YJQ

JCXG CP KFGPVKV[ KP QWTUGNXGU CPF UJQWNF DG VJWU TGICTFGF D[ QVJGTU"108

+PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU VJTQWIJQWV VJG YQTNF, QEEWR[KPI FKHHGTGPV CITQ-GEQNQIKECN \QPGU JCXG

IGPGTCVGF XCUV DQFKGU QH MPQYNGFIG TGNCVGF VQ VJG OCPCIGOGPV QH VJGKT GPXKTQPOGPV. 6JKU UVQTG

QH MPQYNGFIG KU MPQYP D[ OCP[ PCOGU. +V KU VGTOGF 'KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG', 'VTCFKVKQPCN

MPQYNGFIG', 'KPFKIGPQWU VGEJPKECN MPQYNGFIG'109, 'NQECN MPQYNGFIG', 'VTCFKVKQPCN EWNVWTCN

104 +P /CTZKUV RQNKVKECN GEQPQOKEU, VJG TWNKPI ENCUU TGHGTU VQ VJCV UGIOGPV QT ENCUU QH UQEKGV[ VJCV JCU VJG OQUV GEQPQOKE CPF RQNKVKECN RQYGT. 105 ’ZCORNGU KPENWFG +PFKCP MPQYNGFIG DCUGF QP VJG 8GFCU, %JKPGUG MPQYNGFIG DCUGF QP %QPHWEKCPKUO CPF &CQKUO, 6KDGVCP MPQYNGFIG DCUGF QP $WFFJKUO, CPF ’I[RVKCP, #\VGE, +PEC CPF 5JQPC MPQYNGFIG. 106 $WTIGT 1990, )TKOGU 1988 107 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997 108 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997 RCIG 27 109 *QYGU CPF %JCODGTU 1980

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%JCRVGT 2 %QPEGRVU


MPQYNGFIG', ' VTCFKVKQPCN GEQNQIKECN MPQYNGFIG' CPF 'VTCFKVKQPCN GPXKTQPOGPVCN MPQYNGFIG'110

FGPQVKPI UNKIJVN[ FKHHGTGPV OGCPKPIU VQ FKHHGTGPV WUGTU QH VJG EQPEGRV. 6JGTG KU, JQYGXGT,

EQPUGPUWU COQPIUV UEKGPVKUVU WUKPI XCTKQWU VGTOU VJCV UWEJ MPQYNGFIG:-

• KU NKPMGF VQ C URGEKHKE RNCEG, EWNVWTG QT UQEKGV[

• KU F[PCOKE KP PCVWTG

• DGNQPIU VQ ITQWRU QH RGQRNG YJQ NKXG KP ENQUG EQPVCEV YKVJ PCVWTCN U[UVGOU CPF

• EQPVTCUVU YKVJ 'OQFGTP' QT 'YGUVGTP HQTOCN UEKGPVKHKE' MPQYNGFIG.

+PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG GPEQORCUUGU URKTKVWCN TGNCVKQPUJKRU, TGNCVKQPUJKRU YKVJ VJG PCVWTCN

GPXKTQPOGPV CPF VJG WUG QH PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU, TGNCVKQPUJKRU DGVYGGP RGQRNG, CPF KU TGHNGEVGF

KP NCPIWCIG, UQEKCN QTICPK\CVKQP, XCNWGU, KPUVKVWVKQPU, NCYU CPF OCVGTKCN RTCEVKEGU.

+P VJKU EJCRVGT YG JCXG FGHKPGF CPF EQPUKFGTGF VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH VJTGG MPQYNGFIG

U[UVGOU DWV KP QTFGT VQ WPFGTUVCPF VJGKT CPCVQO[ CPF OCMG EQORCTKUQP DGVYGGP VJGO CP

WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH VJG 'GPNKIJVGPOGPV', 'RQUV/OQFGTPKV[' CRRGCTU VQ DG C RTG-TGSWKUKVG.

6JG PGZV EJCRVGT YKNN EQORTKUG C ETKVKSWG QH VJG GPNKIJVGPOGPV CPF RQUV/OQFGTPKV[ CPF

KVU KORCEV QP GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF FGXGNQROGPV FKUEQWTUG

110 ,QJPUQP 1992 C + D


%JCRVGT 3 9GUVGTP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU


%*#26’4 3 '9’56’40' −019.’&)’ 5;56’/5 #0&

6*’+4 +0(.7’0%’ 10 ’08+410/’06#. #0&

&’8’.12/’06 &+5%1745’

3.1 6*’ ’0.+)*6’0/’06 #0& /1&’40+6;

3.1.1 +PVTQFWEVKQP

6JG NCUV EGPVWT[ JCU UGGOKPIN[ YKVPGUUGF OCLQT EJCPIGU KP VJQWIJV HTQO C OQUVN[ %CTVGUKCP

YQTNFXKGY VQ CP GOGTIKPI 'RQUV-OQFGTP' YQTNFXKGY. +V KU KORQTVCPV VQ WPFGTUVCPF JQYGXGT VJCV

VJG %CTVGUKCP YQTNFXKGY YCU VJG RTQFWEV QH CP GRKUVGOQNQIKECN ECTVGN, YJKEJ UVKNN RTGXCKNU KP

OWEJ QH VJG YQTNF VQFC[. (QT VJKU TGCUQP YG YKNN DGIKP VJKU EJCRVGT D[ GZCOKPKPI VJG TQQVU QH

VJG ECTVGN CPF VJG PCTTCVKXGU QH QPG QH KVU RTQRQPGPVU CU C RNCVHQTO HQT GZCOKPKPI

GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF FGXGNQROGPV FKUEQWTUG.

3.1.2 /QFGTPKV[, VJG 8GPGVKCP 1NKICTEJ[ CPF VJG 0CTTCVKXGU QH ,QJP .QEMG

6JG EWNVWTCN RGTKQF QH 'OQFGTPKV[' KU QHVGP GSWCVGF YKVJ VJG UQ ECNNGF 'CIG QH GPNKIJVGPOGPV'111,

DWV KVU TQQVU IQ OWEJ FGGRGT VJCP VJCV. 5QOG QH VJG HCEVQTU VJCV OCFG OQFGTPKUO RQUUKDNG YGTG:

VJG 4QUKETWEKCP/(TGGOCUQP KPHNWGPEG QH C 8GPGVKCP QNKICTEJ[112 VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH ECRKVCNKUO

YKVJ 9KNNKCO 2GVV[113, VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH VJG 'UEKGPVKUO'114 YKVJ (TCPEKU $CEQP115, VJG

FGXGNQROGPV QH VJG 'GPNKIJVGPOGPV' YKVJ ,QJP .QEMG, CPF VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH VGEJPQNQI[116.

&GRGPFKPI WRQP YJKEJ HCEVQTU [QW KPENWFG, VJG OQFGTP YQTNF YCU DQTP UQOGYJGTG DGVYGGP

VJG DGIKPPKPIU QH VJG +VCNKCP 4GPCKUUCPEG117 CPF VJG ’PNKIJVGPOGPV'U QTKIKPU KP VJG NCVGT

UGXGPVGGPVJ, YKVJ VJG ETWEKCN RJCUG VCMKPI RNCEG DGVYGGP 1750 CPF 1850118.

111 .CVG-UGXGPVGGPVJ VQ GKIJVGGPVJ-EGPVWT[. 112 5QOGVKOGU TGHGTTGF VQ CU VJG 'DNCEM' PQDKNKV[. 113 1623-1687 114 #PVK-UEKGPEG 115 1561-1626 116 $CEQP 1870C-H, /GTEJCPV 1989 117 (TQO EC 1470 118 )QQFNKHH 1987




&WTKPI VJG 4GPCKUUCPEG C OCLQT RCTCFKIO UJKHV QEEWTTGF VJCV YCU EJCTCEVGTKUGF D[ C PGY

KPVGTGUV KP ENCUUKECN NCPIWCIGU, EWNVWTG, JWOCPKUVKE NKVGTCVWTG, CPF CP CPVJTQRQEGPVTKE

YQTNFXKGY. +P VJG OGFKGXCN RGTKQF, C VJGQEGPVTKE YQTNFXKGY YCU EGPVTCN VQ 9GUVGTP EWNVWTG,

GXKFGPEGF D[ TGNKIKQWU CTV CPF VJG CTEJKVGEVWTG QH *KIJ )QVJKE. 0QY JWOCPKV[119 VQQM EGPVTG

UVCIG CPF DGECOG VJG OGCUWTG QH CNN VJKPIU. .GQPCTFQ FC 8KPEK'U FTCYKPI QH C OCNG HKIWTG

GPEQORCUUGF D[ C USWCTG CPF C EKTENG GRKVQOKUGU VJKU EJCPIG120

6JG ’PNKIJVGPOGPV ICXG DKTVJ VQ CPQVJGT TCFKECNN[ VTCPUHQTOGF RCTCFKIO QH JWOCP UQEKGV[ CPF

C PGY WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH YJCV KV KU VQ DG JWOCP: C EQPHKFGPV DGNKGH KP VJG CDKNKV[ VQ RTQITGUU

VQYCTFU C WVQRKC QH TCVKQPCNKUVKE, JWOCPKUVKE CPF CWVQPQOQWU JCTOQP[. 6JKU RCTCFKIO

JQYGXGT YCU DCUGF QP CP GRKUVGOQNQIKECN ECTVGN CPF C UEKGPVKHKE FKEVCVQTUJKR, QTEJGUVTCVGF KP

’PINCPF D[ C '8GPGVKCP QNKICTEJ[' WPFGT VJG CGIKU QH VJG 4Q[CN 5QEKGV[, OCUVGTOKPFGF D[ 2CWNQ

5CTRK. 6JG QTKIKPU QH VJG '8GPGVKCP QNKICTEJ['121 ECP DG VTCEGF DCEM VQ VJG )WGNRJU QT '$NCEM

0QDKNKV[', DGNKGXGF VQ DG QH −JC\CT122 GZVTCEVKQP CPF OCTTKGF KPVQ VJG TQ[CN JQWUGU QH ’WTQRG KP

VJG GCTN[ VYGNHVJ EGPVWT[. 6JG RQYGT QH VJG )WGNRJU GZVGPFGF VJTQWIJ VJG +VCNKCP CPF )GTOCP

HKPCPEKCN EGPVTGU CPF VJG '.QODCTFU' DGECOG DCPMGTU PQV QPN[ VQ VJG −KPIU QH ’PINCPF123 DWV

VJG GPVKTG /GFKGXCN YQTNF. +P QTFGT VQ CKF VJGKT EQPVTQN QH HKPCPEG CPF RQNKVKEU VJG[ RGTRGVWCVGF

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._Sukru_Hanioglu

http://www.seattlecatholic.com/article_20040921.html




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http://www.google.com/url?sa=X&start=0&oi=define&q=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Labour

http://politics.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,5047440-107865,00.html




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http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%203:5&version=47;9




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http://www.answers.com/topic/hermeneutics

http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=Genesis+1:28+

http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=Psalm+24:1%20

http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=Psalm+89:11+%20

http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=1+Chron+29:11+

http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=Acts+4:32-35

http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=1+Tim+6:17+%20




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QPN[ RGTOKVU OG VQ OGPVKQP VJTGG CRRTQCEJGU (CNVGTPCVKXG, RQUVEQNQPKCN CPF RQUVFGXGNQROGPV)

VJCV CTG GXKFGPVN[ IGTOCPG YKVJ VJKU UVWF[. 9G YKNN EQPUKFGT 'CNVGTPCVKXG FGXGNQROGPV' CPF

'RQUVEQNQPKCNKUO' KP VJKU UGEVKQP DGECWUG PGKVJGT TGRTGUGPVU OCLQT FGRCTVWTGU HTQO OCKPUVTGCO

FGXGNQROGPV CPF 'RQUVFGXGNQROGPV' YJKEJ KU EQPUKFGTGF KP UGEVKQP 3.2.

#NVGTPCVKXG FGXGNQROGPV DGICP KP VJG 1970'U CU C XGT[ FKUVKPEV CNVGTPCVKXG VQ ENCUUKECN

FGXGNQROGPV CPF CNVJQWIJ *GVVPG (1990) VTKGU VQ CTIWG VJCV CNVGTPCVKXG FGXGNQROGPV TGRTGUGPVU

C EQWPVGTRQKPV VQ OCKPUVTGCO FGXGNQROGPV, KVU TGEGPV RQUKVKQP EQWNF DGUV DG FGUETKDGF CU C

210 −YQM 1998, 9KGPGT 1981, 211 *GVVPG 1995, /WPEM 1999, 5EJWWTOCP 1993 212 $NCKMKG 1996 213 GI 6JG 9QTNF $CPM 214 2KPEWU 2001, 4KEJ 1994 215 %QQRGT 1990D, 0CPF[ 1986




TGCEVKXG RQUKVKQP VJCV NCEMU VJGQTGVKECN EQJGUKQP. /CP[ QH KVU QPEG FKUVKPEV GNGOGPVU216 , YJKEJ

OC[ JCXG EQPUVKVWVGF CP CNVGTPCVKXG FGXGNQROGPV 'RTQHKNG' JCXG UWDUGSWGPVN[ DGGP EQ-QRVGF D[

OCKPUVTGCO FGXGNQROGPV. +VU ETKVKECN EQPEGTPU JCXG DGGP KPUVTWOGPVCNK\GF CPF TCVJGT VJCP

EJCNNGPIKPI VJG FGXGNQROGPV-CU-ITQYVJ OQFGN JCXG CNNQYGF FGXGNQROGPV VQ TG-KPXGPV KVUGNH

WPFGT C FKHHGTGPV PCOG217. +V JCU PGXGT DGGP CPVK-VJGQTGVKECN DWV KV KU KPVGNNGEVWCNN[ UGIOGPVGF

CPF KV NCEMU DQVJ VJG EQJGUKQP CPF C FKUVKPEV GRKUVGOKE CPF C OGVCVJGQTGVKECN HTCOGYQTM VQ DG

EQPUKFGTGF CU CP CNVGTPCVKXG FGXGNQROGPV RCTCFKIO218.

#NVJQWIJ RQUV-EQNQPKCN UVWFKGU219 CRRGCT VQ TGUQPCVG YKVJ VJG RQUV-OQFGTP KP VJCV VJG[ QHHGT

VQQNU HQT; FGEQPUVTWEVKPI 9GUVGTP FKUEQWTUGU, VJG CGUVJGVKEK\CVKQP QH RQNKVKEU CPF HQT VJG

RQNKVKEU QH FKHHGTGPEG, VJG[ CTG GXKFGPVN[ EQPUGTXCVKXG, QHHGT NKVVNG KP VJG YC[ QH TGEQPUVTWEVKQP,

QT C PGY GZGORNCT QT OCUVGT RCTCFKIO CPF RTQNQPI VJG KORGTKCN. #NN YG CTG UGGOKPIN[ QHHGTGF

CTG WPETKVKECN EGNGDTCVKQPU QH FKHHGTGPEG, CPF CP GORJCUKU QP CECFGOKE YTKVKPI CPF

UGNH-TGHNGZKXKV[220.

/CKPUVTGCO FGXGNQROGPV CPF OCP[ QH KVU VTCLGEVQTKGU CRRGCT VQ DG KPETGCUKPIN[ ECWIJV QP VJG

JQTPU QH C FKNGOOC DGVYGGP VJG '70 UVTGCO'221 CPF VJG '+/( UVTGCO'222 YJKNG VJG 9QTNF $CPM

RNC[U 'VWI-QH-YCT' DGVYGGP VJG VYQ. +P URKVG QH VJG EJCPIGU CPF VJG TJGVQTKE OCKPUVTGCO

FGXGNQROGPV FKUEQWTUG UVKNN CRRGCTU VQ DG CP GNKVG JGIGOQPKE V[TCPP[ VJCV FQGU PQV EJCNNGPIG

INQDCNK\KPI ECRKVCNKUV ITQYVJ RCTCFKIOU, CPF HCXQWTU VTCPUPCVKQPCN EQTRQTCVKQPU CV VJG GZRGPUG

QH VJG RQQT CPF VJG GPXKTQPOGPV. # OWEJ OQTG HWPFCOGPVCN EJCPIG, JQYGXGT VJCV TGUWNVGF PQV

QPN[ HTQO FKUGPEJCPVOGPV YKVJ OQFGTPKV[ CPF VJG HCKNWTGU QH FGXGNQROGPV, DWV YKVJ CFXCPEGU

KP RJ[UKEU, UEKGPEG CPF GEQNQI[ TGUWNVGF KP PGY VTCLGEVQTKGU QH YJCV DGECOG MPQYP CU VJG

'RQUV-OQFGTP' YQTNFXKGY.

216 $CUKE PGGFU, RCTVKEKRCVKQP, GPXKTQPOGPVCN UWUVCKPCDKNKV[, RJ[UKECN YGNN-DGKPI GVE. 217 2KGVGTUG 1998 218 2KGVGTUG 1998, /WPEM 1999 219 %TWUJ 1995, 5NCVGT 1998, 9CVVU 1995 220 9CVVU 1995 221 *WOCP CPF UQEKCN FGXGNQROGPV. 222 5#2U CPF INQDCN OQPGVCTKUO.




3.2 2156/1&’40+6;

#NVJQWIJ RQUVOQFGTPKUO KU UVKNN GXQNXKPI, CPF KV JCU C EGTVCKP UGOCPVKE KPUVCDKNKV[ VJGTG KU

UQOG EQOOQP ITQWPF DGVYGGP KVU UWD-UGVU. 5KPEG VJG 1980'U GNGOGPVU QH RQUVOQFGTPKUO223

JCXG JCF CP KPETGCUKPI KPHNWGPEG QP FGXGNQROGPV CPF GEQNQI[. (TQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH VJKU

UVWF[ KV FQGU CNNQY HQT C RTQNKHGTCVKQP QH OGCPKPI CPF HQTO, KV FQGU GPCDNG WU VQ ETKVKSWG VJG

'YGUVGTP' YQTNFXKGY, CPF VQ EQPUKFGT VJG PQP-YGUVGTP YQTNF CPF CNVGTPCVKXG MPQYNGFIG

U[UVGOU. 6JG RQUV-OQFGTP RCVJ JCU DGGP UGGFGF D[ UGXGTCN KORQTVCPV HCEVQTU:-

• # ITQYKPI FKUGPEJCPVOGPV YKVJ GPNKIJVGPOGPV FQIOC, VJG HCKNWTGU QH OQFGTPKUO CPF

FGXGNQROGPVCNKUO

• #P GOGTIKPI INQDCN EWNVWTG224

• 2QUVTWEVWTCNKUO CPF FKUEQWTUG VJGQT[225

• ’EQNQIKECN CPF GEQUQEKCNKUV UVWFKGU226

• 0GY GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UQEKCN OQXGOGPVU 227

• 0QP-YGUVGTP FGXGNQROGPV RCTCFKIOU 228

• %JCPIGU YKVJKP UEKGPEG CPF RJ[UKEU 229 CPF

• (GOKPKUV ETKVKSWGU QH FGXGNQROGPV CPF GEQHGOKPKUO230

6JG QPN[ 'FGXGNQROGPV' GZRTGUUKQP QH RQUVOQFGTPKUO, JQYGXGT VJCV CRRGCTU VQ DG CRRQUKVG HQT

VJKU UVWF[ KU 'RQUVFGXGNQROGPV'231. #NVJQWIJ RQUVFGXGNQROGPV KPENWFGU GVJPQUGPUKDKNKVKGU

IGTOCPG VQ VJKU UVWF[ KV CRRGCTU VQ DG NCTIGN[ RTGFKECVGF QP FKUEQWTUG CPCN[UKU CPF TGUKUVCPEG

TCVJGT VJCP GOCPEKRCVKQP CPF KVU RQUKVKQP CRRGCTU VQ DG HNCYGF. +V CVVTKDWVGU VQ FGXGNQROGPV C

UKPING CPF PCTTQY OGCPKPI, C EQPUKUVGPE[ YJKEJ FQGU PQV OCVEJ GKVJGT VJGQT[ QT RQNKE[, CPF

VJWU TGRNKECVGU VJG TJGVQTKE QH FGXGNQROGPVCNKUO, TCVJGT VJCP IGVVKPI VQ ITKRU YKVJ RQN[UGOKE232

TGCNKVKGU. 6JGTG CTG CNUQ FCPIGTU QH GVJPQEJCWXCPKUO QT VJG TGKHKECVKQP QH EWNVWTG, NQECNG,

223 2QUVUVWEVWTCNKUO KP RCTVKEWNCT. 224 )TKHHKP 1988, (GCVJGTUVQPG 1995 225 #ITCYCN 1996, (QWECWNV 1980 226 %QDD 1988, ’EMGTUNG[1992 227 ’EMGTUNG[ 1992, 2CTCLWNK 1991, 2GGV CPF 9CVVU 1996, 2KGVGTUG 1998, 4QWVNGFIG 1993 228 ’UEQDCT 1984, 1992C CPF D, 1995, (GTIWUQP 1990, .CVQWEJG 1993, 1996 /CE[ 1985, /C[DWT[-.GYKU 1992,

/WPEM CPF 1'*GCTP 1999, 2KGVGTUG 1991, 5JKXC 1989 229 %CRTC 1988, %CNNKEQVV 1982, 1986, )TKHHKP 1988, 2KGVGTUG 1999 230 ’EMGTUNG[ 1992, 5JKXC 1989, <KOOGTOCP 1994 231 2KGVGTUG 1998, 5CEJU 1992 232 # YQTF YKVJ UGXGTCN OGCPKPIU.




RGQRNG CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF KVU QPG-FKOGPUKQPCN XKGY QH INQDCNK\CVKQP OC[ DG

GSWCVGF YKVJ JQOQIGPK\CVKQP. #V DGUV KV ECP DG KPVGTRTGVGF CU C PGQ-VTCFKVKQPCNKUV TGCEVKQP VQ

OQFGTPKV[233.

6JG QPN[ EQOOQP ITQWPF UJCTGF D[ VJG FKHHGTGPV UWD-UGVU QH RQUV-OQFGTP FGXGNQROGPV KU CP

CVVGORV VQ IQ DG[QPF VJG NKOKVCVKQPU QH OQFGTPKUO CPF VJG ’PNKIJVGPOGPV YQTNFXKGY VJCV

FGXGNQRGF QWV QH )CNKNGCP-%CTVGUKCP-$CEQPKCP-0GYVQPKCP UEKGPEG CPF VTCPUEGPF KVU

KPFKXKFWCNKUO, CPVJTQRQEGPVTKUO, GWTQEGPVTKUO, WPKXGTUCNKUO, RCVTKCTEJ[, OGEJCPK\CVKQP,

GEQPQOKUO, RQUKVKXKUO, TGNCVKXKUO, PCVKQPCNKUO CPF OKNKVCTKUO234. 2QUV-OQFGTP FGXGNQROGPV

GZRTGUUKQPU FQ PQV CRRGCT VQ KPENWFG CP CFGSWCVG RCTCFKIO HQT VJG RWTRQUGU QH VJKU UVWF[,

DGECWUG QH VJGKT NCEM QH FKTGEVKQP CPF VJGKT TGHWUCN VQ VTCPUNCVG ETKVKSWGU KPVQ EQPUVTWEVKQP.

2QUVOQFGTPKUO FQGU, JQYGXGT, CRRGCT VQ QHHGT C UWKVG QH VQQNU CPF VTCLGEVQTKGU VJCV CTG

IGTOCPG VQ VJKU UVWF[. 6JG VQQNU KV QHHGTU YKNN GPCDNG WU:-

• VQ DTKPI RQNKVKEU KPVQ FGXGNQROGPV FKUEQWTUG, ETKVKSWG EGTVCKP CURGEVU QH VJG YGUVGTP

YQTNFXKGY CPF EQPUKFGT VJG PQP-YGUVGTP YQTNF235.

• VQ DTKPI CDFWEVKXG NQIKE KPVQ VJG UVWF[ CPF CP +6236 EQPEGRVWCN HTCOGYQTM VJCV GPCDNGU WU

VQ GZCOKPG UQEKGV[ KP ITGCVGT UWDUVCPVKXG FGVCKN VJCV KU YGD-NKMG, PQP-JKGTCTEJKECN,

OWNVKNKPGCT, J[RGTVGZVWCN, FGEGPVTGF, TGNCVKQPCN CPF EQPVGZVWCN237.

• VQ CFQRV C TGHNGZKXG URKTKV VJCV IQGU DG[QPF GVJPQEGPVTKUO CPF OQXG VQYCTFU C OQTG

IGPWKPGN[ INQDCN GZRCPUKQP QH MPQYNGFIG CPF WPFGTUVCPFKPI.

• FGEQPUVTWEV YGUVGTP FGXGNQROGPV O[VJU WUKPI EWNVWTCN CPCN[UKU CPF JGTOGPGWVKEU.

• TGURGEV CPF NGCTP HTQO PQP YGUVGTPGTU, CNKGP RCTCFKIOU CPF YQTNFXKGYU CPF GPICIG KP VJG

EWNVWTCN RQNKVKEU QH VTCPUHQTOCVKQP238.

+P VJKU EJCRVGT YG YKNN, WUG UQOG QH VJG 'ETKVKECN VQQNU' QH RQUVOQFGTPKUO VQ ETKVKSWG

GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF FGXGNQROGPV FKUEQWTUG CPF TGXKGY VYQ VTCLGEVQTKGU VJCV CTG UGGOKPIN[

233 2KGVGTUG 1998 234 )TKHHKP 1988 235 /WPEM 1999 236 +PHQTOCVKQP 6GEJPQNQI[ 237 .CPFQY 1993, 4[FGT 1997 238 5NCVGT 1997, 6WEMGT 1999




IGTOCPG239 VQ VJKU UVWF[.

3.3 ’08+410/’06#.+5/, &’8’.12/’06 #0& 0#674’

&KUEQWTUGU QH FGXGNQROGPV, GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO, CPF PCVWTG JCXG DGGP KPHNWGPEGF D[

'FGXGNQROGPVCNKUO'240 CPF 'ITGGP IQXGTPOGPVCNKV['241 CNVJQWIJ VJG[ CTG DGKPI EQPVGUVGF D[

TGNKIGQ-GPXKTQPOGPVCN, QTICPKE CPF RQUV-OQFGTP CRRTQCEJGU

0KPGVGGPVJ EGPVWT[ GXQNWVKQP FKUEQWTUG EQPHQTOGF VQ C RCVVGTP VJCV JCF ENCUUKECN CPVGEGFGPVU.

8KEVQTKCP CPVJTQRQNQI[, TCEG UEKGPEG, UQEKCN UEKGPEG CPF GXQNWVKQPKUO YGTG CNN RCTV QH EQNQPKCN

FKUEQWTUG242. &WTKPI VJG PKPGVGGPVJ EGPVWT[ TCEG UEKGPEG, YJKEJ FTGY QP VJG YQTMU QH .QEMG243

UGTXGF CU VJG PGZWU DGVYGGP PCVWTCN JKUVQT[ CPF UQEKCN JKUVQT[ CPF DGVYGGP DKQNQIKECN CPF

UQEKCN GXQNWVKQPKUO. 4CEG UEKGPEG CPF GXQNWVKQPKUO DQVJ GZRNCKPGF CPF LWUVKHKGF ’WTQRGCP

UWRTGOCE[; KFGPVKH[KPI VJG %CWECUKCP, 0QTFKE, CPF KP RCTVKEWNCT VJG #PINQ-5CZQP TCEG CU

UWRGTKQT KP KVU GPFQYOGPVU, YKVJ ’WTQRG NGCFKPI VJG YC[ KP VJG VTCLGEVQT[ QH GXQNWVKQP, CPF

GZJKDKVKPI VJG OQUV CFXCPEGF UVCIG QH 'JWOCP RGTHGEVKDKNKV[' GZRTGUUGF KP TCVKQPCNKV[,

EKXKNK\CVKQP, HCXQWT YKVJ )QF, CPF OQTCN UWRGTKQTKV[244. 0KPGVGGPVJ EGPVWT[ UQEKCN UEKGPEG YCU

GPICIGF KP UVWFKGU UWTTQWPFKPI EJCPIGU VCMKPI RNCEG KP ’WTQRG YJKEJ YGTG XCTKQWUN[

CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ KPFWUVTKCNK\CVKQP, WTDCPK\CVKQP CPF VJG GPNKIJVGPOGPV. 6JG[ YGTG EJCTCEVGTK\GF

D[: UVCIG VJGQTKGU, FKEJQVQOQWU VJGQTKGU CPF ETKVKECN XCTKCDNG VJGQTKGU245. 6JG[ UJCTGF C

FGRKEVKQP QH UQEKCN GXQNWVKQP KP UVCIGU; RTKOKVKXG, UCXCIGT[, DCTDCTKUO, EKXKNK\CVKQP246 , YJKEJ

YGTG PQV FKUUKOKNCT VQ VJG UVCIGU FGXGNQRGF D[ VJG %JKPGUG 247. 6YGPVKGVJ EGPVWT[ UQEKCN

UEKGPEG, JQYGXGT TGLGEVGF TCEG UEKGPEG CPF UQEKCN GXQNWVKQP DWV KV TGUWTHCEGF CHVGT VJG UGEQPF

YQTNF YCT KP OQFGTPK\CVKQP VJGQT[ CPF KP VJG FKUEQWTUG QH FGXGNQROGPV248. 6JG GCTN[ EQPEGTPU

QH FGXGNQROGPV TGHNGEVGF VJG KPVGTGUVU QH VJG TWNKPI GNKVGU KP DQVJ VJG FGXGNQRGF CPF FGXGNQRKPI

EQWPVTKGU. 6JG OQFGTPK\CVKQP RCTCFKIO VQQM KV HQT ITCPVGF VJCV VJG UQEKGVKGU EJCTCEVGTK\GF D[

239 6YQ QVJGT HQTGUVT[-TGNCVGF VTCLGEVQTKGU YKNN DG EQPUKFGTGF KP %JCRVGT 5. 240 #UGPKGTQ 1985, 2KGVGTUG 1991 241 .WMG 1999D 242 5CKF 1979, 1993 243 .QEMG 1690 244 .QEMG 1690 245 2KGVGTUG 1991 246 .QEMG 1690, /CTZ 1986, /QTICP 1877 247 $CTHKGNF 1989, %CPPQP 1989, &KMQVVGT 1992, &TG[GT 1976, )NCFPG[ 1994C , *GDGTGT 1987, CPF 1989 248 ’UVGXC 1992




KPFWUVTKCN ECRKVCNKUO CTG WPKXGTUCNN[ FGUKTGF249 DWV KP HCEV PQ RGQRNG GXGT XQVGF HQT ECRKVCN

CEEWOWNCVKQP CPF KPFWUVTKCNK\CVKQP, RTQEGUUGU VJCV JCXG WUWCNN[ KORNKGF C UWDUVCPVKCN COQWPV

QH EQGTEKQP. /QFGTPK\CVKQP VJGQT[ CPF ITQYVJ YCU TGNCVKXGN[ WPEQPEGTPGF YKVJ VJG RTQDNGO QH

UECTEKV[, EJCPIG, NKOKVU VQ ITQYVJ QT GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGUVTWEVKQP QT EQPHNKEV.

#NVJQWIJ PGY YQTNF XKGYU250 GOGTIGF KP VJG 1960'U VJCV YGTG ETKVKECN QH FQOKPCPV YGUVGTP

CVVKVWFGU VQYCTFU VJG PQPJWOCP YQTNF, VJG[ TGRTGUGPVGF VJG GZEGRVKQP. +V VQQM QXGT C FGECFG

QH RQNKVKECN CIKVCVKQP DGHQTG VJG GPXKTQPOGPVCN ETKUKU251 CPF 'NKOKVU VQ ITQYVJ'252 YCU FKUEWUUGF

CPF YGUVGTP EQWPVTKGU DGICP VQ EQPUKFGT GPXKTQPOGPVCN NCYU253. (TQO VJG 1970'U QPYCTFU

TGUGCTEJGTU254 FTGY QWT CVVGPVKQP VQ GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP CPF KVU TGNCVKQPUJKR YKVJ

RTQVGUV CPF EQPHNKEV. +V DGECOG CRRCTGPV VJCV GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP CPF FKOKPKUJKPI

UJCTGF TGPGYCDNG PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU EQWNF ECWUG XKQNGPV EQPHNKEV CPF HQTO C ETWEKCN RCTV QH VJG

EQORNGZ QH RQXGTV[. 1PEG YG UVWFKGF VJG FGUVTWEVKXG EQPUGSWGPEGU QH QWT GZRNQKVCVKQP QH QWT

GPXKTQPOGPV, VJG OCLQTKV[ YQTNF CPF VJG PQPJWOCP YQTNF, VJG HCEVU DGECOG KPFKURWVCDNG255.

$GECWUG VJG FGUVTWEVKQP JCU DGGP XCUVN[ CEEGNGTCVGF D[ VJG KPFWUVTKCN TGXQNWVKQP YJ[ JCXG YG

JCXG DGGP UQ QDNKXKQWU. 9G KPVGTRTGV GXGPVU CEEQTFKPI VQ QWT YQTNFXKGY, PCOGN[ VJG RTGXCKNKPI

UEKGPVKHKE256 CPF VGEJPKECN- EQOOGTEKCN RCTCFKIOU YJKEJ YGTG GUVCDNKUJGF KP VJG EQPVGZV QH

OCVGTKCNKUVKE FWCNKUVKE YQTNF XKGYU YJKEJ NCEM GEQNQIKECN KPVGTEQPPGEVGFPGUU257. #EEQTFKPI VQ

VJGUG RCTCFKIOU SWGUVKQPU QH EQOOWPKV[ YGNHCTG QT GPXKTQPOGPVCN UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ CTG QPN[

KUUWGU QH RWDNKE TGNCVKQPU. #U HQT VJG KPVTKPUKE XCNWGU QH HQTGUVU CPF YKNFNKHG VJG[ CTG CNN TGFWEGF

VQ VJGKT QDLGEVKXG EQOOGTEKCN RQVGPVKCN258. +P VJG EQPVGZV QH FWCNKUO, VJG JWOCP UEKGPEGU CNQPI

YKVJ GVJKEU CPF VJGQNQI[ CEEGRV PCVWTG CU VJG IKXGP UVCIG HQT JWOCP FTCOC. 6JG[ FQ PQV

GPEQWTCIG CVVGPVKQP VQ EJCPIGU KP VJG UVCIG. +P VJG EQPVGZV QH OGEJCPKUO PCVWTG CRRGCTU CU

CJKUVQTKECN. *GPEG, QPN[ VJQUG YJQ CEVWCNN[ YGPV CPF NQQMGF PQVKEGF VJG EJCPIGU, DWV DGECWUG

VJG[ FKF PQV FGXGNQR OGEJCPKUVKE VJGQTKGU QH YJCV VJG[ UCY VJGKT HKPFKPIU YGTG GKVJGT KIPQTGF

249 5NCVGT 1995 250 $QQMEJKP 1962, %CTUQP 1962, 4GKEJ 1971 251 1'%QPPQT 1989 252 %NWD QH 4QOG 1972, /GCFQYU 1972 253 *GVVPG 1995 254 6KODGTNCMG CPF 6KPMGT 1984 255 1'*CICP 1995 256 $QVJ PCVWTCN CPF JWOCP 257 %CTUQP 1962, /CPFGT 1997 258 /CPFGT 1997




QT YTQPIN[ KPVGTRTGVGF259 260. 6JQUG VJGQTKGU YJKEJ YGTG FGXGNQRGF VQ EQPEGRVWCNN[ EQPPGEV

'GPXKTQPOGPV 'FGXGNQROGPV'261, TGFWEGF GEQNQI[ VQ 'TGUQWTEG GHHKEKGPE[' CPF 'TKUM OCPCIGOGPV'

CPF YGTG DNKPF CPF KIPQTCPV QH FKXGTUKV[ QWVUKFG VJG GEQPQOKE UQEKGV[ QH VJG 9GUV262. #NVJQWIJ

OCKPUVTGCO FGXGNQROGPVCN CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN CRRTQCEJGU CTG DGKPI EJCNNGPIGF D[ PGY UQEKCN

OQXGOGPVU, D[ RQUVOQFGTPKUO, TCFKECN UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV, D[ CNVGTPCVKXG FGXGNQROGPV

UVTCVGIKGU CPF D[ PQP-YGUVGTP EQPEGRVU QH RTQITGUU, VJGTG CTG FCPIGTU QH VJG EQQRVKQP YJKEJ

OC[ TGUWNV KP NKVVNG FKHHGTGPEG VQ OCKPUVTGCO XCNWGU, RCTCFKIOU, VJGQTGVKECN QT GRKUVGOKE

HTCOGYQTMU263. 6JKPIU RCVGPVN[ CTG PQV KORTQXKPI CU KV YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV KP DQVJ VJG 9GUV CPF

VJG ’CUV, VJCV FQOGUVKE CPF INQDCN GPXKTQPOGPVCN CIGPFCU CTG KPETGCUKPIN[ DGKPI UWDXGTVGF CPF

TGCTVKEWNCVGF D[ UVCVG, 0)1, EQTRQTCVG CPF KPVGTPCVKQPCN DQFKGU, IKXKPI TKUG VQ GVJPQEGPVTKE

UVTCVGIKGU QH UQEKCN EQPVTQN CPF (QWECWNV KPURKTGF RTQLGEVU QH 'ITGGP IQXGTPOGPVCNKV['264

RTGFKECVGF QP OCKPUVTGCO FKUEQWTUGU QH UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV YJGTG VJG OGCPKPI QH

'GPXKTQPOGPV' CPF 'PCVWTG'265 CTG DGKPI EQPVGUVGF266.

)QXGTPOGPVCNKV[ KPXQNXGU VJG GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH EQORNGZ UQEKCN VGEJPKSWGU CPF KPUVKVWVKQPU VQ

KPVGPUKH[ VJG OGEJCPKUOU QH EQPVTQN QXGT VJG RQRWNCVKQP267. &CTKGT (1996) TGCTVKEWNCVGU

(QWECWNV'U KFGCU KP VGTOU QH VJTGG FKOGPUKQPU QT ECVGIQTKGU YJKEJ TGRTGUGPV VJG OCKP RQYGT

GHHGEVU YJKEJ OQFGTP UVCVG RQNKEKGU ECP JCXG QP RTKXCVG CPF UQEKGVCN NKXGU. 6JGUG KPENWFG VJG

• %GPVTCNK\CVKQP QH RQYGT CTQWPF VJG IQXGTPOGPV,

• 6JG KPVGPUKHKECVKQP QH VJG GHHGEVU QH RQYGT CV CNN NGXGNU,

• 6JG GOGTIGPEG QH PGY MPQYNGFIG WUGHWN HQT KORNGOGPVCVKQP QT KPVGPUKHKECVKQP QH

RQYGT.

259 %QDD 1988 260 (QT GZCORNG, VJG VGPFGPE[ VQ VTGCV GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGUV CU CP CURGEV QH RQYGT CPF YGCNVJ UJCTKPI YCU EQOOQP WR VQ VJG 1980'U (’EMGTUNG[ 1992, 4QFOCP 1980). 6JKU YCU KP URKVG QH VJG HCEV VJCV OCP[ QH VJG YGUVGTP RTQVGUVGTU YGTG VJG EJKNFTGP QH VJG CHHNWGPV, YJQ YGTG UGGMKPI CP CNVGTPCVKXG YQTNFXKGY VJCV QRRQUGF VJG 'HWPEVKQPCN TCVKQPCNKV[' QH OQFGTPKV[ ($GTIGT 1974). 261 GI GEQ-ETCVKE FKUEQWTUG. 262 5CEJU 1992 263 4QWVNGFIG 1993 264 &CTKGT 1999, .WMG 1999D 265 .WMG 1999D 266 6JG VGTO IQXGTPOGPVCNKV[ YCU RTGUGPVGF CPF GZRNQTGF D[ (QWECWNV (1991,1984) CV VJG GPF QH VJG 1970U CPF KORNKGU C PQXGN FGHKPKVKQP QH RQYGT VJCV JCU RTQHQWPF KORNKECVKQPU HQT QWT WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH RQNKVKECN RQYGT CPF RWDNKE RQNKE[. 267 (QWECWNV 1991, .WMG 1995




)QXGTPOGPVCNKV[ KU C FKHHKEWNV EQPEGRV VQ FGHKPG, CPF KU OQTG QH CP CRRTQCEJ HQT WPFGTUVCPFKPI

CPF KPVGTRTGVKPI VJG GNGOGPVU QH RQYGT KP VJG RQNKE[ RTQEGUU VJCP C ENGCTN[ FGHKPGF CPCN[VKECN

EQPEGRV. +TTGURGEVKXG QH KVU FGHKPKVKQP KV KU KORQTVCPV VQ WPFGTUVCPF YJCV KV OGCPU VQ KPFKXKFWCNU,

RQRWNCVKQPU, QT QTICPK\CVKQPU VQ DG IQXGTPGF CPF DG WPFGT IQXGTPCPEG, CPF JQY OQFGU QH

IQXGTPCPEG KPHNWGPEG QWT NKXGU, EWNVWTGU, CPF CEVQT TGNCVKQPU.

3.3.1 /CKPUVTGCO '5WUVCKPCDNG' &GXGNQROGPV

6JG VGTO 'UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV' YJKEJ UWHHWUGF FGXGNQROGPV FKUEQWTUG KP VJG 1980'U CPF

GCTN[ 1990'U HQNNQYGF VJG TGRQTV QH VJG 9QTNF %QOOKUUKQP QP ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF

&GXGNQROGPV268 CPF VJG 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU %QPHGTGPEG QP ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV ’CTVJ

5WOOKV KP 4KQ269. 6JG DGUV MPQYP FGHKPKVKQP QH UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV URGCMU QH:-

"FGXGNQROGPV YJKEJ OGGVU VJG PGGFU QH VJG RTGUGPV, YKVJQWV

EQORTQOKUKPI VJG CDKNKV[ QH HWVWTG IGPGTCVKQPU VQ OGGV VJGKT QYP

PGGFU"270

#U C FGHKPKVKQP KVU UVTGPIVJU CRRGCT VQ NKG KP VJG YC[ FKXGTUG CPF UQOGVKOGU FKXGTIGPV KFGCU CTG

DNGPFGF QHVGP WPETKVKECNN[ KPVQ CP CRRCTGPV U[PVJGUKU271 DWV CU C EQPEGRV KV NGPFU KVUGNH VQ

EQPUKFGTCDNG CODKIWKV[272 CPF VJG CDUGPEG QH C ENGCT VJGQTGVKECN CPF CPCN[VKECN HTCOGYQTM273.

#U C 'ECVEJ RJTCUG' YJKEJ YQWNF CRRCTGPVN[ 'KPVGITCVG GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPUGTXCVKQP YKVJ

GEQPQOKE FGXGNQROGPV' KV JCU VTCPUHQTOGF VJG TJGVQTKE DWV TCTGN[ VJG TGCNKV[ QH GUVCDNKUJGF

FGXGNQROGPV KPUVKVWVKQPU CPF OCP[ 0QP )QXGTPOGPVCN 1TICPKUCVKQPU (0)1U). &KHHGTGPV

CEVQTU JCXG KPVGTRTGVGF KV KP FKHHGTGPV YC[U VQ UWKV VJGKT KPUVKVWVKQPCN PGGFU CPF XKGYU274. +V JCU

DGEQOG C 'UNQICP'275 HQT CNN VJQUG YJQ YCPV VQ CRRGCT VQ KPEQTRQTCVG GPXKTQPOGPVCN

EQPUKFGTCVKQPU KPVQ VJG FGXGNQROGPV RTQEGUU YKVJQWV WPFWN[ 'TQEMKPI VJG DQCV'276. /CP[ QH VJG

KPKVKCVKXGU FGXGNQRGF CU C TGUWNV QH ’CTVJ 5WOOKV CPF RTGFKECVGF QP UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV

JCXG UGGOKPIN[ HCKNGF. +PFGGF OCP[ DWUKPGUU CPF RQNKVKECN NGCFGTU JCXG CRRGCTGF VQ CXQKF

268 $TWPFVNCPF 1987 269 #FCOU 1995 270 $TWPFVNCPF %QOOKUUKQP 1987 RCIG 8 271 #FCOU 1990 272 #FCOU 1995 273 .GNG 1991 274 2GGV CPF 9CVVU 1996 275 %QPTQ[ 1988 276 $T[CPV 1998, 4GFENKHV 1987, 1996




OCMKPI VJG EJQKEGU VJCV C VTCPUKVKQP VQ UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV YQWNF PGEGUUKVCVG. 6JG

+PUVKVWVG QH %JCTVGTGF (QTGUVGTU (7−) QPN[ CFFGF VJG YQTF 'UWUVCKPCDNG' VQ VJGKT GVJKECN EQFG

CHVGT RTQVTCEVGF RTGUUWTG277. 6JG CDUGPEG QH CP[ CITGGOGPV CDQWV YJCV 'UWUVCKPCDNG

FGXGNQROGPV' CEVWCNN[ OGCPU, UVKNN NGUU YJGVJGT KV ECP DG CEJKGXGF KP VJG TGCN YQTNF, FQGU PQV

OGCP KV UJQWNF DG FKUECTFGF. #EEQTFKPI VQ 4GFENKHV278 'UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV' KU C RQYGTHWN

EQPEGRVWCN VGTO CPF RTQXKFGU C RNCVHQTO HQT FKUEWUUKPI FGXGNQROGPV CPF VJG GPXKTQPOGPV. #U

UWEJ, KV ECP CUUKUV WU VQ KFGPVKH[ CTGCU QH EQPXGTIGPEG CPF FKXGTIGPEG KP VJG FKUEQWTUG CDQWV

FGXGNQROGPV CPF VJG GPXKTQPOGPV, CPF KP VJG YC[ VJGUG RTQEGUUGU CTG WPFGTUVQQF. #NVJQWIJ

VJKPMKPI CDQWV UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV KU FKXGTUG, VJGTG KU C ENGCTN[ FKUEGTPCDNG OCKPUVTGCO

YKVJKP KV279 , YJKEJ FTCYU QP LWUV QPG TGHQTOKUV UWD-UGV QH C EQPVKPWWO QH KFGCU CDQWV

UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV. 1VJGT UWD-UGVU RTQXKFG C XGT[ FKHHGTGPV CPF OQTG TCFKECN CIGPFC HQT

FGXGNQROGPV CEVKQP. /CKPUVTGCO VJKPMKPI UGGU UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV CU UQOGVJKPI VJCV

VCMGU RNCEG YKVJQWV VJTGCVGPKPI GEQPQOKE ITQYVJ.280 +V PQV QPN[ HCKNU VQ EJCNNGPIG VJG ECRKVCNKUV

ITQYVJ RCTCFKIO, KV KU CNUQ CRRGCTU VQ DG TGOCTMCDN[ TGUKUVCPV VQ GEQEGPVTKUO. +V NKGU CV VJG

EGPVTG QH VJG GZKUVKPI 9GUVGTP KPFWUVTKCN GEQPQOKE CPF VGEJPQEGPVTKE RCTCFKIOU, CPF ITQYVJ KU

VJG OQUV RTQOKPGPV HGCVWTG QH KVU RQNKE[ QDLGEVKXGU281. 6JG EQTG QH VGEJPQEGPVTKUV VJKPMKPI KP

UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV KU .QEMGCP DQVJ KP VGTOU QH KVU WVKNKVCTKCP XKGY282 QH UEKGPEG CPF VJG

CRRNKECVKQP QH UEKGPEG VQ UQNXG JWOCP RTQDNGOU283. +P VJG ECUG QH HQTGUVU, VJG RKEVWTG KU

RCTVKEWNCTN[ ITKO, IKXGP VJG TGCNKVKGU284, CU VJKU XKGY TGFWEGU HQTGUVU VQ UQ OCP[ 'EWDKE OGVTGU'

QT d'U RGT JGEVCTG. %QPUKFGTCVKQP QH VJG GPVKTG HQTGUV DKQVKE EQOOWPKV[ KU QWV QH VJG RKEVWTG:

KPVTKPUKE XCNWGU CTG PGXGT FKUEWUUGF; VJG URKTKVWCN GOCPCVKQPU QH CPEKGPV HQTGUVU CTG PQV

RGTEGKXGF; UWUVCKPCDNG GEQPQOKE RTQEGUUGU CTG 'KPGHHKEKGPV' CPF VQQ UNQY HQT VJG OCTMGV

OCEJKPG; CPF NQPI-VGTO RNCPGVCT[ JGCNVJ DGEQOGU OWEJ VQQ NQPI-VGTO HQT C VGEJPKECN-

EQOOGTEKCN XCNWGU EQPUVTWEV285. # WVKNKVCTKCP XKGY ECP DG HQWPF DQVJ KP VJG 9QTNF

277 5VWFNG[ 1995 278 4GFENKHV 1992 279 $TWPFVNCPF 1987, +7%0 1980, .GNG 1991 280 $TWPFVNCPF 1987 281 1'4KQTFCP 1981, 1'4KQTFCP CPF 6WTPGT 1983 282 K.G. 9JCV KU WUGHWN KU IQQF 283 .QEMG 1690, /GTEJCPV 1997 284 # TGEGPV UVWF[ KP %JKPC TGXGCNGF VJCV KPVTKPUKE XCNWGU YGTG EC 11% QH 6QVCN ’EQPQOKE 8CNWG CPF EQOOGTEKCN CPF URKTKVWCN XCNWGU YGTG EC 5% (5VWFNG[ GV CN 2005). 285 /CPFGT 1997




%QPUGTXCVKQP 5VTCVGI[ (9%5) CPF KP %CTKPI HQT VJG ’CTVJ286. 9%5 JCU VJTGG OCKP CKOU: VQ

OCKPVCKP GUUGPVKCN NKHG-UWRRQTV U[UVGOU, VQ RTGUGTXG IGPGVKE FKXGTUKV[, CPF VQ RTQOQVG

UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV QH URGEKGU CPF GEQU[UVGOU. 6JKU CIGPFC, EJCTCEVGTKUGF D[ C WVKNKVCTKCP

XKGY QH UEKGPEG CPF GEQNQI[287 JCU DGGP CRRNKGF VQ 5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV KP IGPGTCN CPF VQ

VJG 9%5 KP RCTVKEWNCT288. 5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV CRRGCTU VQ DG TQQVGF OWEJ OQTG KP

YGUVGTP GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO VJCP FGXGNQROGPV FKUEQWTUG CPF HQT VJKU TGCUQP, KV NCEMU

GPICIGOGPV YKVJ FGXGNQROGPV VJGQT[289 CPF VJKU OCTMU VJGO290QWV HTQO VJG PQTOCN FKUEQWTUG

QH FGXGNQROGPV291.

6JGTG CTG UGXGTCN VTCLGEVQTKGU VJCV WPFGTRKP OCKPUVTGCO GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO, YJKEJ VGPF VQ

HCXQWT VJG VGEJPQEGPVTKE, KPUVTWOGPVCN292 CPF TGHQTOKUV RQUKVKQPU. 6JGUG KPENWFG:

• 4GUQWTEG EQPUGTXCVKQP293

• 6JG KPVGTPCVKQPCN EQPUGTXCVKQP OQXGOGPV294

• 6JG RTGUGTXCVKQP OQXGOGPV295 CPF

• RQUUKDN[ JWOCP YGNHCTG GEQNQI[296.

4GUQWTEG EQPUGTXCVKQP297, VJG KPVGTPCVKQPCN EQPUGTXCVKQP OQXGOGPV, CPF VJG RTGUGTXCVKQP

OQXGOGPV298 JCXG NGF VQ WPTGCNKUVKE CPF EQPVTCFKEVQT[ VGPGVU KP QWT PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG RQNKEKGU.

4GUQWTEG EQPUGTXCVKQP CRRGCTU VQ DG RGTOGCVGF YKVJ CP CEEGRVCPEG QH FGUVTWEVKXG RTCEVKEGU,

IGPGTCVGF HTQO C DGNKGH VJCV .QEMGCP OKVKICVKPI OGCUWTGU ECP JCNV QT TGXGTUG GPXKTQPOGPVCN

FGRNGVKQP CPF FGITCFCVKQP. +PVGTPCVKQPCN EQPUGTXCVKQP CRRGCTU VQ DG RCTV QH VJG INQDCN

JGIGOQP[ QH YGUVGTP EWNVWTG VJCV VGPF VQ KIPQTG NQECN RGQRNG CPF CTG UVTQPIN[ DKCUGF D[ GNKVKUV

286 +7%0 1980 287 &GGRN[ GODGFFGF KP EQNQPKCN FKUEQWTUG KORGTKCN TWNG CPF YGUVGTP INQDCN EWNVWTCN JGIGOQP[ (#FCOU 1995, &CUOCPP 1979, .QEMG 1690). 288 #FCOU 1993, 1995 , $JCDJC 1991, 9QTNF $CPM 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 289 #FCOU 1990 290 5WUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV CPF ’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUO. 291 %TWUJ 1995, )CTG 1995 292 0Q PQPJWOCP DGKPI ECP JCXG XCNWG KP KVUGNH , KV ECP QPN[ JCXG XCNWG CU C OGCPU HQT JWOCPU (*CDGTOCU 1971). 293 &GXCNN 1979, &TGPIUQP CPF 6C[NQT 1997 294 #FCOU 1990 295 6JQTGCW 1858, 6WTPGT 1996 296 ’EMGTUNG[ 1992 297 6JG UEKGPVKHKE ECRCEKV[ CXCKNCDNG VQ JCTPGUU CPF OCPCIG PCVWTG VJG YC[ YG UGG HKV. 298 6JG RGTEGKXGF RTKUVKPG UVCVG QH YKNFGTPGUU CTGCU.




WTDCP RGTEGRVKQPU QH VJG GPXKTQPOGPV CPF KUUWGU QH VJG WTDCP YQTNF299. 2TGUGTXCVKQP CRRGCTU VQ

DG RTGFKECVGF QP C TGUQWTEG-OCPCIGOGPV RQNKE[ DCUGF QP VJG DGNKGH VJCV UGVVKPI CUKFG UQ ECNNGF

RTKUVKPG VTCEVU QH NCPF YKNN CWVQOCVKECNN[ RTGUGTXG VJGKT DKQNQIKECN KPVGITKV[. 0QPG QH VJG CDQXG

VCMGU KPVQ EQPUKFGTCVKQP VJG RQUUKDKNKVKGU HQT PCVWTCN-TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV VJCV OKIJV CTKUG

HTQO NGCTPKPI HTQO CNVGTPCVKXG RCTCFKIOU KP C EQ-FGXGNQROGPV CRRTQCEJ YKVJ UEKGPVKHKE

KPHQTOCVKQP CPF OCPCIGOGPV300.

4GUGCTEJGTU YCPVKPI VQ IQ DG[QPF VJG TJGVQTKE QH 'UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV' JCXG KFGPVKHKGF

HQWT "FKOGPUKQPU" 301 QH UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV PCOGN[; GEQPQOKEU, RQNKVKEU, EWNVWTG CPF

GRKUVGOQNQI[. 6JG NCUV VYQ CTG GXKFGPVN[ RCTVKEWNCTN[ IGTOCPG HQT VJG RWTRQUG QH VJKU UVWF[ CPF

YKNN DG GZRNQTGF DGNQY.

3.3.2 ’PXKTQPOGPVCN &KUEQWTUG

’PXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUG JCU KVU TQQVU KP KPFWUVTKCN UQEKGV[, CPF OCP[ QH VJG EQORGVKPI

KFGQNQIKGU QH KPFWUVTKCN UQEKGV[302 HTQO CP GPXKTQPOGPVCN RGTURGEVKXG CTG EQOOKVVGF VQ

'KPFWUVTKCNKUO'303. 6JKU EQOOQPCNKV[ OKIJV UWTRTKUG KVU CFJGTGPVU, YJQ CTG HCT OQTG EQPUEKQWU

QH VJGKT KFGQNQIKECN FKHHGTGPEGU VJCP QH VJGKT KPFWUVTKCN EQOOQPCNKVKGU. #NN VJGUG KFGQNQIKGU

KIPQTGF GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPEGTPU CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN KUUWGU YGTG QPN[ EQPUKFGTGF KP VGTOU QH

KPRWVU VQ KPFWUVTKCN RTQEGUUGU304. ’PXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUG JCU CVVGORVGF VQ FGXGNQR FKURCTCVG

VTCLGEVQTKGU VJCV CRRGCT VQ TGRTGUGPV C FGRCTVWTG HTQO KPFWUVTKCNKUO. 6JGUG FGRCTVWTGU ECP DG

ECVGIQTK\GF C PWODGT QH FKHHGTGPV YC[U. &QDUQP305 OCMGU C VJTGGHQNF FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP

QNF-HCUJKQPGF EQPUGTXCVKQP, TGHQTO GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO CPF TCFKECN GEQNQIKUO, ’EMGTUNG[306

VJKPMU VJCV VJG MG[ FKHHGTGPEG KU DGVYGGP CPVJTQRQEGPVTKE CPF GEQEGPVTKE RGTURGEVKXGU CPF

&T[\GM307 TGEQIPK\GU HQWT FKUEQWTUGU :- RTQDNGO UQNXKPI, UWTXKXCNKUO, UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ CPF ITGGP

TCFKECNKUO. /GTG TGHQTOKUV VKPMGTKPI YKVJ GPXKTQPOGPVCN VTCLGEVQTKGU FQGU PQV CRRGCT VQ IQ HCT

GPQWIJ, KH UWUVCKPCDNG TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR KU C XCNKF QDLGEVKXG, C HWPFCOGPVCNN[ FKHHGTGPV

299 )QOG\-2QORC CPF −CWU 1992 300 )QOG\-2QORC CPF −CWU 1992 301 #FCOU 1993 RCIG 395, 1995, 4GFENKHV 1992 302 0COGN[ NKDGTCNKUO, EQPUGTXCVKUO, UQEKCNKUO, OCTZKUO CPF HCUEKUO. 303 &T[\GM 1997 304 (QT GZCORNG VJG 75 EQPUGTXCVKQP OQXGOGPV'U CVVGORVU VQ GPUWTG PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU CTG PQV USWCPFGTGF UQ VJGTG KU CNYC[U RNGPV[ VQ UWRRQTV C ITQYKPI KPFWUVTKCN GEQPQO[. 305 1990 306 1992 307 1997




CRRTQCEJ KU TGSWKTGF. 6JG YQTNFYKFG ETKUKU KP TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV CRRGCTU VQ DG ECWUGF

OQUVN[ D[ .QEMGCP OCVGTKCNKUO CPF VJG GRKUVGOQNQIKECN CPF EQIPKVKXG HTCOGYQTMU QH

MPQYNGFIG FQOKPCVKPI GEQNQIKECN UEKGPEG. 6JKU JCU NGF VQ KPVGTRTGVKXG GTTQT QT "KPHQTOCVKQP

HNQY RCVJQNQIKGU"308, C FGGRGPKPI QH VJG GEQNQIKECN ETKUKU CPF CP KPCDKNKV[ VQ RTGUETKDG

UWUVCKPCDNG QWVEQOGU309. %JCTCEVGTKUVKECNN[ OCP[ QH GEQNQIKECN FKHHKEWNVKGU VGPF VQ DG U[UVGOU

TGNCVGF, CPF VJG[ CTG PQP-NKPGCT KP PCVWTG, ETQUU-UECNG KP VKOG CPF URCEG CPF JCXG CP

GXQNWVKQPCT[ EJCTCEVGT. #U C TGUWNV KPVGTFKUEKRNKPCT[ CPF KPVGITCVGF OQFGU QH KPSWKT[ RTGFKECVGF

QP UQEKCN CPF GEQNQIKECN U[UVGOU CTG TGSWKTGF HQT WPFGTUVCPFKPI CPF HQT RQNKE[ HQTOWNCVKQP310.

3.3.3 0CVWTG &KUEQWTUG

+P FKUEWUUKPI 'PCVWTG' YG CTG FGCNKPI YKVJ C XGT[ EQORNGZ 9GUVGTP EQPEGRV VJCV JCU C

EQORNKECVGF TGRGTVQKTG QH OGCPKPIU311. 1P VJG DCUKU QH EQORNGZ )TGGM CPF .CVKP TQQVU, KV JCU

DGGP OQWNFGF KPVQ C UKPING OWNVKHCEGVGF EQPEGRV YJKEJ HKPFU C XCTKGV[ QH WUGU CPF KU UVKNN KP C

RTQEGUU QH EJCPIG. 4GEWTTKPI KPVGTXCNU QH TQOCPVKEKUO JCXG IKXGP KV OWEJ QH KVU HNCXQWT. +H YG

KPXGUVKICVG 'PCVWTG' QT 'NCPFUECRG' VJG[ TGHGT PQV QPN[ VQ RJ[UKECN CURGEVU QH GCTVJ, DWV CDUVTCEV

URCEG EQPVCKPKPI C XCTKGV[ QH KFGCU CPF RTKPEKRNGU, FGH[KPI GCU[ FGHKPKVKQP312. 9G FKHHGTGPVKCVG

PCVWTG D[ OGCPU QH CEEWTCVG FGHKPKVKQPU, ENCUUGU CPF U[UVGOU, KPENWFKPI UJCRGU CPF EQNQWTU, DWV

CVVTKDWVG VQ KV OGCPKPIU CPF GOQVKQPU. #EEQTFKPIN[ EQPEGRVU NKMG PCVWTG OC[ DG UGGP CU

CPVJTQRQEGPVTKE CPF UWDLGEVKXG VQQNU QH VJG OKPF KP VJG RWTUWKV QH QTFGT COQPI CRRCTGPV EJCQU.

6JG EGPVTCN EQPUVTWEVKQPU QH PCVWTG YKVJKP OCKPUVTGCO 9GUVGTP CPF ’CUVGTP GPXKTQPOGPVCN

RTCEVKEG TGHNGEV CP GPICIGOGPV YKVJ RQUV-$TWPFVNCPF313 FKUEQWTUGU QH 'UWUVCKPCDNG

FGXGNQROGPV' YJKEJ JCXG GTQFGF RTGXKQWU FKUEQWTUGU QH UWUVCKPCDKNKV[314. 1P VJG DCUKU QH VJKU

XGT[ CODKIWQWU FKUEQWTUG KV JCU DGGP RQUUKDNG VQ TGKPXGPV PCVWTG CU GPXKTQPOGPVCN 'ECRKVCN' VJCV

OC[ DG OCKPVCKPGF315 CPF VQ RCUVG QXGT CP[ EQPHNKEVU DGVYGGP GEQPQOKEU CPF VJG

GPXKTQPOGPV316. /WEJ QH VJG EWTTGPV NKVGTCVWTG GPICIKPI YKVJ VJG EQPEGRV QH PCVWTG XKGYU KV CU

308 /E)QXGTP GV CN 1988 RCIG 245 309 *QNNKPI GV CN 1998, .GG 1992 310 *QNNKPI GV CN 1998 311 .GYKU 1960 312 9KNNKCOU 1976 313 $TWPVNCPF 1987 314 &T[\GM 1997 315 1'%QPPQT 1994 316 #FCOU 1995, ’UEQDCT 1996, 4GFENKHV 1992




C EQPVGUVGF UQEKCN EQPUVTWEVKQP317 YJGTG UVTWIINGU QXGT OGCPKPI CTG CU KORQTVCPV CU NKXGNKJQQF

UVTWIINGU318. 5KPEG VJG NCVG UKZVKGU PCVWTG JCU DGEQOG C RTGUUKPI KUUWG, GURGEKCNN[ KP VJG NKIJV QH

RQNKVKEQ-GEQPQOKE TGUVTWEVWTKPI CPF CP GEQNQIKECN CPF EWNVWTCN ETKUKU319. 6JGTG KU KPETGCUKPI

TGEQIPKVKQP VJCV OCP[ RGQRNG NKXKPI KP VJG YGUV CTG RCTVKEKRCVKPI KP C EWNVWTG QH FGPKCN CDQWV

PCVWTG CPF VJCV GFWECVKQP TGKPHQTEGU WPUWUVCKPCDNG XCNWGU CPF RTCEVKEGU320. 6JG TGEQIPKVKQP VJCV

PCVWTG KU PQ NQPIGT GXGT[YJGTG, NKOKVNGUU CPF GZVGTPCNN[ CXCKNCDNG VQ ECRKVCNKUV CEVQTU JCU NGF VQ

C UJKHV YJGTGD[ PCVWTG JCU DGEQOG CP CEEWOWNCVKQP UVTCVGI[ HQT ECRKVCN321. 9KVJKP VJKU UVTCVGI[

PCVWTG KU PQ NQPIGT UGRCTCVG HTQO UQEKCN CPF EWNVWTCN RTQEGUUGU322 ECPPQV DG UGRCTCVGF QHH KPVQ

KVU QYP QPVQNQIKECN URCEG323 CPF UJQWNF DG UVWFKGF CU RCTV QH RQNKVKQ-GPQPQOKE CPF

VGEJPQNQIKECN EJCPIGU. 6JG RTQEGUU QH PQTOCNKUCVKQP/TGUKUVCPEG ECP DG QDUGTXGF QP C

OKETQ-UECNG324 KP VJG EQPVGZV QH FGXGNQROGPV EQPHNKEVU YJGTG PCVWTG KU EQPUVTWEVGF VQ LWUVKH[

CNVGTPCVKXG RQUKVKQPU325. +V ECP DG XKGYGF CU C HQTO QH EWNVWTCN RQNKVKEU YKVJ FKHHGTGPV ITQWRU

NQEMGF KPVQ C UVTWIING QXGT VJG OGCPKPI CPF XCNWGU QH RNCPVU, CPKOCNU CPF NCPFUECRGU

VJTGCVGPGF D[ FGXGNQROGPV326.

/CKPUVTGCO FGXGNQROGPVCN CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN CRRTQCEJGU CTG PQV QPN[ DGKPI EJCNNGPIGF

FKUEWTUKXGN[ DWV CTG DGKPI EQPVGUVGF D[ GEQ-URKTKVWCN, JQNKUVKE-QTICPKE CPF RQUV-OQFGTP

CRRTQCEJGU.

3.3.4 ’EQ-URKTKVWCN CPF *QNKUVKE-QTICPKE 2CTCFKIOU

6JG 1960'U YGTG PQV QPN[ EQWPVGTEWNVWTCN; VJG[ YGTG CNUQ CPVK-ECRKVCNKUV, CPVK-EQNQPKCN, CPVK-

KORGTKCNKUV CPF CPVK-YGUVGTP. +P VJGUG VWTDWNGPV [GCTU ETKVKEKUO QH YGUVGTP TGNKIKQP, UEKGPEG CPF

VGEJPQNQI[, KP EQODKPCVKQP YKVJ CP KPVGTGUV KP PCVKXG #OGTKECP CPF QTKGPVCN TGNKIKQPU DGECOG

317 &CTKGT 1999, ’UEQDCT 1996 318 )TCOUEK 1971 319 %CUVTGG CPF $TCWP 1998 320 $QYGTU 1999, 5VGTNKPI 2001 321 −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

326 $WTIGUU 1992




RCTV QH VJG RQNKVKECN EQPHTQPVCVKQP DGVYGGP VJG YGUV CPF KVU ETKVKEU. #ICKPUV VJKU DCEMITQWPF

TGNKIKQWU CPF GEQNQIKECN KFGCU HQWPF VJGKT YC[ VQ VJG 'OCLQTKV[ YQTNF'327 YJGTG VJG[ GEJQGF C

ITQYKPI RQNKVKECN CPF EWNVWTCN UGNH-EQPUEKQWUPGUU. %QPUGSWGPVN[, FWTKPI VJG NCUV VYGPV[ [GCTU

YG JCXG PQV QPN[ YKVPGUUGF VJG 'ITGGPKPI QH TGNKIKQP'328 DWV PCVKXG #OGTKECPU, #WUVTCNKCP

#DQTKIKPGU, *KPFWU, $WFFJKUVU, /WUNKOU CPF OCP[ QVJGTU JCXG RTGUGPVGF VJGKT TGNKIKQWU

VTCFKVKQPU CU CWVJGPVKECNN[ GEQNQIKECN CPF EQPUGTXCVKQPKUV.

+P VJG YGUV CP KPEQORNGVG TGCFKPI QH 9JKVG'U UGOKPCN GUUC[329 EQPXKPEGF C IGPGTCVKQP QH

GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUVU VJCV TGNKIKQP YCU VJG RTQDNGO, CPF NGF OCP[ GPXKTQPOGPVCN QTICPK\CVKQPU VQ

UJWP TGNKIKQWU EQOOWPKVKGU KP VJGKT YQTM, CPF KIPQTG VJG OKUUKQP QH TGNKIKQP KP RTGUGTXKPI

PCVWTG. 9JKNG KV KU VTWG VJCV 9JKVG FKF FGET[ VJG FQOKPCPEG QH C RCTVKEWNCT CPVJTQRQEGPVTKE

VTCFKVKQP KP %JTKUVKCPKV[, JG CNUQ CEMPQYNGFIGU C EQORGVKPI, OQTG GEQNQIKECN, VTCFKVKQP. *G

EQPENWFGU JKU GUUC[ D[ RTQRQUKPI 5V (TCPEKU CU RCVTQP UCKPV HQT GEQNQIKUVU330. 5KPEG VJG OKF

1990'U VJGTG JCU DGGP C EQPXGTIGPEG DGVYGGP TGNKIKQWU CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN ITQWRU331. +V KU

CPVKEKRCVGF VJCV YKVJ VJG ITQYVJ QH TGNKIKQWU GPXKTQPOGPVCN UVGYCTFUJKR ITQWRU332 VJG[ YKNN

FTCOCVKECNN[ VTCPUHQTO VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP OQXGOGPV KP 21UV EGPVWT[. /CKPUVTGCO TGNKIKQPU

ITQWRU, JQYGXGT, MPQYP OQTG HQT VJGKT UWRRQTV QH VJG UVCVWU SWQ, UJQWNF PQV PGINGEV VJGKT

RTQRJGVKE ECNNKPI333.

4GNKIKQPU CTG OCLQT FTKXGTU QH UQEKGVCN CPF KPFKXKFWCN DGJCXKQWT EJCPIG334 KPENWFKPI VJG

PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV335. 4GEGPV GZCORNGU KPENWFG VJG TQNG QH VJG EJWTEJ CPF NKDGTCVKQP VJGQNQI[

KP VJG 0KECTCIWCP 4GXQNWVKQP336 VJG 75 %KXKN 4KIJVU /QXGOGPV, VJG 5JK'KVG +TCPKCP 4GXQNWVKQP,

VJG FGOQETCE[/ KPFGRGPFGPEG OQXGOGPV KP VJG ’CUVGTP $NQE337 VJG DQ[EQVV QH 0GUVNG

327 TGRTGUGPVKPI 83% QH VJG YQTNFU RQRWNCVKQP PQV RCTV QH VJG "0QTVJ #VNCPVKE 5[UVGO" (’NYQTVJ[ CPF 4QIGTU

2001 RCIG 3). 328 ,GPUGP 1999 329 9JKVG 1967 330 2QRG 1997 331 6WEMGT CPF )TKO 2001

332 ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 5VGYCTFUJKR %QOOKUUKQP JVVR://YYY.GPX-UVGYCTF.EQO/NKPMU.JVO CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005. 333 4QJT 2002 334 $GTT[ 1999 335 )CTFPGT CPF 5VGTP 1996 336 )WVKGTTG\ 1973 337 )TGGPYCNF 1990, 4QIGTU 1990

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RTQFWEVU338 HQT NCWPEJKPI ,WDKNGG 2000 HQT FGDV TGFWEVKQP339 CPF KP DNQEMKPI CVVGORVU KP VJG 75

%QPITGUU VQ YGCMGP VJG ’PFCPIGTGF 5RGEKGU #EV340.

4GNKIKQP DTKPIU CV NGCUV HKXG CUUGVU VQ UQEKGVCN CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN EJCPIG:

� 6JG[ RTQXKFG OGCPKPI D[ UJCRKPI YQTNFXKGY341

� 6JG ECRCEKV[ VQ KPURKTG CPF VJG YKGNFKPI QH OQTCN CWVJQTKV[342

� 5JGGT PWODGTU QH HQNNQYGTU343

� 5WDUVCPVKCN RJ[UKECN CPF HKPCPEKCN TGUQWTEGU344

� # RCTVKEWNCT ECRCEKV[ VQ IGPGTCVG 'UQEKCN ECRKVCN'345

#NN QH VJGUG CUUGVU ECP DG WUGF VQ JGNR DWKNF C UQEKCNN[ LWUV CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCNN[ UWUVCKPCDNG

YQTNF346. 6QFC[ VJG 'TGNKIKQWU GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUV'347 QT VJG 'GEQNQIKECN URKTKVWCNKV[' RCTCFKIO348

JCU C YGNN GUVCDNKUJGF RQUKVKQP KP INQDCN GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUV FKUEWUUKQP349 YJKEJ OC[ JCXG

RTQHQWPF RGTEWUUKQPU QP VJG YC[ KPFKXKFWCNU CPF VJGKT UQEKGVKGU RGTEGKXG VJG GPXKTQPOGPV,

NGCFKPI VQ OQTG UWUVCKPCDNG GCTVJ ECTG350 .

(TQO C UQEKQNQIKECN RGTURGEVKXG, TGNKIKQWU VTCFKVKQPU TGRTGUGPV CPF EQPUVTWEV VJG EQNNGEVKXG

XCNWGU CPF U[UVGOU QH OGCPKPI QH JWOCP UQEKGVKGU. #U UWEJ, TGNKIKQWU VTCFKVKQPU KPHNWGPEG VJG

YC[ VJGKT CFJGTGPVU KPVGTRTGV VJGKT GZRGTKGPEG QH VJG YQTNF CPF, EQPUGSWGPVN[, KPHNWGPEG VJGKT

CEVKQPU WRQP KV. 4GNKIKQWU KFGQNQIKGU, JQYGXGT, CTG VJGOUGNXGU CNYC[U KP OGFKCU TGU351

CPF

GXGP VJQWIJ VJGKT CFJGTGPVU OC[ WRJQNF CP GVGTPCN XKUKQP QH CTEJCKE RTKPEKRNGU JCPFGF FQYP

QXGT IGPGTCVKQPU, KP CEVWCNKV[ VJKU XKUKQP KU EQPVKPWQWUN[ TGPGIQVKCVGF CPF TGEQPUVTWEVGF KP

EQPXGTUCVKQP YKVJ VJG EJCPIKPI FGOCPFU QH JKUVQTKECN CPF EWNVWTCN EQPVGZV. 3WKVG CRCTV HTQO

338 $TQCF CPF %CXCPCIJ 1998 339 YYY.LWDKNGG2000WM.QTI CEEGUUGF 12VJ ,WN[ 2004. 340 )CTFPGT 2002 341 #PFGTUQP 1996, %JCRRNG CPF 6WEMGT 2000 342 $GTPUVGKP CPF 2QNKVK 1996, 5EJYCTV\ 1994 343 $CTTGVV CPF ,QJPUQP 2001, )TKO 2001 344 )CTFPGT 2002 345 6JKU KU C EQPVGUVGF VGTO (5GG $CTQP GV CN 2004, .GWPI 2002, 5VQNNG CPF .GYKU WPFCVGF). 346 &CUIWRVC CPF 5GTCIGNFKP 2000, )CTFPGT 2002 347 2GFGTUGP 1995 348 −KPUNG[ 1995 349 #VKUJC 1991, &YKXGFK CPF 6KYCTK 1987, 5YCKP 1991 350 −KPUNG[ 1995, 2QUG[ 1999 351 .KVGTCNN[ 'KP VJG XGT[ OKFUV QH VJKPIU' - YJKNG UVQTKGU WUWCNN[ DGIKP CV VJG EJTQPQNQIKECN DGIKPPKPI PCTTCVKXGU VJCV DGIKP KP VJG 'VJKEM QH VJKPIU' CPF HKNN KP VJG DCEMITQWPF NCVGT CTG FGUETKDGF CU KP OGFKC TGU.

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CP[ EQPVTKDWVKQP VJCV TGNKIKQP OC[ DTKPI VQ C RGTEGRVKQP QH PCVWTG, KP VJG YGUVGTP YQTNF, VJGTG

KU C ITQYKPI CYCTGPGUU QH VJG KPCFGSWCEKGU QH VJG %CTVGUKCP YQTNFXKGY, KP YJKEJ CP KPVGPUKHKGF

FKEJQVQO[ QH TGCNKV[, UGRCTCVGF UWDLGEV HTQO QDLGEV, EWNVWTG HTQO PCVWTG, CPF EWNVWTCN UEKGPEGU

HTQO PCVWTCN UEKGPEGU. /QTG RTGEKUGN[, DQVJ UEKGPEGU CPF RQRWNCT KFGQNQIKGU JCXG EQOG VQ

SWGUVKQP VJG FKXKUKQP DGVYGGP 'UEKGPEG HQT RGQRNG CPF UEKGPEG HQT PCVWTG'. 9KVJ VJG EJCNNGPIGF

YGUVGTP RCTCFKIOU, CP GPVKTGN[ PGY GEQNQIKECN RCTCFKIO KU HTGSWGPVN[ ECNNGF HQT , C RCTCFKIO

YJGTG 'JWOCPMKPF' CPF 'GPXKTQPOGPV' PQ NQPIGT CTG UGGP CU UGRCTCVG CPF QRRQUKVG GPVKVKGU DWV

YJGTG 'QTICPKUOU CPF GPXKTQPOGPV HQTO RCTV QH QPG CPQVJGT'352.

5EKGPVKUVU CPF NC[RGQRNG JCXG UGCTEJGF HQT PGY KPURKTCVKQP HTQO QWVUKFG YGUVGTP VTCFKVKQPU. #

NCTIG DQF[ QH NKVGTCVWTG QHHGTU CNVGTPCVKXG YQTNFXKGYU VQ VJG RTGXCKNKPI YGUVGTP QPGU: WUWCNN[

FGRKEVKPI JWOCPMKPF CU CP KPVGITCN RCTV QH PCVWTG KPUVGCF QH DGKPI UGRCTCVGF HTQO KV CPF VT[KPI

VQ FQOKPCVG KV. 6JG[ RQTVTC[ JWOCPMKPF CPF GPXKTQPOGPV CU C JCTOQPKQWU WPKV[ QH OWVWCN

TGURGEV, EQORNGOGPVCTKV[ CPF U[ODKQUKU, VJGKT XKGYU CTG JQNKUVKE-QTICPKE TCVJGT VJCP

CVQOKUVKE-OGEJCPKUVKE CU KP VJG KPFWUVTKCN YGUV353.

6JG RGTEGRVKQP QH PCVWTG HQWPF COQPI KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CPF VTKDCN UQEKGVKGU JCXG RTQXKFGF

WU YKVJ C TCPIG QH CNVGTPCVKXG RCTCFKIOU VJCV CRRGCT VQ KPENWFG GZCORNGU QH GZRNKEKV

GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGEVKQP354. 6JGTG CTG FCPIGTU JQYGXGT QH QXGT-TQOCPVKEK\CVKQP QH VJGKT

VTCFKVKQPU, YJKEJ YKNN DG CFFTGUUGF KP VJG PGZV EJCRVGT, CPF QH 'KFGQNQIKECN ECRVWTG'. +P VJG NCVVGT

ECUG KPFKIGPQWU RJGPQOGPC JCXG DGGP OCTMGVGF HQT KFGQNQIKECN GPFU CPF VJWU DGEQOG

GPVCPINGF YKVJ C EQPVKPWKPI ETKVKSWG QH YGUVGTP EWNVWTG. 0CVKXG #OGTKECP DGNKGHU, HQT KPUVCPEG,

ITGCVN[ KPURKTGF VJG HQWPFGTU QH )TGGPRGCEG, YJQ UCY VJGOUGNXGU CU TCKPDQY YCTTKQTU, YJQ

CEEQTFKPI VQ %TGG VTCFKVKQP 'YQWNF VGCEJ VJG YJKVG OCP TGXGTGPEG HQT VJG GCTVJ'355. 6JWU HCT HGY

QH VJG OCKPUVTGCO CRRTQCEJGU, YKVJ VJG GZEGRVKQP QH VJG GEQ-URKTKVWCN-GPXKTQPOGPVCN RCTCFKIO

JCXG OWEJ IQQFPGUU-QH-HKV YKVJ VJG XCNWGU CPF YQTNFXKGYU QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG, DWV VJGTG CTG

VYQ VTCLGEVQTKGU QH VJG RQUV-OQFGTP VJCV CRRGCT VQ DG IGTOCPG VJCV YKNN DG GZCOKPGF KP VJG PGZV

UGEVKQP.

352 %CVVQP CPF &WPNCR 1978, 1980, &KEMGPU 1992 353 %CNNKEQVV CPF #OGU 1989 354 5GGNCPF 1986 355 $TQYP CPF /C[ 1991




3.3.5 2QUV-OQFGTP #RRTQCEJGU

6JG QPN[ RQUV-OQFGTP VTCLGEVQTKGU VJCV CTG UGGOKPIN[ CRRQUKVG KPENWFG U[UVGOU CPF

RGQRNG-EGPVTGF CRRTQCEJGU. 6JG U[UVGOU CRRTQCEJ KU DCUGF QP CFCRVKXG OCPCIGOGPV CPF

CDFWEVKQP356, YKVJ CP GORJCUKU QP NKPMCIGU CPF HGGFDCEM EQPVTQNU357. 7PNKMG VTCFKVKQPCN

UEKGPEG, VJKU CRRTQCEJ KU KPVGITCVKXG CPF KPVGTFKUEKRNKPCT[, KV KPENWFGU VJG KPVGTCEVKQPU QH UQEKCN

U[UVGOU YKVJ PCVWTCN U[UVGOU, CPF KV KU RTGFKECVGF QP C TGNCVKQPCN, RCTVKEKRCVQT[ CPF QTICPKE

YQTNFXKGY. +VU CRRTQCEJ KU DQVJ U[PVJGVKE CPF JQNKUVKE KP VJG UGPUG VJCV KV HQEWUGU WRQP

UVWF[KPI VJG RCVVGTPU QH TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP VJG RCTVU, TCVJGT VJCP VJG RCTVU VJGOUGNXGU358. 6JG

OQUV CTVKEWNCVG UVCVGOGPV QH VJKU PGY OGVJQFQNQI[ KU RTQXKFGF D[ $CVGUQP359 YJQ WUGU VJG

EQPEGRV QH 'CDFWEVKQP'360 VQ WPFGTUVCPF RCVVGTPU QH TGNCVKQPUJKR YKVJ QPG CPQVJGT, CPF VJGKT

FGITGG QH U[OOGVT[.

#FCRVKXG OCPCIGOGPV RTGFKECVGF DQVJ QP CDFWEVKQP CPF C U[PVJGVKE CPF TGNCVKQPCN CRRTQCEJ

QHHGTU VJG RTQURGEV QH GODTCEKPI UWTRTKUG, CPF QH TGFGHKPKPI, TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV, JWOCP

KPUVKVWVKQPU, CPF VGEJPKSWGU CPF XCNWGU QP VJG DCUKU QH VJG RCVVGTPU QH VJG NCTIGT U[UVGO QH

YJKEJ VJG[ CTG RCTV. +PFKIGPQWU TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV KU UKOKNCT KP UQOG YC[U VQ CFCRVKXG

OCPCIGOGPV. 6JGUG VTCFKVKQPCN U[UVGOU RTQEGGF KP CP CFCRVKXG HCUJKQP D[ OWVWCN HGGFDCEM

OGEJCPKUOU CPF EQ-GXQNWVKQP. 6JG[ RCTCNNGN CFCRVKXG OCPCIGOGPV KP VJGKT TGNKCPEG QP

NGCTPKPI-D[-FQKPI CPF VJG WUG QH HGGFDCEM HTQO VJG GPXKTQPOGPV VQ RTQXKFG EQTTGEVKQPU HQT

OCPCIGOGPV RTCEVKEG. 6JG[ FKHHGT HTQO HQTOCN U[UVGOU IGPGTCNN[ D[ VJG CDUGPEG QH VGUVCDNG

J[RQVJGUGU CPF IGPGTCNK\CVKQP VJGQTKGU CPF D[ VJG KPVGITCVKQP QH OQTCN CPF TGNKIKQWU DGNKGH

U[UVGOU YKVJ OCPCIGOGPV361.

6JG RGQRNG-QTKGPVCVGF CRRTQCEJ HQEWUGU QP VJG TGUQWTEG WUGT CPF VJGKT MPQYNGFIG, KPUVKVWVKQPU

CPF TKIJVU. 6QQNU HQT VJKU CRRTQCEJ JQYGXGT CTG RQQTN[ FGXGNQRGF, CPF VJG KORQTVCPEG QH C

UQEKCN CPF EQIPKVKXG UEKGPEG QH TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV KU PQV YGNN TGEQIPK\GF. 5QOG TGUGCTEJGTU

JQYGXGT JCXG CVVGORVGF VQ CFFTGUU VJKU ICR CPF VJG[ KPENWFG UVWFKGU QP XCTKQWU FKOGPUKQPU QH

356 6JG RTQEGUU QH KPHGTGPEG VQ VJG DGUV GZRNCPCVKQP. 357 *QNNKPI 1978, 9CNVGTU 1986 358 *QNNKPI GV CN 1998 359 $CVGUQP 1972C, 1972D, 1988 360 #U CRRQUGF VQ KPFWEVKQP QT FGFWEVKQP. 361 )CFIKN GV CN 1993




UWUVCKPCDKNKV[, KPUVKVWVKQPU CPF EQNNGEVKXG CEVKQP, RTQRGTV[ TKIJVU, EQOOWPKV[-DCUGF TGUQWTEG

OCPCIGOGPV, CPF KPUVKVWVKQPCN NGCTPKPI CPF TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV362.

+P VJKU EJCRVGT YG JCXG EQPENWFGF VJCV YKVJ C HGY GZEGRVKQPU363 OQUV QH VJG OCKPUVTGCO

VTCLGEVQTKGU QH FGXGNQROGPV CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO CTG HCVCNN[ HNCYGF, KP VGTOU QH VJGKT QYP

QDLGEVKXGU. ’PXKTQPOGPVCN CPF PGQ-RQRWNKUV TJGVQTKE EQPVKPWG VQ DG UCVWTCVGF YKVJ VJG

EWNVWTCNN[ EQPUVTWEVGF O[VJU QH GVJPQEGPVTKE 9GUVGTP JGIGOQP[. 9G JCXG PQVGF VJG FGOKUG QH

OQFGTPKV[ YKVJ 9QTNF 9CT ++, #WUYKV\ CPF 5VCNKP, CPF VJG CRRCTGPV UGC EJCPIG QHHGTGF D[

RQUVOQFGTPKUO. +VU FGXGNQROGPV VTCLGEVQTKGU, JQYGXGT, EQPVKPWG VQ DG RTGFKECVGF QP YGUVGTP

GVJPQEGPVTKUO CPF CP GRKUVGOQNQI[ VJCV JCU NKVVNG VQ QHHGT VJQUG UGGMKPI C JQNKUVKE

KPVGTEQPPGEVGF YQTNFXKGY. +V FQGU PQV OCMG TQQO HQT: TGCNKV[ QWVUKFG QH NCPIWCIG; C DCUKU HQT

JWOCP KFGPVKV[ QT C EQNNGEVKXG KFGPVKV[; C DCUKU HQT GVJKEU; CP[ HQTO QH KPVGTEQPPGEVKQP DGVYGGP

PCVWTG, JWOCPMKPF CPF VJG UCETGF; RTQITGUU DG[QPF KPFKXKFWCNKUVKE UGNHKUJ EQPUWOGTKUO; C

RNCVHQTO VQ LWFIG QT GXCNWCVG; CP[ JKUVQTKECN TGHGTGPEG RQKPVU; C DCUKU HQT RQNKVKECN WPKV[ QT

UQEKCN EQJGUKQP; CP[ XKGYU CPF XCNWGU PQV DCUGF QP CP 1EEKFGPVCN DKPCT[ HTCOGYQTM.

9G PQVGF HWTVJGT VJCV YJKNG OCKPUVTGCO GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO CPF UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV,

CRRGCT VQ JCXG CFQRVGF VJG 'RQNKVKECNN[ EQTTGEV' TJGVQTKE QH EQPEGTP HQT VJG RQQT, VJG

GPXKTQPOGPV CPF UWUVCKPCDKNKV[, VJG[ EQPVKPWG VQ DG RTGFKECVGF QP VJG NGICEKGU QH KORGTKCN CPF

EQNQPKCN FKUEQWTUG. 6JGKT XKGY QH PCVWTG EQPVKPWGU VQ DG WVKNKVCTKCP CPF VJG[ TGOCKP DNKPF VQ

FKXGTUKV[ QWVUKFG QH GEQPQOKEU. 6JG[ FQ PQV QHHGT CP[ UQTV QH EJCNNGPIG VQ ECRKVCNKUV ITQYVJ,

CPF VJG[ CTG RCVGPVN[ TGUKUVCPV VQ GEQEGPVTKUO. 6JG[ CTG RNCKPN[ DNKPF VQ VJG EWNVWTCNN[

EQPUVTWEVGF O[VJU WRQP YJKEJ VJG[ CTG RTGFKECVGF CPF VJG[ JCXG HCKNGF VQ CFFTGUU VJG EWNVWTCN

RQNKVKEU QT VJG KPFKIGPQWU 'U[UVGOU' QH PQP-YGUVGTP UVCMG-JQNFGTU.

#NVJQWIJ CVVGORVU CTG DGKPI OCFG VQ TGEQIPKUG CPF KPVGITCVG YGUVGTP CPF PQP-YGUVGTP

'MPQYNGFIG', VJG KPVGITCVKQP EQPVKPWGU VQ DG RTKXKNGIGF QP YGUVGTP YQTNFXKGYU, UEKGPEG, XCNWGU,

FGHKPKVKQPU QH RTQITGUU CPF PGQNKDGTCN GEQPQOKEU. (GY CVVGORVU CTG DGKPI OCFG; VQ FGEQPUVTWEV

362 $GTMGU CPF (QNMG 1998 363 4GNKIKQWU GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF JQNKUVKE-QTICPKE RCTCFKIOU, OWNVKRNG FKOGPUKQPU QH UWUVCKPCDKNKV[, CFCRVKXG OCPCIGOGPV CPF RGQRNG-EGPVTGF CRRTQCEJGU.




YGUVGTP O[VJU, YGUVGTP YQTNFXKGYU QT RCTCFKIOU, VQ GZVTCRQNCVG HTQO XGTPCEWNCT MPQYNGFIG

U[UVGOU, QT VQ CFFTGUU U[PGTI[ COQPI MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU.

6JKU UVWF[ YKNN CTIWG KP VJG HQNNQYKPI EJCRVGTU VJCV KP QTFGT VQ CFFTGUU UWUVCKPCDNG

FGXGNQROGPV PQV QPN[ FQ YG PGGF VQ FGEQPUVTWEV YGUVGTP O[VJU, DWV YG PGGF VJG EWNVWTCN CPF

GRKUVGOQNQIKECN EQORGVGPE[ VQ WPFGTUVCPF VJG TGCNKV[ QH UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ HTQO PQP-YGUVGTP CPF

KPFKIGPQWU RGTURGEVKXGU.


%JCRVGT 4 0QP-YGUVGTP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU


%*#26’4 4 010-'9’56’40' −019.’&)’

4.1 +0641&7%6+10

+P VJG NCUV EJCRVGT + EQPENWFGF VJCV YKVJ C HGY GZEGRVKQPU OQUV QH VJG OCKPUVTGCO VTCLGEVQTKGU

QH FGXGNQROGPV CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO CTG HCVCNN[ HNCYGF, KP VGTOU QH VJGKT QYP QDLGEVKXGU CPF

GKVJGT FQ PQV EQPUVKVWVG RCTCFKIOU QT EQPVKPWG VQ DG UCVWTCVGF YKVJ VJG EWNVWTCNN[ EQPUVTWEVGF

O[VJU QH GVJPQEGPVTKE YGUVGTP JGIGOQP[. +P VJKU EJCRVGT, IKXGP VJG RTGXCKNKPI MPQYNGFIG

U[UVGOU QH #UKC CPF %JKPC, KP IGPGTCN, CPF ’CUVGTP −JCO, KP RCTVKEWNCT, + YKNN GZCOKPG

PQP-YGUVGTP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG.

9G PGGF VQ EQPUKFGT PQP-YGUVGTP 'ENCUUKECN MPQYNGFIG' U[UVGOU DGECWUG VJG[ QHVGP UWTXKXG

COQPI VJG 'GNKVG ENCUUGU'364 QH RQRWNCVKQPU YJGTG KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CTG HQWPF, QHVGP 'QXGTNC['

KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU, CTG DGKPI TG-GZCOKPGF CU VJG DCUKU HQT OQTG JQNKUVKE

RCTCFKIOU365, CPF CRRGCT VQ RTQXKFG UQOG UQTV QH TGUQWTEGU KP UWRRQTV QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN

EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF RTQVGEVKQP.

4.2 ’#56’40 %.#55+%#. −019.’&)’ 5;56’/5

6JG HQNNQYKPI ENCUUKECN MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU RTQXKFG C DCEM-FTQR VQ QWT UVWF[ CTGC:- *KPFWKUO,

$WFFJKUO, 6JG 6KDGVCP $QP TGNKIKQP, 6CK %JK, %QPHWEKCPKUO, CPF &CQKUO, CPF CNVJQWIJ C

XGT[ GZVGPUKXG NKVGTCVWTG GZKUVU366 YG CTG OQUVN[ KPVGTGUVGF KP VJGKT XKGY QH VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF,

YJKEJ YKNN DG GZRNQTGF KP OQTG FGRVJ KP %JCRVGT 7.

364 G.I. ’NKVG GFWECVGF NCOCU KP 6KDGV JCXG CFQRVGF 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO YJKNG PQOCFU CPF HCTOGTU JCXG RTKOCTKN[ CFQRVGF CPKOKUO. 365 )CTFPGT 2002 366 *KPFWKUO -$WEM 1973, ’FIGTVQP 1972, ,CEMUQP CPF −KNNKPING[ 1988, −CPVKMCT 1989, −KPUNG[ 1993, −QNNGT 1982, .KRPGT 1994 $WFFJKUO - &QWINCU CPF 9JKVG 1976, *WORJTG[U 1989, .GUVGT 1987, .KPI 1972, .QD\CPI .JCNWPIRC 1977, .W 1971, /QTICP 1987, 2CDQPIMC 4KPDQEJG 1994, 2CNVTWN 1994, 2QYGNN 1989, 4CJWNC 1990, 4QDKPUQP CPF ,QJPUQP 1982, 5PGNNITQXG 1987, 5PGNNKPI 1987, −CTOC 6JKPNG[ 1978, 6JQPFWR 1987, %JQIC[ 6TKEJGP 1983, 6WEEK 1980, 9CPIW 1993, 9KNNKCOU 1989, 9KNNKU 1995 6KDGVCP $QP - #DDQVVU 1987, $CVEJGNQT 1987, %JCP 1994, %TQQM CPF 1UOCUVQP 1994, )[WTOG &QTLG 1996, −CTOC[ 1972, 5COWGN 1993C, 1993D, 5PGNNITQXG CPF 4KEJCTFUQP 1968, 5PGNNITQXG 1981, 5VGKP 1972, 9CFFGNN 1967 6CK EJK - %JGP /CP %JKPI GV CN 1985, 9C[UWP .KCQ 1990, 1995, 9KNG 1995 %QPHWEKCPKUO - %JGP 1986, %JKPI 1978, %JWCPI-6\W 1981, %QPHWEKWU 1987, 1998, %TCORVQP 1996, *QQDNGT CPF *QQDNGT 1993, /QQTG 1996 &CQKUO - %JWCPI-6\W 1981, %NGCT[ 1991, %QQRGT 1990C, .CQ\K 1993, 1998, 0GGFJCO 1954, 1956, 1982, 5EJKRRGT 1993, 9NGEJ GV CN 1979




1PG QH VJG OQUV EQOOQP CPF GPFWTKPI YGUVGTP UVGTGQV[RGU KP GPXKTQPOGPVCN NKVGTCVWTG KU VJG

KFGC VJCV ENCUUKECN GCUVGTP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU RTQOQVG C UGPUG QH JCTOQP[ CPF TGURGEV

DGVYGGP JWOCPMKPF CPF PCVWTG. 1P VJG QVJGT UKFG QH VJG UVGTGQV[RG UVCPF VJG MPQYNGFIG

U[UVGOU QH VJG 'YGUV' YJKEJ; CTG OQTCNN[ KPHGTKQT, GPXKTQPOGPVCNN[ KPUGPUKVKXG, RTQOQVG VJG

UGRCTCVKQP QH JWOCP DGKPIU CPF PCVWTG, CPF GPEQWTCIG CEVU QH FQOKPCVKQP, GZRNQKVCVKQP CPF

EQPVTQN367. 6JGTG CTG IQQF TGCUQPU VQ VJKPM, JQYGXGT, VJCV VJKU KU PQV VJG YJQNG RKEVWTG. +P C

TGOCTMCDNG CTVKENG, −GNNGTV368 JCU IKXGP ENGCT UVCVKUVKECN UJCRG VQ VJG UWURKEKQP VJCV ’CUVGTP

EWNVWTGU CTG LWUV CU ECRCDNG QH UJQYKPI FKUTGURGEV HQT PCVWTG369 CU VJGKT 9GUVGTP EQWPVGTRCTVU.

+P EQPVTCUV VQ JKIJN[ RQUKVKXG ’CUVGTP CVVKVWFGU VQYCTF PCVWTG, OQFGTP ,CRCP CPF %JKPC, HQT

GZCORNG, JCXG DGGP EKVGF HQT VJGKT RQQT EQPUGTXCVKQP TGEQTF; KPENWFKPI YKFGURTGCF VGORGTCVG

CPF VTQRKECN FGHQTGUVCVKQP, GZEGUUKXG GZRNQKVCVKQP QH YKNFNKHG RTQFWEVU, KPFKUETKOKPCVG CPF

FCOCIKPI HKUJKPI RTCEVKEGU, CPF YKFGURTGCF RQNNWVKQP. +P C 70’2 UWTXG[370 ,CRCP TCPMGF

'NQYGUV KP GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPEGTP CPF CYCTGPGUU' QH VJG HQWTVGGP EQWPVTKGU UWTXG[GF. #NVJQWIJ

UGXGTCN #UKCP %QWPVTKGU371 OC[ JCXG CFQRVGF YGUVGTP- UV[NG GEQPQOKE FGXGNQROGPV KV CRRGCTU

VQ DG VQQ QXGTN[ UKORNKUVKE VQ CVVTKDWVG VJKU EQPVTCFKEVKQP OGTGN[ VQ VJG KPHNWGPEG QH VJG 9GUV.

9KVJ VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH %QPHWEKCPKUO CPF %JKPGUG $WFFJKUO CPF '4GNKIKQWU

&CQKUO'CNVJQWIJ YG HKPF GZRNKEKV EQPUGTXCVKQP KPLWPEVKQPU VJGTG CRRGCTU VQ DG NGUU EQPITWGPE[

DGVYGGP DGNKGH CPF RTCEVKEG, C TG-KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH VTCFKVKQPCN URKTKVWCN EQPEGRVU, CPF C

TGFWEVKQP QH PCVWTG VQ U[ODQNKUO CPF TGRTGUGPVCVKQP.

/QUV %JKPGUG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU KPENWFG VJG EQPEGRV QH [KP/[CPI. &TCYKPI QP VJGUG VYQ

QRRQUKVG EQPEGRVU 6WCP372 JCU KFGPVKHKGF VYQ GPXKTQPOGPVCN RCTCFKIOU; C VGTTGUVTKCN CPF C

EGNGUVKCN QPG. 6JG 'VGTTGUVTKCN PCVWTCNKUVKE RCTCFKIO' HKPFU GZRTGUUKQP KP; RJKNQUQRJ[, PCVWTG

367 5QWNG 1995 368 −GNNGTV 1995 369 '0CVWTG' KU C RWTGN[ YGUVGTP EQPEGRV, JQYGXGT UQOG PGCT %JKPGUG GSWKXCNGPVU KPENWFG 'YKNF' (野野野野 [G3 KU

RTQPQWPEGF KP VJG 3TF VQPG), YJKEJ KU PQV NKMGF, 'VJG URQPVCPGQWU' (自然自然自然自然 \K4 TCP2 : \K KU RTQPQWPEGF KP VJG 4VJ VQPG

CPF TCP KP VJG 2PF VQPG), 'YJCV YG CTG DQTP YKVJ CPF JCXG KPUKFG' (性性性性 ZKPI4 KU RTQPQWEGF KP VJG 4VJ VQPG),

'GXGT[VJKPI' (万物万物万物万物 YCP4 YW4 : DQVJ YCP CPF YW CTG RTQPQWPEGF KP VJG 4VJ VQPG ), EQPEGRVU QH RNCPVU, CPKOCNU CPF OQWPVCKPU, CPF 6JG &CQ KP UQOG &CQKUV WUCIG (RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP #PFGTUQP 25/1/2000 YGDNQI). 5QOG PGCT

6KDGVCP GSWKXCNGPVU KPENWFG PCVWTG (:$-06m,-> m-"1=k TCPI-D\JKP-I[K-MJCOU) CPF GPXKTQPOGPV/PCVWTG (

"}:-9v#k MJQT-[WI) (RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP )[WTOG &QTLG 21/3/2000). 370 ’EMGN 1997 371 G.I. %JKPC CPF ,CRCP. 372 6WCP 1968




RQGVT[, VJG TGHKPGF UGPVKOGPVU QH &CQKUO CPF %QPHWEKCPKUO, GPNKIJVGPGF EQPUGTXCVKQP

OGOQTKCNU, CPF C 'EQUOKE EGNGUVKCN RCTCFKIO' QH IGQOGVTKE QTFGT, IGQOCPE[, HGPIUJWK,

CITKEWNVWTCN CNOCPCEU, CPF HQTOCN ICTFGPU. 9JKNG VJG HQTOGT CRRGCTU VQ UWRRQTV GPXKTQPOGPVCN

EQPUGTXCVKQP VJG NCVVGT CRRGCTU VQ JCXG 'NGIKVKOK\GF' C UQEKCN JKGTCTEJ[ CPF CWVJQTKVCTKCP EQPVTQN

QXGT PCVWTG CPF JWOCPMKPF, CPF QHVGP TGUWNVGF KP FGHQTGUVGF OQWPVCKPU, GTQUKQP, ENQIIGF

UVTGCOU CPF VQVCNKVCTKCPKUO.

%QPHWEKCPKUO CRRGCTU VQ JCXG WUGF VJG EQPEGRV QH [KP/[CPI VQ FGXGNQR KVU JKGTCTEJKECN UQEKCN

EQFG CPF EQUOQNQI[373, YJKEJ NGIKVKOK\GF VJG FQOKPCVKQP, UWDLWICVKQP CPF EQPVTQN QH %JKPC'U

RGQRNG, OKPQTKV[ TCEGU, YQOGP CPF PCVWTG. #NVJQWIJ %QPHWEKWU CRRGCTU VQ JCXG TGICTFGF VJG

PCVWTCN YQTNF CU C OQFGN HQT CGUVJGVKE RNGCUWTG CPF GVJKECN XKTVWGU, %QPHWEKCPKUO JCU PGXGT

FKTGEVN[ EQPEGTPGF KVUGNH YKVJ GPXKTQPOGPVCN KUUWGU CPF VJWU ECPPQV RTGVGPF VQ JCXG VJG CPUYGT

VQ VJG GCTVJ'U GEQNQIKECN RTQDNGOU, JQYGXGT KV CRRGCTU VQ RTQXKFG, UQOG RJKNQUQRJKECN CPF

URKTKVWCN 'TGUQWTEGU'374.

%JKPGUG, ,CRCPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO CTG TQQVGF KP *KPFWKUO CPF +PFKCP $WFFJKUO CPF KV

KU PGEGUUCT[ VQ KPVGTTQICVG VJGUG VTCFKVKQPU VQ HWNN[ WPFGTUVCPF VJG CRRCTGPV RCTCFQZGU KP

GPXKTQPOGPVCN VTGCVOGPV. +V CRRGCTU VJQWIJ VJCV 'PCVWTG' KP VJG +PFKCP VTCFKVKQP KU C YQTNF VQ DG

VTCPUEGPFGF, CPF KP ,CRCP CPF %JKPC KV JCU VCMGP QP VJG ECRCEKV[ VQ U[ODQNK\G VTCPUEGPFGPEG

KVUGNH, CPF VJCV VJG YQTNFU QH 'JGCNVJ, JCTOQP[ CPF YGNN-DGKPI' TGRTGUGPVGF D[ PCVWTG (ETGCVGF

QT YKNF) CTG QPN[ CP KFGCN UGVVKPI HQT 'GPNKIJVGPOGPV' VQ VCMG RNCEG QT VQ YQTUJKR C FKXKPKV[375.

6JKU CRRGCTGF VQ DG VJG ECUG COQPI VJG 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUVU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO376.

+P %JKPC CPF ,CRCP VJG EQPVTKDWVKQP QH $WFFJKUO, VQ C EQNNGEVKXG RGTEGRVKQP CDQWV PCVWTG, CPF

CP GZRNCPCVKQP HQT EQPVCEV YKVJ VJG GPXKTQPOGPV YCU VJG EQPEGRV QH '$WFFJC-PCVWTG'. 6JKU

RGTEGRVKQP JQYGXGT, CRRGCTU VQ DG RTGFKECVGF PQV QP PCVWTG KP KVU TCY HQTO, DWV QP VJG EWNVWTCN

VTCPUHQTOCVKQP QH PCVWTG, YJGTG PCVWTCN GNGOGPVU CTG TGHKPGF CPF CDUVTCEVGF UQ VJCV VJG[ ECP

UGTXG CU U[ODQNU QH JCTOQP[, QTFGT, QT DCNCPEG377.

373 ’ORGTQT/UWDLGEVU, JWUDCPF/YKHG, JGCXGP /GCTVJ, *CP /$CTDCTKCPU GVE. 374 6WEMGT CPF $GTVJQPI 1998 375 5VQVV 1978 376 5VWFNG[ GV CN 1999 377 −GNNGTV 1991, 1995




6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO378 CPF $QP379 CTG PQV KPUGPUKVKXG VQ VJG ENCKOU QH VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF, DWV

VJGTG KU OQTG QH CP GORJCUKU QP VJG RWTKHKECVKQP QH VJG OKPF, CPF VJG FQEVTKPG QH GORVKPGUU380

CU C RTG-TGSWKUKVG HQT GXGP EQPUKFGTKPI CP GVJKECN TGURQPUG VQ VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF381. 6JG

UVGTGQV[RG XKUKQP QH 6KDGV CU VJG NCPF QH PQP-XKQNGPEG, OGFKVCVKQP CPF 'ITGGP XCNWGU' CRRGCTU VQ

DG C EQPUVTWEV RTGFKECVGF OQUVN[ QP VJG "YGUVGTP TQOCPEG CPF KFGCNK\CVKQP QH CHHNWGPV,

FKUGPEJCPVGF ’WTQRGCPU CPF #OGTKECPU"382. 9GUVGTP TQOCPVKE PQVKQPU QH 6KDGVCPU JCXG

DGEQOG UQ RGTXCUKXG VJCV 6KDGVCPU KP GZKNG JCXG UVCTVGF VQ CFQRV VJG 9GUVGTPGT'U KFGCNK\CVKQPU

CPF VQ TG-HCUJKQP VJG KOCIG QH 6KDGVCP EWNVWTG383

6JG &CQKUV KFGCN QH NKXKPI YKVJ VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF, KP 'JCTOQP[ YKVJ VJG URQPVCPGQWU UGNH' FQGU

CRRGCT VQ RTQXKFG UQOG UQTV QH 'GVJKE' VJCV XCNWGU OQTG QTICPKE CPF NGUU FCOCIGF GPXKTQPOGPVU

CPF '6JG &CQ', KP UQOG &CQKUV WUCIG EQOGU ENQUG VQ UQOG OGCPKPIU QH 'PCVWTG' KP ’PINKUJ. 6JKU

YKNN DG GZRNQTGF HWTVJGT KP EJCRVGT 7 UGEVKQP 7.1.3 CNVJQWIJ VJGTG KU NKVVNG EQPETGVG

EQPUGTXCVKQPKUV QT GEQNQIKECN NQTG GODGFFGF KP &CQKUO384. $QVJ $WFFJKUO CPF %QPHWEKCPKUO

JCF CP KPETGCUKPI KPHNWGPEG QP &CQKUO CPF CU C TGUWNV KVU XKGY QH VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF OQXGF HTQO

QPG QH KPVTKPUKE XCNWG VQ U[ODQNKUO CPF TGRTGUGPVCVKQP.

+V KU GXKFGPV VJCV OQUV ’CUVGTP ENCUUKECN MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU FQ CRRGCT VQ QHHGT UQOG TGUQWTEGU

VJCV UWRRQTV VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH PCVWTG. 6JGKT XKGY QH VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF, JQYGXGT KU QHVGP

U[ODQNKE QT UGEQPFCT[, NCEMKPI GZRNKEKV RTQVGEVKQP QT 'DQPFU QH CHHGEVKQP' CPF CV DGUV QPN[

TGRTGUGPVU C FGKV[ QT KVU FKXKPG CURGEV385. #U C TGUWNV VJGUG U[UVGOU ECP LWUV CU GCUKN[ RTQXKFG VJG

DCUKU HQT VJG FQOKPCVKQP, GZRNQKVCVKQP CPF EQPVTQN QH PCVWTG CPF JWOCPMKPF.

378 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO (5GG 5VGKP 1972, 6WEEK 1980) CU C YJQNG KU C EQORNGZ DWV EQJGTGPV DQF[ QH /CJC[CPC FQEVTKPGU CPF GUQVGTKE RTCEVKEGU CPF EQORTKUGU HQWT OCLQT TGNKIKQWU QTFGTU : 5CM[CRC, −CI[WRC, 0[KOGRG, CPF )GNWIRC.

379 6Q CNN KPVGPVU CPF RWTRQUGU VJG OQFGTP $QP-RQ CTG HQNNQYGTU QH C $WFFJKUV TGNKIKQWU VTCFKVKQP YKVJ EGTVCKP FKHHGTGPEGU QH XQECDWNCT[ HTQO VJG QVJGT HQWT OCLQT VTCFKVKQPU QH 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO, DWV PQ OCLQT FKHHGTGPEG KP EQPVGPV. (QT OQTG QP $QP CPF KVU VJTGG RJCUGU (5GG 5COWGN 1993C, CPF 1993D).

380 vÉÑlrÉiÉ 5WP[CVâ KU 5CPUMTKV HQT XQKF QT GORVKPGUU

381 ’EMGN 1997 382 −GCTPG[ 1998, RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 4CODNG 2000 YGDNQI 383 −QTQO 1997, .QRG\ 1998 384 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP #PFGTUQP 24/12000 YGDNQI 385 5GGNCPF 1993




+PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU, JQYGXGT CRRGCT VQ JCXG GEQNQIKECN EQUOQNQIKGU CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN GVJKEU

GODGFFGF KP VJGKT YQTNFXKGYU. (QT OCP[ CPKOKUVKE/UJCOCPKUVKE RGQRNGU, QPG CURGEV QH PCVWTCN

TGUQWTEGU CEVWCNN[ KU VJG FGKV[, CPF VJG[ GZJKDKV 'DQPFU QH CHHGEVKQP' HQT VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF.

’ZRNKEKV GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGEVKQP KU GODGFFGF KP VJGKT YQTNFXKGYU, DGECWUG VJG[ JQNF VJG

PCVWTCN YQTNF CU UCETGF. 6JKU KU GXKFGPV KP VJG EQORNGZ TGEKRTQECN QDNKICVKQPU UWTTQWPFKPI

NKHG-VCMKPI CPF TGUQWTEG-ICVJGTKPI YJKEJ EJCTCEVGTK\G C EQOOWPKV['U TGNCVKQPU YKVJ VJG NQECN

DKQTGIKQP. 6JG TGNKIKQWU RCTCFKIOU VJCV EQPUVKVWVG KPFKIGPQWU NKHG CTG RTGFKECVGF QP: TGURGEV

HQT VJG UQWTEGU QH HQQF ENQVJKPI CPF UJGNVGT VJCV PCVWTG RTQXKFGU, C UGPUG QH ITCVKVWFG VQ VJG

ETGCVQT CPF VQ VJG URKTKVWCN HQTEGU KP ETGCVKQP, TKVWCN ECNGPFCTU EQQTFKPCVGF YKVJ VJG UQWPF QH

TGVWTPKPI DKTFU, VJG DNQQOKPI QH EGTVCKP RNCPVU QT VJG OQXGOGPV QH VJG RNCPGVU386.

)KXGP VJG CRRCTGPV HNCYU KP VJG OCKPUVTGCO VTCLGEVQTKGU QH FGXGNQROGPV CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO

CPF VJG HCKNWTG QH GCUVGTP ENCUUKECN MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU VQ RTQXKFG OQFGNU QH GZRNKEKV RTQVGEVKQP

YG YKNN GZCOKPG RTKOCN CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU HQT RQVGPVKCN RNCVHQTOU HQT

CRRQUKVG GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU.

4.3 +0&+)’0175 2’12.’5 #0& 51%+’6+’5

1P VJG DCUKU QH URQMGP NCPIWCIGU CNN VJG YQTNF'U RGQRNG DGNQPI VQ 6,000 EWNVWTGU; CPF QH VJGUG

4,000 VQ 5,000 CTG KPFKIGPQWU. 6JKU OGCPU VJCV KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU OCMG WR DGVYGGP 70 CPF

80 RGTEGPV QH VJG YQTNF'U EWNVWTCN FKXGTUKV[387. 6JKU EQORTKUGU CV NGCUV 200 OKNNKQP RGQRNG CPF

WR VQ 600 OKNNKQP RGQRNG KH YG KPENWFG GVJPKE PCVKQPU VJCV NCEM RQNKVKECN CWVQPQO[ UWEJ CU VJG

6KDGVCPU, −WTFU CPF <WNWU388. 6JG[ VGPF VQ KPJCDKV CTGCU QH VJG YQTNF YKVJ VJG JKIJGUV

DKQNQIKECN FKXGTUKV[ UGGOKPIN[ RTQXKFKPI CP 'KPGZVTKECDNG NKPM' DGVYGGP DKQNQIKECN CPF EWNVWTCN

FKXGTUKV[. +P HCEV 10 QWV QH 12 'OGICFKXGTUKV[ EQWPVTKGU'389 CNUQ HKIWTG COQPI VJG VQR 25

EQWPVTKGU QH JKIJGUV GPFGOKE NKPIWKUVKE FKXGTUKV[, CPF YJKNG VJGTG CTG GZEGRVKQPU390 CPF PQ

FKCIPQUVKE OGCUWTG CEEQWPVU HQT UWEJ C EQORNGZ RJGPQOGPQP VJG QXGTCNN EQTTGNCVKQP DGVYGGP

NKPIWKUVKE CPF DKQNQIKECN FKXGTUKV[ KU UVTKMKPI391.

386 2QUG[ 1999 387 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997 RCIG 30 388 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1989 389 +7%0 390 G.I. 2CRWC 0GY )WKPGC. 391 &WTPKPI 1992, /CHHK 1999C+D,/E0GGN[ GV CN 1990




+PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU NKXG KP GZVTGOGN[ XCTKGF GPXKTQPOGPVU, IGPGTCNN[ JCTUJ CPF TGOQVG, UWEJ

CU VWPFTCU, FT[NCPFU CPF TCKPHQTGUVU, HTQO YJKEJ VJG[ UCVKUH[ CNN VJGKT PGGFU. 6JGKT NKXGNKJQQF

UVTCVGIKGU CTG CU XCTKGF CU VJGKT GPXKTQPOGPV; VJG[ OC[ RTCEVKEG HKUJKPI, JWPVKPI, ICVJGTKPI,

RCUVQTCN PQOCFKUO, EWNVKXCVKQP, QT C TCPIG QH VJGUG KP EQODKPCVKQP. ’EQPQOKE CEVKXKVKGU CTG C

RCTV QH VTCFKVKQPCN NKHG CPF CTG EQPVTQNNGF VJTQWIJ UQEKCN KPUVKVWVKQPU UWEJ CU OCTTKCIG, MKPUJKR,

CIG ITQWRU, ENCPU CPF RWDNKE TKVWCNU. 6TCFKVKQPCN UQEKGVKGU ICKP ITGCV UVTGPIVJ HTQO VJG

KPVGITCVKQP QH GEQPQOKE, UQEKCN, TGNKIKQWU CPF RQNKVKECN CHHCKTU392. /CP[ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU ECP

PQ NQPIGT OGGV VJGKT UWDUKUVGPEG PGGFU HTQO VJGKT QYP TGUQWTEGU, CPF GPICIG KP QVJGT

KPEQOG-IGPGTCVKPI CEVKXKVKGU. #NN VQQ QHVGP, VJKU OGCPU ECUWCN YCIG NCDQWT, QHVGP OKITCPV

EQPVTCEVGF QP XGT[ WPHCXQWTCDNG VGTOU. 6JG[ OC[ CEEGRV VJKU CU VJG QPN[ YC[ QH MGGRKPI VJGKT

EWNVWTG CNKXG CPF VJGTG KU QDXKQWUN[ C EQPVKPWWO HTQO VTWN[ UWDUKUVGPEG KPFKIGPQWU UQEKGVKGU VQ

VJQUG YKVJ C UWDUVCPVKCN GPICIGOGPV YKVJ VJG PCVKQPCN GEQPQO[393.

&GURKVG VJG XCTKGV[ COQPI KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CTQWPF VJG YQTNF, KV KU RQUUKDNG VQ OCMG UQOG

IGPGTCNK\CVKQPU CDQWV VJGO CPF VJGKT 'JQOGNCPFU':

� 6JG GEQPQOKGU QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CTG ENQUGN[ CFCRVGF VQ VJGKT PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU QH

YJKEJ VJG[ TGXGCN C JKIJ FGITGG QH MPQYNGFIG DCUGF QP QDUGTXCVKQP CPF NQPI RTCEVKEG.

� # RCTVKEWNCT HGCVWTG QH VJG VGEJPQNQIKGU FGXGNQRGF D[ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU HQT UWDUKUVGPEG KU

VJGKT GORJCUKU QP VJG UWUVCKPCDNG WUG QH VJGKT TGUQWTEGU.

� +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU RTCEVKUKPI VTCFKVKQPCN UWDUKUVGPEG QHVGP KPENWFG GZGORNCTU QH

GEQNQIKECN DCNCPEG YKVJ VJGKT UWTTQWPFKPIU394. 6JKU DCNCPEG FQGU PQV OGCP VJCV KPFKIGPQWU

RGQRNG FQ PQV OQFKH[ VJGKT GPXKTQPOGPV, DWV VJGTG KU C UVCDKNKV[ WPFGTN[KPI VJGKT PCVWTCN

TGUQWTEG WUG KP OQUV ECUGU.

� /QDKNKV[ KU QHVGP C MG[ HCEVQT YKVJ RCUVQTCN PQOCFU, HQT GZCORNG, QHVGP OQXKPI 3 QT 4 VKOGU

C [GCT VQ VCMG CFXCPVCIG QH KTTGIWNCT UWRRNKGU QH YCVGT CPF ITC\KPI395.

� +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU IGPGTCNN[ TGICTF QYPGTUJKR QH NCPF CU EQOOWPCN, XGUVGF KP CNN VJG

OGODGTU QH C RCTVKEWNCT ITQWR, QT RGTJCRU C ENCP QT UWDITQWR.

392 0GUVK 1999 393 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1988 394 2QUG[ 1999 395 $CJWEJGV 1979, $GCWENGTM GV CN 1988, )QNFUVGKP CPF $GCNN 1990, 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997




� 6TCFKVKQPCNN[, RWTEJCUG RNC[U PQ RCTV KP TKIJVU VQ NCPF. 6JG TGUQWTEG-JQNFKPI ITQWR OC[

QYP C VGTTKVQT[, QT C ITQWR QH TGNKIKQWU UKVGU, QT C YCVGT JQNG; KP TCTG ECUGU VJGTG OC[ DG PQ

ITQWR CUUGTVKPI QYPGTUJKR QH TGUQWTEGU.

� #EEGUU VQ VJG ITQWR OC[ DG D[ KPJGTKVCPEG, QT D[ RNCEG QH DKTVJ, QT D[ CFOKUUKQP D[ VJG

ITQWR.

� 6JG TGNCVKQPUJKR QH VJG RGQRNG VQ VJGKT VGTTKVQTKGU KU TCTGN[ LWUV GEQPQOKE; PQTOCNN[ KV KU

ENQUGN[ KFGPVKHKGF YKVJ VJGKT URKTKVWCN DGNKGHU.

� 2CUVQTCN ITQWRU OC[ UJCTG NCPF QT YCVGT YKVJ QVJGT ITQWRU, QHVGP WUKPI KV CV FKHHGTGPV VKOGU

DWV UVKNN FGRGPFKPI QP KV HQT UWTXKXCN; VJGKT TKIJVU OC[ DG QH CEEGUU VQ YCVGT TCVJGT VJCP

NCPF396.

� $[ VJGKT XGT[ PCVWTG, OCP[ TCPIGNCPFU CPF HQTGUV TGUGTXGU JCXG PQ RJ[UKECN OCTMU

KFGPVKH[KPI VJGO, CPF OC[ VJWU DG NCDGNNGF 'WPQEEWRKGF' D[ VJG UVCVG.

� (QTCIGTU QT JWPVGT-ICVJGTGTU, CTG CP GZVTGOG ECUG CU VJG OGCPU QH RTQFWEVKQP CTG

EQNNGEVKXGN[ QYPGF; GXGT[QPG JCU CEEGUU VQ VJG OCMKPI QH VQQNU, CPF TKIJVU QH TGEKRTQECN

CEEGUU VQ VJG TGUQWTEGU QH QVJGTU CTG EQOOQP397.

6JG GEQPQOKGU QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CTG CNUQ EQORCTCVKXGN[ WPFKHHGTGPVKCVGF, YKVJ VJG

RTKPEKRCN FKXKUKQPU QH NCDQWT GUVCDNKUJGF QP NKPGU QH IGPFGT CPF CIG. 6JG OKPKOWO RTQFWEVKQP

WPKV KU CP GUUGPVKCNN[ UGNH-UWHHKEKGPV ITQWR QH HCOKNKGU QT ENCP. 9KVJKP VJG KPFKIGPQWU GEQPQO[

VJGTG KU QHVGP NKVVNG QRRQTVWPKV[ HQT KPFKXKFWCN CEEWOWNCVKQP QH YGCNVJ; RGQRNG VGPF VQ OCKPVCKP

UQEKCN EQJGUKQP D[ GPEQWTCIKPI IGPGTQUKV[. +PFGGF VJGTG CTG HTGSWGPVN[ UQEKCN OGEJCPKUOU VJCV

IQXGTP VJG TGFKUVTKDWVKQP QH YGCNVJ YKVJKP VJG ITQWR. )GPGTQUKV[ OC[ DG CP CFCRVCVKQP VQ

URQTCFKE UWRRN[, QT OC[ DG CP KPFGRGPFGPV GVJQU, DWV GSWKVCDNG UJCTKPI KU C EQOOQP QWVEQOG.

6JGUG CTG PQV UQEKGVKGU YKVJQWV RTQDNGOU, DWV VJG RTQDNGOU FGTKXG VJGKT RCTVKEWNCT EJCTCEVGT

HTQO VJGKT TGNCVKQPU QH RTQFWEVKQP. (QT KPUVCPEG, HQTCIKPI RGQRNGU WUWCNN[ XCNWG UJCTKPI,

TGEKRTQEKV[, JCTF YQTM CPF GXGP VGORGT; KPFKXKFWCNU YJQ YKUJ VQ JQCTF, VQ DG NC\[, VQ FQOKPCVG

QVJGTU, VQ KUQNCVG VJGOUGNXGU QT DG SWKEM VQ CTIWG CPF HKIJV, HCEG TKFKEWNG, OKUHQTVWPG CPF UQEKCN

KUQNCVKQP398.

396 $CTHKGNF 1984, 1989, 1993 397 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1988, 9QTNF $CPM 2004 398 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1988, $WTIGT 1990




’XGT[ KPFKIGPQWU ITQWR JCU C FKUVKPEV YC[ QH QTICPKUKPI KVU QYP UQEKGV[ CPF VJGTG CTG CNYC[U

EQNNGEVKXG UVTWEVWTGU IQXGTPKPI VJG DGJCXKQWT QH KPFKXKFWCNU KP GXGT[ CURGEV QH NKHG. 6JG

UVTGPIVJ QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU WNVKOCVGN[ TGUVU QP VJG MKPUJKR ITQWRU CPF VJG YC[ VJGUG ITQWRU

KPFKXKFWCNN[ QT EQNNGEVKXGN[ EQPFWEV VJGKT RQNKVKECN, GEQPQOKE CPF TGNKIKQWU CHHCKTU. #OQPI

OQUV KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU, ITQWRU GPLQ[ EQPUKFGTCDNG NQECN CWVQPQO[ KP VJG GZGTEKUG QH

CWVJQTKV[ CPF QPN[ C UJCTGF VJTGCV YKNN DTKPI C NCTIG PWODGT QH ITQWRU VQIGVJGT HQT C EQOOQP

GPVGTRTKUG UWEJ CU FGHGPEG QH NCPF. −KPUJKR UVTWEVWTGU RTQXKFG KPFKXKFWCNU YKVJ UGEWTKV[ CPF

IKXG VJGO CP GUVCDNKUJGF TQNG YKVJKP VJG ITQWR CU C YJQNG. # EQOOQP NCPIWCIG, EWNVWTG CPF

U[UVGO QH TGNKIKQWU DGNKGHU OC[ TGKPHQTEG KFGPVKHKECVKQP QH VJG KPFKXKFWCN YKVJKP VJG ITQWR. 1P

VJG QVJGT JCPF, EQPHNKEVU DGVYGGP CPF YKVJKP ITQWRU OC[ GZKUV CPF KP UQOG ECUGU OC[ DG

TGUQNXGF D[ XKQNGPEG. /CP[ QH VJGUG TKXCNTKGU CPF CPVCIQPKUOU CTG TKVWCNKUGF CPF NKOKVGF D[

VTCFKVKQP, VJQWIJ QWVUKFG KPHNWGPEG OC[ FKUTWRV VJKU399.

6JG XGT[ EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU VJCV JCXG GSWKRRGF KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG VQ UWTXKXG KP JCTUJ

GPXKTQPOGPVU CPF FGXGNQR XKCDNG CPF UCVKUH[KPI UQEKCN CPF GEQPQOKE U[UVGOU ECP OCMG VJGO

XWNPGTCDNG YJGP EQPVCEVU CTG OCFG YKVJ OGODGTU QH PCVKQPCN UQEKGVKGU. /QUV EQWPVTKGU YKVJ

KPFKIGPQWU RQRWNCVKQPU YKVJKP VJGKT DQWPFCTKGU JCXG JKIJN[ EGPVTCNKUGF RQNKVKECN, NGICN CPF

GEQPQOKE U[UVGOU YKVJ EQORNGZ FKXKUKQP QH NCDQWT. 9KVJQWV EWNVWTCN CFLWUVOGPV, KPFKIGPQWU

RGQRNGU ECPPQV GZRTGUU VJGKT EQNNGEVKXG KPVGTGUVU CV PCVKQPCN NGXGN. −KPUJKR CPF TGEKRTQEKV[ ECP

GCUKN[ DTGCM FQYP YJGP OQPGVCT[ TGNCVKQPU CTG GUVCDNKUJGF. 6TCFKVKQPCN NCPF QYPGTUJKR KU PQ

FGHGPEG CICKPUV VJG EQPEGRV QH RTKXCVG RTQRGTV[ QT NCPF PCVKQPCNKUCVKQP. 2QRWNCVKQP FGPUKVKGU

OC[ DG NQY, NKXGNKJQQFU OC[ DG DCUGF QP OQDKNKV[ CPF PQ VCZCDNG UWTRNWU OC[ DG RTQFWEGF;

IQXGTPOGPVU OC[ UGG VJGUG CU LWUVKHKECVKQP HQT FKURQUUGUUKPI KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU. ’EQNQIKECNN[

UQWPF UWDUKUVGPEG U[UVGOU OC[ PQV DG TGICTFGF CU C DGPGHKV VQ VJG EQWPVT[, DWV TCVJGT CU C YCUVG

QH TGUQWTEGU. +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU YJQ UGGM VQ FGHGPF VJGKT VGTTKVQTKGU CPF VJGKT CWVQPQO[ HKPF

KV FKHHKEWNV VQ CFCRV UWHHKEKGPVN[ YKVJQWV NQUKPI VJGKT KFGPVKV[400.

399 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1988, )TKO 2001, 0GUVK 1999 400 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1988, 0GUVK 1999, 70 2000 JVVR://YYY.WPJEJT.EJ/JWTKECPG/JWTKECPG.PUH/0/783013(#$6%4(1#4%125697&002($7#(!QRGPFQEWOGPV CEEGUUGF 12VJ (GD 2003

http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/0/783013FAB6C4F1A4C125697D002FB7AF?opendocument




#NVJQWIJ VJGTG KU UQOG KPVGTPCVKQPCN TGEQIPKVKQP QH VJG TQNG QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU KP

DKQFKXGTUKV[ EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV, CPF HQT VJG RTQVGEVKQP QH VJGKT 'EWNVWTCN

NCPFUECRGU '401 VJKU KU D[ PQ OGCPU WPKXGTUCN. 5QOG IQXGTPOGPVU, CPF GXGP PQP-IQXGTPOGPVCN

QTICPK\CVKQPU, UVKNN JCXG RQNKEKGU QH TGOQXKPI NQECN RGQRNG HTQO RTQVGEVGF 'EWNVWTCN NCPFUECRGU'.

1VJGTU KPENWFG NQECN RGQRNG QPN[ CU VQMGP 'RCTVKEKRCPVU' QT 'EQPUWNVCPVU' CPF NKVVNG CVVGORV KU

OCFG VQ VTGCV NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU CU GZRGTV EQNNCDQTCVQTU YKVJ VJGKT QYP ETKVGTKC, OGVJQFU CPF

RTKQTKVKGU.

4.4 +0&+)’0175 −019.’&)’ (+−) &+5%1745’

$GHQTG YG ECP GZRNQTG 'KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG' CPF EQORCTG KV YKVJ CNVGTPCVKXG MPQYNGFIG

U[UVGOU, KV KU KORQTVCPV VQ WPFGTUVCPF KVU RGFKITGG CPF VJG FKUEWTUKXG URCEG KV EWTTGPVN[

QEEWRKGU.

+P VJG EQPVGZV QH NCVG 9GUVGTP EQNQPKCN UEKGPEG KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG YCU GXKFGPV DWV OWVG,

JQYGXGT YKVJ VJG KPGZQTCDNG TKUG QH OQFGTPKV[ KV DGECOG C MKPF QH KIPQTCPEG402. 6TCFKVKQP YCU

UQOGVJKPI VQ DG QXGTEQOG TCVJGT VJCP GPEQWTCIGF CPF UGXGTCN IGPGTCVKQPU QH 'VQR-FQYP'

FGXGNQROGPV GZRGTVU CPF QTICPKUCVKQPU GPICIGF KP TGUQWTEG GZVTCEVKQP CPF OCPCIGOGPV KP VJG

'OCLQTKV[ YQTNF' JCXG GKVJGT FGNKDGTCVGN[ CXQKFGF KV QP VJG ITQWPFU VJCV VJGKT QYP MPQYNGFIG

U[UVGOU YGTG UWRGTKQT QT UKORN[ PGXGT TGCNKUGF VJCV KV OKIJV DG C TGUQWTEG VQ DG 'VCRRGF'. 6JG

FQOKPCPV OQFGN QH FGXGNQROGPV JCU HQT UQOG HKHV[ [GCTU QT OQTG DGGP DCUGF QP 'WUGHWN

MPQYNGFIG' IGPGTCVGF KP NCDQTCVQTKGU, TGUGCTEJ UVCVKQPU CPF WPKXGTUKVKGU, CPF QPN[ VJGP

VTCPUHGTTGF VQ 'KIPQTCPV' RGQRNGU403. 0QV QPN[ YCU KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG ITQUUN[ WPFGTXCNWGF

KP VGTOU QH KVU RQVGPVKCN RTCEVKECN CRRNKECVKQPU, KV YCU KPUWHHKEKGPVN[ XCNKF VQ OGTKV CP[ NGICN

UVCVWU QT RTQVGEVKQP HTQO VJG RCVGPVU QT EQR[TKIJVU YJKEJ IKXG XCNWG CPF QYPGTUJKR VQ YGUVGTP

MPQYNGFIG CPF GZRGTVKUG. ’XGP YJGP VJG MPQYNGFIG YCU ENGCTN[ DGKPI WVKNK\GF, KV YCU QHVGP

TG-FGUETKDGF KP YC[U VJCV GNKOKPCVGF CP[ ETGFKV VQ VJQUG YJQ JCF DTQWIJV KV VQ VJG CVVGPVKQP QH

UEKGPEG KP VJG HKTUV RNCEG404. 6JG KPJGTGPV GVJPQEGPVTKUO CPF GNKVKUO QH NCVG VYGPVKGVJ EGPVWT[

UEKGPEG, VJGTGHQTG, JCU OCFG KV FKHHKEWNV HQT UEKGPVKUVU VQ CEEGRV VJCV VTCFKVKQPCN RGQRNG JCXG CP[

401 %QPXGPVKQP QP $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[ 1992, 4KQ &GENCTCVKQP 1992, 70’5%1 EQPXGPVKQP 1972 402 *WPP 1993 403 %JCODGTU CPF 4KEJCTFU 1995 404 &WVHKGNF 1999, *CTTKU 1996




MPQYNGFIG QH YQTVJ405. 6JKU XKGY YCU TGKPHQTEGF D[ RGTEGRVKQPU VJCV VTCFKVKQPCN RGQRNGU QHVGP

CFQRVGF YCUVGHWN, GXGP FGNKPSWGPV RCVVGTPU QH TGUQWTEG GZVTCEVKQP, CU ENCUUKECNN[ GZGORNKHKGF KP

VJG NKVGTCVWTG QP UJKHVKPI EWNVKXCVKQP CPF VJCV YJGP UWDUKUVGPEG RTCEVKEGU YGTG GXKFGPVN[

FCOCIKPI KV YCU C OCVVGT QH RTGHGTGPEG TCVJGT VJCP CP QWVEQOG QH RQXGTV[406. 5KPEG VJG OKF

1960'U, VJG RTQEGUU QH OCTIKPCNKUKPI KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG JCU DGGP RWV KPVQ TGXGTUG, HQT DQVJ

TQOCPVKE CPF RTCEVKECN TGCUQPU. 6JG TQOCPVKE TGCUQPU JCXG VJGKT KOOGFKCVG RQNKVKECN

TGPCKUUCPEG KP VJG EQWPVGT-EWNVWTG407 QH VJG 1960'U YKVJ VJG PQVKQP VJCV VTCFKVKQPCN, KPFKIGPQWU

QT RTKOKVKXG RGQRNGU CTG KP UQOG MKPF QH KF[NNKE JCTOQP[ YKVJ PCVWTG. 5WEJ C XKGY YCU KPKVKCNN[

RTQORVGF D[ C ETKUKU KP VJG RGTEGRVKQP QH UEKGPEG CPF VGEJPQNQI[, KP VGTOU QH VJG KPETGCUKPI

TGOQVGPGUU CPF CTECPG EJCTCEVGT QH UEKGPEG, KVU RGTEGKXGF CTTQICPEG CPF PGICVKXG VGEJPQNQIKECN

QWVEQOGU, CPF KVU KPCDKNKV[ VQ GZRNCKP OWEJ CDQWV VJG YQTNF VJCV QTFKPCT[ RGQRNG UQWIJV

GZRNCPCVKQPU HQT. +V QHVGP KPXQNXGF VJG UGNGEVKXG TG-OQFGNNKPI QH #UKCP CPF QVJGT GZQVKE

VTCFKVKQPU VQ UWKV VJG PGGFU QH 9GUVGTP GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUV TJGVQTKE FTCYP HTQO CP KPVGNNGEVWCN

RGFKITGG VJCV HCXQWTGF KFGCNK\GF PCVKXG KOCIGU408. +P VJKU XKUKQP, KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CTG IKXGP

EGPVTCN HQEWU DGECWUG QH, TCVJGT VJCP KP URKVG QH, VJGKT EWNVWTCN FKHHGTGPEGU. 6JKU RGTEGRVKQP CPF

EQPUGSWGPV CNNKCPEG DGVYGGP KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CPF UEKGPEG KU C HTCIKNG QPG, DCUGF WRQP

CUUWOGF KFGCNU QH (KPFKIGPQWU) TGCNKVKGU , YJKEJ EQPVTCUVU YKVJ VJG TGCNKVKGU QH VJG NQECN RGQRNG

VJGOUGNXGU. 5WEJ CUUWORVKQPU CTG KP FCPIGT QH NGCFKPI VQ ETQUU-EWNVWTCN OKURGTEGRVKQPU CPF

UVTCVGIKE OKUTGRTGUGPVCVKQPU.

6JG TG-EQPUVKVWVKQP KP CP #UKCP EQPVGZV JCU QHVGP KPXQNXGF DQVJ VJG 'ITGCV VTCFKVKQPU' CPF VJG

'NKVVNG VTCFKVKQPU'409 QHVGP HCKNKPI VQ FKUVKPIWKUJ DGVYGGP VJG VYQ CPF EQPHWUKPI KFGCN U[ODQNKE

TGRTGUGPVCVKQPU YKVJ JCTF-JGCFGF GORKTKECN RTCEVKEG. +V KU PQV CNVQIGVJGT UWTRTKUKPI, VJGTGHQTG,

VJCV VJKU OWFFNG JCU TGKPHQTEGF UEKGPVKHKE RTGLWFKEG CPF C DCEMNCUJ GZRTGUUGF KP RJTCUGU UWEJ

CU 'VJG GPXKTQPOGPVCN O[VJ'410. 0GXGTVJGNGUU, YKVJ VJG FKUECTFKPI QH VJG OQTG HCPEKHWN

RQTVTC[CNU QH VJG YKUFQO QH VTCFKVKQPCN RGQRNGU, UGXGTCN CNVGTPCVKXG CRRTQCEJGU JCXG GOGTIGF.

1PG FKUVKPEV CRRTQCEJ JCU DGGP GPEQWTCIGF D[ CFXQECVGU QH +− CPF UQOG VGEJPQETCVU, YJQ

405 ,QJCPPGU 1987 406 &QXG 1983 407 ’NNGP 1986 408 %QPMNKP CPF )TCJCO 1995 409 5EJQNCTN[ CPF KPFKIGPQWU. 410 &KCOQPF 1987, ,QJCPPGU 1987




JCXG DGGP FGUETKDGF D[ CU 'PGQ-KPFKIGPKUVCU'411. 6JG FKUUGOKPCVKQP QH VJKU CRRTQCEJ JCU DGGP

RCTV QH C TJGVQTKE RTCKUKPI VJG XKTVWGU QH 'RCTVKEKRCVKQP', 'GORQYGTOGPV', 'DQVVQO-WR', CPF

'HCTOGT-HKTUV'412. 5QOG OGCUWTG QH VJG KPUVKVWVKQPCNK\CVKQP QH VJKU XGTUKQP QH +−413 KU VJG PWODGT

QH PGVYQTMKPI QTICPKUCVKQPU CPF TGUGCTEJ WPKVU414. 1PG QH VJG FKHHKEWNVKGU, JQYGXGT YKVJ VJG

'PGQ-KPFKIGPKUVCU' CRRTQCEJ, KP EQOOQP YKVJ OQFGTPK\CVKQP VJGQTKUVU, KU VJG FCPIGT QH NGCXKPI

KPVCEV VJG FKEJQVQO[ QH YGUVGTP MPQYNGFIG CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CU JQOQIGPQWU CPF

GZENWUKXG GPVKVKGU415.

6JG FCPIGTU QH VJKU FKEJQVQO[ PGGF VQ DG JKIJNKIJVGF, DGHQTG YG EQPUKFGT +− KP FGRVJ, CPF VJG[

KPENWFG VJG HQNNQYKPI:

• /QPQEWNVWTCN O[QRKC YJKEJ OCUMU VJG RNWTCNKV[ QH CEVQTU, VJG OWNVKRNG KFGPVKVKGU VJG[

JCXG, CPF VJG OWNVKVWFKPQWU TGNCVKQPU VJG[ JCXG416.

• 6JG WPETKVKECN RNCEGOGPV QH NQECN MPQYNGFIG YKVJKP C FKEJQVQO[, VJG

FGEQPVGZVWCNK\CVKQP QH +− KU PGEGUUCTKN[ KORNKGF CPF VJG WPKSWG CPF KORQTVCPV

MPQYNGFIG QH URGEKHKE ITQWRU DGEQOGU UWDLGEV VQ VJG UCOG NKOKVCVKQPU CPF ETKVKEKUOU CU

9GUVGTP UEKGPEG CPF FGXGNQROGPV VJGQTKGU417.

• #VVGORVU VQ UGRCTCVG CPF HKZ KP VKOG CPF URCEG VYQ MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CTG DQWPF VQ HCKN

WPNGUU VJG VYQ U[UVGOU JCXG VYQ VQVCNN[ UGRCTCVGF JKUVQTKECN UGSWGPEGU QH EJCPIG.

%QPVCEV CPF GZEJCPIG, HQT GZCORNG, DGVYGGP #UKC CPF VJG #OGTKECU JCU VCMGP RNCEG

HQT VJQWUCPFU QH [GCTU CPF YGUVGTP CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU JCXG JCF

KPVKOCVG KPVGTCEVKQP CPF EQ-GXQNXGF UKPEG VJG 15VJ EGPVWT[418.

• +− KU IGPGTCVGF KP VJG KOOGFKCVG EQPVGZV QH VJG NKXGNKJQQFU QH RGQRNG, CPF KV KU C

F[PCOKE GPVKV[ VJCV WPFGTIQGU EQPUVCPV OQFKHKECVKQP CU VJG PGGFU QH VJG EQOOWPKVKGU

EJCPIG. +V KU KORQUUKDNG HQT +− VQ OCKPVCKP KVU XKVCNKV[ QT XKIQWT KH KV KU KUQNCVGF KP CP

411 #ITCYCN 1995C+D 412 %JCODGTU 1983 413 +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG. 414 9CTTGP GV CN 1995 415 #ITCYCN 1995D, $GTOCP 1988, 7OCPU 1998 416 7OCPU 1998 417 $CPWTK CPF /CTINKP 1993 418 ’EMJQNO 1980, .GXK-5VTCWUU 1955




CTEJKXG, HTQ\GP KP VKOG CPF URCEG, KP MPQYNGFIG EGPVTGU RTKXKNGIGF QP YGUVGTP UEKGPEG

CPF DWTGCWETCVKE RTQEGFWTG CPF UVTCPINGF D[ EGPVTCN EQPVTQN CPF OCPCIGOGPV419.

• 9JGP +− DGEQOGU UWDLGEV VQ VJG NKOKVGF RCTCOGVGTU QH 9GUVGTP UEKGPEG CPF

FGXGNQROGPV VJGQTKGU YJKEJ TGN[ WRQP CP QTFGTGF EQPEGRVWCN HTCOGYQTM CPF HKPKVG

GNGOGPVU HTQO YJKEJ, CPF KP YJKEJ VQ YQTM, KV KU DQWPF VQ HCKN. $QVJ U[UVGOU JCXG

URGEKHKE JKUVQTKGU, RCTVKEWNCT DWTFGPU HTQO VJG RCUV CPF FKUVKPEVKXG RCVVGTPU QH EJCPIG

CPF JGVGTQIGPGKV[ DGVYGGP GNGOGPVU420.

• 6JG VGPFGPE[ VQ FGHKPG +− KP TGNCVKQP VQ 9GUVGTP MPQYNGFIG KU RTQDNGOCVKE KP VJCV KV

TCKUGU 9GUVGTP UEKGPEG VQ C NGXGN QH TGHGTGPEG, KIPQTKPI VJG HCEV VJCV CNN U[UVGOU CTG

EWNVWTG-DQWPF CPF VJGTGD[ GZENWFKPI 9GUVGTP MPQYNGFIG KVUGNH HTQO VJG CPCN[UKU. 6JKU

NKOKVU VJG CPCN[UKU QH KPFKIGPQWU U[UVGOU D[ PCTTQYKPI VJG RCTCOGVGTU QH

WPFGTUVCPFKPI VJTQWIJ VJG KORQUKVKQP QH 9GUVGTP ECVGIQTKGU. 2CTCFQZKECNN[, CNVJQWIJ

OCP[ 'PGQ-KPFKIGPKUVCU' OQEM UEKGPEG, VJG[ WUG KV CPF WPEQPUEKQWUN[ CUUKIP KV VQ C

JKIJGT RGFGUVCN VJCP KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG. 6JGKT RTCEVKEG CPF OGVJQFU CTG QHVGP

DCUGF QP UEKGPVKHKE OGVJQFU CPF VJG[ UWDLGEV +− VQ C UEKGPVKHKE ETKVGTKC QH XCNKFKV[ DGHQTG

KV KU TGEQIPK\GF CU 'WUCDNG' MPQYNGFIG421.

• 6JGTG KU C VGPFGPE[ VQ KUQNCVG MPQYNGFIG UWD-UGVU YJKEJ OKTTQT GVJPQ-FKUEKRNKPG UGVU

HQT VJG RWTRQUG QH CPCN[UKU CPF FQEWOGPVCVKQP422. ’ZCOKPKPI NQECN MPQYNGFIG KP VJKU

YC[ ECP NGCF VQ VJG EQPUVTWEVKQP QH EGTVCKP CURGEVU QH MPQYNGFIG CU KORQTVCPV, YJKNG

GZENWFKPI QT KIPQTKPI QVJGT CTGCU QT RQUUKDKNKVKGU QH MPQYNGFIG YJKEJ FQ PQV HCNN YKVJKP

VJG UGNGEVKXG ETKVGTKC QH 9GUVGTP UEKGPVKHKE RCTCOGVGTU.

• +− CU C EQORCTVOGPVCNK\GF XKUKQP JCU DGEQOG C OCLQT EQPEGRV YKVJKP FGXGNQROGPV

FKUEQWTUG, CPF C EQPXGPKGPV CDUVTCEVKQP YJKEJ EQPUKUVU QH DKVG-UK\GF EJWPMU QH

KPHQTOCVKQP VJCV ECP DG UNQVVGF KPVQ 9GUVGTP RCTCFKIOU, HTCIOGPVGF CPF

FGEQPVGZVWCNK\GF; C MKPF QH SWKEM HKZ, KH PQV C RCPCEGC. 5WEJ CRRTQCEJGU CTG KP FCPIGT

QH TGRGCVKPI VJG UCOG RTQDNGOU QH UKORNKHKECVKQP, QXGT-IGPGTCNKUCVKQP, CPF

WPKXGTUCNKUO VJCV YG HKPF KP FGXGNQROGPV VJGQT[423.

419 #ITCYCN 1995C 420 /CECDG 1988 421 $TQEMGPUJC CPF 4KNG[ 1980, /CUUCSWQK 1993, 4CLCP CPF 5GVJWTCOO 1993, 4KEJCTFU 1980 422 (CKTJGCF CPF .GCEJ 1994 423 *CTTKU 1996, *QDCTV 1993, 4KEJCTFU 1985




• 6JGTG KU C NCTIGN[ WPCRRTGEKCVGF ICR DGVYGGP VJG PGCV TCVKQPCNKVKGU QH FGXGNQROGPV

CIGPEKGU' TGRTGUGPVCVKQPU YJKEJ KOCIKPG VJG YQTNF CU QTFGTGF CPF OCPCIGCDNG CPF VJG

CEVWCNKVKGU QH UKVWCVGF UQEKCN RTCEVKEGU424. #U C EQPUGSWGPEG, YG GPF WR YKVJ C VJGQT[

VJCV OKUTGRTGUGPVU VJG EQPVGZV KP YJKEJ KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG QEEWTU CPF KU

GZRGTKGPEGF.

• +P VJG JCPFU QH 0)1U CPF YKVJKP VJG 'WPKXGTUCNK\KPI FKUEQWTUG' QH GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO +−

JCU DGEQOG HWTVJGT TGKHKGF CPF ICKPGF C OQTG RQUKVKXG KOCIG. 1PEG, JQYGXGT, +− KU

UNQVVGF KPVQ VJG 9GUVGTP UEKGPVKHKE RCTCFKIO KV KU FKHHKEWNV VQ MPQY YJGTG VQ FTCY VJG

DQWPFCT[ DGVYGGP +− CPF 'UEKGPEG'. %JCPIKPI VJG DQWPFCTKGU KU QHVGP UWHHKEKGPV VQ

TG-FGHKPG UQOGVJKPI CU 'UEKGPEG', CU YJCV FGHKPGU KV KU VQ C EQPUKFGTCDNG GZVGPV

FGVGTOKPGF D[ YJQ RTCEVKEGU KV, CPF KP YJCV KPUVKVWVKQPCN EQPVGZV VJG RTCEVKEGU CTG

VCMKPI RNCEG. 6JG FCPIGT QH VWTPKPI NQECN MPQYNGFIG KPVQ INQDCN MPQYNGFIG KU CV VJG

GORKTKECN NGXGN, CNN +− KU TGNCVKXG CPF RCTQEJKCN, PQ VYQ UQEKGVKGU RGTEGKXG QT CEV WRQP

VJG GPXKTQPOGPV KP VJG UCOG YC[U. 5EKGPEG D[ EQORCTKUQP, KU C U[UVGO QH MPQYNGFIG KP

TCRKF HNWZ VJCV UGGMU WPKXGTUCN TCVJGT VJCP NQECN WPFGTUVCPFKPI. +V KU RTGEKUGN[ VJG NQECN

GODGFFGFPGUU QH +− VJCV JCU OCFG KV UWEEGUUHWN.

• 6JG 'PGQ-KPFKIGPKUVCU' WPFGTOKPG VJGKT QYP CTIWOGPVU DGECWUG YJKNG EJCORKQPKPI +−

VJG[ KPUKUV QP C FKEJQVQO[ DGVYGGP YGUVGTP CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF VJG[ HCKN VQ

TGEQIPK\G VJG NKPM DGVYGGP MPQYNGFIG CPF RQYGT.

6JG CRRTQRTKCVG TGURQPUG HQT VJQUG IGPGTCNN[ KPVGTGUVGF KP RTGUGTXKPI MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CPF

KP RCTVKEWNCT KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG OKIJV NKG KP CVVGORVKPI VQ TGQTKGPVCVG CPF TGXGTUG UVCVG

RQNKEKGU CPF OCTMGV HQTEGU VQ RGTOKV OGODGTU QH VJTGCVGPGF RQRWNCVKQPU VQ FGVGTOKPG VJGKT

QYP HWVWTG CPF CVVGORV, VJWU VQ HCEKNKVCVG KP UKVW RTGUGTXCVKQP QH +−. +P UKVW RTGUGTXCVKQP ECPPQV

UWEEGGF YKVJQWV KPFKIGPQWU RQRWNCVKQPU ICKPKPI EQPVTQN QXGT VJG WUG QH VJG NCPFU KP YJKEJ VJG[

FYGNN CPF VJG TGUQWTEGU QP YJKEJ VJG[ TGN[. 6JQUG YJQ CTG UGGP VQ RQUUGUU MPQYNGFIG OWUV

CNUQ RQUUGUU VJG TKIJV VQ FGEKFG QP JQY VQ UCXG KV CPF YJQ UJCNN WUG KV.

6JG OGEJCPKEU QH KP UKVW EQPUGTXCVKQP QH +− CTG NKVVNG WPFGTUVQQF, CPF YKNN RGTJCRU RQUG

UKIPKHKECPV RQNKVKECN CPF GVJKECN FKNGOOCU. 5WEJ CP QDLGEVKQP ECPPQV, JQYGXGT, DG CP GZEWUG

HQT UKFG-NKPKPI YJCV CRRGCTU VQ DG KP VJG DGUV KPVGTGUV QH VJQUG OQUV VJTGCVGPGF.

424 *QDCTV 1993




'0GQ-KPFKIGPKUVCU' OWUV DGIKP VQ ITCRRNG YKVJ UWEJ RTQDNGOU KH VJG[ CTG VQ OCMG VJGKT

RTQITCOOG CPF VJGKT GRKUVGOKE HQWPFCVKQPU OQTG CEEGRVCDNG VQ VJG RQRWNCVKQPU YJQUG

MPQYNGFIG VJG[ YKUJ VQ JKIJNKIJV CPF CRRTQRTKCVG HQT VJG EQOOQP IQQF.

# DGIKPPKPI KP VJKU FKTGEVKQP YQWNF DG VQ TGEQIPK\G VJG OWNVKRNKEKV[ QH NQIKEU CPF RTCEVKEGU VJCV

WPFGTNKG VJG ETGCVKQP CPF OCKPVGPCPEG QH FKHHGTGPV MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU YKVJKP C MPQYNGFIG

PGVYQTM. $[ DWKNFKPI QP PGY XKGYU QH UEKGPEG425 VJCV KPUKUV QP "OWNVKRNKEKV[, RCVEJKPGUU CPF

JGVGTQIGPGKV[ QH VJG URCEG KP YJKEJ UEKGPVKUVU YQTM" CPF IQ DG[QPF TCVKQPCNKUO CPF TGFWEVKXG

TGRTGUGPVCVKQP426 PGQ-KPFKIGPKUVCU CTG QHHGTGF VJG RTQURGEV QH FGXGNQRKPI PGY GRKUVGOKE

HQWPFCVKQPU HQT CFFTGUUKPI CPF DWKNFKPI DTKFIGU DGVYGGP MPQYNGFIG YKVJKP C PGVYQTM. 6JG

PGVYQTM KU EQPUVKVWVGF D[ OWNVKRNG CEVQTU, YJQ RQUUGUU TGUQWTEGU CPF HQTO TGNCVKQPU VJTQWIJ

VJGKT KPVGTCEVKPI. ’CEJ CEVQT KPXGUVU TGUQWTEGU QH FKHHGTGPV MKPFU CPF COQWPVU, KPENWFKPI

HKPCPEKCN, UQEKCN, EWNVWTCN CPF U[ODQNKE ECRKVCN, YJKEJ CTG XCNWGF FKHHGTGPVN[ FGRGPFKPI QP VJG

RTQLGEV. +V KU KORQTVCPV VJCV GCEJ CEVQT WPFGTUVCPFU VJG MPQYNGFIG-TGNCVGF RTQEGUUGU VJCV CTG CV

RNC[ YKVJKP C RTQLGEV, GURGEKCNN[ VJG EQPUVTWEVKQP QH MPQYNGFIG, VJG CVVTKDWVKQP QH OGCPKPI, VJG

GZGTEKUG QH RQYGT, CPF VJG GOGTIGPEG QH U[PGTI[ QT 'UWDLGEVU'427.

6JKU UJQWNF RTQXKFG C DGVVGT DCUKU PQV QPN[ HQT KP UKVW EQPUGTXCVKQP QH +− CPF TGUQWTEG

OCPCIGOGPV DWV VQ UCHGIWCTF VJG KPVGTGUVU QH VJQUG OQUV FKUCFXCPVCIGF.

4.5 24+/#. 14 +0&+)’0175 −019.’&)’ 5;56’/5

7UWCNN[ 'RTKOCN' QT KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU GOCPCVG HTQO C URKTKVWCN DCUG, CPF CTG QHVGP

RTGFKECVGF QP 'CPKOKUO' CPF 'UJCOCPKUO'. (TQO VJKU XKGY CNN ETGCVKQP428 KU TGICTFGF CU UCETGF,

CPF URKTKVU UGGOKPIN[ "KPFYGNN" 429 PCVWTCN QDLGEVU CPF RJGPQOGPC430. 9KVJKP VJKU U[UVGO VJGTG

CTG QHVGP EWNVWTCN GZRGTVU431 YJQ CTG RCTVKEWNCTN[ CYCTG QH PCVWTG'U QTICPK\KPI RTKPEKRNGU,

UQOGVKOGU FGUETKDGF CU GPVKVKGU, URKTKVU QT PCVWTCN NCY. 6JWU MPQYNGFIG QH VJG GPXKTQPOGPV

425 2KEMGTKPI 1992 RCIG 8 426 #ITCYCN 1995C 427 5WDLGEVU KP VJKU OGCPKPI CTG OWNVKRNG CEVQTU YJQ VQIGVJGT JCXG VJG ECRCEKV[ VQ DTKPI HQTYCTF C RTQLGEV (7OCPU 1998). 428 .KXKPI CPF PQP NKXKPI. 429 6Q GZKUV CU CP KPPGT CEVKXCVKPI URKTKV, HQTEG, QT RTKPEKRNG JVVR://YYY.YQTFTGHGTGPEG.EQO/FGHKPKVKQP/KPFYGNN CEEGUUGF 12VJ ,WPG 2005. 430 −GGUKPI 1981 RCIG 330, CPF 507 431 1HVGP MPQYP CU UJCOCPU.

http://www.wordreference.com/definition/indwell




FGRGPFU PQV QPN[ QP VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP JWOCPU CPF PCVWTG, DWV CNUQ DGVYGGP VJG XKUKDNG

YQTNF CPF VJG KPXKUKDNG URKTKV YQTNF432. 6JGUG XKGYU TGUWNV KP CP QTFGTKPI QH TGNCVKQPUJKRU

DGVYGGP JWOCPMKPF CPF VJG GPXKTQPOGPV CV C RJ[UKECN CPF URKTKVWCN NGXGN TQQVGF KP C SWGUV HQT

JCTOQP[ CPF GSWKNKDTKWO DGVYGGP OCP, VJG URKTKV YQTNF, PCVWTG CPF UQEKGV[. +PFKIGPQWU

MPQYNGFIG CNUQ GODTCEGU KPHQTOCVKQP CDQWV NQECVKQP, OQXGOGPVU CPF QVJGT HCEVQTU GZRNCKPKPI

URCVKCN RCVVGTPU CPF VKOKPI KP VJG GEQU[UVGO, KPENWFKPI UGSWGPEGU QH GXGPVU, E[ENGU CPF VTGPFU.

&KTGEV NKPMU YKVJ VJG NCPF CTG HWPFCOGPVCN, CPF QDNKICVKQPU VQ OCKPVCKP VJQUG EQPPGEVKQPU HQTO

VJG EQTG QH KPFKXKFWCN CPF ITQWR KFGPVKV[433.

)KXGP VJG HCKNKPIU QH 9GUVGTP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU VJGTG ECP DG NKVVNG UWTRTKUG VJCV KPFKIGPQWU,

VTCFKVKQPCN CPF NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU CTG JQUVKNG PQV QPN[ VQ VJG TJGVQTKE QH 'RCTVPGTUJKRU' CPF

'UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV' DWV VJG VGPGVU QH 'DKQFKXGTUKV[', 'PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP' CPF

'GPXKTQPOGPVCN GVJKEU'. 6JG YGUVGTP VGTOU 'PCVWTG' CPF 'DKQNQIKECN FKXGTUKV[' CTG CNKGP VQ OQUV

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG, DGECWUG VJG[434 UGRCTCVG VJG RJGPQOGPQP QH PQP-JWOCP FKXGTUKV[ HTQO

VJGKT MPQYNGFIG CPF NKXGNKJQQF.

$KQNQIKECN FKXGTUKV[ KU VCMGP HQT ITCPVGF CU RCTV QH GXGT[FC[ GZKUVGPEG GODGFFGF YKVJKP C

JQNKUVKE KPVGITCVGF U[UVGO. +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNG OC[ KP RTCEVKEG TGURGEV CPF GPJCPEG DKQFKXGTUKV[,

DWV TGUKUV VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH 'YKNFGTPGUU ', YJKEJ KIPQTGU JWOCPMKPF CPF FKURQUUGUUGU VJGO

QH VGTTKVQT[435. +PFKIGPQWU EWNVWTCN RTCEVKEGU FGHKPG RQNKVKEU CPF GVJKEU CU GZKUVKPI KP VJG TGCNO

QH GEQU[UVGOU CPF YQWNF CTIWG VJCV KV OCMGU PQ UGPUG VQ NKOKV VJG PQVKQP QH RQNKVKEU CPF GVJKEU

QPN[ VQ JWOCP DGKPIU. 6JKU KU KNNWUVTCVGF KP VJG YC[ VJCV PCVWTCN QDLGEVU CPF NKXKPI DGKPIU CTG

KPENWFGF CU OGODGTU QH KPFKIGPQWU EQOOWPKVKGU CPF KP KPFKIGPQWU ENCP PCOGU, VQVGOU CPF

EQXGPCPVU436.

(QTVWPCVGN[ VJGTG CTG CP KPETGCUKPI PWODGT QH GZCORNGU YJGTG KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU JCXG

EQODKPGF VJGKT GZKUVKPI MPQYNGFIG YKVJ PGY KPHQTOCVKQP CPF CTG HKNNKPI C XGT[ UKIPKHKECPV ICR

432 2QUG[ 1999 433 2QUG[ 1999 434 0CVWTG CPF DKQNQIKECN FKXGTUKV[. 435 %QNEJGUVGT 1994C 436 &GNQTKC 1990, 2KGTQVVK CPF 9KNFECV 1999




KP HCEKNKVCVKQP QH PGY CRRTQCEJGU VQ +− CPF PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV. 9JKNG OCP[ QH VJGUG

UVWFKGU UVKNN UWHHGT HTQO VJGKT EQOOKVOGPV VQ CP KPFKIGPQWU/ UEKGPVKHKE FKEJQVQO[, VJG[ UVKNN

QHHGT VJG DGIKPPKPIU QH CP GPFQIGPQWU CRRTQCEJ437.

&QOKPCPV MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CUUWOG VJCV VTCFKVKQPCN EQOOWPKVKGU OWUV EJCPIG VQ OGGV

'OQFGTP' UVCPFCTFU, DWV KPFKIGPQWU CPF VTCFKVKQPCN RGQRNGU HGGN VJG QRRQUKVG OWUV QEEWT:

UEKGPEG CPF KPFWUVT[ OWUV DGIKP VQ TGURGEV NQECN FKXGTUKV[ CPF VJG "UCETGF DCNCPEG"438. +H VJKU KU

VTWG VJKU NGCXGU WU YKVJ VJG RQUUKDKNKV[ VJCV UEKGPEG CPF KPFWUVT[ JCXG NQUV VJGKT NGIKVKOCVG TQNG

CU 'TGURQPUKDNG' INQDCN NGCFGTU, CPF VJCV OCP[ 'YQTNF' TGNKIKQPU GURGEKCNN[ VJQUG VJCV GPEQWTCIG

"OCVGTKCNKUVKE, FWCNKUVKE, CPVJTQRQEGPVTKE, WVKNKVCTKCP CPF TGRTGUGPVCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU QH CPF

TGNCVKQPU VQ PCVWTG JCXG UGTXGF VQ JCUVGP VJG FGUVTWEVKQP QH DKQNQIKECN CPF EWNVWTCN FKXGTUKV["439.

+P GCTNKGT EJCRVGTU (%JCRVGT 3 UGEVKQP 3.3.1) YG FKUEQXGTGF VJCV FGHKPKVKQPU QH UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ CPF

UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV YGTG CODKIWQWU CPF VJCV YGUVGTP-KPURKTGF FGXGNQROGPV JCU QHVGP

RTQXGF FKUCUVTQWU PQV QPN[ HQT VJG RNCPGV DWV OCP[ QH VJG YQTNF'U KPFKIGPQWU EQOOWPKVKGU.

4GEQIPK\KPI VJGUG HCKNWTGU, VJGTG KU PQY CP WTIGPV PGGF VQ NQQM VQ VJGUG EQOOWPKVKGU HQT

IWKFCPEG QP JQY VQ WUG VJG YQTNF'U DKQNQIKECN TGUQWTEGU KP C UWUVCKPCDNG OCPPGT. 4GHGTGPEG

ECP DG OCFG VQ CP GZVGPUKXG NKVGTCVWTG440 QP KPFKIGPQWU YQTNFXKGY, KPFKIGPQWU UQEKGV[ CPF

KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG FKUEQWTUG VQ RTQXKFG VJG TGCFGT YKVJ C HTCOGYQTM VQ DGVVGT WPFGTUVCPF

KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF KVU EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF KVU RTQVGEVKQP.

4.5.1 6JG 0CVWTG CPF %JCTCEVGT QH +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU

+PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CTG VJG EQPETGVG GZRTGUUKQPU QH 'YQTNF XKGYU' YJKEJ FQ PQV

TGICTF JWOCP UQEKGV[ CU UQOGVJKPI CRCTV HTQO 'GPXKTQPOGPV', CPF GORJCUK\G VJG WPKV[ CPF

U[ODKQUKU QH JWOCPMKPF CPF VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF. +− KU IGPGTCVGF, UVQTGF CPF VTCPUOKVVGF D[ KVU

437 #ITCYCN 1995C 438 2QUG[ 1999 RCIG 6 439 ’FYCTFU CPF 2CNOGT 1997, ,GPUGP 1999, 2QUG[ 1999 RCIG 6 440 9QTNFXKGY :- #NKUQP 1984, $GTTGOCP 1963, $WTPGVV 1988, (KTVJ 1975, (TC\GT 1993 )GGTV\ 1985, *KGDGTV C + D 1982, 1983, /CNKPQYUMK 1955, /CTTKQVV 1955, /GPFGNDCWO 1964, 4GFHKGNF 1955, 5COWCN CPF 5WIFGP 1982, 5KPG 1987, 6WTPGT 1974, 6[NQT 1871, 9KODGT 1985, 9QQFDGTT[ 1989 +PFKIGPQWU UQEKGV[ :- $GCWENGTM GV CN 1989, &WTPKPI 1992, /CHHK 1999C, /E0GGN[ GV CN 1990, 0KGVUEJOCPP 1992D, 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997 +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG FKUEQWTUG :- %JCODGTU CPF 4KEJCTFU 1995, %QPMNKP CPF )TCJCO 1995, &KCOQPF 1987, &QXG 1983, &WVHKGNF1999, ’NNGP 1986, (CKTJGCF CPF .GCEJ 1994, *CTTKU 1996, *QDCTV 1993, *WPP 1993, ,QJCPPGU 1987, 4KEJCTFU 1985, 9CTTGP GV CN 1995




WUGTU VJTQWIJ CP QTCN VTCFKVKQP. +P VJG QTCN VTCFKVKQP NGCTPKPI VCMGU RNCEG D[ QDUGTXCVKQP CPF

VJTQWIJ FQKPI, CPF QHVGP VJTQWIJ VJG CTV QH UVQT[-VGNNKPI. %NCUUKECN YGUVGTP UEKGPEG, CU YG JCXG

CNTGCF[ NGCTPGF KU CP CTVGHCEV QH 9GUVGTP UQEKGV[ CPF KU GODGFFGF KP VJG NKVGTCE[ CPF PWOGTCE[

QH YGUVGTP VTCFKVKQP CPF GFWECVKQP, YJGTGKP VGCEJKPI CPF NGCTPKPI CTG CDUVTCEVGF HTQO VJGKT

CRRNKGF EQPVGZV, CPF CTG FKFCEVKE KP HQTO CPF UWDUVCPEG. 9GUVGTP UEKGPEG, VQ TGKVGTCVG HTQO

EJCRVGT 3, JCU CFQRVGF C UGV QH CUUWORVKQPU QP YJKEJ UEKGPVKHKE MPQYNGFIG IGPGTCVKQP KU DCUGF

CPF D[ YJKEJ KV KU VGUVGF HQT XCNKFKV[. 6JG CUUWORVKQPU441 KPENWFG .QEMGCP TGFWEVKQPKUO442

QDLGEVKXKUO443, CPF RQUKVKXKUO444. 6JG UEKGPVKHKE OQFG FGNKDGTCVGN[ DTGCMU FQYP FCVC RTGUGPVGF

VQ VJG UGPUGU CPF TGCUUGODNGU KV KP FKHHGTGPV YC[U. +− U[UVGOU CTG OQTG EQPETGVG CPF TGN[ QP

GXKFGPEG RTGUGPVGF FKTGEVN[ VQ VJG UGPUGU D[ WUGTU QH VJG MPQYNGFIG. +− CRRGCTU VQ DG JQNKUVKE,

TCVJGT VJCP TGFWEVKQPKUV, UWDLGEVKXG TCVJGT VJCP QDLGEVKXG, CPF GZRGTKGPVKCN TCVJGT VJCP RQUKVKXKUV.

+V CRRGCTU VQ EQTTGURQPF RQQTN[ YKVJ YGUVGTP KPVGNNGEVWCN KFGCNU QH 'VTWVJ '. 6JG PQTOU QH

KPVGNNGEVWCN FGXGNQROGPV CTG TKIKFN[ KPUVKVWVKQPCNKUGF. )WKFGF D[ VJGUG PQTOU +− KU IGPGTCNN[

TGLGEVGF D[ UEKGPVKUVU CU CPGEFQVCN, PQP-SWCPVKVCVKXG CPF KOOGVJQFKECN445. +− CPF YGUVGTP

ENCUUKECN UEKGPEG PQV QPN[ FKHHGT KP VJGKT FQOKPCPV OQFG QH EQOOWPKECVKQP DWV KP VJG URGGF QH

FCVC ETGCVKQP, CU U[UVGOU QH RTGFKEVKQP CPF GZRNCPCVKQP, CPF CU U[UVGOU QH ENCUUKHKECVKQP.

#NVJQWIJ UEKGPEG CRRGCTU VQ DG UWRGTKQT KP VGTOU QH VJG URGGF QH CEEWOWNCVKQP, RTGFKEVKQP CPF

GZRNCPCVKQP KV KU JKIJN[ UGNGEVKXG YJGTGCU VJG FCVC IGPGTCVGF D[ +− KU OQTG KPENWUKXG. 6JG TCRKF

FCVC CEEWOWNCVKQP QH 9GUVGTP UEKGPEG, YJKNG IGPGTCNN[ RTQFWEVKXG QH WUGHWN UJQTV-VGTO

RTGFKEVKQP, FQGU PQV PGEGUUCTKN[ TGUWNV KP UVTQPI NQPI-VGTO RTGFKEVKQP. +− U[UVGOU OC[ PQV DG

DGVVGT CDNG VQ RTGFKEV NQPI VGTO EJCPIGU, DWV QHVGP JCXG UWRGTKQTKV[ KP TGEQIPKUKPI VJG QPUGV QH

EJCPIGU CPF CEEQOOQFCVKPI VQ VJGO446. 5EKGPEG GORNQ[U OGVJQFU QH J[RQVJGUKU IGPGTCVKQP,

VGUVKPI CPF XGTKHKECVKQP QT TGLGEVKQP, CPF VJG GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH VJGQTKGU CPF IGPGTCN NCYU CU KVU

GZRNCPCVQT[ DCUKU.

441 *CTOCP 1989 442 6JCV WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH C YJQNG CPF EQORNGZ RJGPQOGPQP ECP DG CEJKGXGF KP VGTOU QH OQTG GNGOGPVCN GXGPVU 443 6JCV VJG QDUGTXGT OWUV FGNKDGTCVGN[ UGRCTCVG JKU QT JGT UGNH HTQO VJCV DGKPI QDUGTXGF, CPF NGCTP CDQWV KV VJTQWIJ XCTKQWU TGRNKECVGF RTQDGU. 444 6JCV YJCV KU OGCUWTCDNG KU UEKGPVKHKECNN[ TGCN, CPF YJCV KU UEKGPVKHKECNN[ TGCN KU OGCUWTCDNG. 445 0CMCUJKOC 1990 446 *QYGU CPF %JCODGTU 1980




5RKTKVWCN GZRNCPCVKQPU CTG KPGXKVCDN[ C UKIPKHKECPV EQORQPGPV QH KPFKIGPQWU U[UVGOU. +P

YGUVGTP UEKGPEG, RNCPV CPF CPKOCN VCZQPQOKUVU ENCUUKH[ CNN NKXKPI QTICPKUOU KPVQ ITQWRU YJKEJ

CTG JKGTCTEJKECNN[ QTICPK\GF CEEQTFKPI VQ 'GXQNWVKQPCT[', QT IGPGVKE, TGNCVGFPGUU. +P EQPVTCUV

KPFKIGPQWU VCZQPQOKGU TGXGCN VJG RTKOCE[ QH GEQNQIKECN VJQWIJV CEEQTFKPI VQ VJGKT YQTNFXKGY

CPF 'O[VJQNQI['447. 9GUVGTP UEKGPVKHKE ENCUUKHKECVKQP KU JKIJN[ FKHHGTGPVKCVGF, EQORCTGF VQ

KPFKIGPQWU ENCUUKHKECVKQP YJKEJ VGPFU VQ GPEQORCUU KPENWUKXG ECVGIQTKGU. +−, JQYGXGT, FQGU

FKHHGTGPVKCVG DGVYGGP C NCTIG PWODGTU QH FKUVKPEVKQPU YKVJKP ECVGIQTKGU448 CPF +− U[UVGOU CTG

'JKIJ EQPVGZV' FGUKIPGF VQ KPEQTRQTCVG C XGT[ JKIJ NGXGN QH EQPVGZVWCN KPHQTOCVKQP URGEKHKE VQ C

IKXGP NQECNG449. +P VJGUG NQECNGU KPFKIGPQWU ITQWRU GORNQ[ C TCPIG QH UVTCVGIKGU450.

6JGTG KU PQ UKPING PCVKXG UEKGPEG QT MPQYNGFIG U[UVGO CPF GCEJ ITQWR JCU C U[UVGO URGEKHKE VQ

VJGKT NQECNG. 6JGTG CTG, PGXGTVJGNGUU, IGPGTCN GNGOGPVU YJKEJ IWKFG CPF UJCRG VJG IGPGTCVKQP QH

+−. 6JGUG KPENWFG:

� +VU EQUOKE XKGY451

� +VU CPKOKUVKE CPF UJCOCPKE XKGY452

� 6JG QEEWTTGPEG QH UJCOCPKE CEEQWPVKPI CPF MPQYNGFIG QH DKQFKXGTUKV[453

� +VU KPVGITCVKQP CPF JQNKUO454

� 6JG TGEKRTQECN PWTVWTG QH CNN TGNCVKQPUJKRU455

� +VU GORJCUKU QP JCTOQP[ CPF GSWKNKDTKWO456

4.5.2 +PFKIGPQWU %QPUGTXCVKQP CPF 4GUQWTEG /CPCIGOGPV

6JG XCNWG QH KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF KVU WUG KP VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV

QH 'EWNVWTCN NCPFUECRGU' KU DGKPI KPETGCUKPIN[ TGEQIPK\GF. 6JGTG CTG, JQYGXGT FCPIGTU QH

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




CUUWOKPI VJCV NQECN RGQRNG CTG CNYC[U VJG DGUV OCPCIGTU QT VJCV NQPI-VGTO VGPWTG IWCTCPVGGU C

DGPKIP CVVKVWFG VQYCTF DKQFKXGTUKV[ QT PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU. #U KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CTG KPVGITCVGF

KPVQ VJG ITQYVJ CPF EQPUWORVKQP OCKPUVTGCO KV KU TKUM[ VQ CUUWOG VJCV VJG[ CTG CNYC[U VJG DGUV

UVGYCTFU QH VJGKT GPXKTQPOGPV. +V KU PGEGUUCT[ VQ EQPUKFGT GCEJ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG ITQWR QP C

ECUG D[ ECUG DCUKU, UQOG RTQXKFG GZEGNNGPV RCTCFKIOU QH EQPUGTXCVKQP, UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ CPF

GPXKTQPOGPVCN GPJCPEGOGPV CPF QVJGT FQ PQV457.

9JKNG VJGTG CTG FCPIGTU QH QXGT-TQOCPVKEK\KPI KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU' YKUFQO CPF KPVTKPUKE

JCTOQP[ YKVJ VJG GCTVJ, VJGTG OC[ DG ITCXGT FCPIGTU QH WPFGTGUVKOCVKPI VJG FKUVKPEVKXG

EJCTCEVGT CPF TGUKNKGPE[ QH KPFKIGPQWU EWNVWTGU CPF VJG YC[U KP YJKEJ VJGKT EQTG XCNWGU CPF

NQECN MPQYNGFIG UQ QHVGP EQPVKPWG, GXGP FGURKVG UQOG FGITGG QH CUUKOKNCVKQP KPVQ QWVUKFG

EWNVWTGU, GEQPQOKGU CPF RQNKVKECN U[UVGOU. #YCTGPGUU QH VJG RQUUKDNG NKOKVCVKQPU QH KPFKIGPQWU

RGQRNGU' EQPUGTXCVKQP RTCEVKEGU OWUV PQV, JQYGXGT, WPFGTOKPG TGEQIPKVKQP QH VJGKT

EQPUKFGTCDNG RQVGPVKCN. +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNG ECP RNC[ C XKVCN TQNG KP VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH

DKQFKXGTUKV[458.

4.5.3 2TQVGEVKQP QH +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG

+P URKVG QH UQOG TGEQIPKVKQP459 HQT KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG VJGTG KU KPCFGSWCVG NGICN RTQVGEVKQP HQT

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG CPF VJGKT MPQYNGFIG. #NVJQWIJ QWVUKFGTU JCXG EQNNGEVGF +− CPF

DKQNQIKECN TGUQWTEGU HTQO VTCFKVKQPCN RGQRNG HQT EGPVWTKGU, 'DKQRTQURGEVKPI' JCU KPVGPUKHKGF KP

TGEGPV [GCTU460. 6JGUG KPVGTGUVU JCXG VJWU HCT DGGP UGGMKPI HTGG CEEGUU VQ YJCV VJG[ EQPUKFGT VQ

457 %NCF 1994, 5QWNG 1995 458 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997 459 %JCPFNGT 1993, &QYPGU 1995, 5KORUQP 1997, 70 1994

• 4KQ FGENCTCVKQP QP ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV (2TKPEKRCN 22), #IGPFC 21 (%JCRVGT 26), VJG %QPXGPVKQP QP $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[ (%$&), VJG (QTGUV 2TKPEKRNGU ()TWDD GV CN 1993, −GCVKPI 1993)

• 6JG 70 FTCHV FGENCTCVKQP QP VJG JWOCP TKIJVU QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU (2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997, 70 1993)

• 6JG FTCHV FGENCTCVKQP QP JWOCP TKIJVU CPF VJG GPXKTQPOGPV (#TVKENG 14), CPF VJG FTCHV KPVGTPCVKQPCN EQXGPCPV QP GPXKTQPOGPV CPF FGXGNQROGPV (#TVKENG 11.4,12.6,43.2 CPF 44.1) (+7%0/+%’. 1995)

• 6JG EJCTVGT QH VJG KPFKIGPQWU VTKDCN RGQRNGU QH VJG VTQRKECN HQTGUVU 1992 , VJG /CVCCVWC FGENCTCVKQP QP EWNVWTCN CPF KPVGNNGEVWCN RTQRGTV[ 1993 (70’2/%$& 1996)

• 6JG VTGCV[ HQT C NKHG HQTOU RCVGPV-HTGG 2CEKHKE CPF TGNCVGF RTQVQEQNU (2GVGTW 1995) • 6JG 'JGCTV QH VJG RGQRNGU' FGENCTCVKQP (1997)

JVVR://YYY.KRED.QTI/TGUQNWVKQPU/JVONU/FGEAJGCTVQRGQRNGU.JVON CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005. 460 2QUG[ 1995, 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1996

http://www.ipcb.org/resolutions/htmls/dec_heartopeoples.html




DG RWDNKE FQOCKP MPQYNGFIG QH RNCPV TGUQWTEGU CPF VJGKT WUGU, CPF OQFKH[KPI VJKU RWDNKE

RTQRGTV[ UWRGTHKEKCNN[ CPF VTCPUHGTTKPI KV KPVQ VJG RTKXCVG FQOCKP QH KPVGNNGEVWCN RTQRGTV[ TKIJVU.

6JKU KU RCTVKEWNCTN[ VJG ECUG TGICTFKPI VJG RCVGPVKPI QH NKHG HQTOU CPF VJG TGEQIPKVKQP QH RNCPV

DTGGFGTU' TKIJVU461.

+PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU YKFGN[ TGICTF NKHG KP CNN KVU HQTOU CU UCETGF, CPF NKHG VJGTGHQTG ECPPQV DG

'QYPGF'. 6JG[ CRRGCT VQ YGNEQOG KPVGTGUV KP VJGKT MPQYNGFIG CU NQPI CU VJKU TGUWNVU KP ITGCVGT

TGURGEV HQT VJGKT TKIJVU CU JQNFGTU QH VJKU MPQYNGFIG. $WV VJG[ EQPFGOP VJG GZRTQRTKCVKQP QH

VJGKT MPQYNGFIG D[ EQOOGTEKCN EQPEGTPU CPF UEKGPVKUVU YJQ FQ PQV TGURGEV VJGKT TKIJVU, GPUWTG

VJCV DGPGHKVU HNQY DCEM VQ VJGKT EQOOWPKVKGU, QT JGNR VQ UVGO VJG GTQUKQP QH VJGKT EWNVWTGU.

+PVGNNGEVWCN RTQRGTV[ TKIJVU CTG UGGP CU C UGTKQWU VJTGCV DGECWUG VJG[ CRRGCT VQ GPEQWTCIG CPF

NGIKVKOK\G 'DKQRKTCE['462 CPF VJG RCVGPVKPI QH NKXKPI OCVGTKCN FGTKXGF HTQO +− CPF TGUQWTEGU CTG

PQV QPN[ GZRNQKVCVKXG KP VJG GEQPQOKE UGPUG DWV CNUQ XKQNCVG URKTKVWCN CPF EWNVWTCN XCNWGU463.

1RRQUKVKQP VQ VJG RCVGPVKPI QH PCVWTCN IGPGVKE OCVGTKCN KU YKFGN[ GZRTGUUGF COQPI KPFKIGPQWU

RGQRNG. 2CVGPV U[UVGOU CUUKIP VJG OQPQRQN[ TKIJVU GKVJGT VQ VJG HKTUV VQ 'KPXGPV' QT HKNG, PQV VJG

RTQXKFGTU QH VJG DKQNQIKECN TCY OCVGTKCN QT NGCF KPHQTOCVKQP, YJQ OC[ DG HQTDKFFGP VQ WUG VJG

'KPXGPVKQP' YKVJQWV VJG RGTOKUUKQP QH VJG RCVGPV QYPGT. 6JG HCEV VJCV VTCFKVKQPCN EQOOWPKVKGU

JCXG VJGKT QYP RTQRGTV[ CPF TGUQWTEG CNNQECVKQP U[UVGOU GUUGPVKCN VQ OCKPVCKPKPI VJG NKPM

DGVYGGP C RGQRNG CPF KVU GPXKTQPOGPV KU KIPQTGF, OKUWPFGTUVQQF, QT JCORGTGF D[ GVJPQEGPVTKE

CUUWORVKQPU VJCV KIPQTG VJG UQEKCN CPF GVJKECN FKOGPUKQPU QH VTCFKVKQPCN RTQRGTV[ U[UVGOU 464.

6JGTG CTG UKOKNCTKVKGU DGVYGGP UGK\KPI VGTTKVQTKGU CPF TGUQWTEGU RWTRQTVGFN[ 'HQT VJG DGPGHKV QH

JWOCPMKPF' QT 'HQT VJG ITGCVGT GEQNQIKECN IQQF' QT 'VQ HCEKNKVCVG UEKGPVKHKE OCPCIGOGPV' CPF

VCMKPI +− KP VJG RWDNKE FQOCKP CPF RCVGPVKPI 'KPXGPVKQPU' DCUGF QP VJKU MPQYNGFIG. +P GCEJ

ECUG, VGTTKVQTKGU, GEQU[UVGOU, RNCPV XCTKGVKGU CPF +− CTG VTGCVGF CU KH VJG[ CTG TGU PWNNKWU465

DGHQTG VJGKT 'FKUEQXGT[' D[ GZRNQTGTU, UEKGPVKUVU, IQXGTPOGPVU, EQTRQTCVKQPU CPF EQPUGTXCVKQP

461 $NCMGPG[ 1999 462 6JG CNKGPCVKQP CPF WPCWVJQTK\GF EQOOGTEKCN GZRNQKVCVKQP QH MPQYNGFIG CPF DKQNQIKECN TGUQWTEGU. 463 /GCF 1994 464 /QPDKQV 1994, 8KTC 1999, 9KGPGT 1999 465 6JG RTQRGTV[ QH PQDQF[




QTICPKUCVKQPU466. 5KPEG VJG 4KQ ’CTVJ 5WOOKV KP 1992, YQTNFYKFG EQPEGTP JCU DGGP GZRTGUUGF

QXGT VJG GZRNQKVCVKQP QH VJG MPQYNGFIG QH KPFKIGPQWU EQOOWPKVKGU RCTVKEWNCTN[ D[ EQOOGTEKCN

KPVGTGUVU. 6JGTG CTG GXKFGPVN[ UGXGTCN KPEJQCVG467 EQPEGTPU YJKEJ JCXG NGF VQ KPVGTPCVKQPCN

RTQRQUCNU HQT VJG RTQVGEVKQP QH KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG. 6JGUG KPENWFG; C EQPEGTP HQT VJG

CWVJGPVKECVKQP QH +− KP VJG HCEG QH VJG GEQPQOKE, RU[EJQNQIKECN CPF EWNVWTCN VJTGCV HTQO CNKGP

UQWTEGU, VJG GZRTQRTKCVKQP QH RJ[UKECN FQEWOGPVCT[ CPF RJQVQITCRJKE TGEQTFU QH KPFKIGPQWU

UQEKGVKGU, KUUWGU QH EQORGPUCVKQP CPF EWNVWTCN JCTO, CPF KUUWGU QH PWTVWTG QT EWNVWTCN JGCNVJ468.

4.5.4 6JTGCVU VQ +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNG CPF −PQYNGFIG

6Q VTCEG VJG JKUVQT[ QH VJG UWDLWICVKQP QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG (CPF VJGKT MPQYNGFIG) KU VQ TGRNC[

VJG JKUVQT[ QH VJG TKUG QH VJG YQTNF'U FQOKPCPV EWNVWTGU: VJG URTGCF QH *CP %JKPGUG KPVQ %GPVTCN

CPF 5QWVJGCUV #UKC, VJG CUEGPV QH #T[CP GORKTGU QP VJG +PFKCP UWDEQPVKPGPV, VJG UQWVJYCTF

CFXCPEG QH $CPVW EWNVWTGU CETQUU #HTKEC, CPF VJG ETGCVKQP QH C YQTNF GEQPQO[ HKTUV VJTQWIJ

’WTQRGCP EQNQPKCNKUO CPF VJGP VJTQWIJ KPFWUVTKCN FGXGNQROGPV. 5WTXKXKPI KPFKIGPQWU EWNVWTGU

CTG QHVGP DWV VCVVGTGF TGOCKPU QH VJGKT RTGFGEGUUQTU' UQEKGVKGU. +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU YJQUG

EWNVWTGU CTG DGUKGIGF HTGSWGPVN[ GPF WR CV VJG DQVVQO QH VJG PCVKQPCN GEQPQO[469.

9QTNFYKFG, XKTVWCNN[ PQ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU TGOCKP GPVKTGN[ KUQNCVGF HTQO PCVKQPCN UQEKGVKGU.

/CP[ RGQRNGU VJCV JCXG UWTXKXGF CU FKUVKPEV GPVKVKGU KPJCDKV TGOQVG NCPFU YJKEJ HQTOGTN[ JCF

PQ XCNWG HQT QVJGTU. $WV OCVGTKCN CURKTCVKQPU CPF VGEJPKECN CFXCPEG JCXG FTKXGP UVCVGU VQ

GZRNQKV TGUQWTEGU RTGXKQWUN[ TGICTFGF CU OCTIKPCN CPF WPGEQPQOKE. 6JG UGCTEJ HQT GZRQTVU, VJG

GZRCPFKPI RQRWNCVKQPU, VJG URTGCF QH OQFGTP EQOOWPKECVKQPU, VJG FKUEQXGT[ QH OKPGTCNU CPF

QKN CPF VJG PGGF VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJG HTQPVKGTU QH VJG PCVKQP UVCVG JCXG TGFWEGF VJG KUQNCVKQP QH OCP[

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’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

http://www.investorwords.com/2398/inchoate.html




ITQWRU. #U C TGUWNV KPFKIGPQWU ITQWRU HCEG OCP[ RTGUUWTGU. 6JG[ HKPF VJGKT NCPF VJTGCVGPGF D[

CITKEWNVWTG, KTTKICVKQP RTQLGEVU, FCOU, JKIJYC[U, J[FTQ-GNGEVTKE HCEKNKVKGU, OKPGU, CITKDWUKPGUU

CPF VKODGT GZVTCEVKQP. 6JGUG CEVKXKVKGU CTG QHVGP CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ PCVKQPCN FGXGNQROGPV RTQLGEVU

KP YJKEJ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG CPF VJGKT YGNHCTG CTG PQV C JKIJ RTKQTKV[. ’XGP YJGP KPFKIGPQWU

RGQRNG CTG VCTIGVGF HQT 'FGXGNQROGPV', VJG RCEG QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN VTCPUHQTOCVKQP KU QHVGP UQ

TCRKF VJCV PQ CNNQYCPEG KU OCFG HQT CFLWUVOGPV VQ VJG PGY EQPFKVKQPU. 6JKU CNQPG OC[ ECWUG

OCP[ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG VQ QRRQUG EJCPIG FGUKIPGF HQT CPF D[ QVJGTU. +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU'

TGUQWTEGU CTG QHVGP CRRTQRTKCVGF YKVJQWV EQORGPUCVKQP. 6JGKT TGNWEVCPEG VQ UCETKHKEG NCPFU CPF

EWNVWTG VQ RTQLGEVU HTQO YJKEJ VJG[ YKNN PQV DGPGHKV GZRQUGU VJGO VQ HWTVJGT RTGUUWTG. 6JKU KU

HTGSWGPVN[ OCPKHGUVGF KP PCVKQPCN RTGLWFKEGU YJKEJ OC[ HKPF GZRTGUUKQP KP TGRTGUUKXG NGICN

EQFGU. +P GZVTGOG ECUGU VJG KPEQTRQTCVKQP QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG KPVQ PCVKQPCN UQEKGV[ JCU DGGP

CEEQORCPKGF D[ XKQNGPEG, COQWPVKPI QP QEECUKQPU VQ U[UVGOCVKE RJ[UKECN CDWUG. 6JKU ECP

JCRRGP GXGP YJGP KPFKIGPQWU ITQWRU JCXG PQV TGUQTVGF VQ XKQNGPEG VJGOUGNXGU. ’XGP YJGTG

VJG NCY QT VJG EQPUVKVWVKQP CRRGCTU VQ HCXQWT KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG, KVU CRRNKECVKQP KU QHVGP CV HCWNV.

9JGP UVTQPI PCVKQPCN KPVGTGUVU QRRQUG VJQUG QH GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU, CU KP OQUV FKURWVGU QXGT NCPF

CPF YCVGT, VJG NCYU RTQVGEVKPI VJG YGCMGT GVJPKE ITQWR CTG QHVGP HNQWVGF D[ VJG RQYGTHWN. +P

UQOG KPFWUVTKCNKUGF EQWPVTKGU, PQVCDN[ %CPCFC CPF #WUVTCNKC, VJGTG JCXG TGEGPVN[ DGGP UQOG

FKHHGTGPV QWVEQOGU. %QWTV FGEKUKQPU JCXG IQPG KP HCXQWT QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG FGURKVG VJG

GHHQTVU QH VJG RQYGTHWN DWUKPGUU KPVGTGUVU CTTC[GF CICKPUV VJGO470. 6JGTG JCU CNUQ DGGP C

TGUWTIGPEG QH VTCFKVKQPCN UWDUKUVGPEG CEVKXKVKGU471 , YJKEJ JCU TGFWEGF PWODGTU QP YGNHCTG. 6JG

UVTWIING HQT XCNWCDNG NCPF CPF TKIJVU CRRGCTU VQ DG RQUKVKXG CPF JCXG UKIPKHKECPEG HQT

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG CTQWPF VJG YQTNF.

+P RQQT EQWPVTKGU, YJGTG GUUGPVKCN UGTXKEGU UWEJ CU GFWECVKQP CPF JGCNVJ CTG IGPGTCNN[

KPCFGSWCVG, NQY-UVCVWU KPFKIGPQWU ITQWRU CTG QHVGP FGPKGF CEEGUU VQ VJGUG UGTXKEGU CNVQIGVJGT,

GURGEKCNN[ KH VJGKT NCDQWT KU PQV GUUGPVKCN VQ VJG PCVKQPCN GEQPQO[. 6JQUG YJQ FQ TGEGKXG UQOG

DCUKE RTQXKUKQP HTGSWGPVN[ HKPF KV KPCRRTQRTKCVG VQ VJGKT UQEKGV[ CPF EWNVWTG. 1HHKEKCN GFWECVKQP

470 6JG &GPG QH %CPCFC'U 0QTVJYGUV 6GTTKVQTKGU CRRGCT VQ JCXG HQWIJV DKI DWUKPGUU VQ C UVCPFUVKNN, CPF VJG #DQTKIKPCN ITQWRU QH #WUVTCNKC'U 0QTVJGTP 6GTTKVQT[ ECP PQY XGVQ OKPGTCN RTQURGEVKPI JVVR://66.59.133.172/KPFGZ.EHO!2I0O=6%’CPF2CTCOU=#1#46#0002221 CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005. 471 5QOG #DQTKIKPCN ITQWRU KP EGPVTCN #WUVTCNKC CPF VJG ,COGU $C[ %TGG KP %CPCFC, CTG FQKPI OQTG HQTCIKPI VQFC[ VJCP VGP [GCTU CIQ. %CPCFC JCU FKUEQXGTGF KV KU OWEJ EJGCRGT VQ UGTXKEG C HCOKN[ CV C VTCRRKPI ECOR VJCP MGGR VJGO QP YGNHCTG CV C OCKP UGVVNGOGPV.

http://66.59.133.172/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0002221




RTQITCOOGU, HQT KPUVCPEG, OC[ DG WUGF D[ IQXGTPOGPVU CU C VQQN HQT CUUKOKNCVKQP, VQ FKURNCEG

KPFKIGPQWU NCPIWCIGU CPF EWNVWTGU CPF VQ RTQOQVG VJG PCVKQPCN EWNVWTG. %JKNFTGP OC[ UVKNN DG

VCMGP HQTEKDN[ HTQO VJGKT RCTGPVU KP VJG PCOG QH GFWECVKQP.

6JG VJTGCVU VQ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG ECP DG ECVGIQTK\GF WPFGT:- KPVGTXGPVKQP HTQO VJG UVCVG, VJG

INQDCN OCTMGV GEQPQO[, PQP-IQXGTPOGPV QTICPKUCVKQPU CPF VJG FQOKPCVKQP QH YGUVGTP

MPQYNGFIG.

6JTGCVU CU C TGUWNV QH UVCVG KPVGTXGPVKQP

6JTGCVU HTQO UVCVG KPVGTXGPVKQP QHVGP TGUWNV HTQO:- GPHQTEGF KUQNCVKQP472, IGPQEKFG473, HTQPVKGT

CIITGUUKQP474, NCPF RQNKEKGU475, GVJPQEKFG476, NCPIWCIG NQUU477, EQPUGTXCVKQP OCPCIGOGPV478,

VQWTKUO479, GEQPQOKE FGXGNQROGPV480, TGUGVVNGOGPV QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG481, EQNQPKUCVKQP482,

UGFGPVCTK\CVKQP483, VGEJPKECN EJCPIG484, DKQRKTCE[ CPF DKQRTQURGEVKPI485, KPCRRTQRTKCVG

UGTXKEGU486, CPF VJG GZENWUKQP QH OQUV KPFKIGPQWU PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG XCNWGU487. 6JG EQPUGSWGPEGU

QH NQUU QH NKPIWKUVKE CPF EWNVWTCN FKXGTUKV[ JCU KORNKECVKQPU PQV QPN[ KP VGTOU QH GVJKEU, UQEKCN

472 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1989, /E.CTGP 1998 473 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1989, &WTPKPI 1992, 6GTPQP 1989, 474 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1989 475 #TXGNQ-,KOGPG\ 1997, (KUJGT 1997 476 #DQW 1981, $GCEJ 1988, $TWPPGT CPF /GKUPGT 1982, $WTIGT 1987C+D, (QPXCN 1989, *GDGTGT 1989, *KVEJEQEM 1992, 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997, 6JKGTT[ 1989, ;QPI −CPI <JGP 1981 477 $GTPCTF 1992, )TKOGU 1992, −TCWUU 1992, /CHHK 1999C+D, /WJNJCWUNGT 1995, 2CVVCPC[CM 1988, 4GKF CPF /KNNGT 1993, 5JKXC 1993, 478 .[PIG 1997, 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997 479 .K CPF 5QHKGNF 1994, /E.CTGP 1998, 0QTDGTI-*QFIG 1992, 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997 480 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1989 481 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997, 9QNHG GV CN 1992 482 0KGVUEJOCPP 1988, 2QUG[ CPF &WHKGNF 1997 483 6WTPDWNN 1972 484 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1989 485 &CTUJCP 5JCPMCT 1999, 2QUG[ 1999 486 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1989, %QNQTCFQ 1988, *CTFKP 1968, ,QJCPPGU 1989, 0QTDGTI-*QFIG 1992, 1995, 9QNHG GV CN 1992 487 5VWFNG[ GV CN 2005




LWUVKEG, JGTKVCIG488, CPF VJG XKCDKNKV[ QH JWOCPKV[489 DWV VJG GCTVJ'U DKQFKXGTUKV[490. %QORGNNKPI

TGUGCTEJ491 JCU UWIIGUVGF C EQTTGNCVKQP YKVJ NCPIWCIG NQUU CPF DKQFKXGTUKV[ NQUU492.

)NQDCN VJTGCVU

6JG KORCEV QH KPVGITCVKQP KPVQ VJG INQDCN OCTMGV GEQPQO[ QP KPFKIGPQWU UQEKGVKGU CPF EWNVWTGU

JCU DGGP WPKHQTON[ FKUTWRVKXG CPF FGXCUVCVKPI, ECWUKPI NQUU QH KPFKIGPQWU UQEKCN EQPVTQN,

FKURNCEGOGPV, OCTIKPCNK\CVKQP, FGRGPFGPE[, FGRTKXCVKQP, KORQXGTKUJOGPV, FKUGCUG CPF

OCNPWVTKVKQP. 1HVGP GHHQTVU CTG OCFG VQ KPFWEG VGEJPQNQIKECN EJCPIG CPF EQPUWOGT XCNWGU KP

KPFKIGPQWU EQOOWPKVKGU KP QTFGT VQ GZVTCEV VTKDCN TGUQWTEGU, NCDQWT CPF VCZGU, TCKUG VTKDCN

EQPUWORVKQP NGXGNU, CPF TGRNCEG VTCFKVKQPCN, UGNH- UWHHKEKGPV GEQPQOKE U[UVGOU YKVJ CEVKXKVKGU

IGCTGF VQ VJG QWVUKFG OCTMGV493.

+P VJG INQDCN GEQPQO[, NCDQWT CPF NCPF CTG EQOOQFKVKGU. 6JKU EQPEGRVKQP KU EQORNGVGN[ CNKGP

VQ KPFKIGPQWU UQEKGVKGU, CPF VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH EQOOGTEKCN TGNCVKQPUJKRU KP VJGUG URJGTGU OC[

VJTGCVGP VJGKT YJQNG UQEKGV[. (TCIKNG GPXKTQPOGPVU JCXG DGGP FKUVWTDGF CPF VJGKT KPJCDKVCPVU

GXGPVWCNN[ KORQXGTKUJGF D[ VJG CUUWORVKQP VJCV U[UVGOU QH RTQFWEVKQP FKTGEVGF VQYCTFU NQECN

PGGFU CTG KPGHHKEKGPV CPF OWUV DG KPVGPUKHKGF QT VTCPUHQTOGF. (TQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH

KPFKIGPQWU UQEKGVKGU VJG OQTG WTIGPV PGGF KU VQ FGXGNQR OGCPU QH FGHGPFKPI VJGKT NCPFU CPF VJG

VTCFKVKQPCN WUG QH VJGO494. /CTMGV-QTKGPVCVGF CITKEWNVWTG, RTQOQVGF CV VJG GZRGPUG QH

UWDUKUVGPEG RTQFWEVKQP QHVGP FQGU PQV IWCTCPVGG UWHHKEKGPV KPEQOG VQ RWTEJCUG HQQF, UQ

PWVTKVKQP OC[ DG UGXGTGN[ TGFWEGF #U OQTG NCPF KU FGFKECVGF VQ ECUJ ETQRU QT ECVVNG TCPEJKPI,

EQPUWOGT ETQRU DGEQOG UECTEG CPF VJGKT RTKEGU CTG KPHNCVGF; QPEG RNGPVKHWN UQWTEGU QH RTQVGKP

KP HQTGUVU CPF TKXGTU FKUCRRGCT495. 9CIG NCDQWT OC[ UKOKNCTN[ VCMG GUUGPVKCN VKOG HTQO

UWDUKUVGPEG RTQFWEVKQP496 YKVJQWV GPCDNKPI RGQRNG VQ DW[ VJG IQQFU HQTGIQPG497.

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




6JG XKCDKNKV[ QH UWDUKUVGPEG GEQPQOKGU OC[ DG WPFGTOKPGF D[ IQXGTPOGPVU VJCV QPN[ CNNQY

NCPF TKIJVU VQ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU QP EQPFKVKQP VJCV VJG[ KPETGCUG RTQFWEVKXKV[498. /CP[

KPFKIGPQWU ITQWRU JCXG OCTMGF UGZWCN FKXKUKQP QH NCDQWT CPF TQNGU XCT[ ITGCVN[ DGVYGGP

ITQWRU. +V KU WUWCNN[ YQOGP YJQ EWNVKXCVG UWDUKUVGPEG ETQRU, ICVJGT YKNF HTWKVU CPF KPUGEVU

ECTT[ JGCX[ NQCFU CPF CTG TGURQPUKDNG HQT FQOGUVKE FWVKGU; CPF QHVGP KV KU OGP CPF DQ[U YJQ

JWPV QT JGTF NCTIG CPKOCNU, QT ENGCT NCPF HQT EWNVKXCVKQP. +P OQUV UQEKGVKGU YQOGP FQ OQTG

YQTM, DWV VJG EQORNGOGPVCTKV[ QH OGP'U CPF YQOGP'U TQNGU OCMG GCEJ UGZ FGRGPFGPV QP VJG

QVJGT. )GPFGT TQNGU CTG EWNVWTCNN[ RTGUETKDGF CPF QHVGP TGOCKP WPSWGUVKQPGF D[ GKVJGT UGZ WPVKN

GZVGTPCN EKTEWOUVCPEGU WRUGV VJG DCNCPEG499. #V RTGUGPV, CNN PCVKQPCN UQEKGVKGU CTG RCVTKCTEJCN;

YJCVGXGT VJGKT QYP IGPFGT TQNGU CPF TGNCVKQPU, KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU OWUV TGNCVG VQ C YKFGT

UQEKGV[ KP YJKEJ YQOGP NCEM RQYGT CPF KP YJKEJ VJGKT YQTM KU WPTGEQIPK\GF500. %QOOGTEKCN

CPF QVJGT EQPVTCEVU VJGP VGPF VQ FKUTWRV VJG KPFKIGPQWU IGPFGT TQNGU CPF TGNCVKQPU, VQ VJG

FKUCFXCPVCIG QH VJG YJQNG UQEKGV[, DWV QHVGP RCTVKEWNCTN[ QH VJG YQOGP501.

&KUTWRVKQP QH VJG UWDUKUVGPEG DCUG ECP DGCT JGCXKN[ QP YQOGP. +P JWPVKPI, JGTFKPI CPF

JQTVKEWNVWTCN UQEKGVKGU, OGP OC[ EQPVTKDWVG C UKIPKHKECPV RCTV QH VJG CPKOCN RTQVGKP. 6JKU OC[

DG NQUV D[ NQUU QH NCPFU QT D[ VJG FKXGTUKQP QH OGP KPVQ OKITCPV NCDQWT, ECUWCN GORNQ[OGPV QT

ECUJ ETQRRKPI. 9JCVGXGT VJG EKTEWOUVCPEGU, VJG QPWU QH UWDUKUVGPEG HCNNU KPETGCUKPIN[ QP VJG

YQOGP. +P PQOCFKE CPF UGOK-PQOCFKE #HTKECP UQEKGVKGU OGP QHVGP OQXG CYC[ KP UGCTEJ QH

YQTM YJGP CPKOCNU FKG KP C FTQWIJV. +P #OC\QPKC, VJG HCOKN[ OWUV DG HGF GPVKTGN[ HTQO VJG

ICTFGP YJKEJ VJG YQOGP WUWCNN[ OCKPVCKPU CNQPG; RQWNVT[ CPF NKXGUVQEM KPVTQFWEGF VQ

EQORGPUCVG HQT NCEM QH ICOG YKNN CNUQ DG JGT TGURQPUKDKNKV[. 9QTNFYKFG, KH VJG OCP KU

ECUJ-ETQRRKPI JG OC[ TGSWKTG VJG YQOGP VQ JGNR JKO, CPF YKNN RTQDCDN[ WUG VJG DGUV NCPF HQT

PGY ETQRU TCVJGT VJCP HQT C UWDUKUVGPEG ICTFGP. 9QOGP'U VTCFKVKQPCN NCPF TKIJVU OC[

FKUCRRGCT502.

498 2TGUGPVGF YKVJ VJG EJQKEG QH NQUKPI VJGKT NCPFU VQ UGVVNGTU QT EQPXGTVKPI VJG HQTGUV VQ EQOOGTEKCN CITKEWNVWTG, VJG 5JWCT QH ’EWCFQT JCXG DGEQOG NCTIG-UECNG ECVVNG DTGGFGTU. /CP[ 5JWCT EQOOWPKVKGU PQY HCEG JWPIGT UKPEG VJG EQPXGTUKQP QH HQTGUV VQ RCUVWTG JCU OCFG UNCUJ CPF DWTP CITKEWNVWTG KORQUUKDNG CPF ICOG JCU FKUCRRGCTGF YKVJ VJG HQTGUV. 499 $GCWENGTM GV CN 1988 500 /GTEJCPV 1996 501 $WEMKPIJCO 2000, ,CEQDUQP 1992, 5JKXC 1989 502 $WEMKPIJCO 2000, ,CEQDUQP 1992, 5JKXC 1989




%QPVCEV YKVJ VJG PCVKQPCN UQEKGV[ OC[ OCMG YQOGP FGRGPFGPV CITKEWNVWTCN YQTMGTU; VJG[ OC[

UVKNN FQ VJG ITGCVGT RCTV QH VJG YQTM, DWV JCXG NKVVNG QT PQ EQPVTQN QXGT JQY VJG ECUJ GCTPGF KU

URGPV. 6JG UVCVWU QH YQOGP UWHHGTU, HQT KPUVCPEG, YJGP VJGKT UWDUKUVGPEG JQTVKEWNVWTG NQUGU

RNCEG VQ OCTMGV CITKEWNVWTG KP YJKEJ OGP OCMG FGEKUKQPU, KH QPN[ DGECWUG VJKU KU VJG TWNG KP VJG

PCVKQPCN UQEKGV[. 9JGP ECUJ KU KPLGEVGF KPVQ VTCFKVKQPCN UQEKGVKGU, UQOG HQQFU CPF FTKPMU

RTQFWEGF D[ YQOGP NQUG RTGUVKIG. 9QOGP OC[ IKXG WR OCMKPI VJGUG VJKPIU, CPF VJG[ OC[

ITCFWCNN[ DG TGRNCEGF D[ RWTEJCUGF OCPWHCEVWTGF KVGOU. #V HKTUV, VJG COQWPV QH YQOGP'U YQTM

OC[ UGGOKPIN[ DG TGFWEGF YJGP VJG[ PGGF PQ NQPIGT YGCXG ENQVJKPI, OCMG ENC[ RQVU CPF QVJGT

WVGPUKNU, DWV YQOGP OC[ DG NQUKPI EQPVTQN QXGT RTQFWEVKXG CTGCU QH VJGKT NKXGU503.

6JTGCVU HTQO 'XQNWPVCT[' CEEWNVWTCVKQP

#EEWNVWTCVKQP KPXQNXGU RTQEGUUGU QH EJCPIG KP CTVGHCEVU, EWUVQOU, CPF DGNKGHU VJCV TGUWNV HTQO

VJG EQPVCEV QH UQEKGVKGU YKVJ FKHHGTGPV EWNVWTCN VTCFKVKQPU. 6YQ OCLQT V[RGU QH CEEWNVWTCVKQP OC[

DG FKUVKPIWKUJGF DCUGF QP VYQ ENCUUGU QH EQPFKVKQPU WPFGT YJKEJ EJCPIGU VCMG RNCEG.

’KVJGT VJG HTGG DQTTQYKPI QH EWNVWTCN GNGOGPVU QT D[ FKTGEVGF EJCPIG VJTQWIJ HQTEGF

CUUKOKNCVKQP D[ C FQOKPCPV RQYGT. 6JG HTGG DQTTQYKPI504 CPF UWDUGSWGPV OQFKHKECVKQP QH

EWNVWTCN GNGOGPVU DGVYGGP EWNVWTGU VCMGU RNCEG OQTG QT NGUU XQNWPVCTKN[ YKVJQWV VJG GZGTEKUG QH

OKNKVCT[ QT RQNKVKECN FQOKPCVKQP QH QPG ITQWR D[ VJG QVJGT. 6JGUG PGY GNGOGPVU OC[ DG

KPVGITCVGF KPVQ VJG GZKUVKPI EWNVWTG KP C RTQEGUU ECNNGF KPEQTRQTCVKQP, UWEJ CU COQPI VJG 0CXCLQ

QT #OGTKECP KOOKITCPVU505.

’XGP YJGP CUUKOKNCVKQP KU PQV HQTEGF QWT YQTNF KU DGEQOKPI UCVWTCVGF YKVJ EWNVWTCN KOCIGU

HTQO FQOKPCPV EWNVWTGU. 6JG '/E&QPCNFK\CVKQP' QH EWNVWTG506 KU QPG GZCORNG, YJGTG GCVKPI JCU

503 8KUXCPCVJCP GV CN 2002 504 1T TGEKRTQECN GZEJCPIG. 505 ’ZCORNGU KPENWFG VJG WPEQPSWGTGF 0CXCLQ +PFKCPU, YJQ KP HTGSWGPV CPF XCTKGF EQPVCEV YKVJ 5RCPKUJ EQNQPKUVU KP VJG 18VJ EGPVWT[, UGNGEVGF GNGOGPVU QH 5RCPKUJ EWNVWTG UWEJ CU ENQVJKPI CPF OGVCNYQTMKPI VGEJPKSWGU VJCV YGTG KPVGITCVGF KPVQ VJGKT QYP EWNVWTG. +P VJG 75# WPFGT VJG TWDTKE QH '#OGTKECPK\CVKQP' C RTQEGUU QH CUUKOKNCVKQP JCU DGGP CEJKGXGF. 6JKU YCU NCTIGN[ C TGUWNV QH VJG WPWUWCN QRRQTVWPKVKGU HQT UQEKCN CPF GEQPQOKE OQDKNKV[ KP VJG 75# CPF QH VJG HCEV VJCV HQT VJG ’WTQRGCP GVJPKE ITQWRU, KP EQPVTCUV VQ TCEKCN OKPQTKVKGU, TGUKFGPEG KP VJG 75 YCU C OCVVGT QH KPFKXKFWCN QT HCOKNKCN EJQKEG, PQV EQPSWGUV QT UNCXGT[. $WV DQVJ RWDNKE RQNKE[ CPF RWDNKE QRKPKQP CNUQ EQPVTKDWVGF VQ #OGTKECP CUUKOKNCVKQP. 506 4KV\GT 1993




DGEQOG OQTG CDQWV EWNVWTCN KFGPVKHKECVKQP VJCP EWKUKPG. 5KOKNCTN[ HQT OQUV KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG

GXGP YJGTG VJGTG KU PQ HQTEGF CUUKOKNCVKQP VJGTG CTG RU[EJQNQIKECN QT UQEKCN RTGUUWTG HTQO VJG

FQOKPCPV UQEKGV[ QT PCVKQP UVCVG, UWEJ CU VJG RTQEGUU QH "5CPUMTKVKUCVKQP" VCMKPI RNCEG COQPI

COQPI UQOG GVJPKE ITQWRU KP 0GRCN. 5CPUMTKVKUCVKQP GPEQORCUUGU VJG CFQRVKQP D[ PQP-*KPFWU

(G.I. 6KDGVQ-$WTOCP RGQRNGU) PQV QPN[ QH XGIGVCTKCPKUO CPF VGGVQVCNKUO, DWV CNUQ VJG *KPFW

TKVWCNU CPF VJGKT RCPVJGQP QH IQFU507.

+P VJKU EJCRVGT YG JCXG TGXKGYGF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CPF EQPENWFGF VJCV KP URKVG

QH VJG VJTGCVU RQUGF VQ KV CPF VJG FCPIGTU QH TQOCPVKEKUO VJGTG CTG CURGEVU VJCV CTG WPKSWG CPF

OQTG IGTOCPG VQ DKQ-EWNVWTCN UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ VJCP '9GUVGTP' QT '’CUVGTP ENCUUKECN'

MPQYNGFIG-U[UVGOU. #NVJQWIJ +− KU DGKPI KPETGCUKPIN[ EQ-QRVGF KPVQ OCKPUVTGCO FGXGNQROGPV

TJGVQTKE, CVVGORVU CTG QHVGP OCFG GKVJGT VQ KPVGITCVG KV KPVQ UWRGTKQT HQTOCN U[UVGOU QH

MPQYNGFIG QT VQ KPUKUV QP C FKEJQVQO[ DGVYGGP YGUVGTP CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG.

%QPUGSWGPVN[ QPG RWTRQUG QH VJKU UVWF[ KU VQ KFGPVKH[ KPFKIGPQWU OGPVCN OCRU508 CU C OGCPU QH

DTKFIKPI VJG FKEJQVQO[ DGVYGGP 'HQTOCN' CPF KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUVT[ MPQYNGFIG, CPF CU C

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−CYCMKVC 1984C, /GUUGTUEJOKFV 1976C+D, 5TKPKXCU 1952). 508 )QWNF CPF 9JKVG 1986




RTGTGSWKUKVG HQT FKUEQXGTKPI GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU. 9KVJ VJKU CKO KP OKPF + YKNN GZCOKPG

CNVGTPCVKXG HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU KP VJG PGZV EJCRVGT.


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


%*#26’4 5 (14’564; + YQWNF NKMG VQ DGIKP VJKU EJCRVGT YKVJ O[ 'HQTGUVT[ LQWTPG[' DGECWUG KV RCTCNNGNU VJG EJCPIGU

VJCV JCXG QEEWTTGF KP KPVGTPCVKQPCN HQTGUVT[ UKPEG VJG OKF 1970'U CPF VJG RCTCFKIO UJKHVU + JCXG

IQPG VJTQWIJ. #NVJQWIJ O[ 7− HQTGUVT[ ECTGGT DGICP KP VJG GCTN[ 1970U YKVJ RTGUETKRVKXG

UKNXKEWNVWTG509 KP 5EQVNCPF O[ KPVGTGUV NC[ OWEJ OQTG KP HQTGUVT['U TQNG KP RQXGTV[ CNNGXKCVKQP, KP

VJG 'OCLQTKV[ YQTNF'. +P VJG NCVG 1970U CPF GCTN[ 1980U HQTGUVT[ CRRGCTGF VQ IQ VJTQWIJ C UGC

EJCPIG, CPF VJGTG YCU OQTG QH CP GORJCUKU YKVJKP (#1 CPF VJG 9QTNF $CPM QP EQOOWPKV[

QT UQEKCN HQTGUVT[. (QTGUVGTU YGTG GPEQWTCIGF VQ MPQY CU OWEJ CDQWV TWTCN RGQRNGU CU VTGGU CPF

VQ CESWKTG VJG TGSWKUKVG UMKNNU510. 2TKQT VQ OQXKPI VQ 0GRCN KP 1984 CU C 'EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVGT' +

OCFG UQOG CVVGORV VQ CESWKTG VJGUG UMKNNU, DWV FWG VQ CP CECFGOKE VKOG NCI + JCF VQ YCKV WPVKN

1987 YJGP VJG 1ZHQTF (QTGUVT[ +PUVKVWVG FGXGNQRGF C '5QEKCN CPF %QOOWPKV[ (QTGUVT[' EQWTUG.

6JG KPCFGSWCEKGU QH C '5EKGPVKHKE (QTGUVT[ , YJKEJ CTG GZRNCKPGF DGNQY, DGECOG CRRCTGPV

CNOQUV KOOGFKCVGN[ + CTTKXGF KP 0GRCN CPF VTKGF VQ KPVTQFWEG C TCPIG QH HQTGUVT[ KPVGTXGPVKQP

COQPI VJG CPKOKUVKE/UJCOCPKUVKE OQWPVCKP RGQRNGU. 6JKU YCU JKIJNKIJVGF KP 1985 YJGP + NGF

C VGCO QH HQTGUVGTU VQ +PFKC, CPF OGV YKVJ %JKRMQ CEVKXKUVU 8CPFCPC 5JKXC CPF 5WPFGTNCN

$CJWICPC YJQ GZRNCKPGF VJG PCVWTG QH HQTGUV RTQVGUV (%JKRMQ) CPF VJG EQNQPKCN NGICE[, YGTG

UECVJKPI KP VJGKT ETKVKSWG QH '5EKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[' CPF OQFGTPKV[, CPF CTIWGF KP HCXQWT QH

KPFKIGPQWU CRRTQCEJGU. + YCU HQTVWPCVG VJCV 0GRCN YCU CV VJG HQTGHTQPV QH EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[

CPF VJCV VJG IQXGTPOGPV YCU RTCIOCVKE GPQWIJ VQ TGCNKUG VJCV NCTIG-UECNG KPFWUVTKCN RNCPVCVKQPU

FKF PQV JCXG OWEJ RNCEG KP VJG *KOCNC[C. +P URKVG QH VJG EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[ GORJCUKU HGY

HQTGUVGTU CRRGCTGF VQ TGCNKUG VJCV EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[ EQPUVKVWVGF CP CNVGTPCVKXG RCTCFKIO. +V

VQQM VJG 0GRCN-#WUVTCNKC (QTGUVT[ RTQLGEV OQTG VJCP VGP [GCTU VQ CTVKEWNCVG VJG KORQTVCPEG QH

'EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU'511. $GECWUG + YCU HCOKNKCT YKVJ RCTCFKIO VJGQT[512, JCF NKXGF

KP 0GRCN HQT PGCTN[ 7 [GCTU, JCF CFQRVGF CP GPFQIGPQWU CRRTQCEJ CPF NKXGF YKVJ CPKOKUV/

UJCOCPKUVKE RGQRNGU, VJKU CRRTQCEJ KOOGFKCVGN[ TGUQPCVGF YKVJ O[ GZRGTKGPEG. + HQWPF UKOKNCT

TGUQPCPEG YKVJ $CPWTK CPF /CTIKP'U YQTM (1993) QP U[UVGOU-QH- MPQYNGFIG FWTKPI /#

UVWFKGU. +P URKVG QH VJGUG YQTMU CPF QVJGTU OCP[ HQTGUVGTU KPXQNXGF YKVJ EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[,

UQEKCN HQTGUVT[ CPF LQKPV HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV UGGOKPIN[ JCXG FKHHKEWNV[ GODTCEKPI VJG PGY

509 +P 5EQVNCPF 510 5QEKQNQI[, TWTCN FGXGNQROGPV, CPVJTQRQNQI[, NKPIWKUVKEU, RU[EJQNQI[, RQNKVKEU GVE. 511 )KNOQWT CPF (KUJGT 1991 512 #U C RNCVHQTO HQT WPFGTUVCPFKPI CPKOKUO/UJCOCPKUO.


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


RCTCFKIO CPF QRGTCVG YKVJKP VJG UCOG RCTCFKIO CPF FKUEWTUKXG URCEG CU OCKPUVTGCO HQTGUVT[.

+ OCPCIGF VQ GHHGEV C RCTCFKIO UJKHV 'CWVQOCVKECNN[' D[ NKXKPI DKEWNVWTCNN[ KP 09 0GRCN DWV +

DGICP VQ EQPUKFGT KH VJGTG YGTG VQQNU, OGPVCN OCRU CPF EQPEGRVWCN OQFGNU VQ CUUKUV HQTGUVGTU

'HCUV-VTCEM' YJCV JCF VCMGP OG 7 [GCTU VQ CEJKGXG. + JCF VQ YCKV WPVKN 1995 VQ DWKNF QP VJGUG UGGF

VJQWIJVU YJGP + YCU CUMGF VQ EQPFWEV C HGCUKDKNKV[ UVWF[ QH C OCLQT HQTGUVT[ RTQITCOOG KP

’CUVGTP 6KDGV. 6JG VGCO KPXQNXGF XGT[ TCRKFN[ TGCNKUGF VJCV PQ TGUGCTEJ JCF DGGP FQPG, CV CNN,

QP VJG TQNG CPF KORQTVCPEG QH VTGGU CPF HQTGUVU VQ VJG 6KDGVCP RGQRNGU , YJKEJ YCU UGGP CU C

RTGTGSWKUKVG HQT RTQITCOOG RTQUGEWVKQP. +V YCU UWIIGUVGF VJCV C 2J& DCUGF QP GVJPQHQTGUVT[

YQWNF PQV QPN[ CFFTGUU VJG TQNG CPF KORQTVCPEG QH VTGGU CPF HQTGUVU513 VQ VJG 6KDGVCP RGQRNGU

DWV YQWNF TGCEJ C OWEJ NCTIGT CWFKGPEG VJCP CP 0)1 HGCUKDKNKV[ UVWF[.

6JG KORQTVCPEG CPF TCVKQPCNG HQT GVJPQHQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU CPF O[ QYP LQWTPG[ HTQO HQTGUVGT

VJTQWIJ GVJPQHQTGUVGT ECPPQV DG HWNN[ WPFGTUVQQF YKVJQWV C TGXKGY QH CNVGTPCVKXG HQTGUVT[

RCTCFKIOU, 'UETKRVU', FKUEQWTUGU CPF VJG UQEKCN KFKQO QH HQTGUV RTQVGUV YJKEJ YKNN DG VJG UWDLGEVU

QH VJKU EJCRVGT. )KXGP VJG RCWEKV[514 QH HQTGUVT[ NKVGTCVWTG QP 6KDGV VJKU EJCRVGT YKNN DG

KNNWUVTCVGF YKVJ GZCORNGU HTQO +PFKC CPF ’WTQRG YJKEJ JCXG YGNN FQEWOGPVGF JKUVQTKGU QH

UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[, EWUVQOCT[ RTCEVKEGU CPF HQTGUV RTQVGUV.

5.1 +0641&7%6+10

6JKU UVWF[ TGEQIPKUGU VJCV 'HQTGUVT[' TGRTGUGPVU C XGT[ DTQCF TCPIG QH GXQNXKPI RCTCFKIOU CPF

OCPCIGOGPV CRRTQCEJGU, DWV HQT VJG RWTRQUG QH VJKU YQTM YG YKNN NKOKV QWT CPCN[UKU VQ C

ETKVKSWG QH 'UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ ', 'PGQ-RQRWNKUV' CRRTQCEJGU CPF CP KPVTQFWEVKQP VQ RQUV-4KQ

RCTCFKIOU CPF CRRTQCEJGU VJCV CTG IGTOCPG VQ VJKU UVWF[.

5.2 6*’ 5%+’06+(+% (14’564; 2#4#&+)/

+FGCU CDQWV UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ YGTG HKTUV FGXGNQRGF KP )GTOCP[ CV VJG DGIKPPKPI QH VJG

GKIJVGGPVJ EGPVWT[ YJGP 'HQTGUV UEKGPEG' YCU TGNCVKXGN[ JQNKUVKE CPF EQORTGJGPUKXG515.

’PFGTNKP GZVGPFGF UKNXKEWNVWTG HTQO QDUGTXCVKQP VQ C OQTG UEKGPVKHKE HQWPFCVKQP CPF *G[GT

513 .GZKEQNQIKECNN[ '(QTGUV XCNWGU' CPF 'GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[' YGTG PQV EQOOQP EWTTGPE[ CV VJKU VKOG. 514 9JGP VJKU UVWF[ DGICP VJG CWVJQT EQWNF PQV HKPF CP[ %JKPGUG KPUVKVWVKQP VJCV YCU EQPFWEVKPI HQTGUVT[ TGUGCTEJ COQPI 6KDGVCPU CNVJQWIJ TGEGPVN[ DQVJ VJG %GPVTG HQT $KQFKXGTUKV[ CPF +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG (−WPOKPI) CPF VJG 6KDGVCP IQXGTPOGPV KP GZKNG JCU EQPFWEVGF C NKVVNG. 515 6QWOG[ 1947


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


FGXGNQRGF C VJGQT[ QH UJCFG VQNGTCPEG516. 1VJGTU CRRNKGF DKQNQI[, EJGOKUVT[ CPF RJ[UKEU VQ

UKNXKEWNVWTCN VJGQT[517 CPF ’DGTOC[GT UWIIGUVGF GUVCDNKUJKPI HQTGUV GZRGTKOGPV UVCVKQPU518. #U

HQTGUVU ECOG WPFGT OCPCIGOGPV, JQYGXGT, XCUV RNCPVCVKQPU QH C HGY WPKHQTO URGEKGU TGRNCEGF

VJG RTKOGXCN YQQFNCPF QH O[VJ CPF NGIGPF, WPVKN D[ VJG 1930'U OQUV QH VJG )GTOCP HQTGUV YCU

OCPCIGF RNCPVCVKQPU. $TKVKUJ, (TGPEJ CPF #OGTKECP HQTGUVT[ YCU HQWPFGF QP VJKU OQFGN.

+PFWUVTKCN HQTGUVT[ YCU SWKEM VQ VCMG CFXCPVCIG QH VJG UEKGPVKHKE WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH HQTGUVU CPF

VTGGU CPF D[ VJG 1980'U UEKGPVKHKE TGUGCTEJ JCF TGUWNVGF KP VGEJPQNQIKECN CRRNKECVKQPU HQT

ITQYKPI, IGPGVKECNN[ KORTQXKPI, JCTXGUVKPI, CPF RTQEGUUKPI YQQF[ OCVGTKCN QP CP

WPRTGEGFGPVGF, XCUV CPF WPEQPUKFGTGF UECNG. (TQO VJG UVCTV VJGUG KFGCU YGTG DCUGF QP VJG

DGNKGH VJCV VJG UVCVG UJQWNF DG TGURQPUKDNG HQT HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV, UKPEG VJG NQPI VKOG RGTKQF

TGSWKTGF HQT TCVKQPCN OCPCIGOGPV QH HQTGUVU YCU VJQWIJV VQ DG EQPUKUVGPV QPN[ YKVJ EQPVTQN D[

IQXGTPOGPVU QT RGTRGVWCN EQTRQTCVKQPU. '4CVKQPCN' HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV KPENWFGF VJG UGRCTCVKQP

QH HQTGUVT[ CPF CITKEWNVWTG HTQO GCEJ QVJGT, VJG GPCEVOGPV QH HQTGUV NGIKUNCVKQP, VJG

GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH C HQTGUV CFOKPKUVTCVKQP CPF VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH RQNKEG EQPVTQN. 6JG GUUGPVKCN

KFGC YCU VJCV QH C UWUVCKPGF [KGNF HQTGUVT[, YJGTGD[ VJG HQTGUV CTGC YQWNF TGOCKP WPEJCPIGF

VJTQWIJ TGRNCEGOGPV QH HGNNGF VTGGU, HQT RWTRQUGU QH KPFWUVTKCN OQDKNKUCVKQP QH YQQF.

$GIKPPKPI KP VJG 1940'U, KV DGECOG GXKFGPV INQDCNN[ VJCV VJG RNCPVCVKQP U[UVGO, YKVJ UKPING

URGEKGU GXGP-CIGF VTGGU, YCU UWUEGRVKDNG VQ ECVCUVTQRJKE EJCPIG519 KP C YC[ VJCV PCVWTCN HQTGUVU

YGTG PQV CPF VJCV VJG 'HQTGUVT[ OCEJKPG YCU QWV QH EQPVTQN'520. $GECWUG QH GEQNQIKECN CU YGNN CU

CGUVJGVKE RTQDNGOU, VJKU RCTCFKIO JCU HCEGF C ITGCV FGCN QH ETKVKEKUO, RCTVKEWNCTN[ HTQO VJQUG

YKVJ OQTG QTICPKE XKGYU QH VJG HQTGUV. +P URKVG QH VJG ETKVKEKUO KV JCU EQPVKPWGF VQ RTQXKFG VJG

DCUKU HQT EQNNGEVKXG HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV KP ’WTQRG CU YGNN CU 0QTVJ #OGTKEC RQUV 9QTNF 9CT 2.

5QOG OCLQT FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP VTQRKECN CPF VGORGTCVG HQTGUV GEQU[UVGOU UGTKQWUN[ KORCKTGF

VJG UWEEGUU QH UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[, GXGP QP KVU QYP VGTOU, KP VJG VTQRKEU. 6JGUG FKHHGTGPEGU

KPENWFG VJG HCEV:

• 6JCV VTQRKECN HQTGUVU V[RKECNN[ JCXG C OWNVKVWFG QH URGEKGU, QH YJKEJ QPN[ C HGY CTG

EQOOGTEKCNN[ XCNWCDNG;

516 &TGPIUQP CPF 6C[NQT 1997 517 /C[T, &WGUDGTI, &KVVOCT 518 &TGPIUQP CPF 6C[NQT 1997 519 YKPF, RQNNWVKQP, QT KPUGEVU. 520 9KVVDGEMGT 1997


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


• 6JG[ JCXG C HCT ITGCVGT EQORNGZKV[ QH HQTGUV-UQKN-YCVGT TGNCVKQPUJKRU

• # EQTTGURQPFKPIN[ ITGCVGT HTCIKNKV[ QH VJG GEQU[UVGO, YJKEJ ECPPQV YKVJUVCPF VJG

TCFKECN OQFKHKECVKQPU KPVTQFWEGF D[ EQOOGTEKCN HQTGUVT[ YKVJQWV IQKPI KPVQ

KTTGXGTUKDNG FGENKPG.

$GECWUG QH VJGUG CPF QVJGT HCEVQTU, UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ JCU KP RTCEVKEG QHVGP HCKNGF VQ EQPHQTO

GXGP VQ KVU KFGCNU QH UWUVCKPGF [KGNF JCTXGUVKPI, JQYGXGT FGHKEKGPV VJGUG KFGCNU OC[ DG QP QVJGT

ITQWPFU. 6JKU HCKNWTG ECP DG CVVTKDWVGF VQ VJTGG HCEVQTU521:

• +PCFGSWCVG MPQYNGFIG QH VJG EQORNGZ GEQNQIKECN KPVGTNKPMCIGU QT CP KPCFGSWCVG

UVCVKUVKECN DCUG VQ WRFCVG VJG MPQYNGFIG;

• 5NQY TGURQPUG QH VJG IQXGTPOGPV CPF UEKGPVKUVU VQ EQOOGTEKCN CPF KPFWUVTKCN KPVGTGUVU;

• 5JGGT OKUOCPCIGOGPV

5.3 (14’564; #0& /1&’40+6;

5EKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ KU DCUGF QP CP CPVJTQRQEGPVTKE RCTCFKIO QH QWT TGNCVKQP YKVJ PCVWTG, PCOGN[

VJCV JWOCPMKPF GZKUVU, CRCTV HTQO, CPF QWVUKFG QH PCVWTG, CPF KV CEEGRVU C WVKNKVCTKCP XCNWG

U[UVGO. +P VJG .QEMGCP GZRCPUKQPKUV RCTCFKIO522 PCVWTG KU TGICTFGF GUUGPVKCNN[ CU C UVQTGJQWUG

QH TGUQWTEGU VQ DG WVKNK\GF HQT VJG OGGVKPI QH GXGT-KPETGCUKPI OCVGTKCN PGGFU D[ CP GXGT-

KPETGCUKPI JWOCP RQRWNCVKQP. ’XGP YJGP YGUVGTP U[UVGOU QH MPQYNGFIG YQTM YGNN VJG[ CTG

HTCWIJV YKVJ FCPIGT CPF FKHHKEWNV[, DWV OQTG QHVGP VJG[ FQ PQV YQTM YGNN. 5EKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[,

RTGFKECVGF CU KV KU QP C 9GUVGTP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGO JCU VJTGG V[RGU QH RTQDNGO.

• (KTUV, KP KVU KFGCN HQTO YJKEJ KU UWRRQUGF VQ VCMG C NQPI XKGY QH VJG UKVWCVKQP, UEKGPVKHKE

HQTGUVT[ KU JCTOHWN DGECWUG KVU ENCKO VQ RTKXKNGIGF UVCVWU HQT KVU OQFG QH MPQYKPI

NGIKVKOKUGU EQNQPKUCVKQP CPF GZRNQKVCVKQP QH VJG QDLGEV QH KVU MPQYNGFIG. +V KU C RTQDNGO

KPJGTGPV KP CP KPUVTWOGPVCN XKGY QH VJG YQTNF.

• 5GEQPF, KP RTCEVKEG VJG NCDGN 'UEKGPVKHKE' KU WUGF VQ LWUVKH[ UJQTV-JQTK\QP EQOOGTEKCN

RTCEVKEGU TCVJGT VJCP VJG RWTUWKV QH IGPWKPGN[ NQPI-TWP KPVGTGUVU523

6JG RTQDNGOU KFGPVKHKGF CDQXG ECP DG GZCEGTDCVGF KH VJGTG KU EQTTWRVKQP, KPGHHKEKGPE[ CPF YCUVG.

+P URKVG QH VJG RTQDNGOU VJQUG YJQ CTIWG HQT C .QEMGCP UEKGPVKHKE/KPFWUVTKCN RQUKVKQP ENCKO VJCV

521 $CPWTK CPF /CTINKP 1993 522 /GTEJCPV 1997 523 #U HQT GZCORNG, KP VJG WUG QH VJG VGTOU 'XCNWCDNG', 'FGUKTCDNG', 'KPHGTKQT'.


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


PGY CRRTQCEJGU524 ECP DG TGNKGF WRQP VQ KPETGCUG INQDCN UVCPFCTFU QH NKXKPI, JCTPGUU TGPGYCDNG

CPF OQTG GPXKTQPOGPVCNN[ HTKGPFN[ UQWTEGU QH GPGTI[, CPF KPETGCUG HQQF RTQFWEVKQP CPF VJG

CXCKNCDKNKV[ QH QVJGT DKQNQIKECN RTQFWEVU VJTQWIJ DTGCMVJTQWIJU KP DKQVGEJPQNQI[. +P VWTP, OQTG

GHHKEKGPV VGEJPQNQIKGU CTG UGGP VQ DG CDNG VQ UQNXG VJG RTQDNGOU ETGCVGF D[ RTGXKQWU

VGEJPQNQIKGU, VQ ETGCVG UWDUVKVWVGU HQT FGRNGVGF TGUQWTEGU CPF VQ TGRNCEG FCOCIGF

GEQU[UVGOU525. 5EKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ JCU DGGP TGCTVKEWNCVGF VJTQWIJ 'UETKRVU' CPF FKUEQWTUGU.

5.4 5%+’06+(+% (14’564; 5%4+265 #0& *’)’/10+%

&+5%1745’5

6JG NKPMCIGU DGVYGGP VJG UEKGPVKHKE FKUEKRNKPGU CPF RQNKE[ JCXG YQTMGF VQ UKORNKH[ CPF

JQOQIGPKUG HQTGUVT[ MPQYNGFIG, CPF VQ FGVGT EQPUGTXCVKQP CIGPEKGU HWTVJGT HTQO CFFTGUUKPI

EQORNGZ, WPGZRGEVGF UQEKCN CPF GEQNQIKECN F[PCOKEU. 9JGP VTCPUNCVGF KPVQ RQNKE[ FQEWOGPVU,

VJG FGVCKNGF EQPENWUKQPU HTQO HKGNF-DCUGF UVWFKGU VGPF VQ DG UKORNKHKGF KPVQ YJCV 4QG526 JCU

VGTOGF FGXGNQROGPV PCTTCVKXGU: 'UVQTKGU' YJKEJ GPEQFG CPF UVCDKNKUG VJG CUUWORVKQPU CDQWV C

UKVWCVKQP KP UWEJ C YC[ CU VQ HCEKNKVCVG FGEKUKQP-OCMKPI. 0CTTCVKXGU EQPEGTPKPI HQTGUV EJCPIG,

QT VJG GHHGEVU QH HCTOKPI, QT RQRWNCVKQP-GPXKTQPOGPV TGNCVKQPU, CNN UWIIGUV RCTVKEWNCT V[RGU QH

UQNWVKQP. 6JG[ RTQXKFG "EWNVWTCN UETKRVU HQT CEVKQP"527 YJKEJ GPCDNG FQPQT CPF IQXGTPOGPV

CIGPEKGU VQ TCKUG HWPFU CPF CEV, FGURKVG VJG WPEGTVCKPVKGU CPF EQORNGZKVKGU CEVWCNN[ UWTTQWPFKPI

UQEKCN CPF GEQNQIKECN EJCPIG528. 6JG[ JCXG DGEQOG C EJCTCEVGTKUVKE QH VJG TGUGCTEJ-RQNKE[

KPVGTHCEG529. +V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV UKOKNCT RTQEGUUGU CTG QEEWTTKPI DGVYGGP UEKGPVKHKE FKUEKRNKPGU,

RCTVKEWNCTN[ DGVYGGP UQEKCN CPF PCVWTCN UEKGPEGU530. #PCN[UVU HTQO QPG RCTVKEWNCT FKUEKRNKPG

OC[ GORNQ[ XGT[ FGVCKNGF RGTURGEVKXGU QH VJGKT QYP YQTM, DWV OC[ TGN[ QP UKORNKHKECVKQPU

HTQO QVJGT FKUEKRNKPGU VQ HTCOG VJGKT DTQCFGT TGUGCTEJ SWGUVKQPU CPF VTCLGEVQTKGU. (CKTJGCF CPF

.GCEJ531 UWIIGUV VJCV, HQT GZCORNG, YGUV #HTKECP JKUVQT[ CPF CPVJTQRQNQI[ VQ FCVG OC[ JCXG

DGGP UJCRGF D[ GTTQPGQWU XGIGVCVKQP JKUVQT[ CPCN[UKU YJKEJ JCF KVU TQQVU KP EQNQPKCN

FQOKPCVKQP. 6JKU, VJG[ UWIIGUV JKIJNKIJVU VJG PGGF VQ VCMG C OQTG ETKVKECN XKGY QH VJG

RTQFWEVKQP QH MPQYNGFIG CPF KVU CRRNKECVKQP VQ VJG GPXKTQPOGPV, HQTGUVT[ CPF FGXGNQROGPV

524 %QODKPGF YKVJ JWOCPMKPF'U KPIGPWKV[ CPF VGEJPKECN QRVKOKUO. 525 /GTEJCPV 1997 526 4QG 1991 527 (CKTJGCF CPF .GCEJ 1998 RCIG 190 528 *QDGP 1995, .GCEJ CPF /GCTPU 1996 529 *KTUEJOCPP 1968 530 (CKTJGCF CPF .GCEJ 1998 531 (CKTJGCF CPF .GCEJ 1998


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


CPF VJG PGGF HQT C VJQTQWIJ CPCN[UKU DCUGF QP RQUV-OQFGTP FGXGNQROGPV FKUEQWTUG532

NKDGTCVKQP GEQNQI[533 CPF RQNKVKECN GEQNQI[534.

2QNKVKECN CPF GEQPQOKE GNKVGU JCXG KPXCTKCDN[ UQWIJV VQ GZRNCKP NCPFUECRG JKUVQT[ CPF VQ LWUVKH[

URGEKHKE WUWCNN[ JKIJN[ WPGSWCN RCVVGTPU QH JWOCP WUG QH VJG GPXKTQPOGPV QP VJG DCUKU QH GNKVG

NCPFUECRG 'TGCFKPIU' CPF ENCKOU. 6JG ENCUJ DGVYGGP GNKVG TGCFKPIU CPF NQECN TGCFKPIU QH VJG

HQTGUV YCU PQV OGTGN[ GEQPQOKE, DWV TGUVGF QP HWPFCOGPVCNN[ FKHHGTGPV PQVKQPU QH VJG HQTGUV CPF

QP TCFKECNN[ FKHHGTGPV U[UVGOU QH OGCPKPI CPF NCPFUECRG TGCFKPI. 6JG 'VTWVJ' CDQWV VJG

'UCXCPPKUCVKQP' QH UQOG #HTKECP HQTGUV-UCXCPPCJ NCPFUECRG535 YCU RTQFWEGF CPF FKHHWUGF

VJTQWIJ UEKGPEG CPF KVU OGVJQFU, FGFWEVKQP, CPF NCPIWCIG PGGFGF VQ DG EQPUKFGTGF KP TGNCVKQP

VQ KVU RQNKVKECN GEQPQO[; QTKIKPCNN[ YKVJKP VJG EQNQPKCN TGIKOG, DWV PQV PQY TGUVTKEVGF VQ KV. #U

UWEJ, VJG EQPXKEVKQP QH HQTGUV-UCXCPPCJ FGITCFCVKQP, KP OWEJ QH #HTKEC, CPF KVU RQYGT KP

GZENWFKPI CNVGTPCVKXG NCPFUECRG TGCFKPIU, OC[ DG EQPUKFGTGF CU 'C FKUEQWTUG' KP VJG

(QWECWNFKCP UGPUG536. (WTVJGTOQTG IKXGP VJG UVCDNG CPF CDUQNWVG EQPXKEVKQP KP FGITCFCVKQP

COQPI RQYGTHWN UVCVG CPF INQDCN KPUVKVWVKQPU, CPF IKXGP KVU RTQXGP ECRCEKV[ VQ UKNGPEG CPF

UWDLWICVG NQECN XKGYU YKVJKP RQNKE[ CPF UEKGPVKHKE EKTENGU, VJKU NCPFUECRG TGCFKPI CPF KVU

UEKGPVKHKE GNCDQTCVKQP ECP QPN[ DG TGICTFGF CU C JGIGOQPKE QT VQVCNKUKPI FKUEQWTUG537.

6JG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH 'UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[' KP +PFKC, HQT GZCORNG, YCU DCUGF QP GNKVG EQNQPKCN

UEKGPVKHKE ENCKOU. 6JKU )GTOCP U[UVGO QH HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV YCU KPVTQFWEGF HKTUV KP

$TKVKUJ-TWNGF $WTOC CPF +PFKC CPF &WVEJ-TWNGF ,CXC DGHQTG DGKPI GZRQTVGF VQ QVJGT EQNQPKCN

VGTTKVQTKGU KP VJG NCVG PKPGVGGPVJ CPF GCTN[ VYGPVKGVJ EGPVWTKGU538. 6JG OCKP RWTRQUG QH UEKGPVKHKE

HQTGUVT[ YCU VJG RTQOQVKQP QH NQPI-VGTO EQOOGTEKCN VKODGT RTQFWEVKQP, GURGEKCNN[ MG[ URGEKGU

UWEJ CU EGFCT539 CPF VGCM540 EGPVTCN VQ VJG KORGTKCN GEQPQOKGU. $WV HQT VJKU U[UVGO VQ UWEEGGF,

C OCLQT VTCPUHQTOCVKQP KP NQECN UQEKCN CPF GEQNQIKECN EQPFKVKQPU YCU TGSWKTGF. *GPEG CV VJG

UCOG VKOG CU KORGTKCN HQTGUVGTU UQWIJV VQ GNKOKPCVG EQORGVKVQT URGEKGU VQ HCXQWTGF VTGG URGEKGU,

532 5NCVGT 1992C+D 533 2GGV CPF 9CVVU 1996 534 $T[CPV 1992 535 (CKTJGCF CPF .GCEJ 1996 536 (QWECWNV 1972, 1980 537 2GGV CPF 9CVVU 1996 538 $T[CPV 1997, )WJC 1985 539 %GFTWU FGQFCTC 540 6GEVQPC ITCPFKU


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


VJG[ CNUQ CVVGORVGF VQ TGUVTKEV CNVGTPCVKXG KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUV RTCEVKEGU541 VJCV OKIJV VJTGCVGP

QHHKEKCN VKODGT GZVTCEVKQP CPF TGIGPGTCVKQP QRGTCVKQPU542. %QNQPKCN QHHKEKCNU LWUVKHKGF VJG

RQNKEKPI CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ HQTGUVT[ QP VJG ITQWPFU VJCV KV YCU C 'UEKGPVKHKE U[UVGO' VJCV YCU

KPVTQFWEGF 'KP VJG RWDNKE KPVGTGUV'. 6JGUG QHHKEKCNU HWTVJGT EQPVTCUVGF VJKU 'GEQNQIKECNN[ IQQF'

U[UVGO YKVJ 'GEQNQIKECNN[ DCF' RTCEVKEGU QH VJG KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUV WUGTU, PCOGN[ UJKHVKPI

EWNVKXCVQTU. # FKUEQWTUG QH HQTGUVT[ CU RTQITGUU YCU FGXGNQRGF KP YJKEJ CRRTQRTKCVG HQTGUV WUG

YCU FGHKPGF NCTIGN[ KP VGTOU QH EQOOGTEKCN HQTGUVT[ YJKEJ YCU CUUGTVGF VQ DG DQVJ GEQNQIKECNN[

UQWPF CPF HKPCPEKCNN[ TGOWPGTCVKXG VQ VJG UVCVG YJKNG KPFKIGPQWU RTCEVKEGU543 YGTG FGPKITCVGF,

OCTIKPCNK\GF CPF GXGP ETKOKPCNK\GF544. +P +PFKC UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ UVTWEM CV VJG XGT[ TQQV QH

VTCFKVKQPCN UQEKCN CPF GEQPQOKE QTICPK\CVKQP. /QTGQXGT, KV QRGTCVGF QP TCFKECNN[ FKHHGTGPV

RTKPEKRNGU HTQO VJG EWUVQOCT[ WUG QH HQTGUVU D[ NQECN RGQRNG. 6JKU WPFGTN[KPI EQPHNKEV OCPKHGUV

KVUGNH KP C XCTKGV[ QH HQTOU QH UQEKCN RTQVGUV, VJG OQUV YGNN MPQYP DGKPI VJG %JKRMQ OQXGOGPV,

DWV HWPFCOGPVCNN[ VJG[ YGTG CKOGF CV VJG TGUVTKEVKQPU QP EWUVQOCT[ RCVVGTPU QH HQTGUV WUG545.

5.5 (14’564; #0& 2416’56

6JG UQEKCN KFKQO QH RTQVGUV KP +PFKC DGCTU C UVTKMKPI TGUGODNCPEG VQ VJG EQPHNKEVU QXGT HQTGUV

TKIJVU CPF VJG GPENQUWTG QH HQTGUV 'EQOOQPU' VJCV YGTG CP KORQTVCPV HGCVWTG QH VJG VTCPUKVKQP VQ

KPFWUVTKCN ECRKVCNKUO KP ’WTQRG546. 6JG UNQY DWV UVGCF[ ITQYVJ QH UVCVG HQTGUVT[ KP 9GUVGTP

’WTQRG CPF VJG GPENQUWTG QH EQOOWPCN HQTGUVU D[ NCTIG NCPFQYPGTU CNUQ KPVTQFWEGF C WPKHQTO

CPF TCVKQPCNK\GF U[UVGO QH HQTGUV CFOKPKUVTCVKQP KP RNCEG QH C HNGZKDNG CPF KPHQTOCN U[UVGO QH

EWUVQOCT[ WUG. #U KP +PFKC VJG VTCPUKVKQP KP (TCPEG, )GTOCP[ CPF 7− YCU PGKVJGT UOQQVJ PQT

JCTOQPKQWU, YKVJ RGCUCPVU CPF [GQOCPT[ RTQVGUVKPI CV VJG FGRTKXCVKQP QH VJGKT VTCFKVKQPCN

TKIJVU QH CEEGUU CPF WUG547. +P OWEJ QH 9GUVGTP ’WTQRG VJG DCVVNG HQT VJG HQTGUV YCU C EGPVTCN

HGCVWTG QH VJG NCTIGT EQPHTQPVCVKQP DGVYGGP CP CFXCPEKPI ECRKVCNKUO, VJG UVCVG CPF VJG NQECN

EQOOWPKV[. #U KP +PFKC, VJG RGCUCPV CPF [GQOGP RTQVGUV KP ’WTQRG YCU KPHQTOGF D[ CNVGTCVKXG

EQPEGRVKQPU QH RTQRGTV[ CPF WUG. 9JCV KU EQOOQP VQ VJG TGUKUVCPEG VQ UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ KP

PKPGVGGPVJ-EGPVWT[ ’WTQRG CPF VYGPVKGVJ EGPVWT[ +PFKC KU VJCV KP DQVJ ECUGU KV TGRTGUGPVGF C

541 GI 5JKHVKPI EWNVKXCVKQP, JWPVKPI, ITC\KPI, PQP-VKODGT HQTGUV RTQFWEVU GVE. 542 $T[CPV 1994, )CFIKN CPF )WJC 1992 543 5JKHVKPI EWNVKXCVKQP, PQP-VKODGT HQTGUV RTQFWEVU. 544 $T[CPV 1996 545 )WJC 2000, 4QWVNGFIG 1993, 5JKXC CPF $CPF[QRCFJ[C[ 1986 546 .CXGNG[G 1878, .GUNKG 1871, 6JQORUQP 1975, 6TCXKU 2000 547 *C[ CPF 4QIGTU 1997, /CTZ 1976


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


FGHGPEG QH C VTCFKVKQPCN GEQPQOKE CPF UQEKCN U[UVGO, YJKEJ CHHQTFGF DQVJ [GQOCP CPF RGCUCPV

UQOG OGCUWTG QH KPFGRGPFGPEG CPF UGNH-UWHHKEKGPE[ CICKPUV VJG HQTEGU QH C TKUKPI CPF

GZRCPUKQPKUV ECRKVCNKUO.

+P DQVJ +PFKC CPF 7− GNKVG KFGQNQIKGU QH 'UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[' QT .QEMGCP 'RTQVQ-WVKNKVCTKCP YCUVG'

RTQENCKOGF VJCV GZRTQRTKCVKQP QH EQR[JQNF, EQOOQPU CPF EWUVQOCT[ TKIJVU D[ UVCVG QT

OGTEJCPV HCTOGT YCU C NQIKECN EQTQNNCT[ QH VJG NCEM QH 'OQTCN CPF NGICN TKIJVU' QT 'UEKGPVKHKE' QT

'EQOOGTEKCNN[' GZRNQKVCVKXG RTCEVKEGU QDUGTXGF COQPI VJG JWOCP RQRWNCVKQP WUKPI

'EQOOQPU'548. *KUVQTKECN GXKFGPEG TGXGCNU KP +PFKC CPF VJG 7−, VJCV TCVJGT VJCP VJG WUG QH

'EQOOQPU' TGRTGUGPVKPI C "VTCIGF[...DTKPIKPI TWKP VQ CNN" CU *CTFKP UWIIGUVU549 VJG[ QHVGP

TGRTGUGPV JKIJN[ UQRJKUVKECVGF U[UVGOU QH TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR RTGFKECVGF QP EWUVQOCT[ TWNGU

CPF KPUVKVWVKQPU VJCV CRRGCT VQ RTQXKFG 'QTFGT YKVJQWV NCY' YJKEJ QHVGP YQTMGF DGVVGT VJCP NGICN

TGIKOGU550. +P +PFKC VJG OQUV XKUKDNG HQTO QH EWUVQOCT[ UVGYCTFUJKR YCU VJG FGUKIPCVKQP QH

NCTIG CTGCU QH HQTGUV CU 'UCETGF' CTGC YJKEJ PQ XKNNCIGT YCU CNNQYGF VQ KPLWTG551. #U C VTCFKVKQPCN

HQTO QH HQTGUV RTGUGTXCVKQP, UCETGF ITQXGU VGUVKHKGF VQ VJG TQNG RNC[GF D[ HQNM TGNKIKQWU DGNKGHU

KP VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH PCVWTG. 5KOWNVCPGQWUN[, KPHQTOCN OCPCIGOGPV RTCEVKEGU, DQVJ DGVYGGP

CPF YKVJKP XKNNCIG EQOOWPKVKGU, ECTGHWNN[ TGIWNCVGF VJG WVKNK\CVKQP QH HQTGUV RTQFWEG, NKOKVKPI

VJG COQWPV QH HWGN, HQFFGT CPF QVJGT HQTGUV RTQFWEG CXCKNCDNG VQ GCEJ HCOKN[552. #NVJQWIJ VJG

JKUVQT[ QH CITCTKCP RTQVGUV JCU UQOG EQOOQP EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU KP VJG 7−553, ’WTQRG CPF +PFKC KV

CNUQ JCU WPKSWG HGCVWTGU.

+P ’PINCPF GZRTQRTKCVKQP QH EQOOQPU GXGPVWCNN[ NGF VQ VJG GZVKPEVKQP QH OQUV [GQOGP HCTOGTU,

YJQ YGTG HQTEGF HTQO VJGKT RTQRGTVKGU KPVQ YCIG NCDQWT, KPVQ VQYP CPF DCEM VQ UGTHFQO, YJKNG

KP OWEJ QH ’WTQRG VJG 'TWTCN DQWTIGQKUKG' YGTG KPETGCUKPI KP PWODGTU CPF KPHNWGPEG. 6JKU

EQWTUG QH GXGPVU OCMGU ’PINCPF, KP URKVG QH KVU ENCKOU QH 'NKDGTV[ CPF EKXKNK\CVKQP' QPG QH VJG HGY

548 )WJC 1985, 5VGDDKPI 1922-27 549 *CTFKP 1968 RCIG 1244 550 6JQORUQP 1991 551 $QT 1953, $TCPFKU 1906, )CFIKN 1985, )WJC 1993 552 )WJC 1985 553 9JKNG VJG CWVJQT CEMPQYNGFIGU VJCV CITCTKCP RTQVGUV QEEWTTGF KP 5EQVNCPF, 9CNGU CPF 0QTVJGTP +TGNCPF URCEG QPN[ RGTOKVU CP GZCOKPCVKQP QH ’PINCPF (#TOUVTQPI 2003, &QPPGNN[ 1983, 5CPFGTU PF).


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


YJGTG RTQRGTV[ YCU VCMGP HTQO VJG JCPFU QH VJQUG YJQ EWNVKXCVGF KV, YJQ ECRKVWNCVGF KP C

'TGXQNWVKQP' VJCV RCUUGF CNOQUV WPPQVKEGF554.

+P +PFKC, VJTQWIJ C OKZ QH TGNKIKQP, HQNMNQTG CPF VTCFKVKQP VJG TWTCN RGQRNGU FTCY C RTQVGEVKXG

TKPI CTQWPF VJG HQTGUV. #U YKVJ QVJGT HQTGUV FYGNNKPI EQOOWPKVKGU, VJG EQPVKPWKV[ QH VJGKT YQTNF

TGUVU WRQP C EQPVKPWKV[ KP VJGKT TGNCVKQPUJKR YKVJ VJG HQTGUV555. 5EKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ VJTGCVGPGF VQ

TWRVWTG VJKU EQPVKPWKV[, HKTUV D[ FGP[KPI XKNNCIGTU RJ[UKECN CEEGUU, DWV RGTJCRU OQTG

UKIPKHKECPVN[ D[ KORQUKPI CP CNKGP RCTCFKIO QH OCPCIGOGPV QP VJG HQTGUV. /CTIKPCNK\GF

ITQWRU KP +PFKC JCXG EJCNNGPIGF VJG GOGTIGPEG QH UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ YJGTGXGT KV KU KPVTQFWEGF.

6JG UQEKCN KFKQO QH CITCTKCP RTQVGUV UVTQPIN[ TGHNGEVU VJG VJTGCV VQ VTCFKVKQPCN EWNVWTCN CPF

EQOOWPCN XCNWGU VJCV UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ TGRTGUGPVU. /QUV UVTKMKPIN[, VJGTG KU C ENQUG

CUUQEKCVKQP QH RTQVGUV YKVJ HQNM TGNKIKQP; CP CUUQEKCVKQP VJCV KU CV QPEG HQTOCN CPF KPHQTOCN,

QTICPKUCVKQPCN CPF U[ODQNKE. 6JG TGNKIKQWU OKNKGW QH GXGT[FC[ RGCUCPV GZKUVGPEG KPHNWGPEGU

HQTOU QH TGUKUVCPEG VCMGP D[ VJG RGCUCPVU KP VYQ FKUVKPEV YC[U. (KTUV RTQVGUVGTU UGGM C

OQTCN-TGNKIKQWU UCPEVKQP HQT VJGKT CEVU. 6JKU KU CEEQORNKUJGF GKVJGT D[ KPXQNXKPI RTKGUVU QT KP

OQTG KPUVKVWVKQPCN HQTO D[ WUKPI TGNKIKQWU PGVYQTMU CU OGCPU QH EQOOWPKECVKQP. 6JWU, DQVJ

VGORNGU CPF HCKTU HTGSWGPVN[ UGTXGF CU NQEK CV YJKEJ UWRRQTV KU ECPXCUUGF QT HTQO YJKEJ

CEVKXKVKGU YGTG EQQTFKPCVGF. 5GEQPF, VJG KFGQNQI[ QH RGCUCPV RTQVGUV KU JGCXKN[ QXGTNCKF YKVJ

TGNKIKQWU U[ODQNKUO556. +P CFFKVKQP VQ RTKGUVU, EQOOWPKV[ NGCFGTU CTG CNUQ RTQOKPGPV KP VJG

EQOOWPCN TGUKUVCPEG VQ HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV. 4GNKIKQWU CPF EQOOWPKV[ NGCFGTU WRJQNF VJGKT

U[ODQNKE UVCVWU CU TGRTGUGPVCVKXG QH UQEKCN EQPVKPWKV[. 6JG WUG QH C TGNKIKQWU KFKQO CPF QH

RTKOQTFKCN PGVYQTMU QH EQOOWPKV[ UQNKFCTKV[ UWIIGUVU C EWNVWTG QH TGUKUVCPEG VJCV KU DQVJ

KPUVTWOGPVCN CPF U[ODQNKE. 5EKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ TGRTGUGPVGF C VJTGCV VQ VJG GEQPQOKE CU YGNN CU

EWNVWTCN UWTXKXCN QH VJG XKNNCIG EQOOWPKVKGU; QRRQUKVKQP VQ KVU YQTMKPIU JCU PGEGUUCTKN[ VQ

KPXQMG CP CNVGTPCVKXG U[UVGO QH WUG, OGCPKPI CPF MPQYNGFIG557. /QUV TGEGPVN[, UKPEG VJG

1970'U CPF 1980'U +PFKCP TGUKUVCPEG VQ GZRTQRTKCVKQP JCU DGGP TG-CTVKEWNCVGF, VJTQWIJ VJG

'%JKRMQ'558 OQXGOGPV, YJKEJ YG YKNN TG-XKUKV NCVGT. %JKRMQ KU C XKNNCIG-DCUGF, ITCUU TQQVU,

PQPGNKVKUV OQXGOGPV CRRGCNKPI VQ TWTCN RGQRNG VJCV JCU FGXGNQRGF RQYGTHWN KPVGTPCVKQPCN NKPMU

554 .CXGNG[G 1878, .GUNKG 1871, 2TKEG 1803, 4QIGTU 1866 555 ’NYKP 2002 556 +P VJG −WOCWP OQXGOGPV KP 1921, HQT GZCORNG, RGCUCPVU KPXQMGF U[ODQNU HTQO VJG *KPFW GRKEU EJCTCEVGTKUKPI VJG EQNQPKCN IQXGTPOGPV CU GXKN CPF FGOQPKE ()WJC 1993). 557 $CPWTK CPF /CTINKP 1993 558 6TGG JWIIKPI.


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


YKVJ NKMG OKPFGF RGQRNG559. +V KU RQNKVKECNN[ PQP-CNKIPGF CPF UGNH-FGVGTOKPGF, CPF JCU GOGTIGF

CU C RGCUCPV OQXGOGPV KP FGHGPEG QH VTCFKVKQPCN HQTGUV TKIJVU, CPF TGUKUVCPEG VQ UVCVG

GPETQCEJOGPV. 6JG OQXGOGPV WUGU PQP-XKQNGPV VCEVKEU, KPENWFKPI VTGG JWIIKPI, RCF[CVTCU560

,

HCUVU, V[KPI TCMJKU561 CTQWPF YQWPFGF VTGGU, CPF WRTQQVKPI GPXKTQPOGPVCNN[ PQP-HTKGPFN[

URGEKGU562 KP IQXGTPOGPV PWTUGTKGU. # HGCVWTG QH VJKU OQXGOGPV KU VJG CEVKXG RCTVKEKRCVKQP QH CNN

UQEKCN ITQWRU, CPF GURGEKCNN[ YQOGP'U ITQWRU563, CPF VJGKT KPXQNXGOGPV KP GPFQIGPQWU

TG-HQTGUVCVKQP. %JKRMQ RTQVGUVGTU DGNKGXG, VJCV LWUVKEG KU QP VJGKT UKFG CPF VJCV VJG[ JCXG

OQTCN-TGNKIKQWU UCPEVKQP, YJKEJ VJG[ GZRTGUU KP TGCFKPIU HTQO VJG $JCICXCF )KVC564. 6JG

EWNVWTCN KFKQO QH %JKRMQ ECP DG WPFGTUVQQF KP VGTOU QH VJG OQTCN GEQPQO[ QH VJG RGCUCPVU,

YJQ TGURQPF YJGP EQPHTQPVGF D[ HQTGUV FGUVTWEVKQP, FGITCFCVKQP, GPXKTQPOGPVCN VJTGCV CPF

KPHTKPIGOGPV QH TKIJVU CPF CEEGUU565. #U C TGUWNV QH %JKRMQ CEVKXKV[ VJG +PFKCP IQXGTPOGPV YCU

HQTEGF VQ TGURQPF, D[ KPVTQFWEKPI C ITGGP HGNNKPI DCP KP VJG *KOCNC[C, CPF QVJGT CTGCU YJGTG

%JKRMQ CTG CEVKXG. $[ UWEEGUUHWNN[ DTKPIKPI EQOOGTEKCN HQTGUVT[ VQ C UVCPFUVKNN %JKRMQ OCTMU

VJG GPF QH CP GRQEJ HQT VJG RGQRNG CPF NCPFUECRG QH VJG +PFKCP *KOCNC[C566. 6JGTG CTG VJTGG

GPXKTQPOGPVCN RJKNQUQRJKGU YKVJKP VJG %JKRMQ OQXGOGPV567 DWV HQT VJG RWTRQUG QH VJKU UVWF[,

VJG RGTURGEVKXGU QH 5WPFGTNCN $CJWIWPC568 CTG VJG DGUV MPQYP CPF OQUV IGTOCPG. $CJWIWPC

JQNFU VJCV EQOOGTEKCN HQTGUVT[ KU TGURQPUKDNG HQT VJG FGVGTKQTCVKPI *KOCNC[C GPXKTQPOGPV, DWV

KU U[ORVQOCVKE QH C FGGRGT OCNCKUG, VJG CPVJTQRQEGPVTKE XKGY QH PCVWTG KPVTKPUKE VQ OQFGTP

KPFWUVTKCN EKXKNK\CVKQP. 6JWU VJG GEQNQIKECN ETKUKU KP VJG *KOCNC[C KU PQV CP KUQNCVGF GXGPV. +V JCU

KVU TQQVU KP VJG OQFGTP OCVGTKCNKUVKE EKXKNK\CVKQP , YJKEJ OCMGU JWOCPMKPF VJG 'DWVEJGT QH

’CTVJ'. $CJWIWPC DGNKGXGU VJCV TGNKIKQWU DGNKGHU FGVGTOKPG JWOCP CVVKVWFGU VQYCTF PCVWTG, CPF

VJCV 'FGUCETCNK\GF' UEKGPEG CPF VGEJPQNQI[ GORJCUKUG OCUVGT[ QXGT PCVWTG. *G EQPVTCUVU VJKU

559 )WJC 2000, 4QWVNGFIG 1993 560 (QQV OCTEJGU 561 5CETGF VJTGCFU 562 GI ’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


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


GVJQU YKVJ VJG XCNWG U[UVGOU QH UQ-ECNNGF RTKOKVKXG UQEKGVKGU , YJKEJ XKGY GEQU[UVGOU KP

VQVCNKV[ VJGTGD[ GPUWTKPI TCVKQPCN CPF UWUVCKPCDNG TGUQWTEG WUG569.

5.6 (14’564; #0& 6*’ %1.10+#. .’)#%;

4GUGCTEJ JCU UJQYP570 VJCV OCP[ IQXGTPOGPVU EQPVKPWG VQ CEEWOWNCVG YGCNVJ CPF RQYGT

DCUGF QP VGPWTG CTTCPIGOGPVU CPF OCPCIGOGPV RTCEVKEGU DGSWGCVJGF VQ VJGO D[ VJG FGRCTVKPI

EQNQPKCN CWVJQTKVKGU. +P EQWPVTKGU CU RQNKVKECNN[, GEQPQOKECNN[ CPF EWNVWTCNN[ FKXGTUG CU +PFKC,

$WTOC CPF +PFQPGUKC, VJGTG JCU DGGP C EQORCTCDNG VGPFGPE[ VQ CHHKTO, VJG UWRTGOCE[ QH VJG

UVCVG-QTICPK\GF U[UVGO QH UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ VJCV JCU UGTXGF VJG RQNKVKECN CPF GEQPQOKE

KPVGTGUVU QH EQNQPKCN CPF RQUVEQNQPKCN TGIKOGU CNKMG571. +H CP[VJKPI, TGUQWTEG GZVTCEVKQP JCU

KPVGPUKHKGF KP VJGUG CPF QVJGT OCLQTKV[ YQTNF EQWPVTKGU CU C RQUVEQNQPKCN SWGUV HQT TCRKF

PCVKQPCN OQFGTPK\CVKQP JCU DGGP LQKPGF VQ EQPEGTPU HQT KPFKXKFWCN QT ITQWR GPTKEJOGPV CPF

RQNKVKECN CUEGPFCPE[572.

5.7 0’1-2127.+56 (14’564;

+P VJG 1950'U CPF 60'U OCP[ RQUV-EQNQPKCN PCVKQPU HQNNQYGF C FGXGNQROGPV RQNKE[ YJKEJ

VTCPUNCVGF KPVQ C HQTO QH 'UEKGPVKHKE' QT 'KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVT[', UWRRQTVGF D[ (#1 CPF VJG 9QTNF

$CPM. $[ VJG NCVG 70'U, JQYGXGT VJGTG YCU KPETGCUKPI TGCNK\CVKQP VJCV VJG KPFWUVTKCN CPF

GEQPQOKE OQFGN DGKPI HQNNQYGF NGF VQ GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQDNGOU CPF OCFG VJG RQQT YQTUG

QHH573. +P TGURQPUG VQ VJGUG RTQDNGOU PGY EQPEGRVU QH FGXGNQROGPV DGICP VQ GOGTIG. 6JGUG

PGY CRRTQCEJGU KPENWFGF C 'FGXGNQROGPV HTQO DGNQY' RCTCFKIO574 , YJKEJ FGHKPGF

FGXGNQROGPV KP VGTOU QH VJG GZVGPV VQ YJKEJ VJG DCUKE PGGFU QH VJG RQRWNCVKQP YGTG OGV. 9JGP

KPVGTPCVKQPCN CVVGPVKQP DGICP VQ HQEWU QP DCUKE PGGFU KV YCU TGEQIPK\GF VJCV KP CFFKVKQP VQ KVU

KPFWUVTKCN TQNG, HQTGUVT[ JCF CP GSWCNN[ KORQTVCPV TQNG KP VGTOU QH GPJCPEKPI VJG NKXGNKJQQFU CPF

UWDUKUVGPEG TGSWKTGOGPVU QH NQECN RGQRNG. 6YQ UVTGCOU FGXGNQRGF VQ CFFTGUU VJG NCVVGT, C

569 )WJC 2000 570 $T[CPV 1998, $T[CPV GV CN 1993 571 $T[CPV 1997 572 $T[CPV CPF $CKNG[ 1997 573 9GUVQD[ 1987 574 %JCODGTU 1983


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


PGQ-RQRWNKUV UVTGCO575 CPF C 'RQUV-OQFGTP' UVTGCO576. 6JG EQPEGRV ET[UVCNNK\GF KP VJG EQPVGZV QH

C PWODGT QH EQPHGTGPEGU CPF NCPFOCTM RWDNKECVKQPU577 CPF NGF VQ KPETGCUGF HWPFKPI578.

5.7.1 5QEKCN (QTGUVT[

5QEKCN (QTGUVT[ YCU KPVTQFWEGF KP +PFKC, YKVJ RTQORVKPI HTQO VJG 9QTNF $CPM, KP VJG 1970'U CU

C TGUWNV QH YKFGURTGCF RTQVGUV, TGUWNVKPI HTQO FGHQTGUVCVKQP CPF VJG GZENWUKQP QH NQECN RGQRNG

HTQO HQTGUVU. +VU QTKIKPCN CKO YCU VQ 'OGGV NQECN PGGF HQT HKTGYQQF CPF QVJGT RTQFWEVU YKVJ

CEVKXG NQECN RCTVKEKRCVKQP'. 0Q RTQXKUKQP JQYGXGT YCU OCFG HQT KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF

HQTGUVT[ YCU FGEQWRNGF HTQO UQEKCN CPF EWNVWTCN XCNWGU. (CT HTQO FGHWUKPI VJG RTQVGUVU, VJG

VCMGQXGT QH EQOOWPCN NCPF HQT EQOOGTEKCN RNCPVCVKQPU, TCVJGT VJCP XKNNCIG YQQFNQVU NGF VQ

HWTVJGT RTQVGUVU. +V OQUVN[ HCKNGF DGECWUG VJG RNCPPGTU FKF PQV WPFGTUVCPF VJG PGGFU QH VJG NQECN

RGQRNG, CPF KV QPN[ 'UWEEGGFGF' YJGTG TKEJ HCTOGTU JCF UWTRNWU NCPF VQ EQPXGTV VQ KPFWUVTKCN VTGG

URGEKGU579.

5.7.2 ,QKPV (QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV

6JG HCKNWTG QH UQEKCN HQTGUVT[ RTQORVGF VJG +PFKCP IQXGTPOGPV VQ TGXKUG KVU HQTGUV RQNKE[ CPF KP

VJG GCTN[ 1990'U KV KPVTQFWEGF ,QKPV (QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV (,(/). ,(/ YCU UWRRQUGF VQ

GORJCUKUG GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG DGPGHKVU QXGT EQOOGTEKCN KPVGTGUVU, CPF KPENWFG

'ITGCVGT' RCTVKEKRCVKQP D[ NQECN RGQRNG. 6JG QPN[ UKIPKHKECPV 'UWEEGUU' VQQM RNCEG KP UVCVGU YJGTG

XKNNCIGTU JCF CNTGCF[ GUVCDNKUJGF QTICPK\CVKQPU VQ RTQVGEV HQTGUV UWEJ CU 9GUV $GPICN CPF

1TKUUC. 5QOG UVCVGU VQVCNN[ KIPQTGF VJG UJKHV VQ ,(/ CPF QPN[ CFFGF 'RCTVKEKRCVKQP' CPF 'RQXGTV[

CNNGXKCVKQP' VQ SWCNKH[ HQT HWPFKPI. #U C TGUWNV 'QHH-VJG-UJGNH' RCTVKEKRCVQT[ RNCPU, FTCYP WR D[

7− HQTGUVT[ GZRGTVU, YGTG WUGF VQ KPVTQFWEG ,(/ VQ VJG 9GUVGTP )JCVU. 6JG RTQLGEV IQCNU YGTG

FGEKFGF GZ UKVW CPF NQECN 0)1U YGTG QPN[ EQPUWNVGF QP KORNGOGPVCVKQP. #U C TGUWNV VJG

EQOOKVVGGU YGTG FQOKPCVGF D[ VJG GNKVG, YQOGP YGTG OCTIKPCNKUGF, CPF VJG RQQT, CPF VTKDCN

RGQRNG DGECOG YQTUG QHH, DGECWUG OQUV QH VJG 1XGTUGCU &GXGNQROGPV #FOKPKUVTCVKQP (1&#)

575 5QEKCN CPF %QOOWPKV[ (QTGUVT[ CPF ,QKPV (QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV. 576 $CUGF QP GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ CPF KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUV XCNWGU. 577 7VJ CPF 8VJ 9QTNF (QTGUVT[ %QPITGUU (KP #TIGPVKPC (1972) CPF ,CMCTVC (1978), (QTGUVT[ HQT .QECN %QOOWPKV[ &GXGNQROGPV ((#1 1978) (QTGUVT[ 5GEVQT 2QNKE[ 2CRGT (9QTNF $CPM 1978), 9QTNF %QPHGTGPEG QP CITCTKCP TGHQTO CPF TWTCN FGXGNQROGPV KP 4QOG (1980). 578 )TGIGTUGP GV CN 1989 579 *KNF[CTF GV CN 1998C


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


HWPFGF RNCPVCVKQPU YGTG QP XKNNCIG 'EQOOQPU'580. (QT VJQUG 5VCVGU VJCV FQ JCXG HQTGUV EQWPEKNU

CPF JCXG CFQRVGF 'RCTVKEKRCVKQP' KP ,(/ (CPF FGXQNWVKQP) KV JCU TGUWNVGF KP C RQYGT UJKHV VJCV

JCU GORQYGTGF VJG NQECN HQTGUV FGRCTVOGPV, CV VJG GZRGPUG QH NQECN EQWPEKNU581. 6JKU UKVWCVKQP

TGUQPCVGU YKVJ INQDCN TGRTGUGPVCVKQPU QH 'RCTVKEKRCVKQP', YJKEJ JCU DGEQOG CPQVJGT VQQN HQT

GPIKPGGTKPI EQPUGPV VQ RTQLGEVU YJQUG HTCOGYQTM JCU DGGP FGVGTOKPGF KP CFXCPEG. +V KU C

OGCPU QH VQR-FQYP RNCPPKPI VQ DG KORQUGF HTQO VJG DQVVQO-WR582. +P OQUV +PFKCP UVCVGU ,(/

HCKNGF DGECWUG583:

• )QXGTPOGPV RQNKE[ JCORGTGF ,(/ CPF VJG NGICN CPF QTICPKUCVKQP HTCOGYQTMU CTG YGCM

CPF EQPVTQXGTUKCN

• 6JGTG KU PQ DWKNV KP OGEJCPKUO VQ FGXGNQR VJG ECRCEKV[ QH ,(/ EQOOKVVGGU

• +V RC[U KPUWHHKEKGPV CVVGPVKQP VQ IGPFGT CPF ECUVG KUUWGU, YJKEJ WPFGTOKPGU VJG IQCN QH

EQOOWPKV[ GORQYGTOGPV

• 1H RTQDNGOU YKVJ EQORGVKVKQP YKVJ QVJGT XKNNCIG DCUGF ITQWRU

• +P OCP[ ECUGU KV TGKPHQTEGU GZKUVKPI RQYGT JKGTCTEJKGU DQVJ YKVJKP CPF DGVYGGP NQECN

EQOOKVVGGU CPF VJG HQTGUV FGRCTVOGPV

• +V HCKNU VQ UGPUKVK\G CNN VJG RTQLGEV CEVQTU QP KUUWGU QH IGPFGT, ECUVG CPF GSWKV[

• +V HCKNU VQ UGPUKVK\G VJG HQTGUV FGRCTVOGPV QP RCTVPGTUJKR YKVJ NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU

$QVJ 'UQEKCN HQTGUVT[' CPF ,(/ KP +PFKC KNNWUVTCVG VJCV 'RCTVKEKRCVKQP' VJCV HCKNU VQ GPICIG YKVJ VJG

FKUVTKDWVKQP CPF QRGTCVKQP QH RQYGT YKVJKP NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU YKNN QHHGT NKVVNG VQ OCTIKPCNKUGF

ITQWRU. /CP[ RCTVKEKRCVQT[ RTQLGEVU TGUV QP VJG FWDKQWU CUUWORVKQP VJCV UKORN[ KFGPVKH[KPI

FKHHGTGPV 'UVCMGJQNFGTU' CPF IGVVKPI VJGO CTQWPF VJG VCDNG YKNN TGUWNV KP C 'HCKT' EQPUGPUWU.

2CTVKEKRCVKQP TGSWKTGU YKFGT RTQEGUUGU QH UQEKCN VTCPUHQTOCVKQP CPF UVTWEVWTCN EJCPIG VQ VJG

U[UVGO QH UQEKCN TGNCVKQPU VJTQWIJ YJKEJ KPGSWCNKVKGU CTG TGRTQFWEGF.

5.7.3 %QOOWPKV[ (QTGUVT[

1H VJG PGQ-RQRWNKUV CNVGTPCVKXGU 'EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[' CRRGCTU IGTOCPG VQ VJKU UVWF[, CNVJQWIJ

CU C 'RCTCFKIO' KV JCU RTQXGF VJG OQUV EQPVGPVKQWU, UGOCPVKECNN[ CPF EQPEGRVWCNN[ YKVJKP VJG

580 *KNF[CTF GV CN 1998C 581 −CKOQYKV\ 21 ,WPG 2001, 5CTKP 2001 582 *KNF[CTF GV CN 1998C 583 5CTKP 2001


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


HQTGUVT[ EQOOWPKV[584. 6JG ETGFKV HQT KPVTQFWEKPI RCTCFKIO VQ VJG HQTGUVT[ NKVGTCVWTG CRRGCTU VQ

DGNQPI VQ ,QJP &CTICXGN585 YJQ FTGY QP (QUVGT-%CTVGT586. /CT[ *QDNG[587 KPVTQFWEGF

(QUVGT-%CTVGT'U RCRGT VQ 0GRCN-#WUVTCNKCP (QTGUVT[ 2TQLGEV YJKEJ NGF VQ VJG GOGTIGPEG QH C

'EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIO'588. (QUVGT-%CTVGT589 FGHKPGU C RCTCFKIO CU "C UGV QH FQOCKP

CUUWORVKQPU YJKEJ FGHKPG C HKGNF QH UVWF[" CPF 5VWFNG[590 CPF (KPNC[UQP591 CU C "UWD-UGV QH C

YQTNFXKGY". (QT UQOG HQTGUVGTU, 'EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT['592 TGRTGUGPVGF C 'PGY QTVJQFQZ[', YJKEJ

EQWNF PQV DG CEEQORCPKGF D[ C EQPEGRVWCN HTCOGYQTM FGTKXGF HTQO VTCFKVKQPCN

KPFWUVTKCN/UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[. 6JG PGY QTVJQFQZ[ TGSWKTGF C 'RCTCFKIO UJKHV' HTQO 'QPG UGV QH

FQOCKP CUUWORVKQPU VQ CPQVJGT' YJKEJ FKF UGGOKPIN[ DGVVGT GZRNCKP VJG RCTVKEWNCT CPQOCN[

YJKEJ NGF VQ VJG FGOKUG QH CP QNF RCTCFKIO CPF UKOWNVCPGQWUN[ TG-KPVGTRTGV RTGXKQWU MPQYP

RJGPQOGPC593. #NVJQWIJ VJG CFQRVKQP QH C 'EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[' RCTCFKIO JCU NGF VQ PGY

RGTEGRVKQPU KP 0GRCN594 CPF KU TGRQTVGF595 VQ JCXG OGV YKVJ UQOG UWEEGUU KP 2CMKUVCP,

$CPINCFGUJ CPF 5TK .CPMC, KV JCU HCKNGF VQ TGFWEG INQDCN HGCTU CDQWV VJG RQQT CPF VJG

GPXKTQPOGPV CPF IQXGTPOGPVU CTG TCTGN[ YKNNKPI VQ RNCEG HQTGUVU KP NQECN EQPVTQN. #NVJQWIJ

EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[ KP 0GRCN YCU EQPUKFGTGF D[ OCP[ VQ DG C UWEEGUU UVQT[ TGEGPV RQNKE[

EJCPIGU CTG EWTTGPVN[ WPFGTOKPKPI WUGT EQPVTQN QH HQTGUVU596.

#NVJQWIJ UGXGTCN PGQ-RQRWNKUV HQTGUVT[ VTCLGEVQTKGU (EQOOWPKV[, UQEKCN CPF LQKPV HQTGUV

OCPCIGOGPV) CTG GXKFGPVN[ IGTOCPG VQ QWT UVWF[ DGECWUG VJG[ OQWVJ VJG TJGVQTKE QH

UQEKQ-GEQNQIKECN EQPEGTP, RCTVKEKRCVKQP, +− KPVGITCVKQP, RGQRNG-HQEWU CPF GPFQIGPQWU

FGXGNQROGPV, KP TGCNKV[ VJG[ JCXG DGGP KPUVKVWVKQPCNN[ EQ-QRVGF CPF QRGTCVG WPFGT OWEJ QH VJG

UCOG EQPUVKVWVKQP CU RTQHGUUKQPCN HQTGUVT[. /QTG QHVGP VJCP PQV VJG[ CRRGCT VQ JCXG HCKNGF VJG

584 &CPDWT[ 1993 585 &CTICXGN GV CN 1985 586 (QUVGT-%CTVGT 1976 587 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP *QDNG[ 1995 588 )KNOQWT GV CN 1989 589 )KNOQWT CPF (KUJGT 1991 RCIG 17 590 5VWFNG[ 1994 RCIG 73 591 (KPNC[UQP 1994 RCIG 143 592 6JG EQPVTQN CPF OCPCIGOGPV QH HQTGUV TGUQWTEGU D[ TWTCN RGQRNG, YJQ WUG VJGO HQT VJGKT FQOGUVKE RWTRQUGU CPF CU CP KPVGITCN RCTV QH UWDUKUVGPEG CPF RGCUCPV HCTOKPI U[UVGOU ()KNOQWT CPF (KUJGT 1991). 593 (QUVGT-%CTVGT 1976 RCIG 169 594 )KNOQWT 1988 595 −CTMK 2000 596 5JTGUVJC 2001


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


KPVGPFGF DGPGHKEKCTKGU597. 6JG HCKNWTGU JCXG DGGP ECWUGF D[ NCEM QH NQECN UWRRQTV, NCEM QH

IGPWKPG RCTVKEKRCVKQP, 'GNKVG ECRVWTG'598, CP KPCDKNKV[ VQ TGURQPF VQ NQECN PGGFU, VJG EQPVKPGPEG QH

EGPVTCNKUGF RNCPPKPI, NCEM QH RQNKVKECN YKNN CPF RQNKE[ UWRRQTV VQ FGNGICVG OCPCIGOGPV

CWVJQTKV[ VQ NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU, HCKNWTG VQ CDQNKUJ QNF RQNKE[ CPF NCYU, CPF VJG OQPQEWNVWTCN

O[QRKC QH TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV RTQHGUUKQPCNU. '%QOOWPKV[' (QTGUVGTU YGTG GPEQWTCIGF, KP VJG

NCVG 1970U, VQ CESWKTG VJG PGEGUUCT[ UQEKCN CPF CPVJTQRQNQIKECN UEKGPEG UMKNNU, CPF GHHGEV C

'RCTCFKIO UJKHV'. 6JG[ CRRGCT, JQYGXGT VQ NCEM VJG OGPVCN OCRU VJCV UWEJ C UJKHV TGSWKTGU.

5WDUGSWGPVN[ VJG[ JCXG NCTIGN[ TGOCKPGF KIPQTCPV QH VJG UQEKQ-EWNVWTCN EQPVGZV YKVJKP YJKEJ

OWEJ NQECN HQTGUV-TGNCVGF RJGPQOGPC QEEWTU QT MPQYNGFIG KU IGPGTCVGF, CPF EQPVKPWG VQ

RTKXKNGIG VJG 'UEKGPVKHKE CPF TCVKQPCN' QXGT PCVKXG YKUFQO. 9JGTG HQTGUVGTU FQ CFFTGUU

XGTPCEWNCT HQTGUVT[ VJG[ VGPF VQ FKUGODGF KV HTQO KVU PQTOCVKXG EQPVGZV CPF KPVGITCVG KV KPVQ

WPKXGTUCN 'UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[' MPQYNGFIG.

5.8 2156-/1&’40 (14’564;

2QUV-OQFGTP CRRTQCEJGU VQ VJG HQTGUVT[ FQOCKP JCXG EQOG NCVGT VJCP HQT OQUV QVJGT

FQOCKPU599 CPF VJGTG CTG VJQUG YJQ CTIWG VJCV EQPUGSWGPVN[ VJG UVWFKGU CTG OQTG GPGTIK\GF600.

6JG GCTN[ NKVGTCVWTG601 OQUVN[ HQEWUGF QP HQTGUVT[ FKUEQWTUG CPCN[UKU VJCV ETKVKSWGF 'UEKGPVKHKE,

WVKNKVCTKCP, CPF EQNQPKCN' HQTGUVT[. 6JKU VTCLGEVQT[ OCKPN[ GORJCUKUGU FGEQPUVTWEVKQP QT CPCN[UKU

YKVJ NKVVNG TQQO HQT C EQPUVTWEVKXG CRRTQCEJ602. 9KVJKP VJG NCUV FGECFG JQYGXGT YG JCXG

YKVPGUUGF VJG 'FCYPKPI'603 QH C RQUV-OQFGTP RCTCFKIO604 VJCV CRRGCTU VQ JCXG INQDCN

CRRNKECVKQP WPFGT VJG TWDTKE QH 'RNWTCNKUO CPF UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUVT['605 CPF CRRGCTU VQ CFFTGUU PQV

QPN[ KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUV XCNWGU DWV EJCPIGU KP HQTGUV XCNWGU KP VJG 'YGUV'. +V RTQXKFGU CP GOGTIKPI

RCTCFKIO VJCV CNNQYU HQTGUVGTU VQ OQXG DG[QPF VJG PCTTQY EQPHKPGU QH '7VKNKVCTKCP (QTGUVT[' CPF

CFQRV C RQUV-OQFGTP CFCRVKXG CRRTQCEJ VQ HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR606. /E%C[ IQGU HWTVJGT VJCP OQUV

597 5JKXC 1989 598 9JGP VJG KPVGPFGF PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG DGPGHKVU QH C FGXGNQROGPV RTQITCOOG CTG ECRVWTGF D[ VJG GNKVG KPUVGCF QH IQKPI VQ VJG RQQT QT OCTIKPCNKUGF. 599 *GCNVJ, IGPFGT, TCEG GVE. 600 1OQJWPFTQ 1999 601 $T[CPV 1996, &QXG 1992, )WJC 2000, 5JKXC 1989, 602 &WPM 1994, 1OQJWPFTQ 1999, 5CVVGTHKGNF 1997 603 6TQWXCNKU 2000 604 5EJGNJCU 2003 605 (#1 1997 606 5JKPFNGT GV CN 1999, 9KNNKCOU & 2002


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


CWVJQTU VQ CTIWG VJCV C PGY RQUV-OQFGTP PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV JCU GOGTIGF607. 6JKU

RCTCFKIO CEEQTFKPI VQ 5EJGNJCU (2003) KU RTGFKECVGF QP:

� WVKNKVCTKCP CPF PQP-WVKNKVCTKCP XCNWGU

� YJQNG U[UVGOU VJCV CTG PQP-FGVGTOKPKUVKE

� UEKGPVKHKE WPEGTVCKPV[ ETGCVKPI URCEG HQT QVJGT UQWTEGU QH MPQYNGFIG,

� CFCRVKXG OCPCIGOGPV OQFGNU

� VJG TGEQIPKVKQP QH KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG VJTQWIJ DQVVQO-WR CRRTQCEJGU,

� NQECN RGQRNG CU CEVKXG RCTVKEKRCPVU KP VJG U[UVGO608.

CPF JG FTCYU QP TGUGCTEJ HTQO VJG 75# CPF %QUVC 4KEC VQ KFGPVKH[ HQWT 'RCTCFKIO UJKHVU' VJCV

JG DGNKGXGU CTG EJCTCEVGTKUVKE QH RQUV-OQFGTP VTGPFU:

� HTQO UKORNG VQ OWNVKRNG KPVGTGUVU KP PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU

� HTQO UKORNG QYPGTUJKR VQ DWPFNGU QH TKIJVU

� HTQO FGVGTOKPKUVKE UEKGPEG VQ OWNVKRNG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU

� HTQO RWDNKE KPVGTGUV VQ UVCMGJQNFGT ITQWRU

2QUV-OQFGTP HQTGUVT[, HTQO VJKU RGTURGEVKXG, CRRGCTU VQ QHHGT CP CNVGTPCVKXG JQNKUVKE RCTCFKIO

VQ GPJCPEG VJG HQTGUVU CPF VJG YGNN-DGKPI QH VJG RGQRNG YJQ FGRGPF WRQP VJGO +V RTQXKFGU C

RNCVHQTO VQ CFFTGUU :- OWNVKRNG-CKO HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV, UWUVCKPCDKNKV[, UVCMGJQNFGT PGGFU,

'PQTOCVKXG RNWTKHQTOKV['609, NQECN CPF KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUV XCNWGU, MPQYNGFIG GSWKV[, CPF U[PGTI[

DGVYGGP HQTOCN CPF EWUVQOCT[ HQTGUVT[ MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU.

5.9 2156-4+1 (14’564; 2#4#&+)/5

+P URKVG QH VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH C TCPIG QH PGQ-RQRWNKUV HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU VJCV YGTG UWRRQUGF VQ

CFFTGUU VJG RQQT, VJG GPXKTQPOGPV CPF UWUVCKPCDKNKV[, CPZKGV[ KPETGCUGF, GXGPVWCNN[

EWNOKPCVKPI KP VJG GCTVJ UWOOKV KP 4KQ KP 1992. #U C TGUWNV, C PGY OQFGN QH HQTGUVT[ GOGTIGF

YJKEJ UVTGUUGF VJG PGGF HQT C ITGCVGT UQEKCN TQNG CPF KPETGCUGF RCTVKEKRCVKQP D[ VJG RQQT, VJCV

YCU RTGFKECVGF QP KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF EJCTCEVGTKUGF D[ C DQVVQO-WR CRRTQCEJ. .GCFKPI

QP HTQO VJKU OQFGN C PWODGT QH CNVGTPCVKXG RCTCFKIOU JCXG GOGTIGF PCOGN[, GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[610

607 /E%C[ 2000, 5EJGNJCU 2003 608 5EJGNJCU 2003 609 9KGTUWO 1997 610 2CPFG[ 1998


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


CPF KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUVT[611. +V FKF PQV, JQYGXGT, VCMG KPUVKVWVKQPCN HQTGUVT[ NQPI VQ TGKPXGPV

KVUGNH D[ EQ-QRVKPI VJG TJGVQTKE QH 4KQ. 6JG ’CTVJ 5WOOKV CITGGOGPVU612 UVCVG VJCV

"(QTGUV RQNKEKGU UJQWNF UWRRQTV VJG KFGPVKV[, EWNVWTG CPF TKIJVU QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG CPF HQTGUV

FYGNNGTU. 6JGKT MPQYNGFIG QH EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUV UJQWNF DG TGURGEVGF CPF

'WUGF'613 KP FGXGNQRKPI HQTGUVT[ RTQITCOOGU". 7PHQTVWPCVGN[ 'WUGF' KU TCVJGT CP CODKIWQWU

VGTO CPF CU C TGUWNV OCKPUVTGCO HQTGUVT[ JCU OQUVN[ NGCTPGF CDQWV VJG PGGFU, MPQYNGFIG CPF

XGTPCEWNCT RTCEVKEGU QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG, CU C EQOOQFKV[ KP C .QEMGCP WVKNKVCTKCP UGPUG, CPF

PQV HTQO VJGO. 6JG DCUKU HQT NGCTPKPI JCU DGGP OQUVN[ 'UKORNG' GZ UKVW CPF GZVTCEVKXG TCVJGT

VJCP GRKUVGOKE, CPF KPVGTRTGVGF QP VJG DCUKU QH OCKPUVTGCO HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU CPF/QT C

FKEJQVQO[ QH KPFKIGPQWU CPF UEKGPVKHKE MPQYNGFIG614. #U C TGUWNV KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG JCU

DGGP FKUGODGFFGF HTQO KVU PQTOCVKXG EQPEGRVWCN CPF GRKUVGOKE HTCOGYQTMU, NQUV KVU XKIQWT

CPF XKVCNKV[, DGGP HTQ\GP KP VKOG CPF URCEG, CPF 'UVTCPIWNCVGF' D[ EGPVTCN EQPVTQN CPF

OCPCIGOGPV.

+P 2000 UQOG (QTGUV TGUGCTEJGTU615 UVWF[KPI HQTGUVT[ MPQYNGFIG EQPUKFGTGF KH VJG

'KPEQTRQTCVKQP' QH +− KPVQ HQTOCN HQTGUVT[ EQPUVKVWVGF C 'RCTCFKIO EJCPIG' QT C 'RJKNQUQRJKE

UJKHV'!. (TQO OWEJ QH VJGKT FGDCVG KV YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV VJG KPEQTRQTCVKQP YCU RTGFKECVGF QP VJG

EQPEGRVWCN HTCOGYQTMU CPF 'TGCNKVKGU' QH 'RTQHGUUKQPCN HQTGUVT[' CPF 1960'U CPF 70'U FGHKPKVKQPU

QH RCTCFKIO. 6JG[ HCKNGF VQ IQ DG[QPF VJG TGFWEVKXG TGRTGUGPVCVKQPU VJCV XKGYU UEKGPEG 'CU

TGNCVKXG VQ EWNVWTG QT KPVGTGUVU' CPF CRRNKGF OQUVN[ VQ UEKGPVKHKE GZRGTKOGPVCVKQP CPF

RTQHGUUKQPCN RTCEVKEG616.

(GY CVVGORVU CTG DGKPI OCFG VQ NGCTP HTQO CNVGTPCVKXG HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU QT CFFTGUU VJG

U[PGTI[ YKVJKP C PGVYQTM QH GSWKVCDNG HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU. 6JGTG CTG FCPIGTU VJCV XGTPCEWNCT

HQTGUV MPQYNGFIG YKNN DG FKUGODGFFGF HTQO KVU PQTOCVKXG EQPVGZV CPF 'KPVGITCVKQP' NKMG

'RCTVKEKRCVKQP' CPF 'EQ-OCPCIGOGPV' YKNN TGRTGUGPV CPQVJGT V[TCPP[ TCVJGT VJCP C RCTCFKIO

UJKHV617. #NVJQWIJ VJGTG CTG C PWODGT QH RQUV-4KQ VTCLGEVQTKGU QH HQTGUVT[ VJCV TGEQIPKUG VJG

611 7OCPU 1992 612 −GCVKPI 1993 RCIG 63 613 /[ GORJCUKU. 614 #ITCYCN 1995D 615 .CYTGPEG 2000 616 −WJP 1962, 2KEMGTKPI 1992 9KGTUWO 2000, 617 %QQMG 1996, %QQMG CPF −QVJCTK 2001, *KNF[CTF GV CN 1998D, 5VGTNKPI 2001


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


KORQTVCPEG QH +−, YJKNG VJG[ EQPVKPWGF VQ DG UWDLGEV VQ 'EQTRQTCVG ECRVWTG'618 CPF CTG

RTGFKECVGF QP C OCKPUVTGCO/ KPFKIGPQWU FKEJQVQO[ VJG[ YKNN HCKN VQ UCHGIWCTF +− QT VJG

FKUCFXCPVCIGF. /QTG CVVGORV PGGFU VQ DG OCFG VQ TGEQIPKUG VJG:

● /WNVKRNKEKV[ QH NQIKEU CPF RTCEVKEGU VJCV WPFGTNKG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU (OCKPUVTGCO CPF

KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUVT[)

● $TKFIG VJG EQPUVTWEVGF EJCUO DGVYGGP OCKPUVTGCO CPF KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUVT[

● .GCTP HTQO VJG TGCNKVKGU QH KPFKIGPQWU EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF HQTGUV UWUVCKPCDKNKV[

● 6Q TGKPXGPV HQTGUVT[, KP YC[U UKOKNCT VQ VJG OQTG TCFKECN UVTGCOU QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN

GFWECVKQP CU KV UGGMU VQ CFFTGUU KUUWGU QH UWUVCKPCDKNKV[619

● .GCTP HTQO KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG QT KVU OGVCVJQTGVKECN HTCOGYQTM (K.G. RCTCFKIO) QP VJG

DCUKU QH KVU GRKUVGOKE EQIPKVKQP.

6JGTG CTG VYQ GOGTIKPI VTCLGEVQTKGU , YJKEJ CVVGORV VQ DWKNF QP VJG PQTOCVKXG EQPVGZV QH NQECN

RGQRNG CPF RTQVGEV +−. 6JGUG KPENWFG GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ CRRTQCEJGU620 CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU

CRRTQCEJGU621. #NVJQWIJ VJGUG CRRTQCEJGU CTG PGY UQOG CVVGORV JCU DGGP OCFG VQ KPVTQFWEG

VJGO KPVQ HQTGUVT[ RTQLGEVU CPF HQT HQTGUV TGUGCTEJ622.

5.9.1 6JG ’VJPQ-HQTGUVT[ #RRTQCEJ

#NVJQWIJ GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ JCU GZKUVGF CU C XGTPCEWNCT RTCEVKEG HQT JWPFTGFU QH [GCTU KV FKF PQV

ICKP KPVGTPCVKQPCN TGEQIPKVKQP WPVKN VJG NCVG 1990U YJGP VJG VGTO YCU EQKPGF623 CPF KV YCU

CFFTGUUGF CV VJG 11VJ 9QTNF (QTGUVT[ EQPHGTGPEG KP #PMCTC KP 1997. +V ECP DG FGHKPGF CU NQECN

EQOOWPKVKGU EQPVKPWCN EWUVQOCT[ RTCEVKEGU QH ETGCVKPI, EQPUGTXKPI, OCPCIKPI, CPF WUKPI

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

http://www.iwgia.org/sw266.asp


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


HQTGUV TGUQWTEGU CPF KV TGUQPCVGU YKVJ GVJPQ-FGXGNQROGPV624. +V FKHHGTU HTQO EQOOWPKV[ CPF

UQEKCN HQTGUVT[ KP VJCV DGUV RTCEVKEGU CTG RTGOKUGF QP TCEKCN CPF MPQYNGFIG GSWKV[, GVJPKE

KPENWUKQP, CPF U[PGTI[ DGVYGGP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU. ’VJPQHQTGUVT[ QHHGTU VJG RQUUKDKNKV[ VQ

DWKNF QP VJG WPKSWG GVJPKE VTCFKVKQPU QH GZRNKEKV PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP, GRKUVGOQNQIKGU QH PCVWTG,

GPXKTQPOGPVCN GFWECVKQP, VQRQEQUOKE OGFKCVKQP, HQTGUV XCNWGU, CPF UCETGF NCPFUECRGU HQWPF

COQPI GVJPKE CPF NQECN RGQRNGU TCVJGT VJCP KPVTQFWEKPI UEKGPVKHKE OQFGNU QH TGUQWTEG

OCPCIGOGPV VJCV TGSWKTG VTCKPKPI CPF CNKGPCVG NQECN RGQRNG HTQO VJGKT EWNVWTG CPF NCPFUECRG.

5.9.2 6JG (QTGUV 8CNWGU #RRTQCEJ

0CVKQPCN HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV RNCPPKPI KUUWGU JCXG VTCFKVKQPCNN[ DGGP HTCOGF KP VGTOU QH HQTGUV

WUGU GURGEKCNN[ EQOOQFKV[ WUGU, TCVJGT VJCP HQTGUV XCNWGU QT RGTEGRVKQP625. 5GGFGF, JQYGXGT D[

C RQUV-OQFGTP RCTCFKIO UJKHV626 HQTOGT 'ENQUGV' HQTGUV XCNWGU627 CTG DGKPI EQPUKFGTGF CU C

OGCPU QH CFFTGUUKPI OWNVKRNG WUG HQTGUVT[ CPF KPEQTRQTCVGF KPVQ HQTGUV RNCPPKPI 628. 6JKU

CRRTQCEJ JCU CRRNKECVKQP DQVJ VQ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG CPF PQP VTCFKVKQPCN EQOOWPKVKGU. #P

KPEQORNGVG WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH NQECN CRRTQCEJGU VQ HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR OC[ CEVWCNN[ TGHNGEV DQVJ

KPFKXKFWCN CPF EQNNGEVKXG FKHHGTGPEGU KP JGNF HQTGUV XCNWGU. 9JKNG HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF RGTEGRVKQPU

CTG CUUWOGF VQ WPFGTNKG RTGHGTGPEG HQT CEVWCN HQTGUV WUG, VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP RTGHGTGPEGU

CPF CVVKVWFGU VQYCTF HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR KU PQV YGNN FQEWOGPVGF KH WPFGTUVQQF.

/QUV HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU KPENWFKPI PGQ-RQRWNKUV QPGU QRGTCVG YKVJKP VJG UCOG FKUEWTUKXG

VGTTCKP CU 'UEKGPVKHKE' HQTGUVT[ CPF CTG VJGTGHQTG PQV IGTOCPG VQ VJKU UVWF[. 6JG QPN[ GZEGRVKQP

CTG GXKFGPVN[ GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU DCUGF QP HQTGUV XCNWGU.

6JWU HCT KP VJKU VJGUKU YG JCXG TGCEJGF VJG HQNNQYKPI EQPENWUKQPU:

624 ’VJPQFGXGNQROGPV CU C EQPEGRV TGHGTU VQ VJG RCTVKEKRCVKQP QH KPFKIGPQWU ITQWRU KP VJG HQTOCVKQP CPF KORNGOGPVCVKQP QH FGXGNQROGPV RTQLGEVU KP CEEQTFCPEG YKVJ VJGKT QYP PGGFU CPF CURKTCVKQPU. ’VJPQFGXGNQROGPV RTQLGEVU CTG FGUKIPGF D[ TCVJGT VJCP HQT VJG RGQRNG EQPEGTPGF, YJKEJ KORNKGU VJG TGXCNWCVKQP QH VJGKT QYP EWNVWTG CU VJG DCUKU WRQP YJKEJ HWVWTG FGXGNQROGPV KU VQ DG EQPUVTWEVGF. ’VJPQFGXGNQROGPV KU VJWU QRRQUGF VQ GVJPQEKFCN FGXGNQROGPV RTQLGEVU KORQUGF WRQP NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU D[ FQOKPCPV PCVKQPCN GNKVGU (UGG 5G[OQWT-5OKVJ 1986). 625 4QNUVQPG CPF %QWHCN 1991 626 1OQJWPFTQ 1999, 6CWDGPGEM 1992, 6TQWXCNKU 2000 627 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP .GG 6 2003 YGDNQI 628 /E%C[ 2000, 5EJGNJCU 2003, 5JKPFNGT CPF %TCOGT 1999, 9KNNKCOU 2002


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


5QOG RNCPPGTU CTG EQPXKPEGF VJCV VJG HCKNWTG QH VJG PGY UQEKQ-GEQNQIKECNN[ UGPUKVKXG UVTCVGIKGU

EQ-QRVGF D[ 'RTQHGUUKQPCN' HQTGUVT[ EQWNF DG DGVVGT CFFTGUUGF D[ KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUVT[. 6JG[

DGNKGXG VJCV KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUVT[ OKIJV CUUKUV YKVJ VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH UWEEGUUHWN HQTGUVT[

RTQLGEVU VJCV CTG GEQNQIKECNN[ UWUVCKPCDNG CPF UQEKQ- RQNKVKECNN[ GSWKVCDNG.

+P URKVG QH VJG EWTTGPV CVVGPVKQP VQ +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG KP OWEJ QH VJG YQTNF, VJG

FGXGNQROGPV KFGQNQIKGU QH ECRKVCNKUO, UQEKCNKUO, CPF /CTZKUO-.GPKPKUO, %CTVGUKCP 5EKGPEG,

CPF HQTOCN VGEJPQNQIKGU, IQXGTPOGPV KPVGTXGPVKQPU, CPF VJG 'UEKGPVK\CVKQP QH CNVGTPCVKXG

MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU', EQPVKPWG VQ EQNQPK\G VJG EQPUEKQWUPGUU QH OCTIKPCNK\GF RGQRNGU.

/QUV OCKPUVTGCO FGXGNQROGPVCN CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN VTCLGEVQTKGU JCXG PQ CRRCTGPV HKV

YKVJ VJG HQTGUV XCNWGU QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CPF YKVJ C HGY GZEGRVKQPU CTG HCVCNN[ HNCYGF, KP

VGTOU QH VJGKT QYP QDLGEVKXGU.

9G PQVGF HWTVJGT VJCV YJKNG OCKPUVTGCO GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO CPF UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV,

CRRGCT VQ JCXG CFQRVGF VJG 'RQNKVKECNN[ EQTTGEV' TJGVQTKE QH EQPEGTP HQT VJG RQQT, VJG

GPXKTQPOGPV CPF UWUVCKPCDKNKV[, VJG[ EQPVKPWG VQ DG RTGFKECVGF QP VJG NGICEKGU QH KORGTKCN CPF

EQNQPKCN FKUEQWTUG. 6JGKT XKGY QH PCVWTG EQPVKPWGU VQ DG WVKNKVCTKCP CPF VJG[ TGOCKP DNKPF VQ

FKXGTUKV[ QWVUKFG QH GEQPQOKEU. 6JG[ FQ PQV QHHGT CP[ UQTV QH EJCNNGPIG VQ ECRKVCNKUV ITQYVJ,

CPF VJG[ CTG OCPKHGUVN[ TGUKUVCPV VQ GEQEGPVTKUO. 6JG[ CTG DNKPF VQ VJG EWNVWTCNN[ EQPUVTWEVGF

O[VJU WRQP YJKEJ VJG[ CTG RTGFKECVGF CPF VJG[ JCXG HCKNGF VQ CFFTGUU VJG EWNVWTCN RQNKVKEU QT

VJG KPFKIGPQWU 'U[UVGOU' QH VJG OCLQTKV[ YQTNF.

#NVJQWIJ CVVGORVU CTG DGKPI OCFG VQ TGEQIPKUG CPF KPVGITCVG YGUVGTP CPF PQP-YGUVGTP

'MPQYNGFIG', VJG KPVGITCVKQP EQPVKPWGU VQ DG RTKXKNGIGF QP YGUVGTP YQTNFXKGYU, UEKGPEG, XCNWGU,

FGHKPKVKQPU QH RTQITGUU CPF PGQNKDGTCN GEQPQOKEU.

+V KU GXKFGPV VJCV OQUV ’CUVGTP ENCUUKECN MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU FQ CRRGCT VQ QHHGT UQOG TGUQWTEGU

VJCV UWRRQTV VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH PCVWTG. 6JGKT XKGY QH VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF, JQYGXGT KU QHVGP

U[ODQNKE QT UGEQPFCT[, NCEMKPI GZRNKEKV RTQVGEVKQP QT 'DQPFU QH CHHGEVKQP' CPF CV DGUV QPN[

TGRTGUGPVU C FGKV[ QT KVU FKXKPG CURGEV. #U C TGUWNV VJGUG U[UVGOU ECP LWUV CU GCUKN[ RTQXKFG VJG

DCUKU HQT VJG FQOKPCVKQP, GZRNQKVCVKQP CPF EQPVTQN QH PCVWTG CPF JWOCPMKPF.


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


+P URKVG QH VJG VJTGCVU RQUGF VQ KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CPF VJG FCPIGTU QH TQOCPVKEKUO

VJGTG CTG CURGEVU VJCV CTG WPKSWG CPF OQTG IGTOCPG VQ DKQ-EWNVWTCN UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ VJCP '9GUVGTP'

QT '’CUVGTP ENCUUKECN' MPQYNGFIG-U[UVGOU. 4GITGVVCDN[ JQYGXGT +− KU DGKPI KPETGCUKPIN[

EQ-QRVGF KPVQ OCKPUVTGCO FGXGNQROGPV TJGVQTKE CPF CVVGORVU CTG QHVGP OCFG GKVJGT VQ KPVGITCVG

KV KPVQ UWRGTKQT HQTOCN U[UVGOU QH MPQYNGFIG QT VQ KPUKUV QP C FKEJQVQO[ DGVYGGP YGUVGTP CPF

KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG.

/QUV HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU KPENWFKPI PGQ-RQRWNKUV QPGU QRGTCVG YKVJKP VJG UCOG FKUEWTUKXG

VGTTCKP CU 'UEKGPVKHKE' HQTGUVT[ CPF CTG VJGTGHQTG PQV IGTOCPG VQ VJKU UVWF[. 6JG QPN[ GZEGRVKQP

CRRGCTU VQ C RQUV-OQFGTP CRRTQCEJ DCUGF QP GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU.

6JGUG VYQ CRRTQCEJGU CTG WPKSWG KP VGTOU QH HQTGUV RTCEVKEG KP %JKPC DWV VJG[ RTGUGPV C OCLQT

FKUEWTUKXG EJCNNGPIG VQ %JKPC'U PCVKQPCN UQEKGV[629.

$GHQTG YG ECP EQPUKFGT VJGUG CRRTQCEJGU CPF VJG OGVJQFQNQI[ CFQRVGF KP VJKU UVWF[ YG PGGF

VQ TGOKPF QWTUGNXGU PQV QPN[ QH VJG CKOU QH VJKU UVWF[ DWV VJG YKFGT EQPVTKDWVKQP QH VJG UVWF[

TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 1 UGEVKQP 1.4.

6JG RTKOCT[ CKO QH VJKU UVWF[ YCU VQ GZRNQTG VJG KPVGTHCEG DGVYGGP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CPF

TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR YKVJ C XKGY VQ HKPFKPI UWKVCDNG GPFQIGPQWU RCTCFKIOU VJCV YKNN CNNQY VJG

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO VQ RGTRGVWCVG, RTQVGEV, WVKNK\G CPF EQPUGTXG VJGKT HQTGUV

CPF VTGGU QP C UWUVCKPCDNG DCUKU YKVJQWV EQORTQOKUKPI VJGKT UQEKQ-EWNVWTCN U[UVGOU,

EQUOQXKUKQP QT YGNN-DGKPI. +P RWTUWCPEG QH VJG CKO VJG TGUGCTEJ YKNN EQPVTKDWVG:

• VQ VJG DTQCF VJGQTK\CVKQP QH MPQYNGFIG

• VQ VJG KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG FGDCVG

• D[ GZRNQTKPI VJG EQPVTKDWVKQP QH KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU VQ UWUVCKPCDNG

TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR CPF HQTGUVT[ QWVEQOGU

• D[ UWIIGUVKPI ETQUU-EWNVWTCN VQQNU CPF OGVJQFU HQT KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG GNKEKVCVKQP CPF

CPCN[UKU

• D[ UWIIGUVKPI OGVJQFU QH DTKFIKPI DGVYGGP OWNVKRNG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU

629 5GOCPVKE, EQIPKVKXG, RQNKVKECN, GRKUVGOQNQIKECN, GEQPQOKE CPF QPVQNQIKECN


%JCRVGT 5 (QTGUVT[


• D[ UWIIGUVKPI QWVEQOGU KP %JKPC CPF ’CUVGTP −JCO.


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


%*#26’4 6 /’6*1&5 #0& /’6*1&1.1);

6.1 +0641&7%6+10

6JKU EJCRVGT GZRNCKPU VJG OGVJQFQNQIKECN DCUKU HQT VJG CPCN[UKU EQPFWEVGF KP VJG GPUWKPI

EJCRVGTU. 6JG OGVJQFQNQI[ EJQUGP HQT OGGVKPI VJG QDLGEVKXGU QWVNKPGF KP FGVCKN CV VJG GPF QH

EJCRVGT 5 KU OWNVK-HCEGVGF KP VJCV KV JCU DQVJ SWCNKVCVKXG CPF SWCPVKVCVKXG EQORQPGPVU CPF FTCYU

WRQP JKUVQTKECN CU YGNN CU EQPVGORQTCT[ OCVGTKCNU. 6JG UVWF[ KU CNUQ GCTVJGF KP VJG CWVJQT'U

MPQYNGFIG QH VJG TGIKQP ICKPGF HTQO; EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[ KP 0GRCN (1984-1991), EQPUWNVCPE[

KP %JKPC (1993 -2005), UGEQPFCT[ FCVC630 UQWTEGU, MG[ KPHQTOCPVU CPF EWNVWTCN URGEKCNKUVU (K.G.

UJCOCPU). 6JG CWVJQT'U NQECN MPQYNGFIG GURGEKCNN[ HTQO VJG EQPVGZVWCN UVWFKGU TGHGTTGF VQ

DGNQY KU RCTVKEWNCTN[ KORQTVCPV DGECWUG KV UWRRNGOGPVU CPF EQPVGZVWCNKUGU VJG HKGNF TGUGCTEJ

CPF HKNNU KP UQOG QH VJG ICRU.

6JKU EJCRVGT YKNN DGIKP YKVJ VJG TCVKQPCNG HQT VJG SWCPVKVCVKXG CRRTQCEJ VQ HKGNF TGUGCTEJ DGHQTG

FKUEWUUKPI VJG NKVGTCVWTG QP HQTGUV XCNWGU, ETKVKSWKPI:- OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN UECNKPI, IGQUVCVKUVKECN

CPF DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU, CPF UWRRQTVKXG VGEJPQNQIKGU. +V YKNN EQPENWFG YKVJ EQPVGZVWCN UVWFKGU631,

HKGNF VGUVKPI KP 7− CPF %JKPC, CPF C UQHVYCTG GXCNWCVKQP.

6JGTG CTG VJTGG TGCUQPU YJ[ + UGNGEVGF C SWCPVKVCVKXG CRRTQCEJ VQ HKGNF TGUGCTEJ CNVJQWIJ VJKU

OC[ CRRGCT VQ DG KPEQPITWGPV632 YKVJ VJG YQTNFXKGY QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG

(KTUVN[ KP VGTOU QH HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV OQUV HQTGUVGTU (QTKGPVCN CPF QEEKFGPVCN) CTG OQTG

EQPXKPEGF D[ 'JCTF HCEVU' VJCP SWCNKVCVKXG PCTTCVKXG CPF QPG CKO QH VJKU UVWF[ KU VQ RTQXKFG VQQNU

HQT HQTGUVGTU VQ CFFTGUU VJG HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU QH KPFKIGPQWU ENKGPVU.

5GEQPFN[ IKXGP VJG UGPUKVKXKV[ QH TGUGCTEJ KP ’CUVGTP −JCO HKGNF HQTGUVT[ TGUGCTEJ RTGFKECVGF

QP C SWCPVKVCVKXG CRRTQCEJ YCU NGUU NKMGN[ VQ CVVTCEV CVVGPVKQP VJCP C SWCNKVCVKXG CRRTQCEJ

CFFTGUUKPI KFGCU, QRKPKQPU CPF CVVKVWFGU.

630 IQXGTPOGPV FQEWOGPVU, RTGUU ENKRRKPIU, PGYU NGVVGTU, 455 HGGFU, CNGTVU, QHHKEKCN UVCVKUVKEU. 631 2TQLGEV UVWFKGU DCUGF QP YQTM GZRGTKGPEG KP 0GRCN (1983-1991) CPF EQPUWNVCPE[ CPF HGCUKDKNKV[ UVWFKGU EQPFWEVGF KP %JKPC DGVYGGP 1993-2005 WPFGT VJG CGIKU QH &(+&, 6JG 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCPE[ (75#) %CTG CPF 5JCTG (QWPFCVKQP CPF (TKGPFU QH %JKPC. 632 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP )GTXCKU 2002 YGDNQI


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


6JKTFN[ YJGP + HKTUV DGICP VQ EQPUKFGT TGUGCTEJ OGVJQFU VJCV CFFTGUUGF MPQYNGFIG UVTWEVWTGU,

HQTGUV RGTEGRVKQP, GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[, RCTCFKIOU CPF HQNM OQFGNU VJG QPN[ OGVJQFU VJCV CRRGCTGF VQ

DG IGTOCPG YKVJ VJKU UVWF[ YGTG HTQO VJG HKGNFU QH EQIPKVKXG CPVJTQRQNQI[ V[RKHKGF D[ %QND[633

(5GG (KIWTG 6-1) YJKEJ OQUVN[ CRRGCTGF VQ DG DCUGF QP SWCPVKVCVKXG FCVC EQNNGEVKQP.

(KIWTG 6-1 %QIPKVKXG CPVJTQRQNQI[ (VGZV KP TGF D[ CWVJQT)

%QIPKVKXG#PVJTQRQNQI[

5GOCPVKEU −PQYNGFIG5VTWEVWTGU

/QFGNUCPF 5[UVGOU

&KUEQWTUGCPCN[UKU

’VJPQITCRJKE

5GOCPVKEU

5GOCPVKE

6JGQT[

’VJPQUEKGPEG

’VJPQHQTGUVT[

%QPUGPUWU

#PCN[UKU

5ETKRVU CPF

5EJGOCVC

2CTCFKIOU

(QNM /QFGNU

&GEKUKQP /QFGNU

)QCN

5VTWEVWTGU

CPF

/QVKXCVKQPCN

5[UVGOU

0CTTCVKXG

)TCOOCTU

&KUEQWTUG

5GOCPVKEU

%QPVGPV

#PCN[UKU

#TEJGQNQI[ 5QEKCN#PVJTQRQNQI[

%QIPKVKXG CPVJTQRQNQIKUVU UVWF[ JQY RGQRNG WPFGTUVCPF CPF QTICPK\G VJG OCVGTKCN QDLGEVU,

GXGPVU, CPF GZRGTKGPEGU VJCV OCMG WR VJGKT YQTNF CU VJG RGQRNG VJG[ UVWF[ RGTEGKXG KV. +V KU CP

CRRTQCEJ VJCV UVTGUUGU JQY RGQRNG OCMG UGPUG QH TGCNKV[ CEEQTFKPI VQ VJGKT QYP KPFKIGPQWU

EQIPKVKXG ECVGIQTKGU. %QIPKVKXG CPVJTQRQNQIKUVU UVTGUU U[UVGOCVKE FCVC EQNNGEVKQP CPF CPCN[UKU

KP CFFTGUUKPI KUUWGU QH TGNKCDKNKV[ CPF XCNKFKV[ CPF, EQPUGSWGPVN[, TGN[ JGCXKN[ QP UVTWEVWTGF

KPVGTXKGYKPI CPF UVCVKUVKECN CPCN[UGU. 6JGKT VGEJPKSWGU634 ECP DG FKXKFGF KPVQ VJTGG ITQWRU VJCV

RTQFWEG FKHHGTGPV UQTVU QH FCVC: (FKU/UKOKNCTKV[ VGEJPKSWGU, QTFGTKPI VGEJPKSWGU, CPF VGUV

RGTHQTOCPEG VGEJPKSWGU635). &KU/UKOKNCTKV[ OGVJQFU (WUGF HQT EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI) ECNN HQT

TGURQPFGPVU VQ LWFIG VJG NKMGPGUU QH RCTVKEWNCT KVGOU. 1TFGTGF OGVJQFU (WUGF KP VJG .WIW .CMG

633 %QND[ 1996 RCIG 210 634 9GNNGT CPF 4QOPG[ 1988 635 PQV TGNGXCPV VQ VJKU UVWF[.


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


UVWF[ FKUEWUUKQP NCVGT KP VJKU EJCRVGT (UGEVKQP 6.5.3) CPF /CR1-1, /CR 8-1, /CR 8-4) TGSWKTG

VJG TCPMKPI QH KVGOU CNQPI C EQPEGRVWCN UECNG. 6JG URGEKHKE OGVJQFU WUGF D[ EQIPKVKXG

CPVJTQRQNQIKUVU HQT FCVC EQNNGEVKQP KPENWFG HTGG NKUVKPI, HTCOG GNKEKVCVKQP, VTKCF VGUVU, RKNG UQTVU,

RCKTGF EQORCTKUQPU, TCPM QTFGT, VTWG CPF HCNUG VGUVU, CPF EWNVWTCN EQPUGPUWU VCUMU. 6[RKECNN[ HQT

FCVC CPCN[UKU VJG[ WUG )WVVOCP UECNKPI, .KMGTV UECNKPI, OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN UECNKPI,

EQTTGURQPFGPEG CPCN[UKU, UKPIWNCT XCNWG FGEQORQUKVKQP, JKGTCTEJKECN ENWUVGT CPCN[UKU, OGCUWTGU

QH FKU/UKOKNCTKV[, ETQUU-VCDWNCVKQP, JKGTCTEJKECN NQINKPGCT OQFGNU, OCTIKPCN PQTOCNK\CVKQP,

U[OOGVTKE FGEC[ GPFQICO[ OQFGN, EQPUGPUWU OQFGNU, WPKXCTKCVG UVCVKUVKEU, OCVTKZ EQORCTKUQP,

CPF RTQRGTV[ HKVVKPI636.

(TQO VJGUG OGVJQFU CPF CRRTQCEJGU FKUUKOKNCTKV[ VGEJPKSWGU DCUGF QP RCKTGF EQORCTKUQPU (QH

HQTGUV XCNWGU) YGTG UGNGEVGF KP VJKU UVWF[ HQT FCVC EQNNGEVKQP CPF OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN UECNKPI

(/&5) CPF JKGTCTEJKECN ENWUVGT CPCN[UKU (*%#)637 YGTG UGNGEVGF HQT CPCN[UKU. 6JG UWKVCDKNKV[ QH

VJGUG OGVJQFU HQT HQTGUV RGTEGRVKQP YCU EQPHKTOGF D[ TGUGCTEJ638 YQTM EQPFWEVGF COQPI VJG

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU QH 9GUV −CNKOCPVCP639 CPF KU FKUEWUUGF HWTVJGT DGNQY.

+V YCU QTKIKPCNN[ GPXKUCIGF VJCV /&5 YQWNF RTQXKFG VJG RNCVHQTO HQT EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI CPF

VJCV /CPVGN VGUVU640 YQWNF RTQXKFG EQTTGNCVKQP DGVYGGP UKVGU. #HVGT HKGNF VGUVKPI KP %JKPC KV YCU

FKUEQXGTGF VJCV VJGTG YCU DQVJ URCVKCN FGRGPFGPE[ CPF FKTGEVKQPCN DKCU KP VJG /&5 OGCP FCVC

UGV. 6JKU QHHGTGF VJG RTQURGEV QH WUKPI DQVJ IGQUVCVKUVKEU CPF DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU VQ URCVKCNN[ OCR

CPF CPCN[\G HQTGUV RGTEGRVKQP KP YC[U PQV RQUUKDNG YKVJ /&5 CNQPG.

)GQUVCVKUVKEU, GXGP641 YKVJ C PQPRCTCOGVTKE642 FKUUKOKNCTKV[ OGCUWTGU643, CRRGCTGF VQ RTQXKFG

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

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/class

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/methods

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/large

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/set

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/probability

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/distributions

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/test

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/correlation

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/independence

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/original

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/scores

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/observations

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/variable

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/less

http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/statistics_nonparametric

http://finzi.psych.upenn.edu/R/library/mvpart/html/gdist.html


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


C OGCPU HQT URCVKCN CPCN[UKU CPF HQT KPVGTRQNCVKQP CETQUU VJG YJQNG TGUGCTEJ CTGC. $QWPFCT[

CPCN[UKU YQWNF RTQXKFG C OGCPU QH KFGPVKH[KPI VJG URCVKCN RCVVGTP QH VJG /&5 FCVC, CP[ \QPGU

QH TCRKF EJCPIG CPF CP[ EQTTGNCVKQP YKVJ EQKPEKFCN EJCPIGU KP DKQ-RJ[UKECN QT GVJPQ-NKPIWKUVKE

FCVC. 6Q VJG DGUV QH O[ MPQYNGFIG644 VJKU KU VJG HKTUV TGUGCTEJ GZRNQTKPI HQTGUV RGTEGRVKQP DCUGF

QP /&5, IGQUVCVKUVKEU CPF DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU. ’CEJ QH VJGUG VGEJPKSWGU YKNN DG GZRNQTGF KP

FGVCKN DGNQY.

6.2 (14’56 8#.7’5

0CVKQPCN HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV RNCPPKPI KUUWGU JCXG VTCFKVKQPCNN[ DGGP HTCOGF KP VGTOU QH HQTGUV

WUGU GURGEKCNN[ EQOOQFKV[ WUGU, TCVJGT VJCP HQTGUV XCNWGU QT RGTEGRVKQP645. 5GGFGF, JQYGXGT D[

C RQUV-OQFGTP RCTCFKIO UJKHV646 HQTOGT 'ENQUGV' HQTGUV XCNWGU647 CTG DGKPI EQPUKFGTGF CU C

OGCPU QH CFFTGUUKPI OWNVKRNG WUG HQTGUVT[ CPF KPEQTRQTCVGF KPVQ HQTGUV RNCPPKPI648. #P

KPEQORNGVG WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH NQECN CRRTQCEJGU VQ HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR OC[ CEVWCNN[ TGHNGEV DQVJ

KPFKXKFWCN CPF EQNNGEVKXG FKHHGTGPEGU KP JGNF HQTGUV XCNWGU. 9JKNG HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF RGTEGRVKQP

CTG CUUWOGF VQ WPFGTNKG RTGHGTGPEG HQT CEVWCN HQTGUV WUG, VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP RTGHGTGPEGU

CPF CVVKVWFGU VQYCTF HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR KU PQV YGNN FQEWOGPVGF KH WPFGTUVQQF.

8CNWG JCU FKHHGTGPV OGCPKPIU FGRGPFKPI QP VJG CTGC QH UVWF[ CPF KVU OGCUWTGOGPV YKVJKP GCEJ

FKUEKRNKPG KU EJCTCEVGTK\GF D[ URGEKHKE VGEJPKSWGU CPF OGVJQFQNQIKECN EQPEGTPU649. (QTGUV

XCNWGU KP EQOOQP YKVJ PCVWTG XCNWGU650 ECP DG FGHKPGF CU CP "GPFWTKPI DGNKGH VJCV C URGEKHKE

OQFG QH EQPFWEV QT GPF UVCVG QH GZKUVGPEG KU RTGHGTCDNG VQ QVJGTU" CPF ECP DG JGNF QT CUUKIPGF651.

9JKNG JGNF XCNWGU CTG CP KPFKXKFWCN'U FGUKTCDNG XCNWGU, CUUKIPGF XCNWGU TGHGT VQ YJCV QPG

CUETKDGU VQ UWEJ XCNWGU. #UUKIPGF XCNWGU ECP DG OGCUWTGF GKVJGT WUKPI OCTMGV QT PQP-OCTMGV

TGUGCTEJ VQQNU. 8CNWGU CTG QTICPK\GF JKGTCTEJKECNN[ D[ CP KPFKXKFWCN VQ CEJKGXG EQIPKVKXG

EQPUKUVGPE[ DWV OC[ UVKNN CRRGCT VQ EQPHNKEV. +H NQIIKPI, HQT GZCORNG KU FGUKTCDNG652 VJKU OC[ QT

OC[ PQV EQPHNKEV YKVJ C FGUKTGF HQTGUV UVCVG653 QH UWUVCKPKPI DKQNQIKECN FKXGTUKV[. 6JG WUG QH C

644 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP $CWT 2004 YGDNQI 645 4QNUVQPG CPF %QWHCN 1991 646 6CWDGPGEM 1992,6TQWXCNKU 2000 647 $NCVV 1986, RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP .GG 28/4/03 648 5EJGNJCU 2003 649 (KUEJJQHH 1991 650 .QEMYQQF 1999 651 4QMGCEJ 1973 RCIG 5 652 CU CP KPUVTWOGPVCN XCNWG : XCNWGU ECP TGHGT VQ OQFGU QH EQPFWEV (KPVTWOGPVCN). 653 CU C VGTOKPCN XCNWG : XCNWGU ECP TGHGT VQ GPF UVCVGU (VGTOKPCN).


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


HKPKVG SWCPVKVCVKXG HQTGUV XCNWG TCVKPI U[UVGOU GPEQWTCIGU UVWF[ RCTVKEKRCPVU VQ OCMG GZRNKEKV

VJGKT JKGTCTEJ[ QH HQTGUV XCNWGU, VJG RCTCFKIOU VJCV WPFGTRKP VJGO, CPF HQT EQORCTKUQP YKVJKP

CPF DGVYGGP EQOOWPKVKGU. (QT VJG RWTRQUG QH VJKU UVWF[, JQYGXGT, VJG VGTO 'HQTGUV XCNWG' JCU

DGGP CFQRVGF VQ FGUETKDG, CPF VQ OGCUWTG, RTQZKOKV[ DGVYGGP , 'QDLGEVU QH XCNWG'654,'NQECN

XCNWGU'655, NQECN CEVQTU656, GZVGTPCN KPVGTXGPVKQPU657 CPF QVJGT658.

# PWODGT QH FKHHGTGPV ENCUUKHKECVKQP U[UVGOU HQT FGHKPKPI HQTGUV XCNWGU JCXG DGGP FGXGNQRGF KP

VJG RCUV659 CPF QVJGTU JCXG FGXGNQRGF EQORCTCDNG UEJGOC HQT GPXKTQPOGPVCN QT YKNFGTPGUU

XCNWGU660. #NVJQWIJ VJGTG CTG UQOG EQPEGTPU661 CDQWV WPKXGTUCN V[RQNQIKGU QH HQTGUV XCNWGU VJG

V[RQNQI[ CFQRVGF D[ $TQYP CPF 4GGF (2000) CFFTGUUGU DGVVGT VJCP OQUV VJG OWNVKRNG XCNWGU QH

HQTGUVU, YKVJ VJG GZEGRVKQP QH 'KFGPVKV[' CPF 'RNCEG'. 6JG[ EQPUKFGT VJCV "'KFGPVKV[' CPF 'RNCEG' EWVU

CETQUU CNN HQTGUV XCNWGU" CPF UQ VJG[ YGTG GZENWFGF, HTQO VJGKT V[RQNQI[662. 6JGUG VYQ XCNWGU,

JQYGXGT JCXG DGGP KPENWFGF KP VJKU UVWF[ IKXGP VJGKT ICKPKPI KORQTVCPEG HQT PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG

ENCKOU663 CPF HQT VJG −JCODC 6KDGVCPU664.

6.3 /’6*1&5

6.3.1 /GVJQF 1: %QIPKVKXG /CRRKPI

*WOCPMKPF FQGU PQV TGCEV VQ VJG TGCN YQTNF KP TGCN VKOG, DWV VQ C EQIPKUGF GPXKTQPOGPV HKNVGTGF

VJTQWIJ VTCFKVKQPCN GZRGEVCVKQPU CPF YQTNFXKGYU. 9G FGRGPF QP OGPVCN OCRU QT EQIPKVKXG

OQFGNU VQ WPFGTUVCPF QWT YQTNF CPF UQEKQEWNVWTCN HCEVQTU KPHNWGPEG VJG EQPITWGPEG QH QWT

OCRU YKVJ QWT CEVWCN GPXKTQPOGPVU665.

654 6JG VJKPIU YG ECTG CDQWV. 655 1WT TGCUQPU HQT ECTKPI. 656 /GP, YQOGP, UGNH 657 G.I. +PFWUVTKCN (QTGUVCVKQP. 658 G.I. RNCEG 659 $TQYP CPF 4GGF 2000, 4QNUVQP CPF %QWHCN 1991 660 5CVVGTHNGNF 2001 661 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 5[FGP 2003 YGDNQI 662 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP $TQYP 30/4 CPF 1/5/2003 YGDNQI , RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 5RGPEGT 2002 YGDNQI 663 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP ,QTIGPUGP 2002 YGDNQI, /CEMGP\KG 2002, RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 5CVVGTHKGNF 2003 YGDNQI ,9KNNKCOU CPF 5VGYCTV 1998 664 ’RUVGKP CPF 2GPI 9GPDKP 1998 665 −CRNCP CPF −CRNCP 1982, /E)QXGTP GV CN 1988


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


6JG /&5 ')CNKNGQ' OGVJQF666 YCU CFQRVGF CU C OGCPU QH UVWF[KPI KPFKIGPQWU RGTEGRVKQP, CPF

EQIPKVKQP KP QTFGT VQ DGVVGT WPFGTUVCPF HQTGUVT[-TGNCVGF DGNKGHU CPF CVVKVWFGU CPF TGURQPUG VQ

CNKGP KPVGTXGPVKQPU. +V YCU UGNGEVGF HTQO C TCPIG QH CPVJTQRQNQIKECN OGVJQFU667 DGECWUG

FQ\GPU QT GXGP JWPFTGFU QH XCNWGU ECP DG XKGYGF UKOWNVCPGQWUN[ KP C UKPING 'RKEVWTG' YJKEJ

OCMGU KV RQUUKDNG VQ UGG VJG KPVGTTGNCVKQPUJKRU COQPI DGNKGHU CPF CVVKVWFGU. 6JKU KP VWTP KU

KORQTVCPV UKPEG EJCPIKPI QPG CVVKVWFG QT DGNKGH QHVGP EJCPIGU QVJGTU. .

6JKU VGEJPKSWG FTCYU JGCXKN[ QP VJGQT[ CPF TGUGCTEJ RTKOCTKN[ HTQO UQEKQNQI[, RU[EJQOGVTKEU,

CPF RJ[UKEU CU YGNN CU EQOOWPKECVKQPU CPF KU RTGFKECVGF QP VJG YQTM QH &WTMJGKO, /GCF,

*CNNGT CPF 5GYGNN668. 6JG )CNKNGQ VGEJPKSWG FGHKPGU EQIPKVKXG CPF EWNVWTCN RTQEGUUGU CU

EJCPIGU KP VJG TGNCVKQPU COQPI UGVU QH EWNVWTCN 'QDLGEVU' QT EQPEGRVU (QT KP VJKU UVWF[ HQTGUV

XCNWGU). 6JG KPVGTTGNCVKQPUJKR COQPI VJGUG QDLGEVU CTG OGCUWTGF D[ OCIPKVWFG GUVKOCVKQP RCKT

EQORCTKUQP CPF VJG TGUWNVKPI FKUUKOKNCTKVKGU OCVTKEGU CTG GPVGTGF KPVQ OGVTKE OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN

UECNKPI UQHVYCTG RTQITCOU. 6JG TGUWNV QH VJKU YQTM KU UWEJ VJCV GCEJ QH VJG EWNVWTCN QDLGEVU KU

TGRTGUGPVGF CU C RQKPV (5GG (KIWTG 6-2 CPF 2NQV 6-1) KP C OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN 4KGOCPP669 QT

/GVTKE URCEG. %QIPKVKXG CPF EWNVWTCN RTQEGUUGU OC[ DG FGHKPGF YKVJKP VJKU HTCOGYQTM CU

OQVKQPU QH VJGUG QDLGEVU TGNCVKXG VQ VJG QVJGT QDLGEVU YKVJKP VJG URCEG.

(KIWTG 6-2 4KGOCPP 5RCEG

6JG ')CNKNGQ' UVWF[ DGICP YKVJ C HQTGUV XCNWG UVWF[ YJKEJ YCU EQPFWEVGF CU RCTV QH RTG-VGUVKPI,

KP QTFGT VQ KFGPVKH[ NQECNN[ CRRTQRTKCVG HQTGUV XCNWGU QT VJGOGU. 6JGUG XCNWGU YGTG QDVCKPGF

666 9QGNHGN CPF (KPM 1980 667 $QTICVVK 1988, 1990

668 &WTMJGKO 1966, /GCF 1982, *CNNGT 1971, 5GYGNN 1940 669 /WPMTGU 1975, 9QGNHGN CPF $CTPGVV 1982


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


OQUVN[ D[ C VGZV CPCN[UKU QH QRGP GPFGF KPVGTXKGYU TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 6 UGEVKQP 6.6.1 CPF

6.6.2 CPF HTQO UQOG VJGOGU670 + CFFGF KP QTFGT VQ CFFTGUU CVVKVWFGU, DGNKGHU, QDLGEVU QH XCNWG

CPF GZVGTPCN KPVGTXGPVKQPU. 6JGUG XCNWGU/VJGOGU YGTG VJGP RCKTGF KP C SWGUVKQPPCKTG HQTOCV671

KP %JKPGUG672. 4GURQPFGPVU YGTG UWDUGSWGPVN[ CUMGF VQ WUG VJG FKUVCPEG673 DGVYGGP 'DNCEM' CPF

'YJKVG', CU VJG[ UCY KV KP VJGKT OKPFU, CU C OGCUWTKPI UVKEM, KP EQPUKFGTKPI VJG RGTEGRVWCN

RTQZKOKV[ QH XCNWGU RCKTGF QP VJG HQTO674. 6JG GUVKOCVGU QDVCKPGF YGTG CXGTCIGF CETQUU CNN

TGURQPFGPVU TGUWNVKPI KP C OGCP FKUUKOKNCTKVKGU OCVTKZ675 , YJKEJ YCU KPRWV KPVQ

OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN UECNKPI (/&5) UQHVYCTG676. 6JKU URCEG QT RGTEGRVWCN OCR RTQXKFGU C RTGEKUG

CPF JQNKUVKE RKEVWTG677 QH VJG TGURQPFGPV'U DGNKGHU, CVVKVWFGU CPF DGJCXKQWT. %QPEGRVU YJKEJ IQ

VQIGVJGT KP VJKU URCEG CTG ENQUG, YJKNG VJQUG VJCV FQP'V IQ VQIGVJGT CTG HCT CRCTV.

#NVJQWIJ + JCXG PQV WUGF VJKU OGVJQF DGHQTG, CPF + TGEQIPK\G KV JCU OQUVN[ DGGP WUGF HQT DTCPF

OCRRKPI CPF OCTMGV CPCN[UKU, KV JCU DGGP WUGF HQT HQTGUVT[. 4GUGCTEJGTU JCXG WUGF /&5 VQ

FKHHGTGPVKCVG DGVYGGP 75 HQTGUV OCPCIGT'U GEQNQIKECN EQIPKVKQP, YKVJKP CPF CETQUU FKHHGTGPV

KPUVKVWVKQPU. 6JKU EQPVTCFKEVGF RTGXKQWU TGUGCTEJ UWIIGUVKPI VJCV OCPCIGTU KP VJG UCOG

KPUVKVWVKQPU DGECOG JQOQIGPK\GF KP VJGKT VJQWIJVU678. %CT[ (1995) EQPVTCUVGF /&5 YKVJ C

PWODGT QH FKHHGTGPV OGVJQFU QH UVWF[KPI NCPFUECRG RGTEGRVKQP COQPI UVWFGPVU HTQO VJG

7PKXGTUKV[ QH /GNDQWTPG. 6JG UVWF[ JCU RQVGPVKCN HQT TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV FGEKUKQP OCMKPI,

DWV YCU NKOKVGF VQ C OGVJQFU UVWF[679. %QNHGT GV CN (1996) UGGOKPIN[ IQ VJG HWTVJGUV KP

GUVCDNKUJKPI VJG UWKVCDKNKV[ QH /&5 CU C OGCPU QH WPFGTUVCPFKPI HQTGUV RGTEGRVKQP, KP C UVWF[

COQPI VJG RGQRNGU QH 9GUV −CNKOCPVCP680 CNVJQWIJ KV FKF KFGPVKH[ C PWODGT QH NKOKVCVKQPU. (QT

ETQUU UKVG CPF ETQUU EWNVWTCN EQORCTKUQP VJGTG KU CP CRRCTGPV PGGF HQT VJTGUJQNF XCNWGU, C EQTG

UGV QH VJGOGU VJCV CTG XCNKF KP CNN HQTGUVU, VJGOG EQPVGZVWCNK\CVKQP CNQPI C EQPVKPWWO QH

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

677 QT CV NGCUV CU TGXGCNGF D[ VJKU VGEJPKSWG. 678 4KEJCTFUQP GV CN 1996 679 %CT[ 1995 680 +PFQPGUKC


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV, OQTG FKXGTUG UVCMGJQNFGTU, CPF C ITGCVGT TCPIG QH XCTKCVKQP681.

+P URKVG QH VJGUG YGCMPGUUGU VJKU VGEJPKSWG JCU GPCDNGF TGUGCTEJGTU VQ KFGPVKH[ MG[

EQPUGTXCVKQP EQPEGRVU CPF UVTCVGIKGU HQT EQPUGTXCVKQP GZVGPUKQP.

6.3.2 /GVJQF 2: )GQUVCVKUVKEU

)GQUVCVKUVKECN VGEJPKSWGU YGTG QTKIKPCNN[ FGXGNQRGF D[ 5QXKGV UEKGPVKUVU HQT OGVGQTQNQIKECN

FCVC RTGFKEVKQPU. 6JG HKTUV DQQM, HQT GZCORNG, YKVJ EQORNGVG GZRNCPCVKQPU CDQWV UKORNG CPF

QTFKPCT[ MTKIKPI682 CPF EQMTKIKPI VGEJPKSWGU YCU RWDNKUJGF KP .GPKPITCF KP 1963683.

)GQUVCVKUVKECN VGEJPKSWGU YGTG NCVGT UWEEGUUHWNN[ CRRNKGF VQ OKPKPI CPF IGQUEKGPEGU684 CPF

OQTG TGEGPVN[ NCPFUECRG GEQNQI[685. 7PNKMG VTCFKVKQPCN, ENCUUKECN UVCVKUVKEU YJKEJ CUUWOGU VJCV

VJG FCVC CTG WPDKCUGF, TCPFQO, CPF WPEQTTGNCVGF, URCVKCNN[-QTKGPVGF IGQUVCVKUVKEU WUGU VJGUG

TGNCVKQPUJKRU686 VQ EJCTCEVGTK\G VJG DGJCXKQWT QDUGTXGF YKVJKP C FCVC UGV.

)GQUVCVKUVKECN OGVJQFU YGTG CFQRVGF KP VJKU UVWF[ DGECWUG VJG[ RTQXKFGF VQQNU VQ CPCN[\G

URCVKCN FCVC UGVU CPF FGVGEV CPF FGUETKDG GZRTGUUKQPU QH URCVKCN FGRGPFGPE[, EQTTGNCVKQP, QT DKCU ,

YJKEJ OC[ VJGP DG WUGF VQ DWKNF RTGFKEVKXG OQFGNU HQT OWEJ NCTIGT CTGCU687. 6JG[ YGTG

UGNGEVGF HTQO C TCPIG QH UVCVKUVKECN OGVJQFU DGECWUG VJG[ EQWNF DG WUGF KP EQPLWPEVKQP YKVJ

)+5 CPF RTQXKFGF OCRU UWRRQTVKPI GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIO KFGPVKHKECVKQP. &CVC YCU KPRWV

HTQO DQVJ VJG TCY CPF OGCP FCVC HTQO VJG /&5 UVWF[ CPF VJG )25 EQQTFKPCVGU QH GCEJ UKVG.

4GUGCTEJGTU WUG )GQUVCVKUVKEU VQ JGNR HKNN KP VJG DNCPMU DGVYGGP VJG FCVC UWRRNKGF VJTQWIJ HKGNF

UWTXG[ QT UGEQPFCT[ UQWTEGU. %QORWVGT OQFGNU CTG WUGF VQ RTGFKEV YJCV'U IQKPI QP CV CP

WP-UCORNGF NQECVKQP CPF RTQXKFG C RTQDCDKNKV[ QH XCNWGU DGVYGGP VJG UCORNGF NQECVKQPU. 1PG

QH VJG MG[ EJCNNGPIGU KP IGQUVCVKUVKEU TGUGCTEJ KU JGVGTQIGPGKV[ QT KPJGTGPV XCTKCDKNKV[. +P

TGCN-NKHG JGVGTQIGPGKV[ KU PQV TCPFQO, CPF KV WUWCNN[ HQNNQYU RJ[UKECN RTKPEKRNGU FGRGPFKPI QP

681 %QNHGT GV CN 1996 682 #P KPVGTRQNCVKQP VGEJPKSWG HQT QDVCKPKPI UVCVKUVKECNN[ WPDKCUGF GUVKOCVGU QH URCVKCN XCTKCVKQP QH MPQYP RQKPVU

UWEJ CU UWTHCEG GNGXCVKQPU QT [KGNF OGCUWTGOGPVU WVKNK\KPI C UGV QH EQPVTQN RQKPVU. YYY.CITKEWNVWTG.RWTFWG.GFW/UUOE/(TCOGU/PGYINQUUGT[.JVO CEEGUUGF 19VJ 1EV 2004. 683 )CPFKP 1963 684 +PENWFKPI: - UQKN UEKGPEG, HQTGUVT[, HKUJGTKGU, TGOQVG UGPUKPI, CPF ECTVQITCRJ[. 685 ,QJPUQP 1997, 2CUU[ 2001, 2GTT[ GV CN 2002 686 WPDKCUGF, TCPFQO, CPF WPEQTTGNCVGF FCVC. 687 $[ OGCPU QH MTKIKPI (5GG 1NKXGT CPF 9GDUVGT 1990).

http://www.google.com/url?sa=X&start=0&oi=define&q=http://www.agriculture.purdue.edu/ssmc/Frames/newglossery.htm


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


VJG RJGPQOGPC DGKPI UVWFKGF688, YJKEJ IGQUVCVKUVKEU VTKGU VQ OKOKE. 9JKNG IGQUVCVKUVKECN

OQFGNU ECP FQ VJKU OWEJ DGVVGT VJCP VJG[ WUGF VQ, VJG[ UVKNN RTQFWEG CPQOCNKGU. 6JG EQORNGZKV[

CPF TKEJPGUU QH PCVWTCN JGVGTQIGPGKV[ TGOCKPU C EJCNNGPIG. 6JG QVJGT KORQTVCPV EQPEGRV

CFFTGUUGU VJG RTGEKUG OGCUWTGU QH WPEGTVCKPV[. 6JGTG CTG UQOG GXQNXKPI VGEJPKSWGU HQT VJKU, DWV

VJG[ CTG HCT HTQO DGKPI GUVCDNKUJGF RTKPEKRNGU.

+P VJKU UVWF[ VJG HQNNQYKPI IGQUVCVKUVKECN VQQNU YGTG WUGF VQ CUUKUV CPCN[UKU:-

#PKUQVTQRKE689 UGOKXCTKCPEG UWTHCEG OCRU, XCTKQITCOU, MTKIKPI, EQTTGNQITCOU, DGCTKPI

CPCN[UKU, YKPFTQUG EQTTGNQITCOU, DGCTKPI EQTTGNQITCOU, CPF CPIWNCT EQTTGNQITCOU.

#PKUQVTQRKE 5GOKXCTKCPEG 5WTHCEG /CRU RTQXKFG C XKUWCN RKEVWTG QH UGOKXCTKCPEG KP GXGT[

EQORCUU FKTGEVKQP. 6JKU CNNQYU QPG VQ KFGPVKH[ VJG QEEWTTGPEG QH FKTGEVKQPCN VTGPFU CPF VJG

CRRTQRTKCVG RTKPEKRCN CZKU HQT FGHKPKPI VJG CPKUQVTQRKE XCTKQITCO OQFGN CPF HQT CPKUQVTQRKE

MTKIKPI690.

6JG XCTKQITCO691 KU VJG RTKOCT[ HQTO QH URCVKCN CPCN[UKU WUGF KP IGQUVCVKUVKEU692 CPF DQVJ

KUQVTQRKE693 CPF CPKUQVTQRKE694 OQFGNU YGTG ECNEWNCVGF. # XCTKQITCO KPENWFGU C VYQ-RQKPV

UVCVKUVKECN HWPEVKQP VJCV FGUETKDGU VJG KPETGCUKPI FKHHGTGPEG QT FGETGCUKPI EQTTGNCVKQP, QT

EQPVKPWKV[, DGVYGGP UCORNG XCNWGU CU UGRCTCVKQP DGVYGGP VJGO KPETGCUGU. +V KU UKOKNCT VQ

)GCT['U EQTTGNQITCO CPCN[UKU CPF RCKTGF SWCFTCPV XCTKCPEG CPCN[UKU695. 6JG 4GUKFWCN 5WOU QH

5SWCTGU (455) RTQXKFGU CP GZCEV OGCUWTG QH JQY YGNN VJG OQFGN HKVU VJG XCTKQITCO FCVC; VJG

NQYGT VJG TGFWEGF UWOU QH USWCTGU, VJG DGVVGT VJG OQFGN HKVU. )5+7696 WUGU 455 VQ EJQQUG

RCTCOGVGTU HQT GCEJ QH VJG XCTKQITCO OQFGNU D[ FGVGTOKPKPI VJG EQODKPCVKQP QH RCTCOGVGT

XCNWGU VJCV OKPKOK\GU 455 HQT CP[ IKXGP OQFGN.

−TKIKPI KU C HQTO QH UVCVKUVKECN OQFGNNKPI VJCV KPVGTRQNCVGU FCVC HTQO C MPQYP UGV QH UCORNG

RQKPVU VQ C EQPVKPWQWU UWTHCEG. +V KU DCUGF QP KUQVTQRKE QT CPKUQVTQRKE XCTKQITCOU, QT VYQ-RQKPV

688 G.I. KP TGHQTGUVCVKQP TWP-QHH TGFWEVKQP, VJG RJ[UKECN RTQRGTVKGU QH TQEMU CPF UQKNU (.WMG[ GV CN 2000) QT KP IGQNQI[, RJ[UKECN NCYU HQT RQTQWU OGFKC HNQY (*CTVGT 1994). 689 OGCPKPI PQP-KUQVTQRKE CPF KU WUWCNN[ WUGF VQ FGUETKDG C FKTGEVKQPCNN[ FGRGPFGPV RJGPQOGPQP. 690 )5+ 1989-2004 691 QHVGP TGHGTTGF VQ CU VJG XCTKQITCO. 692 NUCCMU CPF 5TKXCUVCXC 1989 693 OGCPU 'KPFGRGPFGPV QH FKTGEVKQP'. 694 OGCPKPI PQP-KUQVTQRKE CPF KU WUWCNN[ WUGF VQ FGUETKDG C FKTGEVKQPCNN[ FGRGPFGPV RJGPQOGPQP. 695 &CNG CPF /CJ 1998, )GCT[ 1954 696 )GQUVCVKUVKEU HQT VJG ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 5EKGPEGU, 1989-2004 )&5

http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Isotropic

http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Isotropic


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


UVCVKUVKECN HWPEVKQPU VJCV FGUETKDG VJG KPETGCUKPI FKHHGTGPEG QT FGETGCUKPI EQTTGNCVKQP DGVYGGP

UCORNG XCNWGU CU UGRCTCVKQP DGVYGGP VJGO KPETGCUGU.

%QTTGNQITCOU CTG QPG QH VJG OQUV EQOOQP HQTOU QH URCVKCN CWVQEQTTGNCVKQP KP IGQITCRJ[697.

# EQTTGNQITCO EQPUKUVU QH C UGTKGU QH GUVKOCVGF CWVQEQTTGNCVKQP EQGHHKEKGPVU, ECNEWNCVGF HQT

FKHHGTGPV URCVKCN TGNCVKQPUJKRU. 6JG OGVTKE RTQRQUGF D[ /QTCP698 KU VJG OQUV EQOOQPN[ WUGF

QPG HQT EQTTGNQITCO CPCN[UKU.

$GCTKPI CPCN[UKU KU C OGVJQF QH FGVGTOKPKPI VJG FKTGEVKQP QH ITGCVGUV EQTTGNCVKQP DGVYGGP FCVC

FKUVCPEGU CPF IGQITCRJKE FKUVCPEG699. 6JG EQTTGNCVKQP700 KU EQORWVGF HQT C UGTKGU QH UGV CPINGU,

HTQO 1 FGI (’CUV) VQ 180 FGI (9GUV) WUKPI 36 HKZGF DGCTKPIU.

9KPFTQUG %QTTGNQITCOU CTG FKTGEVKQPCN EQTTGNQITCOU VJCV RWV RCKTU QH RQKPVU KP ENCUUGU/DKPU

DCUGF QP DQVJ FKUVCPEG CPF FKTGEVKQP. # YKPFTQUG CRRGCTU SWKVG FKHHGTGPV HTQO CP QTFKPCT[

EQTTGNQITCO701.

$GCTKPI EQTTGNQITCOU CTG UKOKNCT VQ PQTOCN EQTTGNQITCOU, GZEGRV VJCV VJG YGKIJVU CTG UECNGF

VQ KPFKECVG FKTGEVKQP CU YGNN CU FKUVCPEG702.

#PIWNCT EQTTGNQITCOU FGVGTOKPG VJG FGITGG QH CPKUQVTQR[ KP FCVC. 6JKU OGVJQF FQGU PQV

ECNEWNCVG CXGTCIG EQTTGNCVKQP HQT CNN HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU. +V FQGU, JQYGXGT, ECNEWNCVG VJG FKUVCPEG

DGVYGGP KPFKXKFWCN RCKT RQKPVU RTQLGEVGF QPVQ C XGEVQT KP C URGEKHKGF FKTGEVKQP CPF VJG

FKHHGTGPEGU KP VJG XCNWGU CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ VJQUG VYQ RQKPVU703.

+ JCXG PGXGT WUGF IGQUVCVKUVKEU VQ CPCN[\G HQTGUV XCNWGU DGHQTG CPF + DGNKGXG VJKU KU QPG QH VJG

HKTUV UVWFKGU QH KVU MKPF VQ WUG VJGO VQ CKF VJG KFGPVKHKECVKQP QH GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU.

)GQUVCVKUVKEU JCXG, JQYGXGT DGGP WUGF VQ UVWF[ 'RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV' KP VJG #NCUMCP UVCVG HQTGUV704,

IGPG HNQY KP 4QDNG 1CM705 3WGTEWU NQDCVC706, CPF HQT NCPFUECRG GEQNQI[707 CPF VJGTG KU PQ

TGCUQP YJ[ VJG[ UJQWNF PQV CNUQ DG CRRNKGF VQ HQTGUV XCNWGU.

697 %NKHH CPF 1TF 1973 698 /QTCP 1950 699 (CNUGVVK CPF 5QMCN 1993 700 KP 2CUUCIG (4QUGPDGTI 2001) 701 4QUGPDGTI 2000 702 4QUGPDGTI 2000 703 5KOQP 1997 704 $TQYP GV CN 2002 705 CNUQ MPQYP CU 8CNNG[ 1CM, 9JKVG 1CM, 5YCOR 1CM, %CNKHQTPKC 9JKVG 1CM. 706 &WVGEJ GV CN 2005 707 /CPGN GV CN 2003


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


6.3.3 /GVJQF 3: $QWPFCT[ #PCN[UKU

)GQITCRJKE DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU KU DGUV XKGYGF CU C VGEJPKSWG HQT FGHKPKPI IGQITCRJKE

DQWPFCTKGU QP URCVKCN HKGNFU, CPF HQT GXCNWCVKPI VJG UVCVKUVKECN UKIPKHKECPEG QH DQWPFCT[

EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU708. 6JG UKZ OQUV EQOOQP DQWPFCT[ FGVGEVKQP OGVJQFU KPENWFG:-OQXKPI URNKV

YKPFQYU, NCVVKEG FGNKPGCVKQP, VTKCPIWNCVKQP FGNKPGCVKQP, ECVGIQTKECN FGNKPGCVKQP, URCVKCNN[

EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI CPF HW\\[ UGV OQFGNNKPI. 6JG HKTUV HQWT CTG SWKVG UKOKNCT KP VJCV VJG[ CTG

FGUKIPGF VQ NQECVG FKHHGTGPEG DQWPFCTKGU, CPF TGSWKTG UQOG GUVKOCVG QH URCVKCN TCVG QH EJCPIG.

.CVVKEG, VTKCPIWNCVKQP, CPF ECVGIQTKECN FGNKPGCVKQP JCXG KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG DGGP FGUETKDGF CU

'YQODNKPI'709. 5RCVKCNN[ EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI NQECVGU CTGCU QH TGNCVKXG JQOQIGPGKV[ CPF VJG

UKZVJ CRRTQCEJ FGVGEVU CPF FGUETKDGU HW\\[ DQWPFCTKGU. 1VJGT TGUGCTEJGTU JCXG FGXGNQRGF

OGVJQFU QH CRRN[KPI 9QODNG'U OGVJQFU VQ RQKPV, TCUVGT CPF RQN[IQP FCVC, VQ ETGCVG ETKUR QT

HW\\[ DQWPFCTKGU CPF $CTDWLCPK GV CN710 KPVTQFWEGF C RGTEGPVKNG EQPUKFGTCVKQP QH UKIPKHKECPEG.

6JGUG OGVJQFU CTG WUGF KP VJKU UVWF[ VQ CPCN[\G CPF FGNKPGCVG DQWPFCTKGU KP HQTGUV XCNWG FCVC.

6JG[ YGTG UGNGEVGF DGECWUG VJG[ EQWNF DG WUGF; KP EQPLWPEVKQP YKVJ )+5, VQ FGVGTOKPG VJG

RTGUGPEG QH DQWPFCTKGU KP HQTGUV XCNWG FCVC DGVYGGP EQOOWPKVKGU, CPF VJG EQTTGNCVKQP DGVYGGP

HQTGUV XCNWG DQWPFCTKGU CPF DKQRJ[UKECN, IGQRQNKVKECN, QT GVJPQNKPIWKUVKE DQWPFCTKGU.

#FFKVKQPCNN[ VJG[ YGTG UGNGEVGF VQ KPHQTO VJG RTQEGUU QH GVJPQHQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIO KFGPVKHKECVKQP.

6JG FCVC YCU KPRWV HTQO VJG OGCP XCNWGU QH VJG /&5 UVWF[ CU YGNN CU VJG )25 EQQTFKPCVGU QH

GCEJ UKVG.

+P VJKU UVWF[ VJG HQNNQYKPI UWKVG QH DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU VQQNU YGTG WUGF:- URCVKCNN[ EQPUVTCKPGF

ENWUVGTKPI, YQODNKPI (KTTGIWNCT RQKPV, ECVGIQTKECN, RQN[IQP), UWDDQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU, CPF

QXGTNCR CPCN[UKU

5RCVKCNN[ EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI

6JKU OGVJQF NQECVGU VJG GFIGU QH JQOQIGPGQWU TGIKQPU, TGUWNVKPI KP ENQUGF CTGCN DQWPFCTKGU.

6JG UQHVYCTG711 KORNGOGPVU CP CFCRVCVKQP QH OWNVKXCTKCVG ENWUVGTKPI VJCV ITQWRU NQECVKQPU VJCV

708 ,CESWG\ GV CN 2000 709 9QODNG 1951 710 $CTDWLCPK GV CN 1989 711 $QWPFCT[5GGT (,CESWG\ CPF /CTWEC 2001-2003)


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


CTG DQVJ UKOKNCT CPF URCVKCNN[ CFLCEGPV. #FLCEGPE[ QEEWTU YJGP ENWUVGTU UJCTG CP GFIG712 QT

PGKIJDQWT YKVJ GCEJ QVJGT KP C &GNCWPC[ VTKCPIWNCVKQP713. 5KOKNCTKV[ KU FGVGTOKPGF D[ VJG

UGNGEVKQP QH CP CRRTQRTKCVG FKUUKOKNCTKV[ OGVTKE714 CPF VJG QRVKOWO ENWUVGT PWODGT HQT VJG FCVC

UGV FGVGTOKPGF D[ IQQFPGUU QH HKV CPCN[UKU.

9QODNKPI (RQKPV, ECVGIQT[ CPF RQN[IQP)

+TTGIWNCT 2QKPV 9QODNKPI YCU FGXGNQRGF715 HQT KTTGIWNCT URCVKCN HKGNFU, KP VJKU ECUG RQKPV FCVC

VJCV KU PWOGTKE DWV PQV TGIWNCTN[ URCEGF. +P VJKU OGVJQF &GNCWPC[ VTKCPIWNCVKQP716 KU WUGF VQ

EQPPGEV PGCTD[ UKVGU VQ HQTO VTKCPINGU. # RNCPG KU HKVVGF VQ VJG XCNWGU QH GCEJ < XCTKCDNG CV VJG

XGTVKEGU QH GCEJ VTKCPING, CPF VJG ITCFKGPV QH VJG RNCPG KU GUVKOCVGF CV VJG VTKCPINGU EGPVTQKF717.

$QWPFCTKGU CTG FGVGTOKPGF VJTQWIJ CRRN[KPI $QWPFCT[ .KMGNKJQQF 8CNWGU ($.8) VJTGUJQNFU

CPF UWDDQWPFCT[ EQPPGEVKQPU CTG OCFG VJTQWIJ ITCFKGPV CPING VJTGUJQNFU. %CVGIQTKECN

9QODNKPI ECPPQV DG FGVGTOKPGF QP VJG DCUKU QH UWTHCEG ITCFKGPVU UQ YQODNKPI RTQEGFWTGU

FGXGNQRGF HQT PWOGTKE FCVC FQ PQV CRRN[. (QT VJKU UKVWCVKQP YG ECP WUG ECVGIQTKECN YQODNKPI

FGXGNQRGF D[ 1FGP GV CN (1993) CU C TGHKPGOGPV QH $CTDWLCPK GV CN'U (1990) IGPGVKE FKUVCPEG

VGEJPKSWG. 5CORNG NQECVKQPU CTG EQPPGEVGF WUKPI GKVJGT C NCVVKEG QT &GNCWPC[ VTKCPIWNCVKQP CPF

C OGCUWTG QH FKUUKOKNCTKV[ KU ECNEWNCVGF HQT CNN EQPPGEVGF RCKTU. #RRTQRTKCVG FKUUKOKNCTKV[

OGCUWTGU CTG UGNGEVGF VQ TGHNGEV VJG PCVWTG QH VJG XCTKCDNGU CPF DQWPFCTKGU CTG FGHKPGF WUKPI

8QTQPQK GFIGU. 5WDDQWPFCTKGU OC[ CNUQ DG FGHKPGF. 2QN[IQP 9QODNKPI KU C TGEGPV CFFKVKQP VQ

VJG UWKVG QH DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU VQQNU FGXGNQRGF D[ ,CESWG\ CPF /CTWEC (2001). +V KU UKOKNCT VQ

ECVGIQTKECN YQODNKPI, KP VJCV UKOKNCTKV[ OGVTKEU, TCVJGT VJCP UWTHCEG ITCFKGPV OCIPKVWFGU CTG

WUGF VQ KFGPVKH[ $.8U. # FKUUKOKNCTKV[ XCNWG KU ECNEWNCVGF HQT GCEJ RCKT QH CFLCEGPV RQN[IQPU.

%CPFKFCVG DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU CTG VJG NKPGU VJCV UGRCTCVG VJG EQORCTGF RQN[IQPU.

712 TCUVGT CPF RQN[IQP FCVC. 713 HQT RQKPV FCVC KP XGEVQT HQTOCV. 714 &KUUKOKNCTKV[ OGVTKEU CFFTGUU JQY ENQUG VYQ UGVU QH QDUGTXCVKQPU CTG KP XCTKCDNG URCEG - KP QVJGT YQTFU, [QW ECP VJKPM QH VJG XCTKCDNGU HQT GCEJ NQECVKQP DGKPI RNQVVGF KP C OCP[-FKOGPUKQPCN URCEG, CPF VJGP KOCIKPG GUVKOCVKPI "FKUVCPEGU" DGVYGGP VJGUG RQKPVU. $QVJ ’WENKFGCP FKUVCPEG CPF /CPJCVVCP FKUVCPEG ECP DG WUGF CU OGVTKEU QH FKUUKOKNCTKV[ CU YGNN CU RTQZKOKV[, CU ECP OCP[ QVJGT OGVTKEU. &KUUKOKNCTKV[ OGVTKEU CTG ENQUGN[ TGNCVGF VQ UKOKNCTKV[ OGVTKEU; VJG TCPIG QH XCNWGU HQT DQVJ KU QHVGP DGVYGGP 0 CPF 1. +P OCP[ ECUGU, [QW ECP EQPXGTV DGVYGGP OGCUWTG QH UKOKNCTKV[ CPF QPG QH FKUUKOKNCTKV[ D[ UWDVTCEVKPI VJG HKTUV OGVTKE HTQO 1 VQ IGV VJG QVJGT (G.I., 5 = 1-&; & = 1-5).

715 $CTDWLCPK GV CN 1989, 1990 716 7RVQP CPF (KPINGVQP 1985 717 ,CESWG\ GV CN 2000

http://www.terraseer.com/products/bsr/help/Preparing_data/About_dissimilarity_metrics.htm

http://www.terraseer.com/products/bsr/help/Cluster/Choosing_cluster_number.htm


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


5WDDQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU

5WDDQWPFCT[ UVCVKUVKEU KPFKECVG UWDDQWPFCT[ EQPVKIWKV[ HQT FKHHGTGPEG DQWPFCTKGU. 6JGTG CTG

VYQ CNVGTPCVKXG J[RQVJGUGU GKVJGT NCTIG UECNG DQWPFCTKGU QT HTCIOGPVCVKQP. # EQPVKIWQWU

DQWPFCT[ YQWNF JCXG HGY UWDDQWPFCTKGU, HGY UKPINGVQPU, JKIJ UWDDQWPFCT[ NGPIVJ, JKIJ

UWDDQWPFCT[ FKCOGVGT CPF NQY DTCPEJKPGUU. (TCIOGPVGF DQWPFCTKGU YQWNF JCXG NQVU QH

UKPINGVQPU, NQY UWDDQWPFCT[ NGPIVJ, NQY FKCOGVGT CPF JKIJ DTCPEJKPGUU. /QPVG %CTNQ

TCPFQOK\CVKQP KU WUGF VQ FGVGTOKPG (R-XCNWGU) YJGVJGT VJG UVCVKUVKEU CTG UKIPKHKECPVN[ JKIJ QT

NQY718.

1XGTNCR CPCN[UKU

1XGTNCR UVCVKUVKEU FGXGNQRGF D[ ,CESWG\ (1995) GZCOKPG YJGVJGT FKHHGTGPEG DQWPFCTKGU HQT

VYQ QT OQTG XCTKCDNGU EQKPEKFG QT QXGTNCR VQ C UKIPKHKECPV GZVGPV. 6JGTG CTG VYQ CNVGTPCVKXG

J[RQVJGUGU GKVJGT DQWPFCT[ CUUQEKCVKQP QT, DQWPFCT[ CXQKFCPEG. (QT VYQ XCTKCDNGU ) CPF *

DQWPFCTKGU VJCV QXGTNCR YQWNF JCXG JKIJ 15 NQY 1), 1* CPF 1)* CPF DQWPFCTKGU VJCV CXQKF

GCEJ QVJGT JCXG NQY XCNWGU QH 15 CPF JKIJ XCNWGU QH 1), 1* CPF 1)*.

15 = VJG PWODGT QH DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU KP DQVJ UGVU QH DQWPFCTKGU

1) = FKTGEVKQPCN QXGTNCR, CUUQEKCVKQP YKVJ ) VQ *

1* = FKTGEVKQPCN QXGTNCR, CUUQEKCVKQP * VQ )

1)* = UKOWNVCPGQWU QXGTNCR, CUUQEKCVKQP DGVYGGP VJG DQWPFCTKGU

/QPVG %CTNQ TCPFQOK\CVKQP KU WUGF VQ FGVGTOKPG (YKVJ R-XCNWGU) KH VJG QXGTNCR UVCVKUVKEU CTG

UKIPKHKECPVN[ JKIJ QT NQY.

6JGTG CTG FCPIGTU, OQUVN[ CFFTGUUGF D[ $QWPFCT[5GGT719, VJCV DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU OC[ PQV DG

GTTQT HTGG KH KV HCKNU VQ CFFTGUU VJG EQODKPGF GHHGEVU QH UCORNKPI CPF PQP-TCPFQO RQUKVKQPU QH

UCORNG UKVGU KP VJG NCPFUECRG, TGUWNVKPI KP CRRCTGPV DCTTKGTU YJGTG PQPG GZKUVGF. 1PG OGVJQF

UWIIGUVGF720 VQ QXGTEQOG VJKU RTQDNGO KU VQ ECNEWNCVG VJG UWOOGF FGTKXCVKXGU CPF CRRN[ C

UKIPKHKECPEG VGUV DCUGF QP VJG RGTEGPVKNG OGVJQF CPF C RGTOWVCVKQP VGUV HQT PWNN J[RQVJGUKU QH

TCPFQOPGUU.

718 ,CESWGU CPF /CTWEC 2001 719 ,CESWG\, ,; /CTWEC, 5 2001-2003 720 *WTNGU 2004


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


+ JCXG PGXGT WUGF VJKU OGVJQF DGHQTG CPF, CU YKVJ VJG IGQUVCVKUVKEU OGVJQF, + DGNKGXG KV KU QPG

QH VJG HKTUV UVWFKGU VQ WUG DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU VQ CKF GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIO KFGPVKHKECVKQP.

$QWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU, JQYGXGT, JCU DGGP WUGF HQT QVJGT URCVKCN UVWFKGU VQ GZCOKPG IGPGVKE FTKHV721

VJG FKHHWUKQP QH FGOQETCE[722, GNGEVQTCN IGQITCRJ[723, ECPEGT URTGCF724, CPF HQTGUV XGIGVCVKQP

CPF DKTF FKUVTKDWVKQP725 CPF VJGTG KU PQ CRRCTGPV TGCUQP YJ[ KV UJQWNF PQV DG CRRNKECDNG VQ VJKU

UVWF[.

6.4 5722146+8’ 6’%*01.1)+’5

#U YG FKUEQXGTGF KP RCTC 1.2 VJGTG KU C ITQYKPI TGCNK\CVKQP VJCV UEKGPVKHKE MPQYNGFIG JCU PQV

EQPVTKDWVGF VQ VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH TWTCN EQOOWPKVKGU DWV NGF VQ VJG FGRNGVKQP QH VJGKT UQEKCN CPF

PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU726. /CP[ CWVJQTU JCXG UVTGUUGF VJG XCNWG QH KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG HQT

FGXGNQROGPV727, DWV JCXG TGEQIPK\GF KVU NKOKVCVKQPU728. 5WUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV OC[ DGUV DG

UGTXGF D[ C U[UVGO YJKEJ KPENWFGU DQVJ KPFKIGPQWU CPF UEKGPVKHKE MPQYNGFIG729. )GQITCRJKE

+PHQTOCVKQP 5[UVGOU ()+5) EQODKPGF YKVJ 4GOQVG 5GPUKPI CPF )NQDCN 2QUKVKQPKPI 5[UVGOU

()25) QHHGT VJG RQUUKDKNKV[ HQT TGEQTFKPI PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG FCVC, UEKGPVKHKE NCPF ENCUUKHKECVKQP,

KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG, HQNM ENCUUKHKECVKQP730 , IGPFGTGF TGUQWTEG OCRRKPI731 CPF RTGEKUGN[

TGRTGUGPVKPI VJG HQTGUV KP CNN KVU EQORNGZKV[732.

)+5 CPF )25 VGEJPQNQIKGU YGTG CFQRVGF DGECWUG VJG[ RTQXKFGF URCVKCN VQQNU VQ TGEQTF, CPCN[UG,

OCR CPF WPFGTUVCPF OWNVKRNG XKUKQPU CPF NQIKEU QH HQTGUV WUG. 6JG[ YGTG UGNGEVGF DGECWUG QH

VJG EJCNNGPIGU QH VJG TGUGCTEJ CTGC VGTTCKP, VJG FKHHKEWNVKGU QH UGEWTKPI FGVCKNGF OCRU QH C

RQNKVKECNN[ UGPUKVKXG CTGC, CU C OGCPU QH 'GNGXCVKPI' 6KDGVCP HQTGUV XCNWGU, CPF CU C OGCPU QH

GORQYGTOGPV. &CVC YCU KPRWV HTQO )25 CPF VJG /&5 UVWF[ CPF FKIKVCN OCR FCVC QH ’CUVGTP

−JCO YCU EQNNGEVGF HTQO C YKFG TCPIG QH UQWTEGU KPENWFKPI VJG 9QTNF %QPUGTXCVKQP

721 (CNUGVVK GV CN 1993 722 1'.QWIJNKP 1997 723 1'.QWIJNKP 2002 724 ,CESWG\ GV CN 2003 725 *CNN GV CN 2001 726 /WTFQEM CPF %NCTM 1994, 7NNWYKUJGYC 1993 727 9CTTGP 1992 728 .GCEJ CPF /GCTPU 1988 729 )WTWPI 1994 730 )QP\CNG\ CPF *WVEJKPUQP 1995, 6CDQT CPF *WVEJKPUQP 1994 731 4QEJGNGCW GV CN 1995C 732 1OQJWPFTQ 1999


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


/QPKVQTKPI %GPVTG733, VJG )NQDCN /CRRKPI +PUVKVWVG734, VJG 6KDGV /CR +PUVKVWVG735, CPF VJG

%GPVTG HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN ’CTVJ 5EKGPEG +PHQTOCVKQP 0GVYQTM736, CPF HTQO QPNKPG CPF RCRGT

OCRU VJCV + FKIKVKUGF CPF IGQTGHGTGPEGF.

)+5 ECP DG FGHKPGF CU C UWKVG QH KPUVTWOGPVU HQT VJG EQNNGEVKQP, UVQTCIG, TGVTKGXCN, FKURNC[ CPF

CPCN[UKU QH URCVKCNN[ TGHGTGPEGF FCVC737. )+5 RTGRCTGF OCRU, RTGFKEVGF QP VTCFKVKQPCN TGUQWTEG

WUG CPF MPQYNGFIG IKXG NGIKVKOCE[ VQ TGUQWTEG ENCKOU D[ VJTGCVGPGF KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU. 6JG[

CNUQ GPCDNG KPFKIGPQWU QTICPK\CVKQPU VQ RTGUGPV RTQRQUCNU HQT VJG RTQVGEVKQP QH VJGKT NCPFU YKVJ

VJG MKPF QH VGEJPKECN UQRJKUVKECVKQP FGOCPFGF D[ IQXGTPOGPVU CPF CKF QTICPKUCVKQPU738. )25

KU TGXQNWVKQPK\KPI OCRRKPI VGEJPKSWGU CNNQYKPI HQT WRFCVKPI GZKUVKPI OCRU, ICVJGTKPI PGY

FCVC739, 'UGNH-OCRRKPI'740, YKNFNKHG TGEQTFKPI QT VTCEMKPI, CPF 'ITQWPF VTWVJKPI'741 TGOQVGN[

UGPUGF KOCIGU. )25 VGEJPQNQIKGU TGN[ QP C EQPUVGNNCVKQP QH UCVGNNKVGU, QTDKVKPI VJG GCTVJ, VQ IKXG

RKPRQKPV RQUKVKQPKPI CP[YJGTG KP VJG YQTNF.

+V JCU DGGP UWIIGUVGF, JQYGXGT VJCV C FKEJQVQO[ GZKUVU YJGTGD[ )+5 ECP CEV VQ DQVJ GORQYGT

CPF OCTIKPCNKUG EQOOWPKVKGU UKOWNVCPGQWUN[ CPF VJCV KV KU EQPVTCFKEVQT[ YJGP WUGF HQT

ITCUUTQQVU QT EQOOWPKV[ HQTOU QH FGXGNQROGPV 742 +P URKVG QH EQPEGTPU TCKUGF D[ UQOG UQEKCN

VJGQTKUVU743 CDQWV VJG PGICVKXG KORCEVU QH )+5 QP UQEKGV[, QVJGTU UGG NKDGTCVKPI GNGOGPVU HQT

KPFKIGPQWU UQEKGVKGU.

+ JCXG WUGF DQVJ )+5 CPF )25 VGEJPQNQIKGU KP VJG EQPVGZV QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU UKPEG VJG OKF

1990U. 5RCEG FQGU PQV OG RGTOKV OG VQ KPENWFG O[ ETKVKSWG QH )+5744 DWV QP DCNCPEG KV JCU

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

;G'MWCPC (/G[GTU 1993, 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997) CPF QVJGT KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU (4QEJGNGCW GV CN 1995C). 741 6JG WUG QH C ITQWPF UWTXG[ VQ EQPHKTO VJG HKPFKPIU QH CP CGTKCN UWTXG[ QT VQ ECNKDTCVG SWCPVKVCVKXG CGTKCN

QDUGTXCVKQPU JVVR://YYY.HQT.IQX.DE.EC/JHF/NKDTCT[/FQEWOGPVU/INQUUCT[/).JVO CEEGUUGF 15VJ /CTEJ 2005. 742 *CTTKU GV CN 1995, 4WPFUVTWO 1995, 9GKPGT GV CN 1995, ;CRC 1991 743 *CTTKU CPF 9GKPGT 1996, 1998, ;CRC 1991, 1989 744 5VWFNG[ 2004J

http://www.wcmc.org.uk/

http://www.gmi.org/research/websites.htm

http://www.tibetmap.com/

http://sedac.ciesin.org/china/geogmap/dcchina/dcchinadesc.html

http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/glossary/G.htm


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


DGGP CFQRVGF, KP VJKU UVWF[, VQ RTGUGPV 6KDGVCP HQTGUV MPQYNGFIG CPF RCTCFKIOU KP C YC[ VJCV

GNKVG UQEKGVKGU WPFGTUVCPF CPF CU C VQQN QH GZQIGPQWU/GPFQIGPQWU HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR.

6.5 %106’:67#. 567&+’5

+P QTFGT VQ GPUWTG VJCV VJKU UVWF[ JCU DGGP GHHGEVKXGN[ UGV KP EQPVGZV TGHGTGPEG JCU DGGP OCFG VQ

C PWODGT QH UVWFKGU VJG CWVJQT JCU EQPFWEVGF KP VJG TGIKQP, KPENWFKPI C HQTGUV XCNWGU UVWF[ CV

&GPIMQ745 (5GG /CR 8-4) CPF VYQ UVWFKGU CV .WIW .CMG (5GG /CR 1-1, /CR 8-1 CPF /CR 8-4)

YJKEJ YKNN DG EQPUKFGTGF HWTVJGT KP %JCRVGT 7 CPF 8.

6.5.1 (QTGUVT[ 5VWF[ KP &GPIMQ

# UOCNN UVWF[746 YCU EQPFWEVGF HQT VJG %CTG CPF 5JCTG (QWPFCVKQP (%5() KP 1995 KP &GPIMQ

VQYPUJKR RTGFKECVGF QP RCTVKEKRCVQT[ TWTCN CRRTCKUCN747 KPVGTXKGYU YKVJ 8 TGURQPFGPVU (6CDNG

6-1)

6CDNG 6-1 (QTGUVT[ UVWF[ KP &GPIMQ

&CVG 6QVCN /CNG (GOCNG .JCF\C 9WPVW 0QOCF %COR 1 0QOCF %COR 2

4/9-11/9 1995 8 6 2 3 3 1 1

6JG RWTRQUG QH VJG UVWF[ YCU VQ CUUGUU VJG TQNG CPF KORQTVCPEG QH VTGGU CPF HQTGUVU VQ NQECN

6KDGVCPU CPF UQOG QH VJG HKPFKPIU CTG UWOOCTK\GF DGNQY KP 6CDNG 6-2.

6JG UVWF[748 EQPHKTOGF VJG KORQTVCPEG QH VTGGU CPF HQTGUVU VQ TWTCN 6KDGVCP EQOOWPKVKGU, QH

HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF RTQXKFGF C RNCVHQTO HQT GZRNQTKPI HQTGUV XCNWGU

CPF VJG GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ FQOCKP.

745 CNUQ URGNV &GPIMG. 746 5VWFNG[ GV CN 1995 747 5GG NKVGTCVWTG HQT OQTG QP VJKU:- $CTVCNCPHH[ 1976, $GPPGVV 1976, %JCODGTU 1993, 2002, (TGWFGPVJCN CPF 0CTTQYG 1991, ++’& 2003, .C\GPDCVV CPF /E/WTTC[ 2004, /CTVKP 1995, /GUUGTUEJOKFV 1991, /QTKU CPF %QRGUVCMG 1993, 0CTC[CP CPF 5TKPKXCUCP 1994 748 5VWFNG[ GV CN 1995 CPF 6CDNG 6-2


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


6CDNG 6-2 (QTGUVT[ RTQHKNG KP &GPIMQ

.QECVKQP QH XKNNCIG HQTGUV CTGC ’CEJ TGURQPFGPV KFGPVKHKGF C HQTGUV CTGC VJGKT XKNNCIG WUGF HQT EQNNGEVKPI HQTGUV RTQFWEVU (PQOCFU WUGF VJG PGCTGUV HQTGUV VQ VJGKT VGPVU - WUWCNN[ OQXKPI VJTGG VKOGU C [GCT)

6KOG VCMGP HQT C TGVWTP VTKR VQ XKNNCIG HQTGUV 5.5 JTU (UF 2.27 TCPIG 2-7) 6TKRU RGT [GCT D[ HCOKN[ VQ HQTGUV 15 (UF 16.86 TCPIG 3-40) (KTGYQQF EQNNGEVGF HTQO PQP -HQTGUV CPF HQTGUV CTGCU 37.5% QH TGURQPFGPVU )QQFU CPF UGTXKEGU (QVJGT VJCP HKTGYQQF)

6KODGT (100%), (WPIK (75%), (TWKVU CPF 0WVU (62.5%), (QFFGT (0%), /GFKEKPCN JGTDU (87.5%), 9KNF XGIGVCDNGU (12.5%), %QORQUV (0%), (QTCIG (37.5%, 9CVGT EQPUGTXCVKQP (12.5%)

6KODGT QDVCKPGF HTQO &GPIMQ CPF 6#4 18.75% QH TGURQPFGPVU 6JG OQUV KORQTVCPV VTGG/RNCPV URGEKGU $QNQ (100%), 5JWIRC (100%), 5CUQQ (12.5%) CPF

$C[UQQ (12.5%) 6TGG RNCPVKPI 50% QH TGURQPFGPVU (GZENWFKPI PQOCFU) JCF RNCPVGF QP

CXGTCIG 15.6 VTGGU (CRRNGU CPF YKNNQY) −PQYNGFIG QH URGEKCN VTGGU CPF/QT ITQXGU CPF/QT OQWPVCKPU, YJKEJ YGTG RTQVGEVGF

87% QH TGURQPFGPVU

−PQYNGFIG QH VTGG UVQTKGU GODGFFGF KP VJGKT EWNVWTG 12.5% QH TGURQPFGPVU (QTGUV RTQFWEV EQNNGEVKQP 12.5% QH TGURQPFGPVU EQNNGEVGF HQTGUV RTQFWEVU CNN [GCT

TQWPF CPF 25% UGCUQPCNN[ (QQF UJQTVCIGU 37.5% QH TGURQPFGPVU TGRQTVGF HQQF UJQTVCIGU FWTKPI

VJG [GCT

6.5.2 ’VJPQ-HQTGUVT[ 5VWFKGU COQPI VJG 2QQT - .WIW .CMG

6JG RWTRQUG QH VJKU OKUUKQP YCU VQ RTQXKFG ;WPPCP ’PXKTQPOGPVCN &GXGNQROGPV 2TQITCOOG

(;’&2)749 YKVJ KPHQTOCVKQP QP KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF JKIJ CNVKVWFG HQTGUVT[, PCVWTCN

TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV, CITKEWNVWTG CPF GEQVQWTKUO CV .WIW .CMG (5GG /CR 1-1 CPF 8-1) CPF VQ

KPXGUVKICVG VJG KORCEVU QH VJG PGY HQTGUV RQNKEKGU, YJKEJ CTG FKUEWUUGF KP FGVCKN KP %JCRVGT 7

UGEVKQP 7.6.2 CPF 7.6.3), QP RQQT GVJPKE ITQWRU. 19 RQQT RGQRNG YJQ NKXGF KP VJG .WIW .CMG

PCVWTG TGUGTXG YGTG KPVGTXKGYGF HTQO 4 GVJPKE ITQWRU CPF PKPG XKNNCIGU (5GG 6CDNG 6-3).

6JKU UWTXG[ RTQXKFGF KORQTVCPV KPUKIJVU, TGHGTTGF VQ KP OQTG FGVCKN KP %JCRVGT 8, KPVQ NQECN

GRKUVGOQNQIKGU QH PCVWTG, UCETGF NCPFUECRG CPF VJG KORCEV QH PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP RQNKE[.

749 (WPFGF D[ &(+&.


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


6CDNG 6-3 .WIW .CMG GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ UVWF[

&CVG 8KNNCIG ’VJPKE ITQWR 6QVCN /CNG (GOCNG

24/10/2003 5JCP −WC /QUWQ 2 1 1 24/10/2003 2WNWQ *CP 1 1 24/10/2003 .CPI (CPI 2WOK 1 1 24/10/2003 9CPLCYCP ;K 2 1 1 24/10/2003 .WYCPLC *CP 1 1 25/10/2003 .CQYWLK ;K 3 2 1 26/10/2003 <JWFK *CP 3 1 2 26/10/2003 <JWFK ;K 1 1 26/10/2003 <JWFK /QUWQ 1 1 28/10/2003 5CPLKCEWP *CP 2 1 1 28/10/2003 .WQUJK 2WOK 2 1 1

6.5.3 (QTGUV 8CNWG 4CPMKPI - .WIW .CMG

6JG RWTRQUG QH VJKU OKUUKQP HQT ;’&2 YCU VQ ICKP C DGVVGT WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH HQTGUV XCNWG

EQORQUKVKQP COQPI RQQT CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCNN[ EJCNNGPIGF EQOOWPKVKGU CV .WIW .CMG YKVJ C

XKGY VQ KPEQTRQTCVKPI VJGUG XCNWGU KPVQ +44750 ECNEWNCVKQPU CPF DTQCFGT RTQXKPEKCN CPF UVCVG

VJKPMKPI. 7 ITQWRU QH RGQRNG, HTQO HQWT GVJPKE ITQWRU, YGTG KPVGTXKGYGF KP HQWT XKNNCIGU (5GG

6CDNG 6-4) CPF CUMGF VQ TCPM HQTGUV XCNWGU. ’CEJ ITQWR YCU CUMGF VQ FKUVTKDWVG 100 RKPU

TGRTGUGPVKPI VJG UWO VQVCN QH VJG HQTGUVU VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG751 CETQUU C UGV QH 13 RCRGT EKTENGU

TGRTGUGPVKPI 13 HQTGUV XCNWGU QP VJG DCUKU QH VJG TGNCVKXG KORQTVCPEG QH GCEJ XCNWG VQ

6CDNG 6-4 .WIW .CMG HQTGUV XCNWG TCPMKPI UVWF[

&CVG 8KNNCIG ’VJPKE ITQWR 6QVCN /CNG (GOCNG 15/1/05 2WNWQ *CP 16 11 5 16/1/05 5JCP −WC /QUWQ 13 4 9 16/1/05 9CP ,KC 9CP ;K 10 5 5 16/1/05 .CPI (CPI 2WOK 15 8-10 7

VJGO. +V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV C UGV QH 13 HQTGUV XCNWGU CTG TGEQIPK\GF D[ OQUV ITQWRU QH RGQRNG CV

.WIW .CMG (5GG 6CDNG 6-5), DWV VJGTG CTG UKIPKHKECPV FKHHGTGPEGU QP VJG DCUKU QH GVJPKEKV[ CPF

IGPFGT. %QOOGTEKCN XCNWGU YJKEJ CTG QHVGP VJG QPN[ XCNWG TGEQIPK\GF D[ GEQPQOKUVU

750 +PVGTPCN TCVG QH TGVWTP. 751 6JG UWO QH WUG CPF PQP-WUG XCNWGU YKVJ FWG EQPUKFGTCVKQP QH CP[ VTCFG-QHHU QT OWVWCNN[ GZENWUKXG WUGU QT HWPEVKQPU QH VJG TGUQWTEG/JCDKVCV KP SWGUVKQP. 5QWTEG: )NQDCN $KQFKXGTUKV[ #UUGUUOGPV )$# JVVR://GWTQRC.GW.KPV/EQOO/TGUGCTEJ/DKQUQEKGV[/NKDTCT[/INQUUCT[NKUVAGP.EHO!+PKV=6 CEEGUUGF 15VJ ,WN 2005.

http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/biosociety/library/glossarylist_en.cfm?Init=T%20


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


TGRTGUGPVGF 6% QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG CPF VJG OQUV KORQTVCPV OGCP XCNWGU CTG GXKFGPVN[ 'NKHG

UWUVCKPKPI', 'KPVTKPUKE' CPF 'UWDUKUVGPEG'.

6CDNG 6-5 .WIW .CMG HQTGUV XCNWG TCPMKPI

8CNWGU *CP /QUWQ m

/QUWQ f

;K m

;K f

2WOK m

2WOK f

/GCP CNNQE /GCP TCPM

#GUVJGVKE 10 10 6 12 10 8 10 9.43 4

%QOOGTEKCN 2 0 5 13 14 3 0 5.29 9

4GETGCVKQPCN 3 3 6 0 0 5 7 3.43 13 .KHG UWUVCKPKPI 27 9 22 14 14 9 4 14.14 1

.GCTPKPI 3 8 2 16 12 6 8 7.86 7

$KQFKXGTUKV[ 11 13 6 3 5 5 4 6.71 8

5RKTKVWCN 0 0 4 0 6 13 8 4.43 10

+PVTKPUKE 13 17 11 12 11 6 9 11.29 2

*KUVQTKE 0 8 6 0 0 8 8 4.29 12

(WVWTG 4 9 10 11 9 6 14 9.00 6

5WDUKUVGPEG 21 11 9 11 7 7 7 10.43 3

6JGTCRGWVKE 5 9 9 8 12 9 13 9.29 5

%WNVWTCN 1 3 4 0 0 15 8 4.43 10

616#. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100.00

11m 5f 4 9 5 5 8 VQ 10 7

6JG TGUWNVU QH VJKU UVWF[ YGTG PQV QPN[ WUGHWN VQ UWRRNGOGPV VJG HQTGUV XCNWG CPCN[UKU KP

%JCRVGT 8 DWV VQ HKNN KP VJG ICRU YJGTG HQTGUV XCNWGU JCF PQV DGGP XQNWPVGGTGF CPF YGTG

UWDUGSWGPVN[ PQV RCTV QH VJG EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UVWF[.

6.6 (+’.& 6’56+0) +0 7− #0& %*+0#

+V YCU PGEGUUCT[ VQ HKGNF VGUV VJG EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI OGVJQFQNQI[ KP VJG 7− CPF %JKPC VQ

CUUGUU KVU UWKVCDKNKV[ HQT WUG KP VJKU UVWF[, DGECWUG VQ O[ MPQYNGFIG KV JCF PQV DGGP VTKGF KP VJG

7− QT %JKPC DGHQTG. 6JG CKO QH HKGNF VGUVKPI YCU VQ KFGPVKH[ 'WPKXGTUCN' QT WPKSWG FQOCKP

GNGOGPVU CPF ENWUVGTU QH HQTGUV XCNWGU, CUUGUU VJG CDKNKV[ QH TGURQPFGPVU VQ WUG 'UECNKPI'752

DGVYGGP RCKTU QH HQTGUV XCNWGU753, RTQXKFG C EQORCTKUQP DGVYGGP 7− CPF %JKPGUG/6KDGVCP FCVC,

UGNGEV VJG OQUV CRRQUKVG %JKPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP YQTFU HQT XCNWGU, CPF VQ TGFGHKPG CPF

EQPVGZVWCNK\G VJG OGVJQFQNQI[.

752 .KMGTV 1932 753 1=ENQUG RTQZKOKV[ CPF 5= FKUVCPV RTQZKOKV[.


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


6.6.1 (KGNFYQTM KP 7−

+P VJG 7− C HQTGUV XCNWG KFGPVKHKECVKQP UWTXG[ YCU EQPFWEVGF COQPI 30 FC[ XKUKVQTU VQ VJG 0GY

(QTGUV (6CDNG 6-6) CPF VJG TGUWNVU YGTG CPCN[\GF WUKPI VGZV CPCN[UKU UQHVYCTG754 CPF

6CDNG 6-6 (QTGUV XCNWG KFGPVKHKECVKQP KP VJG 0GY (QTGUV, 7−

&CVG 6QVCN /CNG (GOCNG

0GY (QTGUV 3/4/1999 30 19 11

ECVGIQTK\GF TGUWNVKPI KP 17 XCNWGU. 4GURQPFGPVU YGTG CDNG VQ FGUETKDG YJ[ VJG[ XCNWGF HQTGUVU

KP CP KPVGTXKGY VJCV V[RKECNN[ VQQM 7 OKPWVGU VQ EQORNGVG. # HGY TGURQPFGPVU OGPVKQPGF VJCV

VJG[ YQWNF PGXGT YGNEQOG DGKPI EJCTIGF HQT GPVT[755. 2TKQT VQ EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI 5 XCNWGU

YGTG CFFGF756 VQ VJQUG FGTKXGF HTQO VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[ CPF 2 YGTG VCMGP CYC[757 TGUWNVKPI

KP 20 XCNWGU ( 5GG 2NQV 6-1) YJKEJ RTQXKFGF VJG DCUKU HQT EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI EQPFWEVGF COQPI

VGP FC[ XKUKVQTU KP VJG 0GY (QTGUV, 7− (6CDNG 6-7).

6CDNG 6-7 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UWTXG[ QH HQTGUV XCNWGU KP VJG 0GY (QTGUV, 7−

%QWPV[/5KVG PCOG .CVKVWFG .QPIKVWFG −O* HTQO ECRKVCN &CVG 6QVCN /CNG (GOCNG $QNFGTYQQF , 0GY (QTGUV

50.873028 1.653246 127.74 (.) 17/4/99 10 5 5

6[RKECNN[ EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI VQQM 20 OKPWVGU RGT RGTUQP DWV 20% QH TGURQPFGPVU EQPUKFGTGF

VJG KPVGTXKGY YCU VQQ NQPI CPF CDQWV 30% QH VJG TGURQPFGPVU DGIKP VQ NQUG "HQEWU" CHVGT CDQWV

15 OKPWVGU. 10% QH TGURQPFGPVU EQPUKFGTGF VJCV C UECNG QH 10 YCU VQQ OWEJ CPF VJCV HKXG

YQWNF DG CFGSWCVG. 1PN[ 1% QH TGURQPFGPVU JCF FKHHKEWNV[ FGEKFKPI OGCUWTGU QH RTQZKOKV[

DGVYGGP XCNWGU, QT CRRGCTGF VQ WUG RGTUQPCN NKMGU CPF FKUNKMGU CU VJG DCUKU HQT UECNKPI758 QT

CVVTKDWVGF CNN VJGOG RCKTU YKVJ C ENQUG RTQZKOKV[759.

754 5EQVV 1997 755 6JKU KPHQTOCVKQP YCU XQNWPVGGTGF. 756 5GNH, /GP, 9QOGP, %QPUGTXCVKQP CPF (QTGUV. 757 +PVTKPUKE CPF VJGTCRGWVKE. 758 1HVGP YQOGP. 759 7UWCNN[ OGP.


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


6JG TGUWNVU QH VJG EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI YGTG RNQVVGF (5GG 2NQV 6-1) WUKPI OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN

UECNKPI UQHVYCTG760 CPF CPCN[\GF QP VJG DCUKU QH HKXG FKOGPUKQPU761 CPF 'HKV' UVCVKUVKEU (55&U,

55&H 5VTGUU, CPF T2)762 . 6JGTG CRRGCTU QP VJG DCUKU QH VJG /&5 RNQV CPF JKGTCTEJKECN ENWUVGT

CPCN[UKU763 VQ DG HQWT ENWUVGTU CPF QPG UKPINGVQP ('WTDCP'). )KXGP VJG UOCNN UCORNG UK\G, JKIJ

UVTGUU (0.055) CPF NQY T2 KV YCU PQV GCU[ VQ KFGPVKH[ FKOGPUKQPU QT C UGV QH VCZQPQOKGU,

ECVGIQTKGU, FQOCKPU, UEJGOCVC QT RCTCFKIOCVKE UVTWEVWTGU764. 6JGTG KU, JQYGXGT UQOG GXKFGPEG

QP VJG DCUKU QH ENWUVGT CPCN[UKU CPF O[ UWDLGEVKXG MPQYNGFIG QH 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE',

'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN',' DKQRJ[UKECN' CPF 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN UGTXKEGU' FQOCKPU765 (QT ENWUVGTU) YJKEJ CTG

FKUVTKDWVGF CNQPI 'PCVWTCN' CPF 'JWOCP' FKOGPUKQPU (&KOGPUKQP 1 CPF 2).

2NQV 6-1 QH EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI KP VJG 0GY (QTGUV, 7−

-4.00

-2.00

0.00

2.00

4.00

-4.00 -2.00 0.00 2.00 4.00

1

23

45

6

78

9 1011

12

13

14

1516

17

18

19

20

0GY (QTGUV 7− (P = 10)

&KO1

&KO

2

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE

RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN

%QPUGTXCVKQP 1 #KT 2 %NKOCVG 3 ’UECRG 4 5RCEG 5 6KODGT 6 (WVWTG 7 5WTXKXCN 8 9KNFNKHG 9 (QTGUV 10 $GCWV[ 11 ’EQU[UVGO 12 6QWTKUO 13 4GETGCVKQP 14 ’EQPQOKEU 15 ,QDU 16 7TDCP17 /GP 18 9QOGP 19 5GNH 20

DKQRJ[UKECN

GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPFUWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU

&KOGPUKQPU 555&U2696.4555&H 148.465741

5VTGUU 0.055 4-5SWCTGF 60.72

2NGCUG PQVG KP /&5 RNQVU CZGU CTG OGCPKPINGUU CPF QTKGPVCVKQP KU CTDKVCT[

760 0%55 2000 (*KPV\G 1998, 2000), :.5VCV X 5.1 (#FFKPUQHV 1995-2002) 761 # EQOOQP YC[ VQ FGEKFG JQY OCP[ FKOGPUKQPU VQ WUG KU VQ RNQV VJG UVTGUU XCNWG CICKPUV FKHHGTGPV PWODGTU QH FKOGPUKQPU. # UVTGUU XCNWG (T2) DGNQY 0.05 KU CEEGRVCDNG CPF C XCNWG DGNQY 0.01 KU EQPUKFGTGF IQQF. 762 5WO QH 5SWCTGF &KUUKOKNCTKVKGU CPF 5WO QH 5SWCTGF &KHHGTGPEGU CTG WUGF VQ FGVGTOKPG VJG PWODGT QH

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

http://www.imprint.co.uk/thesaurus/domain.htm


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


1VJGT RQNGU QT RCTVKVKQPU OC[ CNUQ DG RQUUKDNG CPF YJKNG VJG FCVC OC[ PQV DG KPEQPUKUVGPV YKVJ

VJG KFGPVKHKGF ITQWRU, VJGKT GZKUVGPEG KU D[ PQ OGCPU GSWKXQECN. 6JG TGETGCVKQPCN TQNG QH (QTGUVU

JCU DGGP TGEQIPK\GF D[ VJG YKFGT EQOOWPKV[ HQT UQOG VKOG766 CPF VJG 7− TGURQPFGPVU KP VJKU

UVWF[ UWRRQTV VJKU XKGY DQVJ KP VJG EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI (2NQV 6-1) CPF HQTGUV VJGOG UWTXG[767.

/QUV QH VJG 7− TGURQPFGPVU JQYGXGT FKF PQV KFGPVKH[ 'UGNH' YKVJ 'VQWTKUO' CPF NQECVGF KV KP VJG

'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP (2NQV 6-1). #NVJQWIJ 'PCVWTCN' EQPUGTXCVKQP KU TGEQIPK\GF KP VJG

'DKQ-RJ[UKECN' CPF 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKPU TGURQPFGPVU FKF PQV

KFGPVKH[ VJGOUGNXGU QT UQEKGV[ YKVJ KV. 33% QH VJQUG KPVGTXKGYGF KPENWFGF URKTKVWCN XCNWGU KP C

EQPUGTXCVKQP EJGEMNKUV768, DWV PQ QPG XQNWPVGGTGF KV CU C HQTGUV XCNWG, YKVJ VJG GZEGRVKQP QH

YKNFGTPGUU CPF VJGTCRGWVKE XCNWGU769.

6.6.2 (KGNFYQTM KP %JKPC

6JG HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[ KP %JKPC YCU EQPFWEVGF KP VJTGG XKNNCIGU KP &GMC 6QYPUJKR (5GG /CR

8-4) COQPI GKIJV XKNNCIGTU (6CDNG 6-8) CPF VJG TGUWNVU YGTG CPCN[\GF WUKPI VGZV CPCN[UKU

UQHVYCTG770 CPF ECVGIQTK\GF TGUWNVKPI KP 10 XCNWGU771.

6CDNG 6-8 (QTGUV XCNWG KFGPVKHKECVKQP KP %JKPC

&CVG 6QVCN %772 *QP\G $GK[W 4C\JK /CNG (GOCNG

31/7/99 8 19% 3 5 0 5 3

6JG RGQRNG QH &GMC 6QYPUJKR YGTG CDNG VQ FGUETKDG YJ[ VJG[ XCNWGF HQTGUVU, KP KPVGTXKGYU,

YJKEJ V[RKECNN[ VQQM QPG JQWT773. 2TKQT VQ EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI CPF KP QTFGT VQ CFFTGUU DGNKGHU,

766 %QNNKPIU CPF )TC[UQP 1977, .GG 2001 767 9JGTG VJG TQNG QH HQTGUVU EQORTKUGF: - TGETGCVKQP (23.3%) GUECRG, HTGGFQO CPF UVTGUU TGNKGH (26.6%) URCEG (16.6%) CPF "VJGTCRGWVKE" XCNWG (25%) YGTG JKIJNKIJVGF, GURGEKCNN[ HQT EKV[ FYGNNGTU. 768 RCTV QH VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[. 769 9JKEJ FQ CRRGCT KP UQOG V[RQNQIKGU CU 'URKTKVWCN' XCNWGU. 770 5EQVV 1998 771 9KNFNKHG JCDKVCV, HQTGUV RTQFWEVU, GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGEVKQP, VQ GPUWTG DNGUUKPI, NKPM YKVJ $WFFJKUO, YCVGT/ENKOCVG TGIWNCVKQP, KPEQOG, DGCWV[, CITKEWNVWTCN UWRRQTV. 772 % QH HCOKNKGU KP &GMC 6QYPUJKR 773 &WG VQ VJG PQXGNV[ QH DGKPI XKUKVGF D[ C YGUVGTPGT CPF VJG SWGUVKQPU CPF CPUYGTU JCF VQ DG FQWDNG VTCPUNCVGF (’PINKUJ-%JKPGUG-6KDGVCP).


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


CVVKVWFGU, QDLGEVU QH XCNWG, CPF GZVGTPCN KPVGTXGPVKQPU VGP XCNWGU YGTG CFFGF774 VQ VJG HQTGUV

XCNWG UVWF[ CPF VJTGG XCNWGU, VJCV YGTG QPN[ OGPVKQPGF D[ C HGY TGURQPFGPVU, YGTG VCMGP

CYC[ 775. 6JG TGUWNVKPI 16 XCNWGU RTQXKFGF VJG DCUKU HQT EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI EQPFWEVGF COQPI

VGP XKNNCIGTU (6CDNG 6-9) KP &GMC 6QYPUJKR. .CVGT VJKU YCU TGFWEGF VQ 15 XCNWGU YJGP HGY

TGURQPFGPVU CRRGCTGF VQ DG HCOKNKCT YKVJ DQP EJQU.

6CDNG 6-9 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UWTXG[ KP %JKPC

&CVG 6QVCN /CNG (GOCNG *QP\G $CK[W 4C\JK

1/8-2/8 1999 10 5 5 3 2 5

6[RKECNN[, EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI VQQM QPG JQWT CPF QPN[ 1% JCF FKHHKEWNVKGU CUUGUUKPI

RTQZKOKV[776. 1P VJG DCUKU QH /&5 (2NQV 6-2) CPF JKGTCTEJKECN ENWUVGT CPCN[UKU VJGTG CRRGCTGF

VQ DG HQWT ENWUVGTU CPF QPG UKPINGVQP ('JWPVKPI') DWV VJGTG KU UQOG PGGF HQT ECWVKQP IKXGP VJG

UOCNN UCORNG UK\G, JKIJ UVTGUU (0.08), NQY T2, CPF CPQOCNKGU YKVJ HQTGUV XCNWG VTCPUNCVKQP. +V FKF

PQV RTQXG RQUUKDNG QP VJG DCUKU QH ENWUVGT CPCN[UKU777 VQ KFGPVKH[ C EQORNGVG UGV QH EQIPKVKXG

ECVGIQTKGU, FQOCKPU778 QT RCTCFKIOCVKE UGEVKQPU. 6JGTG KU, JQYGXGT UQOG GXKFGPEG

DCUGF QP ENWUVGT CPCN[UKU CPF O[ UWDLGEVKXG MPQYNGFIG QH VJG TGIKQP QH 'DKQ-RJ[UKECN',

'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' CPF 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKPU

FKUVTKDWVGF CNQPI 'PCVWTCN' CPF 'JWOCP' FKOGPUKQPU. 1VJGT RQNGU QT RCTVKVKQPU OC[ CNUQ DG

RQUUKDNG CPF YJKNG VJG FCVC OC[ PQV DG KPEQPUKUVGPV YKVJ VJG KFGPVKHKGF ITQWRU, VJGKT GZKUVGPEG

KU D[ PQ OGCPU GSWKXQECN.

774 /GP, YQOGP, UGNH, HQTGUV, EQPUGTXCVKQP, JWPVKPI, UQEKCNKUO, KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP, 'OK-EJQU' CPF 'DQP' YGTG CFFGF 775 +PEQOG, DGCWV[ CPF CITKEWNVWTCN UWRRQTV YGTG VCMGP CYC[ 776 GKVJGT EQPEGRVWCNN[ QT VJG NCEM QH C NQECN VTCPUNCVQT. 777 ENWUVGT CPCN[UKU FQGU PQV EQPUKFGT FKOGPUKQPU CPF ECP QPN[ DG WUGF C C IWKFG. 778 &QOCKPU CTG OQUV V[RKECNN[ KPVTQFWEGF VQ EKTEWOUETKDG GZENWUKXG TGCNOU QT UGVU -- K.G., VJG[ UGTXG CU ECVGIQTK\CVKQP EQPUVTWEVU HQT UQTVKPI QWV WPKVKGU CPF RJGPQOGPC. JVVR://YYY.KORTKPV.EQ.WM/VJGUCWTWU/FQOCKP.JVO CEEGUUGF 5VJ 1EVQDGT 2005.



%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


2NQV 6-2 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI KP &GMC VQYPUJKR

-1.50

-0.75

0.00

0.75

1.50

-4.00 -2.50 -1.00 0.50 2.00

1

2

3

4

567

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

&GMC VQYPUJKR KP $GPIFC &KUVTKEV (P = 10)

&KO1

&KO

2

&KOGPUKQPU 455&U 462.980763

55&H 39.740810

5VTGUU 0.085837

4-5SWCTGF 51.351241

DKQ-RJ[UKECN

RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE

(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP 6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO 8

0CVWTG 9QTUJKR 9

*WPVKPI 10

0’( 11

(QTGUV 2TQFWEVU 12

0*( 13

+PFWUVTKCN (QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO 15



+V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV TGURQPFGPVU KP $GPIFC KFGPVKH[ YKVJ VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP TCVJGT

VJCP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP CPF NQECVG EQPUGTXCVKQP KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP. 6JG

TGUWNVU (2NQV 6-2) FKF RTQFWEG C PWODGT QH UGOCPVKE/YQTNFXKGY CPQOCNKGU. #NVJQWIJ VJG

CPKOKUVKE NKPM DGVYGGP HQTGUV CPF EQPUGTXCVKQP YCU KFGPVKHKGF FWTKPI HQTGUV XCNWG KFGPVKHKECVKQP

CPF VJG TGURQPUG QH VJG NQECN FKXKPKV[ VQ PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP GZRTGUUGF KP 'DNGUUKPI' KV YCU

FKHHKEWNV HKPFKPI C YQTF KP NQECN RCTNCPEG VJCV GPECRUWNCVGF CPKOKUO. +PKVKCNN[ 'OK-EJQU'779 YCU

EJQUGP DWV KV UQQP DGECOG GXKFGPV VJCV CU C NKVGTCT[ YTKVVGP VGTO WUGF D[ GFWECVGF 6KDGVCPU KV

OGCPV PQVJKPI VQ OQUV QH VJQUG UWTXG[GF780. 6JKU YCU TGRNCEGF YKVJ 'TCPI D[WPI [KF TVQP'781

DWV VJG TGURQPUG YCU PQV EQPUKUVGPV YKVJ NQECN XKGYU GZRTGUUGF CDQWV CPKOKUVKE NKPMU YKVJ VJG

GPXKTQPOGPV. ’XGPVWCNN[ '[WN-NJC'782 YCU KFGPVKHKGF DGECWUG KV DGUV GPECRUWNCVGF VJG

GODQFKOGPV QH NQECN NCPFUECRG. ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 5GTXKEGU ('PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPVCN HWPEVKQP')

YGTG RTQDNGOCVKE KP VJCV TGURQPFGPVU CRRGCTGF VQ QHVGP UECNG 'UGNH' ENQUG VQ VJGO, YJGP KV YCU

779 1m-&}=k

OK EJQU 780 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 4CODNG 2003 YGDNQI, RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 5COWGN 12/8/2002 YGDNQI

781 :$-Ap$-9m+-K},k

PCVWTG YQTUJKR

782 9v;-[k

C [WN-NJC KU C RNCEG IQF QT VGTTKVQTKCN PWOKPC K.G C URKTKV QT FGKV[ VJCV RTGUKFGU QXGT C RNCEG (1ZHQTF

EQORCEV FKEVKQPCT[ JVVR://YYY.CUMQZHQTF.EQO/EQPEKUGAQGF/PWOGP!XKGY=WM CEEGUUGF 30VJ 1EVQDGT 2005.

http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/numen?view=uk


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


VQ DG CUUWOGF783 VJCV OCP[ UGTXKEGU YGTG NCTIGN[ KPFGRGPFGPV QH JWOCP CIGPE[. 6Q GORJCUK\G

VJGKT KPFGRGPFGPV PCVWTG VJG[ YGTG RTGHKZGF YKVJ '0CVWTCN' CNVJQWIJ KV FKF PQV OCMG OWEJ

FKHHGTGPEG. +V OWUV DG CUUWOGF VJCV HTQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH VJQUG UWTXG[GF VJG[ UGG GXGT[

NKXKPI CPF PQP-NKXKPI VJKPI KP VJG YQTNF CU DGKPI KPVGTTGNCVGF CPF KPVGTFGRGPFGPV CPF VJG[

V[RKECNN[ GODGF PCVWTG KP UQEKGV[. DQP EJQU784 JCF DGGP CFFGF KPKVKCNN[ VQ CUUGUU CP[

FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP VJG VJTGG TGNKIKQWU VTCFKVKQPU HQWPF KP 6KDGV, DWV KV CRRGCTGF VQ DG XGT[

WPEQOOQP KP ’CUVGTP −JCO CPF YCU GZENWFGF HTQO EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI. #U C TGUWNV QH HKGNF

VGUVKPI VJG OGVJQFQNQI[, C UECNG QH 5 YCU CFQRVGF CPF C UGV QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU785 YKVJ

GSWKXCNGPV YQTFU KP %JKPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP (5GG #RRGPFKZ 3).

6.7 51(69#4’ ’8#.7#6+10

1PG QH VJG RWTRQUGU QH HKGNF-VGUVKPI YCU VQ QDVCKP FCVC KP QTFGT VQ GXCNWCVG C TCPIG QH UQHVYCTG

RCEMCIGU YKVJ C XKGY VQ UGNGEVKPI VJG QRVKOWO RCEMCIGU HQT VJG CPCN[UKU QH VJG HKPCN TGUWNVU. +V

YCU GPXKUCIGF VJCV UQHVYCTG YQWNF DG TGSWKTGF HQT FCVC EQNNGEVKQP, VGZV CPCN[UKU,

OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN UECNKPI, IGQITCRJKE KPHQTOCVKQP U[UVGOU, INQDCN RQUKVKQP U[UVGO OCRRKPI,

URCVKCN CPCN[UKU, FCVC KPVGTRQNCVKQP, DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU CPF RTGUGPVCVKQP ITCRJKEU. # ECPFKFCVG

NKUV QH RTQITCOOGU (5GG 6CDNG 6-10) YCU KFGPVKHKGF CPF C ETKVGTKQP HQT UGNGEVKQP/TGLGEVKQP YCU

FGXGNQRGF. +P QTFGT VQ DG UGNGEVGF UQHVYCTG RTQITCOOGU JCF VQ UCVKUH[ CU OCP[ QH VJG

HQNNQYKPI ETKVGTKC CU RQUUKDNG. 6JG UQHVYCTG UJQWNF DG

1) (TGGYCTG, NGUU VJCP d150, QT CXCKNCDNG HQT GXCNWCVKQP,

2) DG VWTPMG[786,

3) KPENWFG KORQTV/GZRQTV HKNVGTU HQT ’ZEGN CPF &$(787,

4) KPVGITCVG YKVJ QVJGT UQHVYCTG/)+5 RTQITCOOGU,

783 $CUGF QP C 9GUVGTP OKPFUGV.

784 0},-&}=k

DQP-EJQU (DQP TGNKIKQP)- 6JGTG CTG VJTGG RJCUGU QH DQP, CNVJQWIJ OQFGTP DQP ECP DG TGICTFGF CU VJG

HKHVJ UEJQQN QH 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO, YKVJ EGTVCKP FKHHGTGPEGU QH XQECDWNCT[, DWV PQ OCLQT FKHHGTGPEG KP EQPVGPV (5COWGN 1993C). 785 /GP, YQOGP, UGNH, HQTGUV, HQTGUV RTQFWEVU, EQPUGTXCVKQP, JWPVKPI, YKNFNKHG, UQEKCNKUO, KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP, [WN-NJC, DNGUUKPI, 0CVWTCN *[FTQNQIKECN (WPEVKQP (0CVWTCN *[FTQNQIKECN (WPEVKQP), 0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN (WPEVKQP (0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN (WPEVKQP), 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO. 786 # RTQFWEV QT U[UVGO VJCV ECP DG RNWIIGF KP, VWTPGF QP, CPF QRGTCVGF YKVJ NKVVNG QT PQ CFFKVKQPCN EQPHKIWTKPI. JVVR://YYY.9VQ5EQORWVGT.EQO/9JCV-KU-,$1&-5-<.JVO#V CEEGUUGF 12VJ #WI 2005. 787 &CVCDCUG HQTOCV .

http://www.9to5computer.com/What-is-JBOD-S-Z.htm#t


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


5) DG CDNG VQ JCPFNG NCTIG FCVC UGVU,

6) KPENWFG TQWVKPGU HQT CWVQ UGNGEVKQP QP VJG DCUKU QH IQQFPGUU-QH-HKV,

7) KPENWFG CU OCP[ CPCN[VKECN VQQNU CU RQUUKDNG,

8) KPENWFG IQQF KPVGITCVKQP DGVYGGP OQFWNGU.

6JG OQUV FKHHKEWNV RTQITCOOGU VQ UGNGEV YGTG HQT OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN UECNKPI (/&5) CPF

DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU. + EQWNF PQV HKPF CP[ 9KPFQYU DCUGF RTQITCOOG VJCV KPENWFGF CNN VJG /&5

RTQEGFWTGU788 HTQO FCVC KPRWV VQ RNQVVGF 3& OCRU. 0%55789 CPF :.56#6790 DQVJ QHHGTGF OQUV

QH VJG RTQEGFWTGU DWV TGSWKTGF VJCV VJG FCVC DG RTGUGPVGF CU C OGCPU OCVTKZ VJCV EQWNF PQV DG

HKNVGTGF. 6JG QPN[ YC[ TQWPF VJKU YCU VQ ETGCVG CP ’ZEGN YQTMUJGGV VJCV ETGCVGF C OGCPU OCVTKZ

HTQO WP/HKNVGTGF FCVC. $QWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU UQHVYCTG RTQXGF GXGP OQTG QH C EJCNNGPIG CU VJG QPN[

VWTPMG[ UQHVYCTG RTQITCOOG KU $QWPFCT[5GGT791, YJKEJ KU XGT[ GZRGPUKXG. + YCU GXGPVWCNN[

CDNG VQ UGEWTG C EQR[ HTQO 6GTTC5GGT D[ YKPPKPI C RQUV-ITCFWCVG EQORGVKVKQP792. (QT FCVC,

KPVGTRQNCVKQP CP GXCNWCVKQP XGTUKQP QH )5+7793 YCU VJG QRVKOWO EJQKEG DGECWUG KV CWVQ

UGNGEVGF C XCTKQITCO OQFGN794 QP VJG DCUKU QH IQQFPGUU-QH-HKV. #HVGT VJG GXCNWCVKQP JCF GPFGF,

5WTHGT795 CPF +FTKUK −KNKOCPLCTQ796 YGTG WUGF KPUVGCF. %CTVCNKPZ797 KPENWFGF XGEVQT HKNVGTKPI CPF

GFKVKPI, +FTKUK798 RTQXKFGF HQT XGEVQT CPF TCUVGT NC[GT QXGTNC[KPI CU YGNN CU IGQUVCVKUVKECN

TQWVKPGU, )NQDCN /CRRGT799 KPENWFGF HKNVGTU HQT KORQTVKPI CFOKPKUVTCVKXG OCRU CXCKNCDNG QP

%JKPGUG YGDUKVGU CPF 5WTHGT800 RTQXKFGF MTKI CPF URCVKCN FGRGPFGPE[ OCRU CHVGT VJG )5+7801

GXCNWCVKQP JCF GPFGF.

788 1) +PRWV FCVC 2) (KNVGT KH TGSWKTGF 3) %TGCVG FKUUKOKNCTKV[ OGCPU OCVTKZ 4) %TGCVG /&5 RNQVU 5) %TGCVG CUUQEKCVGF UVCVKUVKEU 6) %TGCVG C 3& /&5 RNQV. 789 *KPV\G 2000 790 #FFKPUQHV 1995-2002 791 ,CESWG\ , GV CN 2001-2003 792 JVVR://YYY.VGTTCUGGT.EQO/UGTXKEGU/EQOOWPKV[/2004/6KDGV.JVON CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005 793 )&5 1989-2004 794 ’ZRQPGPVKCN, URJGTKECN, )CWUUKCP, NKPGCT. 795 )5+ 2002 796 ’CUVOCP GV CN 1987-2004 797 *CICP GV CN 1998-1999 798 ’CUVOCP GV CN 1987-2004 799 )/5. 2004-2005 800 )5+ 2002 801 )&5 1989-2004

http://www.terraseer.com/services/community/2004/Tibet.html


%JCRVGT 6 /GVJQFU


+P VJKU EJCRVGT, + JCXG KPVTQFWEGF VJG OGVJQFQNQI[ WUGF KP VJKU UVWF[ CPF UWOOCTK\GF; VJG

HKPFKPIU QH EQPVGZVWCN UVWFKGU, HKGNF-VGUVKPI, CPF CP[ TGHKPGOGPVU OCFG CPF EQPENWFGF YKVJ CP

GXCNWCVKQP QH VJG UQHVYCTG WUGF.

$GHQTG YG ECP EQPUKFGT VJG TGUWNVU QH VJG HKGNF YQTM, JQYGXGT + PGGF VQ RNCEG VJG UVWF[ CTGC, VJG

EQPVGUVGF TGIKQP QH ’CUVGTP −JCO, CICKPUV VJG DCEMFTQR QH KVU FQOKPCPV PGKIJDQWTU VJG

'FTCIQP MKPIFQO' QH %JKPC CPF VJG 'UPQY NKQP MKPIFQO' QH 6KDGV CPF VJGKT 'VQVCNK\KPI

FKUEQWTUGU' QH TCEG, PCVWTG, TGNKIKQP CPF GPXKTQPOGPV.


6

CD

NG 6

-10 %

CP

FKF

CVG

UQ

HVY

CTG

UJ

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UGN

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F U

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CVC

6

GZV

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25

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RCVKCN

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TRQNC

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$QWPFCT[

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TGUGPVC

VKQP

%

QNNG

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#PCN[

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#

PCN[

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#PCN[

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XCTKQITC

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I

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Chapter 6 Methods

Page 127


%JCRVGT 7 %JKPC CPF 6KDGV


%*#26’4 7 %*+0# #0& 6+$’6

7.1 +0641&7%6+10

+V YQWNF DG PCKXG QT TQOCPVKE VQ CVVGORV VQ WPFGTUVCPF −JCO YKVJQWV TGHGTGPEG VQ VJG *CP

%JKPGUG QT .JCUC 6KDGVCPU CPF VJG KORCEV QP, CPF TGURQPUGU QH NQECN RGQRNG VQ HQWT VQVCNK\KPI

FKUEQWTUGU QH TGNKIKQP, PCVWTG, TCEG CPF GPXKTQPOGPV.

+P VJKU EJCRVGT YG YKNN CFFTGUU HQWT FKUEQWTUGU HTQO HKXG RGTURGEVKXGU: VJCV QH VJG YGUV, QH VJG

'FTCIQP MKPIFQO' (%JKPC), VJG '%JKPGUG FKCURQTC' (6CKYCP CPF *QPI −QPI), VJG 'UPQY NKQP

MKPIFQO' (6KDGV) YKVJ UQOG TGHGTGPEG VQ −JCO YJKEJ YKNN DG EQXGTGF KP OQTG FGRVJ KP VJG

PGZV EJCRVGT (UGEVKQP 8.1). 6JG KORQTVCPEG QH KPENWFKPI VJG FKCURQTC KU VQ ICKP UQOG KPUKIJV

KPVQ VJG %JKPGUG CRRTQCEJ VQ GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO CPF FGOQETCE[ KP EQWPVTKGU CPF TGIKQPU YKVJ

C FKHHGTGPV RQNKVKECN NCPFUECRG VQ OCKPNCPF %JKPC.

6JG CWVJQT CEMPQYNGFIGU VJG NGPIVJ QH VJKU EJCRVGT DWV UVTGUUGU KVU PGEGUUKV[ KP QTFGT VQ

RTQRGTN[ KPVGTRTGV VJG HQTGUV XCNWGU QH VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO CICKPUV C FGVCKNGF

WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH VJG YKFGT TGIKQPCN CPF EWNVWTCN EQPVGZV YKVJKP YJKEJ VJG[ CTG UKVWCVGF. #U

UWEJ, VJKU EJCRVGT RNC[U C DTKFIKPI TQNG DGVYGGP VJG DTQCFGT HQEWU QH VJG HKTUV HKXG EJCRVGTU CPF

VJG −JCO-URGEKHKE OCVGTKCN.

%JKPC KU VJG UGEQPF NCTIGUV EQWPVT[ KP VJG YQTNF, YKVJ VJG NQPIGUV EQPVKPWQWU EWNVWTG QP GCTVJ.

+V KU C OWNVKPCVKQPCN UVCVG YJQUG OKPQTKV[ PCVKQPCNKVKGU EQPUVKVWVG 8 RGTEGPV QH VJG RQRWNCVKQP

CPF QEEWR[ 60 RGTEGPV QH VJG PCVKQPCN VGTTKVQT[, KPENWFKPI KVU OQUV UGPUKVKXG DQTFGT CTGCU. 6JG

ENCUUKHKECVKQP QH 55 OKPQTKVKGU KPFKECVGU, JQYGXGT, VJCV GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU CTG HTCIOGPVGF CPF

VJCV GCEJ KU PWOGTKECNN[ KPUKIPKHKECPV XKU-à-XKU VJG QPG DKNNKQP UVTQPI OCLQTKV[ '*CP %JKPGUG'.

6JGTG KU PQ WPKHQTO RCVVGTP QH OKPQTKVKGU, CU GCEJ JCU KVU FKUVKPEV JKUVQT[, EWNVWTG, NCPIWCIG CPF

VGTTKVQTKCN CUUQEKCVKQP. 0QT CTG GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU WPKHKGF D[ CP[ UKPING TGNKIKQP. 6KDGVCPU CPF

/QPIQNU, HQT GZCORNG CTG $WFFJKUVU, DWV VJG[ CTG IGQITCRJKECNN[ UGRCTCVGF HTQO QPG CPQVJGT,

FGURKVG UVTQPI EWNVWTCN CHHKPKV[. +V KU RQUUKDNG VQ UWIIGUV JQYGXGT VJCV OQUV QH VJG OKPQTKVKGU KP




UQWVJYGUV %JKPC CTG 'GPENQUGF ITQWRU', YKVJ NKVVNG KTTGFGPVKUV802 CURKTCVKQP, YJGTGCU VJG

6KDGVCPU, /QPIQNU, 7[IJWTU CPF −QTGCPU CTG ITQWRU YKVJ GZVGTPCN QTKGPVCVKQPU. 6JG

PCVKQPCNKVKGU FKHHGT, OQTGQXGT, KP VJGKT CUUKOKNCVKQP QT FKUVCPEG HTQO VJG FQOKPCPV GEQPQOKE

CPF EWNVWTCN RTGOKUGU QH VJG *CP. &GURKVG VJKU UGGOKPIN[ JQRGNGUU UKVWCVKQP QH OKPQTKV[

HTCIOGPVCVKQP, QXGT OWEJ QH KVU NQPI KORGTKCN JKUVQT[ %JKPC YCU TWNGF D[ PQP-*CP RGQRNGU,

PCOGN[ VJG /QPIQNU, /CPEJWU CPF GXGP HQT C HGY [GCTU VJG 6KDGVCPU. 0QV WPVKN GCTN[ KP VJG

VYGPVKGVJ EGPVWT[ YCU %JKPC TGDQTP CU C PCVKQP-UVCVG YKVJ VJG '*CP' ENCKOKPI VQ DG VJG IWCTFKCP

PCVKQPCNKV[ YJKNG KPEQTRQTCVKPI PQP-*CP OKPQTKVKGU KP CP GVJPKE JKGTCTEJ[. +P 1949, %JKPC

RTQENCKOGF KVUGNH C RGQRNG'U TGRWDNKE, C OWNVKPCVKQPCN UVCVG, CPF RTQOKUGF CWVQPQO[ HQT GVJPKE

OKPQTKVKGU. 6JG DCUKU HQT GVJPKE CWVQPQO[ UVGOOGF PQV QPN[ HTQO %JKPGUG %QOOWPKUV 2CTV['U

(%%2) KFGQNQIKECN EQOOKVOGPV VQ GSWCNKV[ DWV YCU VJG RTQFWEV QH UVTCVGIKE CNNKCPEGU DGVYGGP

%%2 CPF GVJPKE ITQWRU KP FGHGCVKPI VJG %JKPGUG 0CVKQPCNKUV 2CTV[803. 6JG GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH

CWVQPQOQWU VGTTKVQTKCN KPUVKVWVKQPU CV VJG RTQXKPEKCN NGXGN KP 6KDGV, :KPLKCPI, )WCPIZK CPF

0KPIZKC CPF CV NQYGT NGXGNU YKVJKP %JKPGUG RTQXKPEGU FKF PQV, JQYGXGT, TGRTGUGPV GVJPKE UCHG

JCXGPU. # PCVKQPCNKV[ DWKNFKPI RTQLGEV YCU NCWPEJGF VJCV TGUWNVGF KP XGT[ OKZGF HQTVWPGU,

YJKEJ JCXG DGEQOG GXGP OQTG OKZGF UKPEG VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH VJG UQEKCNKUV OCTMGV GEQPQO[

CPF VJG ')TGCV 9GUVGTP &GXGNQROGPV 2TQLGEV'804.

+P URKVG QH %JKPC'U TGEGPV RQQT GPXKTQPOGPVCN TGEQTF, VJGTG JCU DGGP INQDCN KPVGTGUV QXGT VJG NCUV

VYQ FGECFGU KP DQVJ QTKGPVCN ENCUUKECN CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CU GZGORNCTU QH

JCTOQPKQWU GPXKTQPOGPVCN OCPCIGOGPV. #NVJQWIJ VJGTG CTG QDXKQWUN[ TGUQWTEGU KP &CQKUO,

HGPIUJWK, 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO CPF +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU VJCV UWRRQTV EQPUGTXCVKQP

VJGTG CTG QDXKQWU FCPIGTU KP GSWCVKPI CP[ QH VJGO KP VJGKT GPVKTGV[ YKVJ GZRNKEKV PCVWTG

EQPUGTXCVKQP. +V CRRGCTU VJCV QPN[ KP QPG UWDUGV QH VJG QTKGPVCN YQTNFXKGY, PCOGN[ VJG 'UCETGF

NCPFUECRG' RCTCFKIO, VJGTG KU UQOG GXKFGPEG QH GZRNKEKV EQPUGTXCVKQP. 6JKU KU OQTG GXKFGPV KP

6KDGVCP UQEKGV[ VJCP *CP, CNVJQWIJ KV OC[ GZKUV KP C NCVGPV EQPFKVKQP KP VJG NCVVGT, DWV CU KV

YQWNF DG XKGYGF CU 'UWRGTUVKVKQP' KV YQWNF NCEM CP[ XCNKFKV[ QP VJG DCUKU C UEKGPVKHKE UQEKCNKUV

802 2GQRNG YJQ YKUJ VQ TGENCKO VJG NQUV VGTTKVQTKGU QH C UVCVG. 6JG VGTO FGTKXGU HTQO CP +VCNKCP RQNKVKECN RCTV[ HQWPFGF KP CDQWV 1878 KPVGPFKPI VQ KPEQTRQTCVG +VCNKCP-URGCMKPI CTGCU KPVQ VJG PGYN[ HQTOGF UVCVG. JVVR://YYY.VKUECNK.EQ.WM/TGHGTGPEG/GPE[ENQRCGFKC/JWVEJKPUQP/O0019612.JVON CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005. 803 6JG 0CVKQPCN 2CTV[ GURQWUGF CPF KORNGOGPVGF C DNCVCPVN[ TCEKUV CIGPFC FKTGEVGF VQYCTFU ETGCVKPI C RWTG *CP PCVKQP-UVCVG. 804 $WNCI 1999

http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0019612.html




RCTCFKIO, KP EQOOQP YKVJ YGUVGTP MPQYNGFIG CU YG FKUEQXGTGF KP EJCRVGTU 2, 3 CPF 4

UGEVKQPU 2.3.1, 3.1.3 CPF 4.4.

6JGTG CTG FCPIGTU QH FTCYKPI EQPENWUKQPU CDQWV GPXKTQPOGPVCN VTGCVOGPV HTQO GPXKTQPOGPVCN

RGTEGRVKQP QT HTQO YQTF CPF RTCEVKEG. (QT VJG %JKPGUG KP RCTVKEWNCT VJG YTKVVGP VTCFKVKQP CPF

GXGT[FC[ NKHG CTG QHVGP YQTNFU CRCTV CPF VJGKT YQTNFXKGY CNNQYU HQT EQPUKFGTCDNG VGPUKQP

DGVYGGP VJGUG FKURCTCVG TGCNKVKGU. 6JG %JKPGUG JCXG CP GZVGPUKXG NKVGTCT[ VTCFKVKQP XGPGTCVKPI

PCVWTG, DWV YG JCXG HGY OGCPU QH KPXGUVKICVKPI JQY VJKU YCU CRRNKGF KP RTCEVKEG. %JKPGUG

PCVWTCN RJKNQUQRJ[ JCU PQV RTGXGPVGF FGHQTGUVCVKQP CPF FGUVTWEVKQP QH VJG GPXKTQPOGPV VJTQWIJ

JKUVQT[. %JKPGUG PCVWTCN RJKNQUQRJ[ KU C FQOCKP QH VJQWIJV KP YJKEJ VJG UQEKCN OGVCRJQT KU C

EQPUVCPV UWDLGEV (QT GXGP VJG QDLGEV) HQT ETGCVKQP QH OGCPKPI YKVJ CP KPJGTGPV FKUETGRCPE[

DGVYGGP YQTF CPF RTCEVKEG805. 5KOKNCTN[, 6KDGVCP FKUEQWTUGU QH RGCEG, JCTOQP[ CPF ITGGP

GVJKEU CTG PQV CNN VJG[ CRRGCT VQ DG806.

9KVJKP DQVJ VJG %JKPGUG CPF VJG 6KDGVCP YQTNFXKGY VJGTG CRRGCTU VQ DG TQQO HQT DQVJ UQWPF

GPXKTQPOGPVCN OCPCIGOGPV CPF GZRNQKVCVKQP. 6JG 6KDGVCP YQTNFXKGY KPENWFGU RCTCFKIOU VJCV

NGCF VQ GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGUVTWEVKQP CPF RCTCFKIOU VJCV NGCF VQ VJG GZRNKEKV EQPUGTXCVKQP QH

UCETGF NCPFUECRG. 6JG OGTKVU QH GCEJ YQTNFXKGY CPF RCTCFKIO PGGF VQ DG EQPUKFGTGF QP KVU

QYP OGTKVU, CPF QP VJG DCUKU QH KPVGT-RCTCFKIO U[PGTI[.

#NVJQWIJ %JKPC CRRGCTU VQ TGEQIPK\G, CV VJG TJGVQTKECN NGXGN, VJG KORQTVCPEG QH KPFKIGPQWU

MPQYNGFIG KP NQECN FGXGNQROGPV VJGTG CTG KPJGTGPV KFGQNQIKECN EQPVTCFKEVKQPU. 6JG %JKPGUG

(/CTZKUV-.GPKPKUV) OQFGN QH FGXGNQROGPV JCU QPG HWPFCOGPVCN EJCTCEVGTKUVKE KP EQOOQP YKVJ

VJG ECRKVCNKUV FGXGNQROGPV RTQLGEV. 6JGTG KU HWPFCOGPVCN CITGGOGPV CDQWV VJG PGEGUUKV[ CPF

NGIKVKOCE[ QH C OCLQT UQEKCN GPIKPGGTKPI ETWUCFG807. +P QTFGT VQ HCEKNKVCVG VJG WNVKOCVG VTCPUKVKQP

VQ C 'PGY GTC' KV KU PGEGUUCT[ VQ TGRNCEG VTCFKVKQPCN EWNVWTCN XCNWGU, CPF RTCEVKEGU CPF VJG

MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU VJCV KPHQTO VJGO YKVJ C UKPIWNCTN[ TCVKQPCN, UEKGPVKHKE, CPF WPSWGUVKQPCDN[

UWRGTKQT EQIPKVKXG U[UVGO. +V KU QPN[ YKVJKP VJG NQIKEU QH VJGUG VYQ KFGQNQIKGU QH FGXGNQROGPV

VJCV VJG FKXGTUKV[ QH EWNVWTCN OGCPKPIU QH VTCFKVKQPCN UQEKGV[ ECP DG TGFWEGF VQ 'DCEMYCTF',

805 $TWWP CPF −CNNCPF 1995 806 *WDGT 1997 807 *QYCTF 1994




'UWRGTUVKVKQWU' QT 'WPEKXKNK\GF' CPF UQEKCN EQJGUKQP, UQNKFCTKV[, OWVWCNKV[, UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ CPF

TGEKRTQEKV[ VQ .QEMGCP RQUUGUUKXG KPFKXKFWCNKUO808 CU YG FKUEWUUGF KP EJCRVGT 3 UGEVKQP 3.1.3.

2CTCFQZKECNN[, +ORGTKCN %JKPC CRRGCTU VJTQWIJQWV KVU JKUVQT[ CPF EWNVWTG VQ RTQXKFG IQQF

GZCORNGU QH DQVJ GPXKTQPOGPVCN CYCTGPGUU CPF UVGYCTFUJKR CPF ECVCUVTQRJKE FGUVTWEVKQP809.

#NVJQWIJ VJG FGUVTWEVKQP CRRGCTU VQ JCXG IQV YQTUG UKPEG 1950, CU %JKPC UQWIJV VQ ECVEJ-WR

YKVJ VJG '9GUV', VJGTG KU GXKFGPEG QH FGUVTWEVKQP VJTQWIJQWV KVU JKUVQT[. /CP[ QH %JKPC'U

GPXKTQPOGPVCN KUUWGU UWEJ CU ENKOCVG EJCPIG JCXG INQDCN KORCEV, VJG[ UJCTG EQOOQPCNKVKGU

YKVJ YGUVGTP GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUG CPF CTG LWUV CU UWDLGEV VQ DGEQOKPI INQDCNK\GF CPF

UWDXGTVGF D[ VJG UVCVG. %JKPC'U QHHKEKCN GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUGU JCXG DGGP GNKVG CPF

JGIGOQPKE, GURGEKCNN[ HQT %JKPC'U OKPQTKV[ RGQRNGU. 6JGTG JCU PQV DGGP TQQO HQT EQWPVGT QT

XGTPCEWNCT FKUEQWTUGU DWV KV YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV KH %JKPC YGTG CNNQYGF VQ OKOKE 6CKYCP KP VGTOU

QH ITQYVJ CPF OCVGTKCN YGNN-DGKPI VJG OCUUGU OKIJV DG CNNQYGF VQ FGXGNQR VJGKT GPXKTQPOGPVCN

EQPUEKQWUPGUU. ’PXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUG KU KPETGCUKPIN[ DGKPI CTVKEWNCVGF RWDNKEN[ KP C

UVCVG-RWDNKE FGDCVG810 KP VJG OGFKC CPF UKPEG VJG OKF 1990'U %JKPC'U HKTUV GPXKTQPOGPVCN 0)1U

JCXG DGEQOG GUVCDNKUJGF811 CPF UQOG GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGUVU VQNGTCVGF. %JKPC JCU TGURQPFGF

KP UQOG ECUGU VQ GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGUVU CPF CU %JKPC'U GOGTIKPI OKFFNG ENCUU CTG KPHNWGPEGF

D[ YGUVGTP UQEKQ-EWNVWTCN-RQNKVKECN KFGCU, VJG IQXGTPOGPV OKIJV DG HQTEGF KPVQ VQNGTCVKPI CP

GPXKTQPOGPVCN OQXGOGPV. %WTTGPVN[, JQYGXGT CP[ HQTO QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPEGTP, GZRTGUUGF

D[ %JKPC'U OKPQTKV[ RGQRNGU KU XKGYGF CU 'TGCEVKQPCT[' QT GXGP, RQUV 11VJ 5GRVGODGT 2001, C

'VGTTQTKUV' CEV.

$QVJ %JKPC CPF 6KDGV JCXG XGT[ NQPI JKUVQTKGU, CPF HQT OWEJ QH VJG NCUV 1500 [GCTU VJG[ JCXG

DGGP GPGOKGU. *CP %JKPGUG EWNVWTG, KP EQPVTCUV VQ OWEJ QH #UKC, JCU OCFG XGT[ NKVVNG

KORTGUUKQP QP VJG 6KDGVCP YQTNF, CPF VQ VJG EJCITKP QH VJG %JKPGUG, VJG[ JCF VQ RC[ GZEGUUKXG

DTKDGU VQ MGGR VJG YCTNKMG 6KDGVCPU CV DC[812. +V YCU QPN[ YKVJ VJG CFXGPV QH OQFGTP YCTHCTG

CPF KORTQXGF EQOOWPKECVKQPU VJCV VJG %JKPGUG YGTG KP C RQUKVKQP VQ QEEWR[ 6KDGV813. +P 1950

808 ’WRJGOKUVKECNN[ ECNNGF 'EQOOQFKV[ EQPUEKQWUPGUU' KP %JKPGUG FGXGNQROGPV FKUEQWTUG. 809 ’FOQPFU 1994 810 5C[GTU 2000 811 *CQ $KPI 1998 812 $CTHKGNF 1989 813 )QNFUVGKP 1989




%JKPC KPXCFGF 6KDGV, DWV VQ VJKU FC[ OCP[ 6KDGVCPU, GURGEKCNN[ VJG −JCODCU EQPVKPWG VQ TGUKUV

QEEWRCVKQP, TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 8 (UGEVKQP 8.1), CPF JCXG FGXGNQRGF EQRKPI UVTCVGIKGU

TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 7.4.4 CPF 7.5.5 RTGFKECVGF QP VJGKT KFGPVKV[, EWNVWTG, U[ODQNU, TGNKIKQP,

TKVWCNU CPF RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV. +V KU GUVKOCVGF VJCV CV NGCUV 1.2 OKNNKQP −JCODCU NQUV VJGKT NKXGU

FWTKPI VJG 'RGCEGHWN NKDGTCVKQP' QH 6KDGV, VJG '−CPFKPI' WRTKUKPI CPF VJG IWGTTKNNC YCTHCTG VJCV

HQNNQYGF814.

5QQP CHVGT KPXCUKQP, %JKPC KPKVKCVGF C OCUUKXG RTQITCOOG QH HQTGUV 'OKPKPI', YJKEJ VJG[

EQPVKPWGF WPVKN 1998. (QTGUVU YGTG PQV OCPCIGF UWUVCKPCDN[, VJG COQWPV HGNNGF GZEGGFGF [KGNF

D[ WR VQ HQWT VKOGU CPF HQT GXGT[ 10 VTGGU EWV QPN[ QPG YCU RNCPVGF, QH YJKEJ QPN[ 30%

UWTXKXGF. #U C TGUWNV QH 40 [GCTU QH ENGCT HGNNKPI KP DQVJ VJG ;CPIV\G CPF ;GNNQY TKXGT

ECVEJOGPVU %JKPC UVCTVGF VQ GZRGTKGPEG RTQVTCEVGF HNQQFKPI, YJKEJ YGTG CP CPPWCN QEEWTTGPEG

D[ VJG 1990'U. +P 1998, %JKPC GZRGTKGPEGF VJG YQTUV HNQQFKPI HQT 54 [GCTU, CPF JCF VQ TGURQPF.

6JG[ KPVTQFWEGF C HGNNKPI DCP KP VJG JGCFYCVGTU QH VJG ;CPIV\G CPF ;GNNQY 4KXGTU, CPF

KPVTQFWEGF C XGT[ CODKVKQWU RTQITCOOG QH TGHQTGUVCVKQP, HQTGUV RTQVGEVKQP, PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP

CPF 'GEQVQWTKUO'815. #NVJQWIJ VJG VCTIGV CTGCU YGTG RGQRNGF OQUVN[ D[ −JCODC 6KDGVCPU, VJG

CWVJQTKVKGU OCFG PQ GHHQTV VQ FKUEQXGT VJG TQNG CPF KORQTVCPEG QH VTGGU QT HQTGUVU VQ VJG 6KDGVCPU

QT VJG KORCEV QH VJG RTQRQUGF OGCUWTGU QP VJGO.

#NVJQWIJ OWEJ QH −JCO'U GPXKTQPOGPV CPF YKNFNKHG, TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 8 UGEVKQP 8.1.5,

JCXG DGGP FGEKOCVGF, C HGY NQECVKQPU YKVJKP VJG TGIKQP CTG COQPI VJG OQUV FKXGTUG NKXKPI

CUUGODNKGU KP #UKC, CPF TGEQIPK\GF CU DKQ-EWNVWTCN FKXGTUKV[ 'JQVURQVU'. 6JGUG CPVJTQRQIGPKE

NCPFUECRGU CPF NKPIWKUVKE GEQNQIKGU EQPVKPWG VQ RTQXKFG UQEKGV[ YKVJ CV NGCUV UQOG RCTCFKIOU

QH UWUVCKPCDNG GCTVJ ECTG.

7.2 ’%1-52+4+67#. &+5%1745’

+P EJCRVGT HQWT UGEVKQP 4.5.2, YG TGEQIPK\GF VJG GPXKTQPOGPVCN RQVGPVKCN QH KPFKIGPQWU

TGNKIKQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CPF KP VJKU UGEVKQP; YG YQWNF NKMG VQ GZRNQTG VJKU RQVGPVKCN HWTVJGT

YKVJ TGHGTGPEG VQ UQOG URGEKHKE VTCFKVKQPU CPF TGIKQPU. 9G NCEM URCEG, KP VJKU UVWF[, DWV KP

6JCKNCPF OQPMU CTG VCEMNKPI GPXKTQPOGPVCN KUUWGU WUKPI HQNM $WFFJKUV TKVWCNU, &JCOOKE

814 6UGTKPI 5JCM[C 1999 815 )WCPI <JCQ CPF )WQHCP 5JCQ 2002




UQEKCNKUO CPF CP GEQNQIKECN KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH $WFFJKUV VGCEJKPIU816 CPF KP +PFKC %JKRMQ

CEVKXKUVU817 CTG FTCYKPI QP C $KUJPQKU 8CKUJPCXKVG VTCFKVKQP. +P %JKPC HGPIUJWK, &CQKUO CPF

KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG KU DGKPI TGXKXGF KP C RTQEGUU QH PCVKXK\CVKQP, VJCV KU LWZVCRQUGF CICKPUV

C RQNKVKECN NCPFUECRG VJCV GPEQWTCIGU 'UEKGPEG' CPF 'GEQPQOKEU' CV VJG GZRGPUG QH 'UWRGTUVKVKQP'

CPF 'DCEMYCTF EWNVWTG'.

9KVJKP %JKPC CNVJQWIJ KV KU RQUUKDNG VQ OQPKVQT EJCPIGU KP EQPUEKQWUPGUU , TJGVQTKE CPF VJG

TGKPHWUKPI QH UGNGEVGF XGTPCEWNCT DGNKGHU KV KU OWEJ JCTFGT VQ WPGCTVJ GZCORNGU QH GEQ-URKTKVWCN

CEVKXKUO. %JKPC'U XGTPCEWNCT TGNKIKQWU VTCFKVKQPU818 JCXG DGGP RTGUGPVGF CU GZGORNCTU QH UQWPF

GEQNQIKECN RTCEVKEG. 1P ENQUGT GZCOKPCVKQP, JQYGXGT VJG[ CRRGCT VQ JCXG DGGP TGEQPUVTWEVGF

DQVJ KP VGTOU QH VJG YGUVGTP CPF QTKGPVCN GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF TGNKIKQWU FKUEQWTUGU YG FKUEWUUGF

KP EJCRVGT VJTGG UGEVKQP 3.3.2 CPF 3.3.4 CPF YKNN FKUEWUU HWTVJGT KP VJKU UGEVKQP.

7.2.1 &CQKUO

&CQKUO CPF GEQNQI[ CTG QHVGP KPXQMGF CU PCVWTCN RCTVPGTU KP EQPVGORQTCT[ FKUEWUUKQPU QH

GPXKTQPOGPVCN KUUWGU KP VJG YGUV. 9JGP CFFTGUUKPI VJG TGNKIKQWU CPF KPVGNNGEVWCN TGUQWTEGU

RTQXKFGF D[ XCTKQWU 'YQTNF TGNKIKQPU', KV JCU VJGTGHQTG DGGP C EQOOQPRNCEG CUUWORVKQP VJCV

&CQKUO TGXGCNU CP QDXKQWU CPF RCTVKEWNCTN[ EQORGNNKPI CHHKPKV[ YKVJ INQDCN GEQNQIKECN

EQPEGTPU819. (QT OQUV YGUVGTP EQOOGPVCVQTU WPVKN TGEGPVN[, &CQKUO RTKOCTKN[ TGHGTTGF VQ VJG

'O[UVKE YKUFQO' HQWPF KP UGXGTCN CPEKGPV 'ENCUUKECN' VGZVU820 CPF YCU UGGP VQ DG HWPFCOGPVCNN[

KP VWPG YKVJ JGKIJVGPGF HGCTU CDQWV VJG HTCEVWTGF TGNCVKQPU DGVYGGP JWOCPKV[ CPF VJG PCVWTCN

YQTNF. 9G HKPF CHHKTOCVKQP QH VJG GEQNQIKECN UGPUKVKXKVKGU QH VJG CPEKGPV %JKPGUG &CQKUVU KP

EQPVGORQTCT[ YGUVGTP NKVGTCVWTG VJCV TCPIGU HTQO RQR-&CQKUO821 VJTQWIJ RQRWNCT VGUVKOQP[

YJKEJ YJKOUKECNN[ UWIIGUVU VJCV 2QQJ $GCT CPF 2KINGV CHHKTOGF VJG RTQHQWPF GEQNQIKECN

UGPUKDKNKV[ QH VJG CPEKGPV %JKPGUG &CQKUVU.822.

816 $GTPDCWO 1997C, $WFFJCFCUC 1986, .C %JCRGNNG 1984, &CTNKPIVQP 1998, 2000, *KTUJ 1990, ,CEMUQP 1988, /QPVTGG 1992, 6C[NQT 1993, 5VQVV 1978, 1991 817 )WJC 2000, 4QWVNGFIG 1993, 9CFNG[ 1985 818 &CQKUO CPF (GPIUJWK 819 %CNNKEQVV 1994 820 ’URGEKCNN[ VJG 道德经道德经道德经道德经 FCQ4 FG2 LKPI1 (FCQ KU RTPQWPEGF KP VJG 4VJ VQPG, FG KP VJG 2PF VQPG CPF LKPI KP VJG

1UV VQPG) CPF 莊茈莊茈莊茈莊茈 \JWCPI1 \K3 (\JWCPI KU RTQPQWPEGF KP VJG 1UV VQPG CPF \K KP VJG 3TF VQPG). 821 )KTCTFQV GV CN 2001 822 *QHH 1982 1992




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CFFTGUUKPI VJG TGNKIKQWU, GVJKECN, CPF RJKNQUQRJKECN KORNKECVKQPU QH VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN ETKUKU'

JCXG OCFG RCUUKPI CNNWUKQPU VQ &CQKUVU GEQNQIKECN YKUFQO. 6JKU JCU QHVGP DGGP CUUQEKCVGF

YKVJ PCVKXG #OGTKECP CPF QVJGT KPFKIGPQWU RGTURGEVKXGU. 6JGTG KU, JQYGXGT PQ UKPING YQTM

VJCV KU ITQWPFGF KP C UEJQNCTN[ WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH VJG &CQKUVU VTCFKVKQP VJCV KU FGXQVGF VQ C

ETKVKECN GZRNQTCVKQP QH KVU RQVGPVKCN HQT KPHQTOKPI EWTTGPV GEQNQIKECN KUUWGU824.

’XGP KP YQTMU IGPGTCNN[ YGNN KPHQTOGF CDQWV VJG KPVGTHCEG DGVYGGP TGNKIKQP CPF GEQNQI[ VJGTG

KU C TQOCPVKE KPHCVWCVKQP YKVJ VJG ENCUUKECN RWTKV[ CPF VKOGNGUUPGUU QH &CQKUO VJCV JCU UJCRGF

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%JCRVGT 3 UGEVKQP 3.1.3 CPF EJCRVGT 4 UGEVKQP 4.5.4, VJCP KVU EQPVTKDWVKQP VQ GEQNQIKECN

EQPEGTPU825.

9JKNG OCP[ OKUEQPEGRVKQPU GZKUV EQPEGTPKPI &CQKUO, UKOKNCT FKHHKEWNVKGU ECP DG HQWPF KP

EQPVGORQTCT[ YGUVGTP FKUEWUUKQPU QH GEQNQI[, GURGEKCNN[ VJQUG RTGFKECVGF QP CP CRQECN[RVKE

XKUKQP. 6JG WTIG HQT C DKQ-URKTKVWCN TGHQTOCVKQP QH NKHG QP GCTVJ VQ C EGTVCKP GZVGPV TGRTGUGPVU C

FKUEWTUKXG CTVGHCEV QH CP GPNKIJVGPOGPV CIGPFC JKFFGP YKVJKP VJG CWVJQTKVCTKCP UVTWEVWTGU QH

YGUVGTP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU. 6JGTG KU, CU C TGUWNV, UQOG VCNM QH VJG URKTKVWCN 'ITCXKVCU'826 QH

&CQKUO CPF GEQNQI[, VJCV UWTHCEGU KP FGGR GEQNQI[, UQEKQ-GEQNQI[, GEQHGOKPKUO CPF )CKC

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YKNN FKUEWUU KP OQTG FGRVJ KP UGEVKQP 7.5, OQTG GPEQWTCIKPI KU VJG GOGTIGPEG CPF ITQYVJ QH CP

GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPUEKQWUPGUU COQPI VJG IGPGTCN RWDNKE. +P VJG RCUV HGY FGECFGU, CP KPETGCUKPI

823 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP #PFGTUQP 24/1/2000 YGDNQI 824 )KTCTFQV GV CN 2001 825 %NCTMG 1997, 2000 826 )TCXKVCU KU C YQTF VJCV EQPXG[U C UGPUG QH UWDUVCPEG QT FGRVJ JVVR://GP.YKMKRGFKC.QTI/YKMK/)TCXKVCU CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005. 827 ’EMGTUNG[ 1992, 0CGUU 1975

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitas




PWODGT QH LQWTPCNKUVU, YTKVGTU, UEJQNCTU, TGNKIKQWU NGCFGTU, YQTMGTU CPF HCTOGTU JCXG UVCTVGF VQ

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QH *WCPUJJK[CP &CQKUV VGORNG829 JCU OCFG DCTTGP JKNNU ITGGP CICKP.

#NVJQWIJ VJG GPXKTQPOGPVCN CEVKQP QH %JKPC'U &CQKUVU KU PQVGYQTVJ[, KV KU QPN[ OQFGUV, CPF KV

KU KPHNWGPEGF D[ VJG YGUVGTP GPXKTQPOGPVCN OQXGOGPV TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 3 UGEVKQP 3.3.4. +H

&CQKUO FQGU KPENWFG UQOG URGEKCN GEQNQIKECN YKUFQO, IQKPI DCEM VQ VJG DKTVJ QH %JKPC, YJ[

JCU VJGTG DGGP UWEJ C YQGHWN TGEQTF QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPEGTP VJTQWIJQWV %JKPGUG JKUVQT[, CPF

YJ[ KU VJG EQPVGORQTCT[ TGURQPUG UQ TGUVTKEVGF CPF OGCITG. 5QOG QH VJG CPUYGTU VQWEJ WRQP

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VQ C UGV QH HCEVU, CP GVJKECN RTQDNGO, QT RTCEVKEGU.

6JG VTGPEJCPV QTKGPVCNKUV ETKVKSWG QH 'GCUVGTP TGNKIKQP' JCU FGOQPUVTCVGF JQY TGNKIKQWU FKUEQWTUG

TQQVGF KP YGUVGTP EQNQPKCNKUO, JCU DGGP EQORNKEKV KP KORQUKPI C EGPVTCN KFGQNQI[ CPF GXGP CP

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6JG RTQDNGO QH TGNCVKPI '&CQKUO' YKVJ INQDCN GPXKTQPOGPVCN RJGPQOGPC833 KU VJCV KV TWPU VJG

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&CQ834' VJCV UGTXGU VQ JCTOQPKUG CPF TGIWNCVG VJG GEQNQIKECN QTFGT QH VJKPIU. 5QOG CWVJQTU

JCXG UQWIJV VQ HKPF TGUQPCPEG DGVYGGP VJG &CQ CPF VJG ’I[RVKCP OCCV835

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YG GPICIG KP VJG UCOG UQTV QH TGFWEVKQPKUO VJCV YG HKPF KP 'UEKGPVKUO'. #FFKVKQPCNN[ EQWPVTKGU

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HQTO QH YGUVGTP JGIGOQP[ KP VJG HQTO QH INQDCN GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO840. 6JG FCPIGT HQT INQDCN

GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQDNGOU KU VJCV VJG FGUKTG HQT VJG JCTOQPKQWU TGKPVGITCVKQP QH JWOCP DGKPIU

KPVQ VJG HCDTKE QH PCVWTG YKNN NGCF VQ C TGFWEVKXG, GXGP FGUVTWEVKXG, EWNVWTCN EQNQPKCNKUO. 1PG

GZCORNG QH VJKU YCU VJG WPKPVGPFGF, DWV PQ NGUU TGCN EWNVWTCN EQPUGSWGPEGU QH VJG ’7'U DCP QP

831 −KPI 1999 832 5KNXGTU 2000 833 GI ENKOCVG EJCPIG, GVJKEU GVE 834 道道道道 FCQ4 (RTQPQWPEGF KP VJG 4VJ VQPG). 835 OCCV KU ’I[RVKCP HQT 'VJCV YJKEJ KU UVTCKIJV' CPF KORNKGU CP[VJKPI VJCV KU VTWG, QTFGTGF, QT DCNCPEGF.

836 jjjj----rkrkrkrk T.VC KU &GXCPCICTK HQT VJG NCY, RTKPEKRNG, QT QTFGT QH VJKPIU. (4KI 8GFC 10.85.1). 837 νόµος PQOQU KU )TGGM HQT NCY CPF QTFGT CPF TCVKQPCNKUO. 838 FKMG ()TGGM HQT LWUVKEG) YCU VJG IQFFGUU QH OQTCN LWUVKEG. 5JG TWNGF QXGT JWOCP LWUVKEG; JGT OQVJGT (6JGOKU) TWNGF QXGT FKXKPG LWUVKEG. &KMG YCU DQTP C OQTVCN CPF <GWU RNCEGF JGT QP GCTVJ VQ MGGR OCPMKPF LWUV. *G SWKEMN[ NGCTPGF VJKU YCU KORQUUKDNG CPF RNCEGF JGT PGZV VQ JKO QP 1N[ORWU. 839 )QNFUOKVJ 1996 840 /KNNGT 2001




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6JG JKUVQTKE &CQKUV GORJCUKU QP VJG NQECN CPF RCTVKEWNCT UWIIGUVU VJCV KV EQWNF OCMG C

EQPVTKDWVKQP VQ INQDCN GPXKTQPOGPVCN SWGUVKQPU D[ CNYC[U KPUKUVKPI QP HQEWUKPI QP VJG

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C HGY DWV KPHNWGPVKCN YGUVGTP YTKVGTU, YJQ ITCFWCNN[ KPHWUGF KV YKVJ PGY OGCPKPI, RQUKVKXGN[

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CYCTGPGUU KP %JKPC JCXG KPURKTGF [QWPI %JKPGUG KPVGNNGEVWCNU VQ NQQM HQT TGOGFKGU KP VJGKT QYP

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HQWPFCVKQP HQT C PGY TGCFKPI QH %JKPGUG EQUOQNQI[. 0GGFJCO854 EQPENWFGF VJCV HGPIUJWK

DGNQPIGF VQ C UWRGTUVKVKQWU RUGWFQ-UEKGPEG TCVJGT VJCP GCTN[ %JKPGUG UEKGPEG. *KU XKGYU,

JQYGXGT ICKPGF OQTG UKIPKHKECPEG VJCP JG KPVGPFGF, CPF NGF QP VQ VJG ETGCVKQP QH NKPMU DGVYGGP

RU[EJG CPF NCPFUECRG, CPF C UWDEQPVGZVWCN OGUUCIG QH CP KORNKEKV TGXGTGPEG HQT VJG NCPFUECRG

CVVTKDWVGF VQ HGPIUJWK855. (TQO RTGXKQWUN[ DGKPI UGGP CU C EQNNGEVKQP QH CDUWTFKVKGU, KV PQY

TG-GOGTIGF CU C UQWTEG QH JQNKUVKE VTWVJU YKVJ FKTGEV TGNGXCPEG HQT VJG KPFKXKFWCN KP OQFGTP

YGUVGTP UQEKGV[.

6JGTG YCU UVKNN PQ KOOGFKCVG NKPM DGVYGGP VJG TKUKPI UEKGPEG QH JWOCP GEQNQI[ CPF QTKGPVCN

RJKNQUQRJ[. +P VJG GCTN[ 1970'U, JQYGXGT, UQOG $GTMGNG[ CPVJTQRQNQIKUVU856 DGICP VQ GZRNKEKVN[

NKPM HGPIUJWK VQ GEQNQI[, UWIIGUVKPI VJCV KV YCU DCUGF QP 'UQWPF GEQNQIKECN RTKPEKRNGU'857, VJCV

845 /GCPKPI YKPF CPF YCVGT. 846 #PEKGPV \QFKCE. 847 /QWPVCKPU, UVTGCOU, HQTGUVU. 848 0GOGVJ 1995 849 阴阴阴阴 [KP1 (RTQPQWPEGF KP RKP[KP WUKPI VJG 1UV VQPG).

850 阳阳阳阳 [CPI2 (RTQPQWPEGF KP RKP[KP WUKPI VJG 2PF VQPG).

851 气气气气 SK4 (RTQPQWPEGF KP RKP[KP WUKPI VJG 4VJ VQPG). 852 *CUVKPIU 1908 853 ’KVGN 1873, FG )TQQV 1897 854 0GGFJCO 1962 855 (TGGFOCP 1969, ,WPI 1969, /CTEJ 1968. 856 2QUUKDN[ KPURKTGF D[ )NCEMGP CPF ’DGTJCTF. 857 6JGTG YCU C UWDEQPVGZVWCN OGUUCIG VJCV OQFGTP EKXKNK\CVKQP JCF HCKNGF.




CNNQYGF VJG %JKPGUG VQ RTGUGTXG VJGKT GPXKTQPOGPV KP URKVG QH VJGKT NCTIG RQRWNCVKQP858.

2CTCFQZKECNN[, CV VJKU VKOG VJG %JKPGUG GPXKTQPOGPV YCU FGITCFKPI HCUVGT VJCP GXGT FWG VQ

JWOCP KPVGTXGPVKQP859. 6JTQWIJ VJG 1970'U CPF 1980'U860 OQTG YGUVGTP YTKVGTU RTCKUGF

%JKPGUG 'PCVWTCN RJKNQUQRJ['. 6JG PGY 'XKUKQP' QH HGPIUJWK CRRGCNGF VQ NCTIG UWDEWNVWTGU CU,

YGNN CU VQ VJG TKUKPI GEQNQIKECN UEKGPEG VJTQWIJ VJG 1970'U CPF 1980'U. 6JG GPXKTQPOGPVCN

TGCFKPI QH HGPIUJWK VQQM HWTVJGT UJCRG YKVJ C PWODGT QH YQTMU CNN CHHKTOKPI VJG O[VJ QH

GCUVGTP JCTOQP[ YKVJ PCVWTG KP EQPVTCUV VQ YGUVGTP FQOKPCPEG861, TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 3

UGEVKQP 3.1.3, CPF ENCKOKPI HGPIUJWK VQ DG 'CP GPXKTQPOGPVCN UEKGPEG', 'UWRRQTVKXG QH GEQNQI[

CPF EQPUGTXCVKQP' CPF 'C OGCPU QH JCTOQPK\KPI YKVJ PCVWTG'862.

6JG TGUWTIGPEG QH KPVGTGUV KP HGPIUJWK KP EQPVGORQTCT[ %JKPC KU QEEWTTKPI CV VYQ NGXGNU.

(KTUVN[ CV VJG NGXGN QH KPVGNNGEVWCN RTQFWEVKQP, YJGTG QNF U[UVGOU QH VJQWIJV CTG DGKPI

TGXKVCNK\GF CPF KPHWUGF YKVJ PGY OGCPKPI, KP UQOG ECUGU RWUJGF D[ VJG %JKPGUG 5VCVG, CPF KP

QVJGT ECUGU FTKXGP D[ [QWPI KPVGNNGEVWCNU KPURKTGF D[/KP EQORGVKVKQP YKVJ, VJG YGUV. 5GEQPFN[,

CV VJG NGXGN QH TWTCN UQEKGV[, HGPIUJWK-TGNCVGF DGNKGHU CPF RTCEVKEGU JCXG JCF C VTGOGPFQWU

TGXKXCN UKPEG VJG NCWPEJKPI QH GEQPQOKE TGHQTOU CTQWPF 1980. 6JKU NGXGN, JQYGXGT, KU PQV

NKPMGF VQ C ITQYKPI EQPEGTP HQT VJG GPXKTQPOGPV863.

+P TGEGPV [GCTU, C RTQHQWPF PCVKXK\CVKQP QH EWNVWTG JCU DGIWP VQ VCMG RNCEG KP %JKPC, CNQPI YKVJ

PCVKQPCN CUUWTGFPGUU UVGOOKPI HTQO GEQPQOKE UWEEGUU. 6JGTG JCU DGGP C ITQYKPI KPVGNNGEVWCN

KPVGTGUV KP KPFKIGPQWU EQUOQNQI[, CPF OGFKEKPG, UKPEG VJG 1990'U. #WVJQTU JCXG CRRNKGF

'UEKGPVKHKE' VGTOKPQNQI[ VQ HGPIUJWK CU C RTQVQ-UEKGPEG HQT VJG UGNGEVKQP CPF JCPFNKPI QH VJG

GPXKTQPOGPV. +PVGNNGEVWCNU JCXG, KP VJG IWKUG QH OQFGTP UEKGPEG, UWIIGUVGF GZRNKEKV NKPMU

DGVYGGP HGPIUJWK CPF OQFGTP IGQITCRJ[, JWOCP GEQNQI[, RU[EJQNQI[ CPF QVJGT UEKGPEGU.

858 #PFGTUQP 1973, 1998 859 # UKIPKHKECPV RCTV QH CNN %JKPGUG HQTGUV TGUGTXGU YGTG FGRNGVGF FWTKPI VJG HGY [GCTU QH VJG ')TGCV .GCR (QTYCTF', YKNF NKHG YCU GZVKPIWKUJGF CU C TGUWNV QH HGNNKPI CPF JWPVKPI KP C RGTKQF QH WPRTGEGFGPVGF HCOKPG, CPF KP VJG UGCTEJ HQT GCU[ RQNKVKECN VCTIGVU ECORCKIPU YGTG FKTGEVGF CICKPUV TCVU CPF URCTTQYU. 860 9JGP JGCX[ RQNNWVKQP YCU EQPURKEWQWU KP %JKPC. 861 −GNNGTV 1995, 9JKVG 1967 862 4QUUDCEJ 1983, 5MKPPGT 1982 863 $TWWP 1996




9JCV KU QH RCTVKEWNCT UKIPKHKECPEG KU VJCV [QWPI %JKPGUG YTKVGTU HKPF EQPUKFGTCDNG KPURKTCVKQP KP

YGUVGTP YQTMU QP HGPIUJWK. 5RGEKHKECNN[ KV KU VJG TGCFKPI QH HGPIUJWK VJCV QTKIKPCVGF KP VJG

YGUV KP VJG 1960'U CPF 1970'U VJCV CRRGCNU VQ %JKPGUG UEJQNCTU CPF TGUQPCVGU YKVJ VJG EWTTGPV

KPVGNNGEVWCN ENKOCVG KP %JKPC. 6JG HGY RCIGU, QH 0GGFJCO'U OQPWOGPVCN YQTM864, FGCNKPI YKVJ

HGPIUJWK CTG SWQVGF KP EQWPVNGUU %JKPGUG RWDNKECVKQPU CU C TGHGTGPEG VQ JCTF UEKGPEG KP QTFGT

VQ LWUVKH[ C TGPGYGF KPVGTGUV KP C HKGNF EQPXGPVKQPCNN[ ENCUUKHKGF CU UWRGTUVKVKQWU865.

6JWU, KP %JKPC CU KP VJG YGUV HGPIUJWK JCU DGGP KPHWUGF YKVJ C TCPIG QH PGY EQPEGRVU TGNCVKPI

VQ GPXKTQPOGPVCN GVJKEU, PCVWTG, VJG GPXKTQPOGPV, U[UVGOU, JCTOQPKQWU TGNCVKQPUJKRU, CPF

GPXKTQPOGPVCN OCPCIGOGPV. 1H VJG PGY XQECDWNCT[ CFQRVGF KP VJG YGUV, RCTVKEWNCTN[ VJQUG

EQPEGRVU VJCV TGUQPCVG YKVJ &CQKUV QT PGQ-%QPHWEKCP EQUOQNQI[ JCXG CRRGCNGF VQ VJGKT

%JKPGUG EQWPVGTRCTVU. 9JGP YGUVGTP GEQNQIKUVU WUG EQPEGRVU NKMG 'NKXKPI YKVJ PCVWTG' QT

CTEJKVGEVU URGCM QH 'FGUKIPKPI YKVJ PCVWTG', %JKPGUG UEJQNCTU YKNN KOOGFKCVGN[ FTCY RCTCNNGNU

YKVJ %JKPGUG EQUOQNQI[866.

&WTKPI VJG 1980'U CPF 1990'U VJG RTGXCNGPV KPVGTPCVKQPCN FKUEQWTUG QP UWUVCKPCDNG

FGXGNQROGPV867 JCU KPURKTGF VJG CFQRVKQP QH GEQNQIKECN EQPEGRVU CU YGNN CU VJG TGFGHKPKVKQP QH

KPFKIGPQWU EWNVWTCN XCNWGU COQPI EQWPVNGUU PCVKQPU CETQUU VJG YQTNF. 0GY KOCIGU QH

KPFKIGPQWU GEQNQIKECN-OKPFGFPGUU CTG EQPUVTWEVGF, FTCYKPI VJGKT GZRNCPCVQT[ RQYGT CPF

ETGFKDKNKV[ HTQO VJG KPVGTPCVKQPCN XQECDWNCT[ CPF RQNKVKECN CVVGPVKQP VQ VJG UWDLGEV.

%QQRGTCVKQP DGVYGGP %JKPGUG CPF YGUVGTP UEJQNCTU, CNQPI UKOKNCT NKPGU JCU HTGSWGPVN[ TGUWNVGF

KP 'VWPPGN XKUKQP' YJGTG JKUVQTKECN HCEVU CPF HKGNFYQTM JCXG DGGP HKNVGTGF QWV KP QTFGT VQ TGCEJ

RQRWNCT EQPENWUKQPU868. 5KOKNCTN[, YJGP 9GUVGTP RJKNQUQRJGTU XKGY #UKCP VTCFKVKQPU CU C

EQPEGRVWCN TGUQWTEG HQT GPXKTQPOGPVCN RJKNQUQRJ[869 UQOG %JKPGUG UEJQNCTU UGK\G VJG

QRRQTVWPKV[ VQ GNGXCVG VJG RQUKVKQP QH %JKPGUG RJKNQUQRJ[.

864 0GGFJCO 1962 865 $TWWP 2002, 4CEM 2000 866 /E*CTI 1969 867 #U YGNN CU VJG 9GUVGTP GEQNQIKUVU' UGCTEJ HQT KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG KP PQP-YGUVGTP EWNVWTGU. 868 4WFFNG CPF <JQPI 1988, 9GP CPF 2KOGPVCN 1996 869 %CNNKEQVV CPF #OGU 1989




6JG TGPGYGF %JKPGUG KPVGNNGEVWCN CVVGPVKQP VQ HGPIUJWK JCU GOGTIGF UKOWNVCPGQWUN[ YKVJ VJG

CFQRVKQP QH CP GEQNQIKECN XQECDWNCT[. #NVJQWIJ VJG TGPGYGF KPVGTGUV KP KPFKIGPQWU EQUOQNQI[

KP IGPGTCN, CPF VJG TGKPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH KVU HWPFCOGPVCN VGPGVU KP RCTVKEWNCT, TGHNGEV RTQEGUUGU VJCV

JCXG JCTFN[ UVCTVGF, VJGTG KU UQOG TGUQPCPEG YKVJ QVJGT UKIPKHKECPV EWTTGPVU QH KPVGNNGEVWCN CPF

RQNKVKECN EJCPIG KP %JKPC. +V YCU, KP HCEV VJG %JKPGUG RCTV[ UVCVG VJCV ICXG VJGKT DNGUUKPI VQ

%QPHWEKCPKUO, KP VJG NCVG 1980'U, CU C OGCPU QH HKIJVKPI OQTCN FKUKPVGITCVKQP, FWG VQ VJG HCKNWTG

QH /CTZKUV CPF /CQKUV OQTCNKV[.

+P CPVJTQRQNQI[, VJGTG JCU DGGP CP KPETGCUKPI CYCTGPGUU QH VJG KPVGTCEVKQP DGVYGGP TQOCPVKE

FGUETKRVKQPU QH NQECN RGQRNG CPF VJG HQTOCVKQP QH VJGKT KFGPVKV[. 2TQOKPGPV GZCORNGU KPENWFG

VJG FGRKEVKQP QH EQOOQP PCTTCVKXGU UJCTGF DGVYGGP GVJPQITCRJGTU CPF VJG #OGTKECP +PFKCPU,

VJG /CQTKU, CPF VJG 6KDGVCPU870. 6JGTG KU CP WPYKVVKPI EQPURKTCE[ VJCV UJCRGU DQVJ VJG

FGUETKRVKQP CPF VJG UGNH-KOCIG QH VJG ITQWRU KP SWGUVKQP. #PQVJGT RTQOKPGPV GZCORNG KU VJCV QH

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU, KP IGPGTCN VGTOU, DGKPI FGUETKDGF CU 'EWUVQFKCPU QH PCVWTG', YJKEJ JCU

UNQYN[ YQTMGF KVU YC[ KPVQ DQVJ NQECN KFGPVKVKGU CPF VJG TJGVQTKE QH KPVGTPCVKQPCN

QTICPK\CVKQPU871. 6JKU OC[ JQYGXGT WPYKVVKPIN[ TGUWNV KP UVTGPIVJGPKPI VJG EWNVWTCN KFGPVKV[ QH

NQECN CPF KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU872.

5KOKNCT RTQEGUUGU CTG GXKFGPVN[ CV YQTM KP VJG EWTTGPV TGUWTIGPEG QH VTCFKVKQPCN EQUOQNQI[ KP

%JKPC, CNVJQWIJ VJG CEVQTU CTG OQTG PWOGTQWU CPF VJG UVQT[ JCU OQTG HCEGVU. +P RCTVKEWNCT VJG

KPVGTCEVKQP DGVYGGP RTCEVKEG CPF TGRTGUGPVCVKQP JCU DGGP EQORNKECVGF D[ VJG HCEV VJCV HGPIUJWK

KU PQ NQPIGT LWUV RTCEVKEGF KP %JKPC CPF KPVGTRTGVGF KP VJG YGUV. #U C URKP-QHH HTQO VJG

KPVGNNGEVWCN FGDCVG COQPI CXCPV-ICTFG VJGQTKUVU, UWDITQWRU JCXG UVCTVGF CRRN[KPI VJG U[UVGO VQ

C OQFGTP 9GUVGTP UGVVKPI. 9JCV KU RGTJCRU OQUV UVTKMKPI KU VJG HCEV VJCV YGUVGTP KPVGNNGEVWCNU

JCXG JCF UWEJ C RTQHQWPF KORCEV QP QVJGT RGQRNG'U EQUOQNQIKGU, DG KV UOCNN KPFKIGPQWU

RGQRNGU QT NCTIG EKXKNK\CVKQPU NKMG VJG %JKPGUG.

9G FKUEQXGTGF KP VJKU UGEVKQP VJCV DQVJ &CQKUO CPF HGPIUJWK JCXG DGGP HCUJKQPGF FKUEWTUKXGN[

CPF CNVJQWIJ DQVJ JCXG TGUQWTEGU VJCV UWRRQTV PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP PGKVJGT CTG GZGORNCTU QH

870 $TWPGT 1986, *CPUQP 1989, *WDGT 1995 871 $TWWP 2002 872 2GFGTUGP 1995




GZRNKEKV PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP YJKEJ NGCFU WU VQ SWGUVKQP KH UKOKNCT FKUEWTUKXG VTGCVOGPV JCU

VCMGP RNCEG YKVJ VJG QTKGPVCN EQPEGRVU CPF RGTEGRVKQP QH PCVWTG.

7.3 &+5%1745’5 1( 0#674’

7.3.1 #UKCP %QPEGRVU QH 0CVWTG

#UKCP EQPEGRVU873 QH PCVWTG CTG PQ NGUU EQORNGZ VJCP VJGKT YGUVGTP EQWPVGTRCTVU, CU YG

FKUEQXGTGF KP EJCRVGT 3 UGEVKQP 3.3.3, %JKPGUG RGTEGRVKQP QH YJCV DGNQPIU VQ 'PCVWTG', JQYGXGT

KU PQV VQVCNN[ FKHHGTGPV HTQO QWTU. 9JGP WUGF KP C RWTG, OCVGTKCN UGPUG874 KV KU WPFGTUVQQF KP

VGTOU EQORCTCDNG YKVJ VJQUG QH VJG YGUV. .QECN CPF OCVGTKCN EQPEGRVU QH PCVWTG875 CRRGCT VQ

UJCTG CV NGCUV QPG OGCPKPI YKVJ YGUVGTP WUG QH VJG EQPEGRV. 6JG ENQUGT, JQYGXGT YG IGV VQ VJG

\QPG YJGTG PCVWTG CPF EWNVWTG DNGPF, VJG UJCTRGT VJG FKHHGTGPEGU CTG KP C ETQUU-EWNVWTCN

RGTURGEVKXG876.

7.3.2 0CVWTG KP %JKPGUG .KVGTCVWTG, #TV CPF 4GCNKV[

+P %JKPC, VJG YTKVVGP VTCFKVKQP CPF GXGT[FC[ NKHG CTG QHVGP YQTNFU CRCTV. 6JG %JKPGUG YQTNFXKGY

CNNQYU HQT EQPUKFGTCDNG VGPUKQP DGVYGGP VJGUG FKURCTCVG TGCNKVKGU. 6JG %JKPGUG JCXG CP

GZVGPUKXG NKVGTCT[ VTCFKVKQP XGPGTCVKPI PCVWTG, DWV YG JCXG HGY OGCPU QH KPXGUVKICVKPI JQY VJKU

YCU CRRNKGF KP RTCEVKEG. %JKPGUG PCVWTCN RJKNQUQRJ[ JCU PQV RTGXGPVGF FGHQTGUVCVKQP CPF

FGUVTWEVKQP QH VJG GPXKTQPOGPV VJTQWIJ JKUVQT[877. %JKPGUG PCVWTCN RJKNQUQRJ[ KU C FQOCKP QH

VJQWIJV KP YJKEJ VJG UQEKCN OGVCRJQT KU C EQPUVCPV UWDLGEV (QT GXGP VJG QDLGEV) HQT ETGCVKQP QH

OGCPKPI YKVJ CP KPJGTGPV FKUETGRCPE[ DGVYGGP YQTF CPF RTCEVKEG. +V KU OQTCNK\KPI CIGPE[

UVTGUUKPI KFGCN EWNVWTG TCVJGT VJCP QDUGTXGF TGCNKV[. 6GPUKQP KU QDXKQWU YJGP, HQT GZCORNG

%QPHWEKCPKUO UVTGUUGU VJCV ".YGCNVJ CPF JQPQWT CTG HTQO JGCXGP"878 YJKNG CPEGUVQT DGNKGH;

HGPIUJWK CPF HQNM DGNKGH RTQXKFG VJG OGCPU QH KPHNWGPEKPI JGCXGP. 6JG %JKPGUG CTG MPQYP HQT

CPVJTQRQEGPVTKUO KP VJGKT RJKNQUQRJ[ CPF UQEKQEGPVTKUO KP VGTOU QH RTCIOCVKE QTKGPVCVKQP. #U

873 *CP %JKPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP.

874 .KMG XKTIKP NCPFUECRG, YKNF CPKOCNU, CPF JKFFGP OCTKPG GPXKTQPOGPVU. 875 GI 自然自然自然自然 \K4 TCP2 CPF OGCPU 'VJCV YJKEJ EQOGU QH KVUGNH', UVTGUUKPI URQPVCPGKV[ KP VJG PCVWTCN UWTTQWPFKPIU

(\K KU RTQPQWPEGF KP VJG 4VJ VQPG CPF TCP KP VJG 2PF VQPG). 876 $TWWP CPF −CNNCPF 1995 877 $TWWP CPF −CNNCPF 1995 878 富貴在天富貴在天富貴在天富貴在天 %QPHWEKWU 1998 DQQM 12 ;GP ;WCP EJCR 5.3




UWEJ VJG ITGCVGT RCTV QH VJG 'YQTNF VJCV OCVVGTU' KU OCFG WR QH JWOCPU CPF JWOCP UQEKGV[,

YJKEJ UVKNN JQNFU VTWG VQFC[.

%JKPC JCU C NQPI VTCFKVKQP QH YTKVKPI U[ODQNU KPVQ PCVWTG, HQT KPUVCPEG KP NCPFUECRG RCKPVKPI879.

# TKEJ CTEJKXG QH U[ODQNU YCU FGRKEVGF KP CTV D[ OGCPU QH KPVGTRTGVKPI PCVWTCN HQTOU, HQTEGU880

CPF EQPUVGNNCVKQPU. # ITGCV PWODGT QH YQTF EQORQWPFU881, YJKEJ CNN DWKNF QP GZVGPUKQPU QH VJG

[KP-[CPI RCKT,882 EQPUVKVWVG C JWIG CPF TCVJGT RQQTN[ KPXGUVKICVGF UGOCPVKE HKGNF883 [GV PCVWTCN

U[ODQNKUO JCU PQ KOOGFKCVG KORCEV QP VJG EQPETGVG CEVKXKVKGU QH TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV CPF

GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTCEVKEGU KP IGPGTCN. 6JG HQTEG QH OCVGTKCN ICKP JCU DGGP RGTUKUVGPV, RGTXCUKXG

CPF RGTPKEKQWU KP KVU GHHGEV QP VJG %JKPGUG GPXKTQPOGPV HQT OCP[ EGPVWTKGU. %JKPGUG RGCUCPVU

JCXG NQPI UQWIJV VQ KORTQXG VJGKT NKXGNKJQQFU D[ ENGCTKPI YGVNCPFU, HGNNKPI HQTGUVU HQT HWGN CPF

CTCDNG HKGNFU, CPF FGUVTQ[KPI ITCUUNCPFU HQT YJGCV CPF OKNNGV. 6JG PQDNG EWNVWTCN KFGCNU QH

&CQKUO CPF HGPIUJWK JCF NKVVNG TGUVTCKPKPI GHHGEV, GURGEKCNN[ UKPEG VJG RQRWNCVKQP GZRNQUKQP QH

VJG GKIJVGGPVJ EGPVWT[884. # XGT[ UKOKNCT XKGY YCU JGNF D[ UQOG QH %JKPC'U OQUV TGURGEVGF

GEQNQIKUVU, YJQ PQVGF VJG JKUVQTKE GZRNQKVCVKQP QH PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU YJKEJ JCF VCMGP C JGCX[

VQNN QP %JKPC'U GPXKTQPOGPV, JCF NCTIGN[ IQPG WPJGGFGF WPVKN XGT[ TGEGPVN[885. 5KOKNCT

RCTCFQZGU QEEWT DGVYGGP QWT WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH VJG "GEQNQIKECN QTKGPVCN"886 CPF %JKPGUG

DGJCXKQWT.

7.3.3 6JG ’EQNQIKECN 1TKGPVCN CPF VJGKT %CTG QH 0CVWTG

#U YG JCXG FKUEQXGTGF CDQXG KP RQRWNCT NKVGTCVWTG QP GEQNQI[, CNNWUKQPU VQ QTKGPVCN

RJKNQUQRJKGU QH &CQKUO CPF HGPIUJWK887 CU C TGOGF[ HQT GPXKTQPOGPVCN KNNU CTG YKFGURTGCF.

9JKNG PCVWTCN UEKGPVKUVU JCXG TGRGCVGFN[ RQKPVGF VQ RCTCNNGNU DGVYGGP VJG PGY RJ[UKEU CPF

DKQNQI[, YJKEJ YG FKUEWUUGF KP EJCRVGT 2 UGEVKQP 2.3.1, CPF GCUVGTP RJKNQUQRJKGU, QVJGTU YKVJ

879 −KPUNG[ 1995 880 GI 气气气气 SK4 KU %JKPGUG HQT EQUOKE OGTKFKCPU (RTQPQWPEGF KP RKP[KP WUKPI VJG 4VJ VQPG).

881 GI 山山山山 - 水水水水 UJCP1-UJWK3 KU %JKPGUG HQT OQWPVCKP-YCVGT (UJCP KU RTQPQWPEGF WUKPI VJG 1UV VQPG CPF UJWK VJG 3TF VQPG). 882 /CK-/CK 5\G 1967 883 $TWWP 2002 884 2GTFWG 1987 885 .K 9GPJWC CPF <JCQ :KCP[KPI 1989 886 $TWWP GV CN 1995 RCIG 16 887 CPF $WFFJKUO CPF *KPFWKUO.




QPN[ C TWFKOGPVCT[ WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH QTKGPVCN EWNVWTGU, VQ VJG OQTG UQRJKUVKECVGF RTQRQPGPVU QH

'FGGR GEQNQI[' JCXG KPEQTRQTCVGF GCUVGTP RCTCFKIOU OQTG QT NGUU WPETKVKECNN[ KPVQ VJGKT

YQTNFXKGYU. #P WPFGTN[KPI CUUWORVKQP KP OWEJ QH VJKU YQTM KU VJCV GCUVGTP EQUOQNQIKGU JCXG

OCFG GCUVGTP RGQRNGU OQTG UWEEGUUHWN VJCP QVJGTU KP VCMKPI ECTG QH PCVWTG888. /CP[

CPVJTQRQNQIKUVU, IGQITCRJGTU, UQEKQNQIKUVU CPF QVJGTU, JQYGXGT, FQKPI HKGNFYQTM KP VJG '’CUV'

JCXG PQVKEGF VJCV GCUVGTP RJKNQUQRJKGU CPF EQUOQNQIKGU UGGO VQ JCXG JCF NKVVNG GHHGEV KP

RTGXGPVKPI QXGT-GZRNQKVCVKQP QH UQKNU, QXGT-ITC\KPI, GTQUKQP, FGHQTGUVCVKQP, YCVGT RQNNWVKQP CPF

QVJGT GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUCUVGTU, D[ YJKEJ C PWODGT QH #UKCP UQEKGVKGU CTG CEWVGN[ VJTGCVGPGF.

0QT ECP KV DG ENCKOGF VJCV GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP KU C PGY RJGPQOGPQP KP VJG '’CUV'889. +P

IGPGTCN, VGTOU, GCUVGTP RGTEGRVKQPU QH PCVWTG JCXG PQV QRGTCVGF KP RTGXGPVKQP QH OCUUKXG

RQNNWVKQP, FGUVTWEVKQP QH PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUCUVGTU. 6JG GEQPQOKGU QH VJG

'’CUV' JCXG YKVJ VJGKT HQTOKFCDNG ITQYVJ TCVGU JCXG UKOWNVCPGQWUN[ RTQFWEGF VQZKE YCUVGU

ECWUKPI RQNKVKECN RTQDNGOU CV JQOG CPF CDTQCF. $QVJ +PFKC CPF %JKPC JCXG GZRGTKGPEGF

OCUUKXG GTQUKQP CPF HNQQFKPI FWG VQ UVCVG GZRNQKVCVKQP QH VJG HQTGUV. %JKPC'U DQQOKPI GEQPQO[

JCU FTKXGP VJG PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV VQ VJG GFIG QH FKUCUVGT, VJG GZVGPV QH YJKEJ ECP QPN[ DG

EQPEGCNGF D[ C JGCX[ UVCVG OQPQRQN[ QP KPHQTOCVKQP. 5WEJ TGCNKV[ FQGU PQV TGUQPCVG YKVJ

PQVKQPU QH VJG "GEQNQIKECN QTKGPVCN"890. 6JKU UGGOKPI RCTCFQZ JCU DGGP GZRNCKPGF KP XCTKQWU

YC[U. 5QOG YCPV WU VQ DGNKGXG VJCV GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUCUVGTU CTG PGY VQ #UKC CPF VJGKT

GPXKTQPOGPVCN VTGCVOGPV ECP DG CVVTKDWVGF VQ; "VJG FQOKPCPV YGUVGTP RCTCFKIO", QT VJG

"KPVGNNGEVWCN EQNQPK\CVKQP QH VJG ’CUV D[ VJG 9GUV", QT GZRCPFKPI RQRWNCVKQPU891. 6JKU

GZRNCPCVKQP, YJKNG CRRGCNKPI KP OCP[ YC[U, UVTKMGU QPG CU KPEQORNGVG CPF UKORNKUVKE. 6JGTG KU

GXKFGPEG QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUCUVGT KP %JKPC, NQPI DGHQTG VJG KPHNWGPEG QH CP[ YGUVGTP

RCTCFKIO892. 4GCNK\KPI VJCV GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP KU PQV C PGY RJGPQOGPQP *CTITQXG 893

UWIIGUVU FGITCFCVKQP OKIJV DG "VJG TGUWNV QH GORKTKECN KIPQTCPEG" CPF −GNNGTV 894 VJCV

EQPVGORQTCT[ XKGYU QH PCVWTG JCXG EJCPIGF XGT[ NKVVNG HTQO VTCFKVKQPCN XKGYU CPF EQPVKPWG VQ

"DG JKIJN[ CDUVTCEV CPF KFGCNK\GF, V[RKECNN[ KPXQNXG NKVVNG GORKTKECN WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH GEQNQIKECN

EQPUKFGTCVKQPU QH VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF, TCTGN[ RTQXKFG GZRNKEKV UWRRQTV HQT PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP,

888 $TWWP CPF −CNNCPF 1995 889 −GNNGTV 1995, 5KOOQPU 1989, 6QVOCP 1989 890 $TWWP GV CN 1995 RCIG 16 891 %CNNKEQVV CPF #OGU 1989 RCIG 280, 9CVCPDG 1975 892 ’FOQPFU 1994, 5OKN 1984 893 *CTITQXG 1989 RCIG ZKZ 894 −GNNGTV 1995 RCIG 116




CPF QHVGP GPEQWTCIG RCUUKXKV[ QT HCVCNKUO VQYCTFU C PCVWTCN YQTNF FGRKEVGF CU CNN-RQYGTHWN CPF

DG[QPF JWOCP ECRCEKV[ VQ EQPUGTXG".

6WCP (1968) CTVKEWNCVGU VJG RCTCFQZ DGVYGGP GPXKTQPOGPVCN KFGCN CPF TGCNKV[ D[ FTCYKPI QP VJG

EQPEGRV QH [KPI/[CPI. *G KFGPVKHKGU VYQ QRRQUKVG CPF UQOG YQWNF CTIWG EQPVTCFKEVQT[

GPXKTQPOGPVCN VTCFKVKQPU, C VGTTGUVTKCN CPF EGNGUVKCN RCTCFKIO.

6JG VGTTGUVTKCN PCVWTCNKUVKE RCTCFKIO ([KPI) HKPFU GZRTGUUKQP KP CPKOKUVKE DGNKGH, PCVWTG

RJKNQUQRJ[, RQGVT[, VJG TGHKPGF UGPVKOGPVU QH &CQKUO CPF %QPHWEKCPKUO, CPF GPNKIJVGPGF

EQPUGTXCVKQP OGOQTKCNU895.

6JG EQUOKE EGNGUVKCN RCTCFKIO ([CPI) KU RTGFKECVGF QP IGQOGVTKE QTFGT, IGQOCPE[, HGPIUJWK,

CPF CITKEWNVWTCN CNOCPCEU, YJKEJ CTG KORQUGF QP HQTOCN ICTFGPU, CTEJKVGEVWTG, CPF UQEKCN

HQTOU, DGECWUG VJG GCTVJ NCEMU RCTCFKIOU QH RGTHGEV QTFGT.

9JKNG VJG HQTOGT (VGTTGUVTKCN PCVWTCNKUVKE RCTCFKIO ([KPI)) TGUWNVGF KP CP CFCRVKXG CVVKVWFG VQ

PCVWTG VJG NCVVGT (EQUOKE EGNGUVKCN RCTCFKIO ([CPI)) KPURKTGF CVVKVWFGU QH QTFGT CPF JKGTCTEJ[

CPF WPFGTRKPPGF C FKUEQWTUG VJCV NGIKVKOK\GF CWVJQTKVCTKCP KPUVTWOGPVCN EQPVTQN QXGT GCTVJ CPF

JWOCPMKPF CPF VJG RQNKVKECN EQPVTQN QH NCPIWCIG CPF OGCPKPI (8GTOCPFGT 2000).

7.3.4 6JG 4G-QTFGTKPI CPF 6COKPI QH 0CVWTG KP 6KDGV

+P EQOOQP YKVJ DQVJ %JKPGUG CPF ,CRCPGUG $WFFJKUO, TGHGTTGF VQ KP %JCRVGT 4 UGEVKQP 4.2,

VJG 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUV RGTEGRVKQP QH PCVWTG CRRGCTU VQ DG RTGFKECVGF PQV QP PCVWTG KP KVU TCY

HQTO, DWV QP VJG EWNVWTCN VTCPUHQTOCVKQP QH PCVWTG, YJGTG PCVWTCN GNGOGPVU CTG TGHKPGF CPF

CDUVTCEVGF UQ VJCV VJG[ ECP UGTXG CU U[ODQNU QH JCTOQP[, QTFGT, QT DCNCPEG. (WPFCOGPVCN VQ QWT

WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH UCETGF NCPFUECRG KP 6KDGV CPF KP −JCO, UGG EJCRVGT 8 UGEVKQP 8.2.4 CPF

EJCRVGT 10 UGEVKQP 10.1.1, KU VJG FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP UGXGTCN QXGTNCRRKPI NCPFUECRG ECVGIQTKGU

PCOGN[ PGTK896 OQWPVCKPU CPF [WN NJC NQECNGU

(YJKEJ QHVGP KPENWFG OQWPVCKPU) CPF VJG TKVWCN

RNCEGOGPV QH UVTWEVWTGU CETQUU VJG UWTHCEG QH VJG NCPFUECRG.

895 6JKU RCTCFKIO JCU UQOG TGUQPCPEG YKVJ 5JKXC'U "PCVWTG CU HGOKPKPG RTKPEKRNG" (1989 RCIG 38-42).

896 ,{:mk

PG-TK




PGTK OQWPVCKPU CTG VJQUG UKVGU YJGTG VJG RTKOCT[ HKIWTG KP VJG EQORNGZ JKGTCTEJ[ QH TGUKFGPV

FGKVKGU KU C $WFFJKUV QPG CPF VJCV JKUVQTKECNN[ JCXG DGGP RCTV QH VJG $WFFJK\CVKQP RTQEGUU. 6JG[

CTG EQPEGTPGF YKVJ VJG VTCPUEGPFGPV, FTCYKPI QP VGZVWCN VTCFKVKQP CPF YQTUJKRRGF D[

EKTEWODWNCVKQP.

[WN NJC897 CTG CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ URGEKHKE EQOOWPKVKGU (6KDGVCP, −JCODC CPF 3KCPIKE) CPF

NQECNGU CPF CTG RCTV QH CP JKUVQTKE PQPNKVGTCVG VTCFKVKQP EQPEGTPGF YKVJ VJG KOOGFKCVG YQTNF,

KPXQNXKPI XCTKQWU TKVWCNU, VJCV QHVGP VCMG RNCEG QP URGEKHKE OQWPVCKPU. #NVJQWIJ CVVGORVU JCXG

DGGP OCFG VQ VCOG VJGUG IQFU CPF VQ FGURKUG VJKU VTCFKVKQP898 KV KU DGKPI TGXKVCNK\GF VQFC[. 1VJGT

YKFGURTGCF QT RQRWNCT 6KDGVCP UEJGOGU HQT TGQTFGTKPI CPF CRRTQRTKCVKPI URCEG QT FGHKPKPI

ECVGIQTKGU QH RNCEG QHVGP WVKNK\GF VJG UVTCVGIKE RNCEGOGPV QH C TCPIG QH UVTWEVWTGU CETQUU VJG

UWTHCEG QH VJG NCPFUECRG. ’ZCORNGU QH VJKU TKVWCN RNCEGOGPV CDQWPF KP 6KDGV CPF TCPIG HTQO C

PGVYQTM QH QITGUU 'VCOKPI' VGORNGU899 VJG QEEWTTGPEG QH UJTKPGU900 CPF VJG RNCEGOGPV QH

EQNQWTGF UVTKPI CPF HNCIU CTQWPF UCETGF HQTGUV QT OQWPVCKPU.

*KUVQTKECNN[ OCP[ PGTK OQWPVCKPU YGTG CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ [WN NJC TKVWCNU CPF VJGKT 'EQPXGTUKQP'901

ECP DG XKGYGF CU QPG V[RG QH RNCEG ETGCVKQP FWTKPI VJG NCUV OKNNGPPKWO QH 6KDGVCP JKUVQT[902.

+V KU QPG KP YJKEJ 6CPVTKE $WFFJKUO903 YCU RCTVKEWNCTN[ KPUVTWOGPVCN D[ YC[ QH VJG CIGPE[ QH

VJG NCOC, YJQ RTQXKFGF UQRJKUVKECVGF XKUKQPCT[ TGRTGUGPVCVKQPU QH VJG YQTNF. 6JG PGTK

VTCFKVKQP TGFGHKPGF PCVWTG, VJG YKNF QT WPEWNVKXCVGF GPXKTQPOGPV, KP C EQORGNNKPI PGY OCPPGT

YKVJQWV TGEQWTUG VQ RJ[UKECNN[ CNVGTKPI QT EQPUVTWEVKPI CP[ CEVWCN GFKHKEG QP VJG NCPF. #V VJG

'RQYGT RNCEGU' CEVWCN TKVWCN UVTWEVWTGU YGTG RTGEGFGF D[ VJG 6CPVTKE NCOC'U XKUKQPCT[

897 9v;-[k


EQORCEV FKEVKQPCT[ JVVR://YYY.CUMQZHQTF.EQO/EQPEKUGAQGF/PWOGP!XKGY=WM CEEGUUGF 30VJ 1EVQDGT 2005. 898 $[ $WFFJKUO CPF %QOOWPKUO. 899 )[WTOG &QTLG 1996

900 1&}+-K{,k

OEJQF TVGP KU 6KDGVCP HQT EJQTVGP JVVR://YYY.UKNMTQCFU.EQO/TKVWCNQDLGEVU/EJQTVGP.JVON CEEGUUGF

29VJ 1EVQDGT 2005. 901 2CTV QH VJG 'RQYGT RNCEG' VTCFKVKQP. 902 &QYOCP 1991 903 6CPVTKE $WFFJKUO KU QHVGP XKGYGF CU VJG VJKTF OCLQT UEJQQN QH $WFFJKUO, CNQPIUKFG VJG 6JGTCXCFC CPF /CJC[CPC UEJQQNU JVVR://GP.YKMKRGFKC.QTI/YKMK/6CPVTKEA$WFFJKUO CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005.

http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/numen?view=uk%20

http://www.silkroads.com/ritualobjects/chorten.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantric_Buddhism




TGRTGUGPVCVKQP CPF KOCIKPI QH NCPFUECRGU CU C 'OCPFCNC'904 YJKEJ YCU NCVGT UWTRCUUGF D[ NCTIG

UECNG TKVWCN OQXGOGPVU905 QH RGQRNG CETQUU QT CTQWPF906 VJG RQYGT RNCEGU907. 1PG EQWNF CTIWG

VJCV 6KDGV'U PGTK OQWPVCKPU EQWNF PGXGT JCXG DGGP FGHKPGF D[ VJG DWKNFKPI QH TKVWCN CTEJKVGEVWTG,

DGECWUG WPNKMG %JKPC VJG[ YGTG HCT OQTG TGOQVG CPF PQV WPFGT KORGTKCN RCVTQPCIG, DWV QVJGT

UQEKQEWNVWTCN HCEVQTU CRRGCT VQ DG KPXQNXGF.

1PG ECP FKUVKPIWKUJ VYQ DTQCFN[ FKHHGTGPV VTCFKVKQPU QH UCETGF IGQITCRJ[ KP OCP[ UQEKGVKGU,

VYQ YC[U VQ CVVCEJ OGCPKPI VQ VJG PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV. # XGTPCEWNCT VTCFKVKQP YJGTG RGQRNG

CUUWOG, TCVJGT VJCP KORQUG EJVJQPKE908 QT VGNNWTKE909 UCETGFPGUU YKVJKP VJG HGCVWTGU QH VJG

PCVWTCN NCPFUECRG, UWEJ CU OQWPVCKPU CPF NCMGU. 6JG QVJGT KU VJCV QH VJG KORQUKVKQP QH OGCPKPI

QP VJG GPXKTQPOGPV, VJG GODQFKOGPV QH JKUVQTKECN FKUEQWTUG, OCKPN[ VJTQWIJ DWKNFKPI CEVKXKV[

YKVJKP VJG EQPVGZV QH VJG EGPVTCNK\GF QTFGT QH VJG UVCVG CPF QTICPK\GF UCNXCVKQP TGNKIKQPU. 6JGUG

VYQ FKHHGTGPV CRRTQCEJGU VQ UCETGF RNCEG CPF URCEG CTG QHVGP ENQUGN[ EQODKPGF KP RKNITKOCIG

EWNVU VJCV JCXG DGGP JKUVQTKECNN[ EQPUVKVWVGF VJTQWIJ VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH WPKXGTUCN TGNKIKQPU KPVQ

NQECN EQPVGZVU, CU HQWPF, HQT GZCORNG KP VJG EWNVU CPF UJTKPGU QH #PFGCP RKNITKOCIG910.

6KDGVCP UQEKGVKGU CNUQ JCXG CURGEVU QH DQVJ CRRTQCEJGU UQOGVKOGU TGHGTTGF VQ CU UJCOCPKE

XGTUWU ENGTKECN QT QPVKE XGTUWU GRKUVGOKE OQFGU911. +P VGTOU QH UWEJ C FKUEWUUKQP, VJG PGTK CU C

ECVGIQT[ QH UCETGF RNCEG QT TKVWCN URCEG EQODKPGU CURGEVU QH VJGUG VYQ CRRTQCEJGU QT OQFGU,

YJKNG [WN-NJC KU RCTV QH C UJCOCPKE VTCFKVKQP. 9KVJKP VJG PGTK VTCFKVKQP CNVJQWIJ VJGTG CTG PQ

UKIPKHKECPV DWKNFKPIU, VJGTG KU C OGCPKPIHWN, CNDGKV XKUKQPCT[ CTEJKVGEVWTG QH NCPFUECRG,

IGPGTCVGF CPF KORQUGF QP VJG PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV QH VJG GCTNKGT UCETGF OQWPVCKP UKVGU. 4KVWCN

CPF QVJGT HQTOU QH TGRTGUGPVCVKQP GPUWTG VJKU UWDVNG CPF PCVWTCNN[ GODQFKGF CTEJKVGEVWTG KU

TGIWNCTN[ TGFGHKPGF CV PGTK UKVGU. #NQPIUKFG UWEJ ENGCTN[ +PFKE QT %JKPGUG-FGTKXGF PQVKQPU QH

VJG UCETGF OQWPVCKP CU GNCDQTCVG, UWDNKOG RCNCEG QT OCPUKQP, OCP[ QH VJG KFGCN EQPEGRVKQPU QH

904 1,-+;k

OCPFCNC EQOGU HTQO 5CPUMTKV (qÉhQûsÉqÉhQûsÉqÉhQûsÉqÉhQûsÉ) HQT EKTENG CPF KU C OKETQEQUOKE FKCITCO, WUGF CU C RQYGT

EKTENG CPF QDLGEV QH EQPVGORNCVKQP KP VJG TKVWCNU QH 6CPVTKE $WFFJKUO. /CEFQPCNF 1997.JVVR://JLGO.IGV2PGV.FM/EKXGV-ECV/VJGTCXCFC-YTKVKPIU/YKPIU-QH-CYCMGPKPI/INQUUCT[.JVON CEEGU. 3TF ,WN[ 2004 905 K.G. RKNITKOCIG

906 ,{-!}:k

PGMQT KU 6KDGVCP HQT EKTEWODWNCVKQP CTQWPF UCETGF RNCEGU.

907 *WDGT 1999 C + D 908 #P CFLGEVKXG OGCPKPI "QH VJG GCTVJ" CPF QHVGP TGHGTTKPI VQ VJG IQFU QH VJG WPFGTYQTNF. 909 1H QT TGNCVKPI VQ QT KPJCDKVKPI VJG NCPF CU QRRQUGF VQ VJG UGC QT CKT. 910 5CNNPQY 1987, RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 4CEQXKVGCPW 2004 YGDNQI 911 ’RUVGKP 1990, ’RUVGKP CPF 2GPI 1994, 5COWGN 1993C + D

http://hjem.get2net.dk/civet-cat/theravada-writings/wings-of-awakening/glossary.html




URCEG CPF RNCEG912 HQWPF KP DQVJ VGZVWCN UQWTEGU CPF HQNM TGNKIKQP CTG UVKNN XGT[ GXKFGPV KP VJG

PGTK EWNV, CNVJQWIJ QHVGP TGFGHKPGF CPF FGXGNQRGF KP C PWODGT QH YC[U913.

# PGY QTFGT QH TGRTGUGPVCVKQP CPF WVKNK\CVKQP QH URCEG EQOGU KPVQ DGKPI FWTKPI VJG

GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH C PGTK. 6JG XKGY CU UWIIGUVGF D[ UQOG VJCV VJKU RTQEGUU OCTMU C RCUUCIG HTQO

'PCVWTG VQ EWNVWTG' C 'VCOKPI QH PCVWTG' QT C RTQEGUU QH 'EWNVKXCVKQP' QT 'EKXKNK\CVKQP' TGSWKTGU

SWCNKHKECVKQP914. +V OC[ CRRGCT KP UQOG GNKVG VGZVU VQ DG TGRTGUGPVGF KP VJGUG VGTOU, DWV VJGKT

OCKP RWTRQUG CRRGCTU VQ DG VJG CFXCPEGOGPV QH VJG OQTCN CPF TKVWCN UWRTGOCE[ QH QTICPK\GF

TGNKIKQP. '0CVWTG', JQYGXGT YCU PGXGT GORV[ QH OGCPKPI HQT 6KDGVCP RGQRNGU, CPF CP[ PQVKQPU

QH C 'EKXKNK\CVKQP' RTQEGUU CTG VQVCNK\KPI CVVGORVU VQ FGP[ HQTOGT UQEKCN EQPUVTWEVKQPU QH VJG

GPXKTQPOGPV VJCV GZKUVGF DGHQTG $WFFJKUV CPF $QPRQ QTVJQFQZ[ DGICP VJGKT OCUUKXG RTQITCOU

QH EWNVWTCNN[ GFKVKPI VJG 6KDGVCP YQTNF915. #U VTCFKVKQPCNN[ TGRTGUGPVGF D[ VJG GNKVG, VJG PGTK FQ

TGUGODNG RGTHGEV $WFFJKUV QT $QPRQ OCPFCNC YQTNFU, [GV VJG HTGSWGPV JQUVKNKV[ QH VJGKT CEVWCN

GPXKTQPOGPVU IKXGU TKUG VQ C ITCRJKE EQPVTCFKEVKQP.

+P VJG HCEG QH VJKU EQPVTCFKEVKQP, VJG DTWVG HQTEGU QH PCVWTG EQPVKPWG VQ DG GZRNCKPGF CPF TGNCVGF

VQ D[ OQUV RKNITKOU KP VGTOU QH VJG RGTUQPCNKVKGU QH VJG CODKXCNGPV NQECN URKTKVU KPJCDKVKPI VJG

YQTNF, LWUV CU VJG[ YGTG DGHQTG CP[ +PFKE RCTCFKUG ECOG FQYP VQ GCTVJ KP 6KDGV. ,WUV YJGTG

'EKXKNK\CVKQP' CPF 'VCOKPI' QH VJG GPXKTQPOGPV HKVU KP JGTG, QWVUKFG QH EGTVCKP KFGCNK\GF PCTTCVKXG

UEJGOGU, KU PQV TGCFKN[ CRRCTGPV HTQO VJG 6KDGVCP RQKPV QH XKGY QH CEVWCN GZRGTKGPEG. /QTGQXGT,

VJG DQWPFCT[ DGVYGGP VJG YKNF CPF VJG EKXKNK\GF KU PQV RGTOCPGPVN[ GUVCDNKUJGF KP 6KDGVCP

VJQWIJV CPF EWNVWTCN OQFGNU, DGKPI OGTGN[ RTQXKUKQPCN CV C O[VJKE NGXGN CPF VJWU TGSWKTKPI

EQPUVCPV TGEQPUVKVWVKQP CPF OCKPVGPCPEG KP VJG GXGT[FC[ QTFGT QH TKVWCN NKHG916.

[WN-NJC CPF QVJGT HQNM FKXKPKVKGU CTG RCTV QH 6KDGV'U CPF −JCOU CPKOKUVKE CPF UJCOCPKUVKE

VTCFKVKQP CPF CTG FKUEWUUGF OQTG KP UGG EJCRVGT 8 UGEVKQP 8.2.4 CPF EJCRVGT 10 UGEVKQP 10.1,1.

6JKU KU GURGEKCNN[ VJG ECUG COQPI 6KDGV'U NC[ RGQRNGU YJQ, EQPVKPWG VQ FKURNC[ NGCPKPIU VQYCTFU

HQNM TGNKIKQP. 6JG [WN-NJC CPF QVJGT 'IQFU QH VJG RCUV', VJGQTGVKECNN[ 'VCOGF' D[ $WFFJKUO CTG

912 G.I. 2CKTGF, IGPFGTGF OQWPVCKPU CPF NCMGU, VJG NKPMKPI QH JGKIJV YKVJ UVCVWU, RWTKV[ CPF FKXKPKV[, XGTVKECN VTKRCTVKVG FKXKUKQPU GVE. 913 5VGKP 1990 914 #TKU 1990, $WHHGTVKNNG 1994, 4CODNG 1997 915 *WDGT 1999C + D 916 /CEFQPCNF 1997, 5COWGN 1993C RCIG 196 CPF 217-222




ENQUGT VQ VJGO KP DQVJ IGQITCRJ[, KFGPVKV[ CPF KP UGPUGF RTGUGPEG917. +P VJG YQTNF QH VJG NC[

6KDGVCP, OCP[ NCPFUECRG HGCVWTGU RQKPV DCEM VQ VJG YQTUJKR QH CPEKGPV IQFU. 6JG[ CTG PQV QPN[

EQPUEKQWU QH VJG EQPUVCPV UETWVKP[ QH [WN-NJC YJGP VJG[ IQ JWPVKPI918, DWV GPICIG KP

HQNM-TGNKIKQWU TKVWCNU CPF RNCEG FGOCPFU QP VJGKT IQFU HQT RTQVGEVKQP, CPF UWEEGUU, KP JWPVKPI,

VTCFKPI, VTCXGN, HCTOKPI GVE.

6JG $WFFJKUV ETGGF, FGXGNQRGF KP C ITCKP-JCTXGUVKPI, HTWKV-ICVJGTKPI EWNVWTG D[ VJQUG YJQ

YQTG EQVVQP, JCU NKVVNG RNCEG HQT VJG MKNNKPI QH CPKOCNU HQT ENQVJKPI QT HQQF. 6JG HCTOGT CPF

PQOCF, JQYGXGT PGGFU OGCV, [CM JCKT CPF UJGGRUMKPU VQ UWTXKXG. 6JG NKVGTCVWTG KU WPENGCT KH

VJKU ECNEWNCVGF VCMKPI QH NKHG TGRTGUGPVU C EQPVTCFKEVKQP CPF CP[ "HNQY QH RU[EJKE RCTVKEKRCVKQP"

CU C TGUWNV QH IWKNV GNWFGU FGHKPKVKQP919.

0GKVJGT ’CUVGTP PQT 9GUVGTP UQEKGVKGU CTG KPVTKPUKECNN[ KPHGTKQT QT UWRGTKQT KP VJGKT RGTURGEVKXGU

QH PCVWTG. $QVJ EQPEGRVWCNN[ CPF GORKTKECNN[, DQVJ EWNVWTCN XKGYRQKPVU TGHNGEV HWPEVKQPCN CPF

F[UHWPEVKQPCN CVVKVWFGU VQYCTF VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF. (TQO C RQUKVKXG RGTURGEVKXG, DQVJ EWNVWTCN

VTCFKVKQPU JCXG GODGFFGF YKVJKP VJGKT EQPEGRVKQPU QH PCVWTG VJG UGGFU QH C RQYGTHWN GVJKE QH

CRRTGEKCVKQP, TGURGEV, CPF EQPEGTP HQT VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH PCVWTG. (TQO VJG ’CUV, YG FGTKXG CP

GPJCPEGF EQORCUUKQP CPF CRRTGEKCVKQP HQT NKHG, C RTQHQWPF KPVWKVKQP QH PCVWTG'U QPGPGUU, CPF

VJG YKNNKPIPGUU VQ GZKUV KP JCTOQP[ CPF DCNCPEG YKVJ VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF. (TQO VJG 9GUV, YG

WPFGTUVCPF PCVWTG GORKTKECNN[; YG JCXG C VTCFKVKQP QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN UVGYCTFUJKR, CPF VJG

DGNKGH KP YKUGN[ OCPCIKPI CPF EQPVTQNNKPI VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF. 6JG WTIGPE[ QH CEJKGXKPI C OQTG

EWNVWTCNN[ RQUKVKXG TGNCVKQP VQ VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF JCU DGEQOG GURGEKCNN[ GXKFGPV KP TGEGPV [GCTU.

5GXGTCN CWVJQTU VGPF VQ CITGG QP VJG PGGF VQ VTGCF ECWVKQWUN[ YJGP KPFWEKPI ECTG QH PCVWTG HTQO

RJKNQUQRJKECN VTCFKVKQPU. +V KU TCVJGT UKORNKUVKE VQ CUUWOG VJCV XCNWGU CPF PQTOU YQTM FKTGEVN[

QP KPFKXKFWCNU. 6JG[ UJQWNF DG TGICTFGF CU TJGVQTKECN FGXKEGU, YJKEJ CTG WVKNK\GF KP QTFGT VQ

CEJKGXG C URGEKHKE IQCN QT NGIKVKOK\G CP CEVKQP. 9G ECPPQV, VJGTGHQTG VCMG VTGCVOGPV QH PCVWTG

CU GXKFGPEG QH URGEKHKE XCNWGU. 5QOG JCXG GXGP CTIWGF VJCV VJG PQVKQP QH C EQPPGEVKQP DGVYGGP

917 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP $NQPFGCW 2003 YGDNQI (KP (TGPEJ). 918 0QOCFU IQ JWPVKPI OQTG HTGSWGPVN[ VJCP QVJGT 6KDGVCPU. 919 %TQQM CPF 1UOCUVQP 1994, ’MXCNN 1968 RCIG 82




RGQRNG'U RGTEGRVKQPU QH PCVWTG CPF VJG YC[U VJG[ OCPCIG VJG PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV KU C YGUVGTP

QPG920, PQV PGEGUUCTKN[ UJCTGF D[ RGQRNG KP #UKC921. #NVJQWIJ EQPHNKEVU FQ QEEWT DGVYGGP

KFGQNQI[ CPF RTCEVKEG KP #UKCP EWNVWTGU UGGOKPIN[ VJG[ ECP DG GZRNCKPGF QP VJG DCUKU QH

EQPVGZVWCNKUO922. %QPVGZVWCNKUO KORNKGU PQV QPN[ VJCV VJGTG CTG PQ ENGCT-EWV FKUVKPEVKQPU

DGVYGGP PCVWTG CPF PQP-PCVWTG QT DGVYGGP JWOCP CPF QVJGT NKHG HQTOU DWV CNUQ VJCV RGQRNG'U

CRRTQCEJ VQ PCVWTG VGPFU VQ DG RCTVKEWNCTKUVKE QT RTCIOCVKE, TCVJGT VJCP IQXGTPGF D[ CDUQNWVG

RTKPEKRNGU.

+PHWUKPI PCVWTG YKVJ URKTKVU QT WUKPI PCVWTG CU C TGRGTVQKTG HQT OGVCRJQTU KU PQ CUUWTCPEG HQT VJG

YGNN-DGKPI QH VJG GPXKTQPOGPV, CNVJQWIJ VJG RQYGT QH CPKOKUVKE URKTKV DGNKGHU KU EQOOQPN[

VJQWIJV HCXQWTCDNG VQ EQPUGTXCVKQP.923. +P VJG HCEG QH VJG YGUVGTP GPVGTRTKUG, VJG PGGF HQT UWEJ

DGNKGHU OC[ CRRGCT VQ FKOKPKUJ CNQPI YKVJ VJG HQTGUV CNVJQWIJ VJGTG KU GXKFGPEG VJCV VJG GTQUKQP

KU TGXGTUKDNG CPF VJCV EQOOWPKVKGU CTG TGXKXKPI EQPUGTXCVKQP RTCEVKEGU924. #FFKVKQPCNN[ D[

QHHGTKPI VQ VJG YQTNF VTCFKVKQPCN TGNKIKQWU XCNWGU, KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU ICKP EWNVWTCN UKIPKHKECPEG

CPF GZRTGUU C VTWVJ QH WTIGPV TGNGXCPEG HQT VJG HWVWTG QH VJG ’CTVJ925. 6JKU KU GURGEKCNN[

KORQTVCPV KP %JKPC DCUGF QP VJGKT FKUEQWTUGU QH TCEG CPF GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU.

7.4 4#%+#. #0& ’6*0+% /+014+6; &+5%1745’

%JKPGUG EWNVWTG TGOCKPU FGGRN[ TCEKUV CNVJQWIJ HQT VJG OQUV RCTV, VJG %JKPGUG CTG KP FGPKCN QH

VJGKT QYP TCEKUO. 6JKU YCU GZGORNKHKGF OQUV TGEGPVN[ FWTKPI %QPFQNGG\\C 4KEG'U XKUKV VQ

$GKLKPI926 YJGTG 10% QH YGDUKVG CTVKENGU CDQWV JGT XKUKV YGTG TCEKUV, V[RKECNN[ FGUETKDKPI JGT CU

"DNCEM DKVEJ", "DNCEM FGXKN" CPF C "XGT[ NQY HQTO QH NKHG"927. *CP %JKPGUG RGQRNG EQOOQPN[

DGNKGXG VJG[ CTG UWRGTKQT VQ VJQUG QH FCTMGT UMKP CPF VQ '%JKPGUG' GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU, YJQ CTG KP

PGGF QH 'EKXKNK\KPI'. 6JG CVVKVWFG VQYCTFU YJKVGU KU OWEJ OQTG EQORNGZ. 6JG[ VGPF VQ

CEMPQYNGFIG VJG JKUVQTKECN CEJKGXGOGPVU QH VJG YGUV, DWV CV VJG UCOG VKOG TGUGPV YGUVGTP

920 $CUGF QP C YGUVGTP FKEJQVQO[ DGVYGGP VJGQT[ CPF RTCEVKEG. 921 $TWWP CPF −GNNCPF 1995 922 $GTSWG 1986 923 $CPWTK CPF /CTINKP 1993, %QNHGT GV CN 1977, &CXKUQP CPF 5WVNKXG 1991, ’NYKP 2002, )CFIKN 1985, )WJC 1993, 2000, −GOR 1993, 5GGNCPF 1986, 5VGXGPU 1993 924 −QVJCTK PF 925 2GFGTUGP 1995 926 /CTEJ 2005 927 JVVR://YYY.IWCTFKCP.EQ.WM/EJKPC/UVQT[/0,7369,1461260,00.JVON CEEGUUGF 31UV 1EVQDGT 2005

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JGIGOQP[ CPF FGURKUG CURGEVU QH YGUVGTP EWNVWTG, OCP[ DGNKGXKPI VJCV CV UQOG RQKPV KP VJG

HWVWTG VJG KPPCVG XKTVWG QH %JKPGUG EKXKNKUCVKQP YKNN CICKP CUUGTV KVUGNH. 6JG %JKPGUG VJWU VGPF VQ

FKURNC[ C EQODKPCVKQP QH TGURGEV CPF GPX[, UWRGTKQTKV[ CPF KPHGTKQTKV[, VQYCTFU YGUVGTP

EWNVWTG928. )KXGP VJGKT TCEKUV CVVKVWFGU, JQYGXGT, KV KU PQV RQUUKDNG VQ EQPUKFGT KPFKIGPQWU

RGQRNG QT VJGKT MPQYNGFIG KP KUQNCVKQP HTQO QHHKEKCN FKUEQWTUGU QH 'GVJPKE PCVKQPCNKV[',

'FGXGNQROGPV'929, 'UWRGTUVKVKQP' CPF VJG FKUEWTUKXG UVTCVGIKGU QH OKPQTKV[ PCVKQPCNKVKGU.

7.4.1 %JKPGUG '’VJPKE' 0CVKQPCNKVKGU

+P OWEJ QH VJG YQTNF, GVJPKEKV[ KU PQV XKGYGF CU DGKPI VJG UCOG CU TCEG QT PCVKQPCNKV[ CPF KU

WUWCNN[ EJCTCEVGTK\GF D[-

• #P GVJPQP[O930

• # DGNKGH KP EQOOQP FGUEGPV931 CPF JKUVQTKECN FGUVKP[

• # UGV QH RJ[UKECN CPF/QT EWNVWTCN HGCVWTGU932 D[ YJKEJ ITQWR OGODGTU FKHHGTGPVKCVG

VJGOUGNXGU HTQO VJG QVJGT ITQWRU QH UWEJ MKPF

• 5JCTGF JKUVQTKECN OGOQTKGU

• # UGPUG QH EQNNGEVKXG UQNKFCTKV[

• #P CUUQEKCVKQP YKVJ C VGTTKVQT[ QT JQOGNCPF933.

6JG %JKPGUG JQYGXGT FTCY PQ FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP 'RGQRNG'934 'PCVKQP'935 'PCVKQPCNKV['936 CPF

'GVJPQU'937. 6JGTG KU PQ YQTF KP %JKPGUG HQT GVJPKE ITQWR CPF VJG PGCTGUV VGTO UJCQUJW

OKP\W938 KU DGUV VTCPUNCVGF CU 'OKPQTKV[ PCVKQPCNKV[', YJKEJ KU C RQNKVKECN EQPUVTWEV CPF JCU NKVVNG

GVJPQNKPIWKUVKE HQWPFCVKQP939. $CUGF QP CPEKGPV %JKPGUG RJKNQUQRJ[ KV YCU KORQUUKDNG VQ

EQPEGKXG QH C EQOOQP 'UQEKCNK\GF URCEG' HQT CNN JWOCPMKPF CPF HQT PQP-*CP %JKPGUG940 VQ

928 JVVR://YYY.IWCTFKCP.EQ.WM/EJKPC/UVQT[/0,7369,1461260,00.JVON CEEGUUGF 31UV 1EVQDGT 2005 929 K.G 5QEKCN GPIKPGGTKPI. 930 # EQNNGEVKXG UGNHPCOG QH VJG ITQWR. 931 ’KVJGT TGCN QT RWVCVKXG. 932 5Q ECNNGF GVJPKE OCTMGTU UWEJ CU NCPIWCIG CPF YQTNFXKGYU. 933 5OKVJ 1986 934 民族民族民族民族 OKP2 \W2 (KP RKP[KP VJG 2PF VQPG KU WUGF HQT DQVJ YQTFU).

935 民族民族民族民族 OKP2 \W2 (KP RKP[KP VJG 2PF VQPG KU WUGF HQT DQVJ YQTFU).



938 少数民族少数民族少数民族少数民族 UJCQ3 UJW4 OKP2 \W2 (KP RKP[KP VJG 3TF VQPG KU WUGF HQT UJCQ, VJG 4VJ VQPG HQT UJW CPF VJG 2PF VQPG HQT OKP CPF \W). 939 *GDGTGT 1989

940 K.G.$CTDCTKCPU.

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DGNQPI VQ VJG JWOCP TCEG941. 6JG DCUKU HQT FKHHGTGPEG DGVYGGP VJG *CP %JKPGUG CPF VJG

DCTDCTKCP TGUVGF QP VJGKT TGNCVKQPUJKR VQ *CP EKXKNK\CVKQP CPF C NKHGUV[NG DCUGF QP

UGFGPVCTK\CVKQP CPF CITKEWNVWTG. $GECWUG VJG PCVWTG QH VJG DCTDCTKCP YCU VQ YCPFGT NKMG

CPKOCNU HQT VJGKT UWDUKUVGPEG VJGKT CPKOCN PCVWTG YCU TGHNGEVGF D[ VJG *CP KP VJG PCOGU IKXGP

VJGO. +V YCU CP QPVQNQIKECN PGEGUUKV[ HQT VJG *CP VQ FGRKEV GCEJ DCTDCTKCP ITQWR WPFGT CP

KFGQITCO OCTMKPI VJGKT CPKOCN PCVWTG942. 6JKU FGPKCN QH JWOCPKV[ GXQNXGF QXGT EGPVWTKGU DWV

KV WPFGTNC[U %QPHWEKCP KFGQNQI[ CPF VJG TGNCVKQPU VJG *CP HQTOGF YKVJ VJGKT PGKIJDQWTU. 6JG

*CP PQV QPN[ GUVCDNKUJGF C RTQVGEVKXG DGNV CTQWPF VJG UQEKCNK\GF URCEG D[ UWDLWICVKPI QT DW[KPI

QHH DCTDCTKCP VTKDGU DWV CNUQ CVVGORVGF VQ KORQUG *CP XCNWGU VJTQWIJ PQP-XKQNGPV CUUKOKNCVKQP.

6JGTG CTG CNUQ FCPIGTU KP %JKPC QH CFFTGUUKPI GVJPKEKV[ HTQO C EWNVWTCN RGTURGEVKXG. %WNVWTG

WUGF KP VJG EQPVGZV QH GEQNQIKECN CPVJTQRQNQI[ UVTGUUGU FKHHGTGPV YC[U RGQRNG KPVGTCEV YKVJ

GCEJ QVJGT CPF ETGCVG FKHHGTGPV NKXGNKJQQF UVTCVGIKGU943. 6JG EWNVWTG CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ VJGUG YC[U

QH NKHG GPEQORCUUGU NCPIWCIG, MPQYNGFIG, OGCPU QH NKXGNKJQQF, RQNKVKECN QTICPK\CVKQP, UQEKCN

CTTCPIGOGPVU, TGNKIKQWU KPUVKVWVKQPU, RU[EJQNQIKECN KFGCU, EQUOQNQIKGU, CPF XCNWG U[UVGOU.

(TQO VJKU RGTURGEVKXG, GCEJ YC[ QH NKHG KU C WPKSWG CPF EQORNGZ JWOCP ETGCVKQP CPF PQPG KU

UWRGTKQT VQ CP[ QVJGT. 6JKU EQPVTCUVU YKVJ VJG ENCUUKECN FGHKPKVKQP QH EWNVWTG944 QTKIKPCVKPI KP

%JKPGUG %QPHWEKCPKUO, YJKEJ TGHGTU VQ NKVGTCT[ VTCPUHQTOCVKQP EQPPQVCVKPI C JKIJGT HQTO QH

EKXKNK\CVKQP. +P VJG RCUV, VJKU FKUVKPIWKUJGF VJG EWNVWTG QH VJG *CP OCLQTKV[ HTQO VJQUG QP VJG

RGTKRJGTKGU YJQ JKUVQTKECNN[ FKF PQV RQUUGUU C YTKVKPI U[UVGO. (TQO VJKU RGTURGEVKXG, GVJPKE

ITQWRU YGTG XKGYGF CU OQTG DCEMYCTF KP VJGKT FGXGNQROGPV EQORCTGF VQ VJG *CP CPF QPN[ D[

CFQRVKPI *CP YTKVVGP NCPIWCIG CPF EWUVQOU EQWNF VJG[ CVVCKP 'EWNVWTG'945. #FFKVKQPCNN[ VJKU

XKGY TGFWEGF VJG EQORNGZ EWUVQOU CPF VTCFKVKQPU QH GVJPKE ITQWRU VQ ETWFG UVGTGQV[RGU

ECVGIQTKGU QT NKXKPI OWUGWOU TGSWKTKPI RTQVGEVKQP946. ’RKUVGOQNQIKECNN[947 VJG 'MPQYNGFIG

U[UVGO' QH %JKPC'U PCVKQPCN UQEKGV[ KU OWEJ ENQUGT VQ 'OQFGTP' MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU YJKNG

%JKPC'U GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU FTCY QP KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU. +V KU KORQTVCPV VQ WPFGTUVCPF

941 6JKGTT[ 1989 942 K.G.4GRVKNG, YQTO, FQI, RKI, QT ITCUU. 943 G.I (CTOGTU, PQOCFU, HKUJGTOGP, EKV[ FYGNNGTU. 944 文化文化文化文化 YGP2 JWC4 KU %JKPGUG HQT EWNVWTG (KP RKP[KP VJG 2PF VQPG KU WUGF HQT YGP CPF VJG 4VJ VQPG KU WUGF HQT JWC). 945 :W CPF 5CNCU 2003 946 )WNFKP 1994 947 6JG DTCPEJ QH RJKNQUQRJ[ VJCV FGCNU YKVJ VJG PCVWTG QH MPQYNGFIG CPF VTWVJ, GPEQORCUUKPI VJG UVWF[ QH VJG QTKIKP, PCVWTG, CPF NKOKVU QH JWOCP MPQYNGFIG.

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VJCV NQECN 'GRKUVGOQNQIKGU QH PCVWTG'948 CPF VJG TGUWNVKPI UVGYCTFUJKR QH PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU CTG C

EQPVGUVGF FQOCKP XK\ C XK\ VJG PCVKQP UVCVG.

7.4.2 /KPQTKV[ 2QNKEKGU

’VJPKEKV[ CPF +− KUUWGU CTG HWTVJGT EQORNKECVGF KP %JKPC D[ VJG *CP %JKPGUG XKGY QH OKPQTKV[

RGQRNGU CPF +− YJKEJ CTG TGHNGEVGF KP FGXGNQROGPV, PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU, CPF OKPQTKV[ RQNKEKGU.

#NVJQWIJ *CP %JKPC PQY TGEQIPK\GU VJCV, KVU GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU CTG OGODGTU QH VJG JWOCP TCEG

KV EQPVKPWGU VQ RTKXKNGIG *CP EWNVWTG CPF EKXKNK\CVKQP QXGT OKPQTKV[ EWNVWTGU. 5KPEG VJG

GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH PGY %JKPC, CNOQUV CNN KVU FGXGNQROGPV RQNKEKGU JCXG DGGP RTGFKECVGF QP

'WRNKHVKPI' CPF 'EKXKNK\KPI' OKPQTKV[ RGQRNGU. 5WP ;CV-UGP CPF %JKCPI −CK-UJGM ECNNGF HQT

CUUKOKNCVKQP CPF D[ 1957, CNN QH %JKPC'U GVJPQ-NKPIWKUVKE ITQWRU JCF DGGP UWDUWOGF WPFGT 55

CTVKHKEKCNN[ ETGCVGF 'PCVKQPCNKV[' ECVGIQTKGU CPF KP OCP[ ECUGU ITQWRU YJQ UJCTGF EQOOQP

EWNVWTCN VTCKVU YGTG FKXKFGF CPF QVJGT ITQWRU YJQ JCF WPKSWG EWNVWTCN RTCEVKEGU YGTG OGTIGF.

6JKU NGF VQ CP GVJPKE KFGPVKV[ ETKUKU YKVJ OCP[ ITQWRU RGVKVKQPKPI HQT TGENCUUKHKECVKQP. $GVYGGP

VJG 1950U CPF 1970U, %JKPC KPVTQFWEGF C PWODGT QH FGXGNQROGPV RQNKEKGU VJCV ENCKOGF VQ

OCMG RTQXKUKQP HQT KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG949. 9KVJ JKPFUKIJV JQYGXGT, VJGUG ENCKOU CRRGCT

NGUU EQPXKPEKPI. 6JG U[UVGO KP YJKEJ FGXGNQROGPV VQQM RNCEG YCU JKGTCTEJKECN CPF CNN

GEQPQOKE CEVKXKV[ VQQM RNCEG KP EQNNGEVKXGU QT YQTM WPKVU. 6JGUG EQORTKUGF VJG NQYGUV QH C

JKGTCTEJ[ QH NGXGNU VJTQWIJ YJKEJ FKTGEVKXGU QH VJG EQOOWPKUV RCTV[ YGTG RCUUGF, VQ DG

KPVGTRTGVGF D[ NQECN ECFTGU. #NVJQWIJ UQOG CVVGPVKQP YCU KPKVKCNN[ IKXGP VQ VJG MPQYNGFIG QH

VJG RGCUCPVU, KP RTCEVKEG 'GNKVG MPQYNGFIG'950 DGECOG KPETGCUKPIN[ RTKXKNGIGF YKVJ ECFTGU

DGEQOKPI VJG CIGPVU QH EJCPIG. +P UQOG ECUGU, VJKU TGUWNVGF KP ECFTGU KORQUKPI RQNKEKGU, YJKEJ

VJG EWNVKXCVQTU TGICTFGF CU VQVCN KPCRRTQRTKCVG, UWEJ CU '6JG )TGCV .GCR (QTYCTF'951. 6JG

%JKPGUG OQFGN QH FGXGNQROGPV952 JCF QPG HWPFCOGPVCN EJCTCEVGTKUVKE KP EQOOQP YKVJ VJG

ECRKVCNKUV FGXGNQROGPV RTQLGEV. 6JG[ YGTG DQVJ DCUGF QP CUUWORVKQPU CDQWV CP KTTGHWVCDNG

PGGF VQ TGRNCEG VTCFKVKQPCN EWNVWTCN XCNWGU CPF RTCEVKEGU CPF VJG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU VJCV KPHQTO

VJGO YKVJ C UKPIWNCTN[ TCVKQPCN, UEKGPVKHKE, CPF WPSWGUVKQPCDN[ UWRGTKQT EQIPKVKXG U[UVGO.

948 /CEFQPCNF 2003 949 %TQNN 1993C 950 1T "QWVUKFG MPQYNGFIG" 5GG %TQNN 1993C RCIG 164. 951 %JCPFNGT 1991 952 /CTZKUV-.GPKPKUV.




&GURKVG VJG CPVCIQPKUO DGVYGGP VJGUG VYQ CRRTQCEJGU VQ FGXGNQROGPV, VJG[ CTG KP

HWPFCOGPVCN CITGGOGPV CDQWV VJG PGEGUUKV[ CPF NGIKVKOCE[ QH C OCLQT UQEKCN GPIKPGGTKPI

ETWUCFG VQ VTCPUHQTO VTCFKVKQPCN EWNVWTGU VQ HCEKNKVCVG VJG WNVKOCVG VTCPUKVKQP VQ C PGY GTC. +V KU

QPN[ YKVJKP VJG 'NQIKEU' QH VJGUG VYQ KFGQNQIKGU QH FGXGNQROGPV VJCV VJG FKXGTUKV[ QH EWNVWTCN

OGCPKPIU QH VTCFKVKQPCN UQEKGV[ ECP DG TGFWEGF VQ 'DCEMYCTF'953 CPF UQEKCN EQJGUKQP, UQNKFCTKV[,

OWVWCNKV[, UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ CPF TGEKRTQEKV[ VQ VJG .QEMGCP RQUUGUUKXG KPFKXKFWCNKUO954 YG

FKUEQXGTGF KP EJCRVGT 3 UGEVKQP 3.1.3 . +V KU KORQTVCPV VQ WPFGTUVCPF VJG NKPMU DGVYGGP

FGXGNQROGPV955, UEKGPEG, VGEJPQNQI[ CPF FKUGPHTCPEJKUGOGPV956. 6JG UQEKCN GPIKPGGTKPI

ETWUCFG VJCV WPFGTRKPU VJG VGEJPQETCVK\KPI QH FGXGNQROGPV, KP EQOOQP YKVJ 'UEKGPVKHKE

OCPCIGOGPV'957 JCU KPXQNXGF C OCUUKXG FGNKIKVKOK\KPI QH CNVGTPCVKXG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU

TQQVGF KP VJG VTCFKVKQPU QH NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU CPF C FKUGPHTCPEJKUKPI QH VJGUG EQOOWPKVKGU.

6JGUG CNVGTPCVKXG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU KPENWFG; UWDUKUVGPEG RTQFWEVKQP U[UVGOU, GEQU[UVGO

MPQYNGFIG CPF TGNCVGF NQIKEU QH UWDUKUVGPEG, JGCNKPI, UQEKCNK\CVKQP, GFWECVKQP, CFLWFKECVKQP,

UGNH-IQXGTPOGPV, EQOOWPCN FGEKUKQP-OCMKPI, CPF C O[TKCF QH NCPIWCIGU CPF YTKVVGP CPF QTCN

VTCFKVKQPU. /CP[ QH VJGUG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CTG PQV GXGP TGEQIPK\GF CU MPQYNGFIG DWV

XKGYGF CU 'UWRGTUVKVKQP' (UGG DGNQY). 6JKU KU GURGEKCNN[ VTWG YJGP GODGFFGF KP TKVWCN CPF O[VJ,

CU KU VJG ECUG YKVJ OCP[ VTCFKVKQPCN CITKEWNVWTCN, HQTGUVT[, DKTVJKPI CPF JGCNKPI RTCEVKEGU.

&WG VQ VJG HCKNWTGU QH CUUKOKNCVKQP PGY PCVKQPCNKV[ RQNKEKGU QH 'GVJPKE RNWTCNKUO'958 CPF

'CWVQPQO['959 YGTG KPVTQFWEGF CPF YJGP C EQPHGTGPEG KP 5JCPIJCK =1984? CPPQWPEGF VJCV

VJGTG YCU 'PQ EQPVTCFKEVKQP DGVYGGP TGNKIKQP CPF UQEKCNKUO' OCP[ GVJPKE VTCFKVKQPU ENCP

U[UVGOU CPF EWUVQOU YGTG TG-XKVCNKUGF CPF EGNGDTCVGF960 NGCFKPI VQ C RTQHQWPF PCVKXK\CVKQP QH

EWNVWTG. #NVJQWIJ VJG UVCVG VQNGTCVGU EWNVWTCN TGXKVCNK\CVKQP CU NQPI CU KV JGNRU VQWTKUO CPF HKVU

KP YKVJ KVU XKUKQP QH 'UCPKVKUGF' OWNVKEWNVWTCNKUO KV EQPVKPWGF VQ EWTD NCTIG-UECNG GPFGCXQWTU961

953 ’UVGXC 1985, .WOOKU 1991 954 ’WRJGOKUVKECNN[ ECNNGF 'EQOOQFKV[ EQPUEKQWUPGUU' KP %JKPGUG FGXGNQROGPV FKUEQWTUG (.GPKP 1899). 955 %CRKVCNKUV CPF UQEKCNKUV. 956 $CPWTK 1990 957 /GTMNG 1980, 6C[NQT 1911 958 +P 1982 959 +P 1984 960 *CTTGNN 2001 961 G. I. 6JG (CNWPI )QPI CPF VJG 5GTVJCT /QPCUVGT[.




CPF VQ TGFWEG RQRWNCT EWNVWTG VQ 'UWRGTUVKVKQWU', 'NQECN'962 CPF 'QH VJG QTFKPCT[ RGQRNG'. 5WEJ

RTCEVKEGU CTG TCTGN[ UJQYP QP VGNGXKUKQP QT KP UEJQQN VGZVDQQMU CPF YJGP VJG[ CTG, VJG[ CTG

TGRTGUGPVGF CU "VJKP FGUETKRVKQP"963 QT CU C OGCPU QH "EQOOQFKVK\KPI GVJPKEKV[" HQT VQWTKUO964.

$GECWUG QH C PGY TGIKQPCN FGXGNQROGPV RQNKE[ KP 1992 OKPQTKV[ TGIKQPU YGTG NKPMGF YKVJ VJG

EQCUVCN CTGCU KP C TGNCVKQPUJKR DGUV FGUETKDGF CU KPVGTPCN EQNQPKCNKUO. 6JKU TGXGTUGF GCTNKGT

VTGPFU VJCV UWDUVCPVKCVGF GEQPQOKE CPF RQNKVKECN ENCKOU VJCV VJG OKPQTKV[ TGIKQPU YGTG

CWVQPQOQWU KP VJGKT QYP TKIJV. 6JG RCTV[-UVCVG DGICP C RTQEGUU QH U[UVGOCVKECNN[ TGOQXKPI VJG

HQWPFCVKQPU QH OKPQTKV[ CWVQPQO[ D[ CUUGPVCVKQPU QH PCVKXG QT KPFKIGPQWU UVCVWU HQT *CP

GXGT[YJGTG KPENWFKPI OKPQTKV[ CWVQPQOQWU TGIKQPU965. #NVJQWIJ %JKPC'U #IGPFC 21 UVTGUUGF

VJG KORQTVCPEG QH VJG RCTVKEKRCVKQP QH GVJPKE CPF TGNKIKQWU OKPQTKVKGU KP UWUVCKPCDNG

FGXGNQROGPV, TGURGEV HQT WPKSWG GVJPKE EWNVWTGU, CPF VJG KPEQTRQTCVKQP QH OKPQTKV[ XCNWG

U[UVGOU, VTCFKVKQPCN MPQYNGFIG, CPF TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV, VJKU YCU UJQTV NKXGF. 6JKU RQNKE[

YCU UWRGTUGFGF KP 2000 D[ VJG )TGCV 9GUVGTP &GXGNQROGPV 5VTCVGI[966 YJKEJ HCKNU VQ CFFTGUU

YC[U VQ UWRRQTV KPFKIGPQWU RCTVKEKRCVKQP CPF KV KIPQTGU KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG, KP UKVW

EQPUGTXCVKQP, CPF EQ-OCPCIGOGPV. 6JKU KPKVKCVKXG KU TQQVGF KP C EQPXGPVKQPCN GEQPQOKE

FGXGNQROGPV RCTCFKIO YJGTGD[ GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU CNVJQWIJ IGQITCRJKECNN[ EGPVTGF TGOCKP

UQEKCNN[ EWNVWTCNN[ CPF RQNKVKECNN[ RGTKRJGTCN967. #U C UWDUVKVWVG HQT OKPQTKV[ RQNKVKECN CPF

GEQPQOKE CWVQPQO[, "OWNVKEWNVWTCNKUO"968 JCU TGEGPVN[ DGGP RTQOQVGF EGNGDTCVKPI VJG

EQNQWTHWN CPF FKXGTUG EWNVWTGU QH VJG '%JKPGUG PCVKQP'. /KPQTKV[ EWNVWTGU CPF CTVU, U[ODQNU

RTGEKUGN[ QH VJGKT KPHGTKQTKV[, KP CP GTC QH OQFGTPK\CVKQP JCXG DGGP KPXGUVGF YKVJ KPVTKPUKE XCNWG

KP VJKU HQTO QH OWNVKEWNVWTCNKUO. /KPQTKVKGU CPF VJGKT EWNVWTGU PQ NQPIGT GZKUV KP VJGKT QYP TKIJV

DWV CU RCTV QH VJG %JKPGUG PCVKQP KP RTQOKPGPV RQUKVKQPU KP VJGOG RCTMU HQT PCVKQPCN CPF

KPVGTPCVKQPCN EQPUWORVKQP969.

962 本地本地本地本地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多元文化多元文化多元文化多元文化 FWQ1 [WCP2 YGP2 JWC4 KU %JKPGUG HQT OWNVKEWNVWTCNKUO (KP RKP[KP FWQ KU 1UV VQPG, [WCP CPF YGP KU 2PF VQPG CPF JWC KU 4VJ VQPG). 969 $WNCI 1999 RCIG 192




7.4.3 5WRGTUVKVKQP

6JG VGTO 'UWRGTUVKVKQP'970 CU C RGLQTCVKXG FGUETKRVKQP QH EGTVCKP DGNKGHU CPF TKVWCN RTCEVKEGU ECOG

VQ %JKPC, XKC ,CRCP, KP VJG NCVG PKPGVGGPVJ EGPVWT[. 6JKU CPF VJG UWDUGSWGPV ECORCKIPU CICKPUV

UWRGTUVKVKQP JCU JCF VJG GHHGEV QH UGRCTCVKPI VJGUG RTCEVKEGU QHH CU FKUEQPVKPWQWU YKVJ VJG QVJGT

HQTOU QH DGNKGH, YJKEJ YGTG ENCUUKHKGF CU 'TGNKIKQP'971 YJKEJ FQGU PQV JCXG VJG UCOG RGLQTCVKXG

KORNKECVKQPU. 6JTQWIJQWV VJG VYGPVKGVJ EGPVWT[, VJG NKVGTCVG GNKVGU KP %JKPC JCXG EQPVTCUVGF

'UWRGTUVKVKQP' YKVJ VJGKT QYP XKUKQP QH C OQFGTP CPF RTQITGUUKXG %JKPC. 6JG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH C

RQNKE[ QP UWRGTUVKVKQP VQQM RNCEG YKVJ VJG GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH %JKPC CU C PCVKQP-UVCVG CPF YCU RCTV

QH VJG PGY 4GRWDNKEU OQFGTPK\KPI GVJQU972 CPF VJG EQOOWPKUV RCTV[ JCU EQPVKPWGF C UKOKNCT

RQNKE[ CPF ECORCKIPU CICKPUV UWRGTUVKVKQP JCXG EQPVKPWGF VQ DG GXKFGPV. 6JG JCTUJGUV

ECORCKIPU VQQM RNCEG FWTKPI VJG %WNVWTCN 4GXQNWVKQP, YJGP CNN HQTOU QH TGNKIKQP YGTG FGHKPGF

CU UWRGTUVKVKQWU CPF OCP[ VGORNGU CPF EJWTEJGU YGTG EQPXGTVGF QT FGUVTQ[GF. 5KPEG 1980, KV

JCU CICKP DGEQOG RGTOKUUKDNG VQ VCMG RCTV KP TGNKIKQP, YJKEJ KU VCMGP VQ TGHGT VQ VJG YKFGURTGCF,

VGZV-DCUGF VTCFKVKQPU973. 0GXGTVJGNGUU, QHHKEKCN RQNKE[ UVKNN OCMGU C UVTQPI EQPVTCUV DGVYGGP

"KPUVKVWVKQPCNK\GF TGNKIKQPU" YJKEJ CTG PQTOCNN[ TGEQIPK\GF QHHKEKCNN[ CU U[UVGOCVK\GF CPF YGNN

QTICPKUGF VJCP VJG OQTG PGICVKXG ECVGIQT[ QH UWRGTUVKVKQP974. 6JG NCVVGT EQPUKUVU QH C ENWUVGT QH

CEVKXKVKGU KPENWFKPI OCP[ CPKOKUVKE CPF UJCOCPKUVKE RTCEVKEGU CPF VJG DWKNFKPI QH XKNNCIG

VGORNGU. 5VGRU CICKPUV VJGUG CEVKXKVKGU CTG WUWCNN[ QPN[ VCMGP YJGP VJG[ CTG CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ

GEQPQOKE ETKOGU. +P CFFKVKQP VQ VJG ETKVKEKUO VJCV VJG[ CTG IGPGTCNN[ 'DCEMYCTF'975 UWRGTUVKVKQWU

RTCEVKEGU CTG CNUQ ETKVKEK\GF HQT VJTGCVGPKPI RWDNKE QTFGT. +V KU VJKU NCUV CURGEV, YJKEJ CRRGCTU VQ

DG QH OQUV EQPEGTP KP VJG OQUV TGEGPV DCPPKPI976 QH (CNWP )QPI977.

970 迷信迷信迷信迷信 OK2 ZKP4 KU %JKPGUG HQT UWRGTUVKVKQP (KP RKP[KP OK KU 2PF VQPG CPF ZKP KU 4VJ VQPG).

971 宗教宗教宗教宗教 \QPI2 LKCQ4 KU %JKPGUG HQT KPUVKVWVKQPCN TGNKIKQP (KP RKP[KP \QPI KU 2PF VQPG CPF LKCQ KU 4VJ VQPG). 972 &WCTC 1990 973 K.G. %JTKUVKCPKV[, $WFFJKUO, &CQKUO CPF +UNCO. 974 (GWEJVYCPI CPF 9CPI 1991 RCIG 261 975 落後落後落後落後 NWQ4 JQW4 KU %JKPGUG HQT 'DCEMYCTF' (NWQ CPF JQW CTG RTQPQWPEGF KP VJG 4VJ VQPG). 976 $$% 0GYU 22/7/1999 977 (CNWP )QPI (法輪功 � NKVGTCNN[ 2TCEVKEG QH VJG 9JGGN QH .CY) KU C EQPVTQXGTUKCN %JKPGUG URKTKVWCN OQXGOGPV YJKEJ YCU KPVTQFWEGF KP 1992 D[ .K *QPI\JK. %GPVTCN VQ (CNWP )QPI CTG HKXG UGVU QH GZGTEKUGU (HQWT UVCPFKPI, CPF QPG UKVVKPI) VJCV KPXQNXG OGFKVCVKQP CPF CTG UCKF VQ JGNR KP VJG RWTKHKECVKQP QH VJG OKPF CPF VJG DQF[. /CP[ VGCEJKPIU CTG UKOKNCT VQ VJQUG KP $WFFJKUO CPF 6CQKUO � VJQWIJ KV CFFU C EQPUGTXCVKXG OQTCNKV[ CPF UGXGTCN 0GY #IG CPF CRQECN[RVKE DGNKGHU. #NUQ MPQYP CU (CNWP &CHC, VJG RTCEVKEG JCU ITQYP UYKHVN[ KP RQRWNCTKV[ CTQWPF VJG YQTNF. JVVR://GP.YKMKRGFKC.QTI/YKMK/(CNWPA)QPI CEEGUUGF 31UV 1EVQDGT 2005.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falun_Gong




6JGUG ECORCKIPU CTG DGNKGXGF VQ DG C YC[ QH RTQOQVKPI CP KOCIG QH CP KPETGCUKPIN[ OQFGTP

CPF RTQITGUUKXG %JKPC978 CU YGNN CU EQPVCKPKPI TGNKIKQWU CPF TKVWCN CEVKXKVKGU. 5WRGTUVKVKQWU

RTCEVKEGU CTG GORVKGF QH CP[ XCNWG979 GZEGRV HQT VJG RWTRQUG QH PGICVKPI VJGO, CPF RTGUGPVGF

CU VJG CPVKVJGUKU QH VJG OQFGTP CPF RTQITGUUKXG. 9JKNG DGNKGH KP KPUVKVWVKQPCN TGNKIKQP KU

RGTOKVVGF COQPI VJG IGPGTCN RWDNKE KV KU UVTQPIN[ FKUEQWTCIGF COQPI RCTV[ ECFTGU CPF UVWFGPVU.

4GNKIKQWU GZRTGUUKQPU, UWEJ CU HWPGTCNU QTICPK\GF D[ &CQKUVU, CTG PQV RGTOKVVGF KP GFWECVKQPCN

YQTM-WPKVU. ’ORNQ[GGU QH UVCVG TWP YQTM-WPKVU CTG GPEQWTCIGF VQ TGICTF TGNKIKQWU UKVGU CU

RNCEGU HQT NGKUWTG CEVKXKVKGU. /CP[ TGNKIKQWU GUVCDNKUJOGPVU CTG GPEQWTCIGF VQ DGEQOG VQWTKUV

CVVTCEVKQPU. %TKVKEKUO QH VJGUG RTCEVKEGU, JQYGXGT, CU DCEMYCTF CPF QH VJG RCUV JCU PQV TGUWNVGF

KP VJKU HQTO QH NQECN MPQYNGFIG DGKPI TGECUV CU KIPQTCPEG980 KP VJG G[GU QH VJQUG YJQ FTCY QP

KV. 2TGUGPVKPI UWEJ CEVKXKVKGU CU CURGEVU QH C DCEMYCTF RCUV, CU ECORCKIPU CICKPUV UWRGTUVKVKQP

FQ, HCKNU VQ VCMG KPVQ CEEQWPV VJGKT TGNGXCPEG VQ VJG RTGUGPV. (WTVJGTOQTG, VQ FKXKFG RTCEVKEGU

KPVQ OQFGTP QT RTQITGUUKXG CPF UWRGTUVKVKQWU QT DCEMYCTF, CU QHHKEKCN FKUEQWTUG FQGU,

WPFGTGUVKOCVGU VJG GZVGPV VQ YJKEJ VJG VYQ KPVGTRGPGVTCVG. 4CVJGT VJCP DGKPI CWVJQTKVKGU KP VJG

RCUV FGKVKGU ECP DG UGGP CU JKIJN[ MPQYNGFIGCDNG CDQWV CURGEVU QH OQFGTPKV[. 5WEJ CEVKXKVKGU

ECP DG UGGP CU "NQECNK\GF OQFGTPKVKGU" QT GZRGTKGPEGU, YJKEJ KPVGT-TGNCVG CURGEVU QH DQVJ

OQFGTPKV[ CPF VTCFKVKQP981. 6JKU KU PQV C PGY RJGPQOGPQP, FWTKPI VJG 5QPI F[PCUV[982 FGKVKGU

YGTG CRRGCNGF VQ HQT EQPVTQN QXGT VJG GNGOGPVU, CPF EWTTGPVN[ VJG[ CTG CRRGCNGF VQ HQT UWEEGUU

KP VGTOU QH VJG OCTMGV GEQPQO[983.

2CTCNNGN RTQEGUUGU CTG VCMKPI RNCEG KP %JKPC'U VTGCVOGPV QH KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG, GURGEKCNN[ KH

VJG MPQYNGFIG JQNFGTU CTG OKPQTKV[ RGQRNGU. %JKPC'U OQFGTPK\CVKQP CIGPFC, HGCVWTKPI VJG

EGPVTCNK\CVKPI CPF CUUKOKNCVKPI RQYGT QH GFWECVKQP CPF RTQRCICPFC U[UVGOU, FTCYU QP VJTGG

UVGTGQV[RGU984

• +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNG CTG RCUUKXG NKMG YQOGP, UGGP HTQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH VJG OCNG

FQOKPCPV *CP UQEKGV[

978 )WKFGF D[ VJG EQOOWPKUV RCTV[ (#PCIPQUV 1994D). 979 6JKU RTQEGUU KU PQV PGY, CPF KP NCVG +ORGTKCN %JKPC GNKVG EWNVWTG RGTOGCVGF RQRWNCT EWNVWTG VJTQWIJ YTKVKPI CPF VJG RQNKE[ QP UWRGTUVKVKQP TGKPHQTEGU VJG EQPPGEVKQP DGVYGGP VJG JGVGTQFQZ CPF VJG NQECN. 980 *QDCTV 1993 981 #TEG CPF .QPI 2000 982 #& 960-1279 983 *CPUGP 1990 984 5CNCU GV CN 2000




• +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNG CTG NKMG EJKNFTGP YJQ PGGF VQ DG GFWECVGF KP VJG JKIJGT XCNWGU CPF

'EWNVWTG' QH VJG *CP %JKPGUG

• +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNG CTG HTQ\GP KP VJG GCTN[ UVCIGU QH VJG WPKNKPGCT GXQNWVKQP QH UQEKGV[,

WPEJCPIGF, HCT HTQO VJG EWNVWTCN UVCPFCTFU CPF VJG 'EKXKNK\GF' *CP

6JGTG CTG FCPIGTU QH GUUGPVKCNK\KPI GVJPKEKV[ CU VJG GZENWUKXG FGHKPKVKQP QH KFGPVKV[, CPF

KUQNCVKPI KV HTQO VJG EQORNGZ CPF HNWKF UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE CPF RQNKVKECN EQPVGZVU QH GVJPKE

TGNCVKQPU, KPENWFKPI KPVGT-GVJPKE FKXKUKQPU CPF VJG FKXGTUG CURKTCVKQPU QH OKPQTKV[ RGQRNGU985.

’UVCDNKUJGF GVJPKE ITQWRU KP %JKPC CTG GPICIGF KP CP QPIQKPI RTQEGUU QH UQEKCN CPF RQNKVKECN

PGIQVQVKCVKQP OGFKCVGF QP VJG DCUKU QH TGNCVKQPU QH RQYGT CPF JKGTCTEJ[. ’VJPKE TGUKUVCPEG KP

VJKU XKGY KU VJWU C RTQFWEV QH VJG UVCVG'U QYP OCMKPI, [GV QPG VJCV KV ECPPQV EQORNGVGN[ EQPVTQN.

’XGP VJG OQUV VQVCNKVCTKCP QH TGIKOGU JCU KVU NKOKVU CPF VJG TQNG QH VJG UVCVG ECPPQV DG

QXGT-RTKXKNGIGF. ’VJPKEKV[ JCU C RQYGT CPF TGUKNKGPEG QH KVU QYP VJCV CEVU KP FKCNGEVKE HCUJKQP

YKVJ VJG UVCVG CRRCTCVWU986. 6JG HGGNKPI QH UWRGTKQTKV[ QH VJG *CP %JKPGUG JCU NGF VQ EQPVKPWQWU

KPVGTEWNVWTCN EQPHNKEVU. %KXKN UGTXCPVU EQPUKFGT KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG CPF VJGKT EWUVQOU CU KPHGTKQT

CPF DCTDCTKE, XKNNCIG NKHG VQ DG FKTV[ CPF DCEMYCTF, CPF VJCV NQECN NCPIWCIG CPF MPQYNGFIG JCU

PQ XCNWG. +V KU PQV WPEQOOQP, HQT VJG CWVJQT VQ JGCT *CP ECFTGU987 VCNMKPI CDQWV VJG 'GEQNQIKECN

KIPQTCPEG' QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG, YKVJQWV PQVKEKPI VJG DKQFKXGTUG NCPFUECRGU VJCV VJG[ JCXG

RTQFWEVKXGN[ UWUVCKPGF CPF GPJCPEGF HQT IGPGTCVKQPU. 6JKU OGPVCNKV[ EJCTCEVGTK\GU VJG UVCVG

RQNKE[ VQYCTFU KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG. 6JG GVJPQEGPVTKUO QH *CP EWNVWTG988 JCU KPHNWGPEGF GVJPKE

OKPQTKV[ RQNKE[. ’URGEKCNN[ FWTKPI VJG %WNVWTCN 4GXQNWVKQP VJG DGNKGH U[UVGOU YGTG TGRTGUUGF,

VGORNGU FCOCIGU, VTCFKVKQPCN HQTOU QH YQTUJKR DCPPGF, CPF JWPVGTU YGTG HQTEGF VQ ITQY TKEG.

6JG TKIJV VQ OCKPVCKP VJGKT QYP EWNVWTCN KFGPVKV[ CPF NKHGUV[NG KP VJG NCUV 20 [GCTU JCU DGEQOG

C RCTCFQZ HQT KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG. /KPQTKVKGU CTG NGICNN[ TGEQIPK\GF, NQECN NGCFGTU OWUV DGNQPI

VQ C OKPQTKV[ ITQWR, CPF RTQXKUKQP KU OCFG HQT VJG GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH NQECN KPUVKVWVKQPU DWV CV VJG

GZRGPUG QH EWNVWTCN GTQUKQP. #NVJQWIJ VJG UVCVG KU KPVGTGUVGF KP VJG HQNMNQTKE FKXGTUKV[ QH

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG HQT VJG RWTRQUG QH CVVTCEVKPI VQWTKUVU VJG[ OCMG PQ CVVGORV VQ WPFGTUVCPF

985 $WNCI 1999 986 )NCFPG[ 1994 987 %CFTGU CTG YQTMGTU RKEMGF QWV D[ VJG EQOOWPKUV RCTV[ HQT VJGKT RQNKVKECN EQPXKEVKQPU CPF UGV VQ YQTM KP VJG EQOOWPKUV DWTGCWETCE[. 6JGKT EQPUGSWGPV RQUKVKQP QH FGRGPFGPEG QP VJG RCTV[ OCMGU VJGO UWRRQTVGTU QH VJG UVCVWU SWQ CPF VJG RCTV[ NGCFGTUJKR, PQV TGHQTOGTU.YYY.TGX.JW/JKUVQT[AQHA56/U\GTXK\/MKUNGZ/INQUUCT[.JVO CEEGUUGF 10VJ /C[ 2003. 988 %QPHWEKCP XCNWGU QH RQYGT, IGPFGT TGNCVKQPU CPF OCVGTKCNKUV KFGQNQI[.

http://www.google.com/url?sa=X&start=0&oi=define&q=http://www.rev.hu/history_of_56/szerviz/kislex/glossary.htm




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KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF NCPF WUG U[UVGOU VJCV GZKUV

7.4.4 6KDGVCP 4GURQPUGU VQ %JKPGUG /KPQTKV[ &KUEQWTUGU

9JGTG PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU CTG GZRTQRTKCVGF QT KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CTG PGICVKXGN[ GXCNWCVGF VJKU

QHVGP TGUWNVU KP C RU[EJQNQIKECN KODCNCPEG, YJKEJ HQTEGU VJGO VQ GORNQ[ C TCPIG QH EQRKPI

UVTCVGIKGU. 4GUGCTEJGTU989 JCXG KFGPVKHKGF VJG HQNNQYKPI EQRKPI UVTCVGIKGU, PCOGN[; UQEKCN

CEEGRVCPEG990, UQEKCN OQDKNKV[991, UQEKCN ETGCVKXKV[992, CPF UQEKCN EJCPIG993. 9JGTG PCVKQPCN

UQEKGVKGU CTG RCTVKEWNCTN[ FQOKPCPV, UQEKCN ETGCVKXKV[ QHHGTU VJG QRVKOWO OGCPU HQT CEJKGXKPI

C RU[EJQNQIKECN DCNCPEG. 6[RKECNN[, VJKU OC[ KPENWFG C DQNUVGTKPI QH ITQWR NCPIWCIG, EWNVWTG,

TGNKIKQP, UGNH-KFGPVKV[ RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV CPF PCVKQPCNKUO. 9JGP UGEWNCT EWUVQOU DTGCM FQYP,

YJGP VTCFKVKQPCN YC[U QH NKHG FKUCRRGCT, YJGP QNF UQNKFCTKVKGU ETWODNG, YJGP PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU

CTG CRRTQRTKCVGF VJGTG KU HTGSWGPVN[ CP KFGPVKV[ ETKUKU994

6JG GCTN[ 6KDGVCPU FWTKPI VJG +ORGTKCN 2GTKQF995 JCF C UVTQPI UGPUG QH VJGKT PCVKQPCN CPF

EWNVWTCN KFGPVKV[. 6JG[ YGTG RTQWF QH 6KDGV'U IGQITCRJKECN NQECVKQP, KVU DGCWV[, RWTKV[, YKNFPGUU,

CPF DGECWUG KV YCU CP CDQFG QH VJG IQFU996. #FFKVKQPCNN[ VJG[ YGTG RTQWF QH KVU EGPVTCN

LWZVCRQUKVKQP KP TGNCVKQPUJKR VQ +PFKC, +TCP, 6WTMKUVCP, CPF *CP %JKPC. +P VGTOU QH EWNVWTCN

KFGPVKV[ VJG CPKOKUVKE CPF UJCOCPKUVKE HQNM EWUVQOU CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ VGTTKVQTKCN (NQECN QT

TGIKQPCN) PWOKPC ([WN NJC997) YGTG CP GUUGPVKCN GNGOGPV KP 6KDGVCP NKHG CPF RCTV QH VJG

EQNNGEVKXG KFGPVKVKGU VJCV YGTG GZRTGUUGF KP EWNVWTCN, GEQPQOKE CPF RQNKVKECN DGJCXKQWT998.

6QFC[ VJG KORQTVCPEG QH VJKU EQORNGZ QH HQNM DGNKGHU KU UVKNN U[ODQNKUGF KP VJG DCPPGF PCVKQPCN

HNCI (UPQY OQWPVCKPU CPF UPQY NKQPU). +V KU PQ YQPFGT VJCV VJGUG PCVKQPCN U[ODQNU CTG

989 6CLHGN 1978 990 #EEGRVKPI VJG PGICVKXG XCNWGU CU VTWG. 991 K.G..GCXKPI VJG ITQWR. 992 4GKPVGTRTGVKPI VJG PGICVKXG UVKIOC CU C RQUKVKXG GXCNWCVKQP. 993 ’PICIKPI KP EQNNGEVKXG CEVKQP OGCPV VQ EJCPIG VJG ITQWR'U UVCVWU. 994 .GXK-5VTCWUU 1974 995 EC 7VJ VQ 9VJ EGPVWTKGU #& 996 −CTOC[ 1996

997 9v;-[k


EQORCEV FKEVKQPCT[ JVVR://YYY.CUMQZHQTF.EQO/EQPEKUGAQGF/PWOGP!XKGY=WM) CEEGUUGF 30VJ 1EVQDGT 2005. 998 $NQPFGCW GV CN 1996





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QH $WFFJKUO CPF RCTVKEWNCTN[ HTQO VJG 11VJ EGPVWT[ QPYCTF, VJG PCVKQPCN CPF EWNVWTCN KFGPVKV[

QH VJG 6KDGVCP RGQRNG UWHHGTGF ITGCVN[. 6JKU KORCEVGF VJGKT PCVKQPCN KFGPVKV[, GRKE NKVGTCVWTG CPF

HQNM DGNKGHU. 6JKU KU PQV TGCNN[ UWTRTKUKPI YJGP YG EQPUKFGT VJG OCPPGT KP YJKEJ $WFFJKUO

VQQM JQNF KP VJG OKPFU QH VJG RGQRNG CV NCTIG, GURGEKCNN[ YKVJKP VJG OQPCUVGTKGU. 0CVKQPCNKUO

TGSWKTGU YKNN, UGNH-CUUGTVKQP, UGNH-KFGPVKHKECVKQP, CPF UGNH-FGVGTOKPCVKQP, CPF VJGUG PQVKQPU JCXG

PQ RNCEG CPF TGEGKXG PQ TGURGEV KP $WFFJKUO. 0GKVJGT KU $WFFJKUO C UQEKCNN[ QT RQNKVKECNN[

QTICPKUGF TGNKIKQWU U[UVGO. 6JGTG YGTG RGTKQFU QH VKOG YJGP OQPCUVKE 6KDGVCPU DGECOG UQ

KOOGTUGF KP VJG VTCPSWKNNKV[ QH $WFFJKUV EQORCUUKQP VJG[ HQTIQV YJQ VJG[ YGTG CPF YJGTG

VJG[ YGTG. ’RKE NKVGTCVWTG YCU HQTDKFFGP KP OQPCUVGTKGU CPF FGURKUGF D[ VJG $WFFJKUV ENGTI[.

$WFFJKUO, DGKPI C-VJGKUV, EQPUKFGTU 'IQFU' C XCKP RTQLGEVKQP QH QWT GIQ CPF KV PQV QPN[ 'VCOGF'

(FWN1001) KPFKIGPQWU IQFU DWV KPVGITCVGF CPF TGHQTOGF DGNKGHU KP GXGT[FC[ IQFU (OK EJQU

1002)

CPF VGTTKVQTKCN CPF OQWPVCKP PWOKPC ([WN NJC1003). +P OQTG TGOQVG CTGCU, JQYGXGT, VJG[ JCXG

UWTXKXGF VQ VJKU FC[, CPF GZJKDKV RTQPQWPEGF EQPVKPWKV[ KP TKVWCN RGTHQTOCPEG CU YGNN CU VJGKT

KPHNWGPEG QP UQEKCN, GEQPQOKE CPF RQNKVKECN CEVKXKVKGU

&WTKPI VJG NCUV HQTV[ [GCTU, JQYGXGT CVVGORVU JCXG DGGP OCFG D[ 6KDGVCPU VQ TGXKVCNK\G CPF

TGPGIQVKCVG 6KDGVCP KFGPVKV[ KP UQOG QH VJG HQNNQYKPI YC[U CPF OGCPU:

• 6KDGVCP KPVGNNGEVWCNU JCXG DGGP CVVGORVKPI VQ TGEQXGT VJG JKUVQT[ QH VJG 6KDGVCP RGQRNG

CPF CTG WUKPI C FKUEQWTUG QH EWNVWTCN ETKVKSWG, KP EQOOQP YKVJ QVJGT '%JKPGUG' OKPQTKV[

ITQWRU, VQ TG-HTCOG VJGKT KFGPVKV[ KP C EJCPIKPI YQTNF1004

• 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO, YJKEJ QPEG YQTMGF VQ EQWPVGT CP[ UGPUG QH PCVKQPCNKV[, PQY YQTMU

VJG QVJGT YC[. 9KVJ VJG &CNCK .COC CU KVU URQMGURGTUQP CPF YKVJ JKU RQNKE[ QH

PQP-XKQNGPEG, 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO JCU EQOG VQ U[ODQNKUG 6KDGV'U PCVKQPCN KFGPVKV[.

999 4GEGPVN[ 9W $CPIIWQ, EJCKTOCP QH %JKPC'U 0CVKQPCN 2GQRNG'U %QPITGUU GPVGTGF VJG 0GY <GCNCPF RCTNKCOGPV D[ C UKFG FQQT TCVJGT VJCP HCEG C NQPG RTQVGUVGT YKVJ C DQTTQYGF 6KDGVCP HNCI (81# 0GYU 2005). 1000 −CTOC[ 1989, 1994

1001 ò;k

FWN KU 6KDGVCP HQT VCOGF.

1002 1m-&}=k

OK EJQU KU C 6KDGVCP NKVGTCT[ VGTO HQT HQNM TGNKIKQP.

1003 9v;-[k

C [WN-NJC KU C RNCEG IQF QT VGTTKVQTKCN PWOKPC K.G. C URKTKV QT FGKV[ VJCV RTGUKFGU QXGT C RNCEG (1ZHQTF

EQORCEV FKEVKQPCT[ JVVR://YYY.CUMQZHQTF.EQO/EQPEKUGAQGF/PWOGP!XKGY=WM) CEEGUUGF 12VJ /C[ 2003 1004 *CTTGNN 1995, .KV\KPIGT 1995, 7RVQP 1996

http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/numen?view=uk%20




/QTGQXGT, KV KU RTQXKPI CP GHHGEVKXG KFGQNQIKECN EQWPVGTDCNCPEG KP VJG HCEG QH VJG

CFXCPEG QH VJG %JKPGUG DTCPF QH UQEKCNKUO/EQOOWPKUO KP 6KDGV.

• ’RKE NKVGTCVWTG JCU DGEQOG VJG OQUV RQRWNCT TGCFKPI KP OCP[ RCTVU QH 6KDGV KP TGEGPV

[GCTU. 6JG JGTQ QH VJG DGUV-MPQYP GRKE, −KPI )GUCT, KU VJG RGTUQPKHKECVKQP QH VJG KFGCN

6KDGVCP OCP, YJQ ECP RGTHQTO UWRGTJWOCP HGCVU KP DCVVNG, CPF IQ KPVQ TGVTGCV CPF

RTCEVKEG OGFKVCVKQP FWTKPI RGCEG. +V KU GXKFGPV VJCV VJG UVQTKGU QH JKU EQPSWGUV QH

FKHHGTGPV EQWPVTKGU CPF JKU QVJGT JGTQKE GZRNQKVU JCXG EQPVTKDWVGF VQ VJG CYCMGPKPI QH

VJG PCVKQPCN EQPUEKQWUPGUU, CU JCXG FGRKEVKQPU QH VJG EJCTCEVGTKUVKE DQNFPGUU QH VJG

−JCODC YCTTKQTU CPF VJGKT RCVTKQVKUO, TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 8 UGEVKQP 8.1. +V KU,

JQYGXGT, RCTVKEWNCTN[ VJG NKVGTCT[ CPF RQGVKE NCPIWCIG KP YJKEJ VJG GRKE KU YTKVVGP, CU

YGNN CU VJG KFGCU KV GZRTGUUGU, VJCV KNNWUVTCVG 6KDGV'U EWNVWTCN KFGPVKV[1005

• 2GTJCRU VJG OQUV KPVGTGUVKPI XKUKQPCT[ OQXGOGPV KP VJG RQUV 1978 TGNKIKQWU

TGPCKUUCPEG KP 6KDGV JCU DGGP VJG TGXKVCNK\CVKQP QH 'JKFFGP' UCETGF UETKRVWTGU (VGT1006)

HTQO VJG FKUVCPV KORGTKCN RCUV1007.

• 6JG YQTUJKR QH OK EJQU 1008 GURGEKCNN[ VGTTKVQTKCN FKXKPKVKGU ([WN NJC1009) CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ

CPKOKUO CPF UJCOCPKUO, CNVJQWIJ UWRRTGUUGF D[ $WFFJKUO CPF %QOOWPKUO, JCXG

CNYC[U DGGP KORQTVCPV GNGOGPVU WPFGT IKTFKPI 6KDGVCP NQECN KFGPVKV[, CNVJQWIJ VJGTG KU

1005 5COWGN 2002

1006 ){:k

VGT KU 6KDGVCP HQT UCETGF UETKRVWTGU QT JKFFGP VGZV.

1007 1PG QH VJG OQUV RTQOKPGPV RTQRQPGPVU JCU DGGP −JGPRQ ,KIOG 2JWPVUQI, YJQUG RCUV-NKHG OGOQTKGU CNUQ RNC[ C ETKVKECN TQNG KP JKU TGNCVKQPUJKR VQ 6KDGVCP NKVGTCVWTG, CPF VJG −KPI )GUCT GRKE KP RCTVKEWNCT ()GTOCPQ 1998). −JGPRQ HQWPFGF VJG 5GTVCT +PUVKVWVG YJKEJ YCU CV VJG JGCTV QH VJG TGUWTIGPV 0[KPIOC VTCFKVKQP (QPG QH VJG HKXG UEJQQNU QH 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO) KP ’CUVGTP −JCO. *G PQV QPN[ 'TGKPVGTRTGVGF' 11VJ EGPVWT[ UETKRVWTGU KP VGTOU QH VJG RTGUGPV FC[, DWV EQPUVGNNCVGF 6KDGV'U HTCIOGPVGF EWNVWTG, TGKPXGUVGF KP KV VJG 6KDGVCP RJ[UKECN CPF KOCIKPGF NCPFUECRG, CPF FKTGEVN[ TGNKPMGF VJG EQPVGORQTCT[ UKVWCVKQP YKVJ 6KDGV'U RCUV. +P RTQXKFKPI C RNCVHQTO HQT C TGEQPUVKVWVGF 6KDGVCP KFGPVKV[ YKVJKP VJG TGCNKVKGU QH NKHG KP VJG EQPVGORQTCT[ 2GQRNG'U 4GRWDNKE QH %JKPC, JG TGKPXKIQTCVGF 6KDGVCP RTKFG, UGNH-EQPHKFGPEG, CPF UGPUG QH RWTRQUG. *G FKF UQ KP C WPKSWGN[ 6KDGVCP, CPF KP RCTVKEWNCT 0[KPIOC HCUJKQP. 6JG RQVGPE[ QH VGT CU C 6KDGVCP TGURQPUG VQ OQFGTPKV[ KU RCTVKEWNCTN[ ENGCT KP −JGPRQ'U KORCEV QP VJG %JKPGUG. 0QV QPN[ FKF JWPFTGFU QH %JKPGUG OQPMU CPF PWPU TGUKFG CV VJG +PUVKVWVG, CPF NC[ $WFFJKUVU OCMG NQPI RKNITKOCIGU VJGTG, JG YCU OQDDGF D[ %JKPGUG $WFFJKUVU KP −CPFKPI CPF %JGPIFW. 6JKU RJGPQOGPC TGXGTUGU VJG UVCPFCTF *CP FKUOKUUCN QH 'FKTV[, DCTDCTKE 6KDGVCPU' CPF TCKUGU VJG RQUUKDKNKV[ QH CP

CEMPQYNGFIGF EWNVWTCN UWRGTKQTKV[ CV NGCUV KP UQOG TGURGEVU. 9JCVGXGT VJG UVCVGU TCVKQPCNG (RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP )GTOCPQ 2003 YGDNQI), KP ,WPG 2001 JWPFTGFU QH 6KDGVCP OQPMU CPF PWPU CPF %JKPGUG $WFFJKUV UEJQNCTU YGTG HQTEGF VQ NGCXG VJG 5GTVCT +PUVKVWVG, HQNNQYKPI VJG CTTKXCN QH CTOGF RQNKEG, RTQXKPEKCN QHHKEKCNU CPF VJG 7PKVGF (TQPV YQTM WPKV HTQO $GKLKPI. 6JG RQRWNCVKQP YCU TGFWEGF HTQO PGCTN[ 8,000 VQ1,400, OQUV QH VJG TGUKFGPVKCN SWCTVGTU YGTG FGOQNKUJGF CPF −JGPRQ YCU RNCEGF WPFGT JQWUG CTTGUV.

1008 1m-&}=k

OK-EJQU KU 6KDGVCP HQT VJG IQFU QH GXGT[FC[ NKHG.

1009 9v;-[k

C [WN-NJC KU C RNCEG IQF QT VGTTKVQTKCN PWOKPC K.G. C URKTKV QT FGKV[ VJCV RTGUKFGU QXGT C RNCEG (1ZHQTF

EQORCEV FKEVKQPCT[ JVVR://YYY.CUMQZHQTF.EQO/EQPEKUGAQGF/PWOGP!XKGY=WM). CEEGUUGF 9VJ 1EVQDGT 2005





FKUCITGGOGPV CDQWV PCVKQPCN KFGPVKV[1010. 6JG CPKOKUVKE CPF UJCOCPKUVKE TKVGU YJKEJ

UWTXKXG KP 6KDGV VQ VJKU FC[ QTKIKPCVGF KP VJG JWPVGT CPF PQOCF EWNVWTGU QH VJG UVGRRGU

QH %GPVTCN #UKC. 9KVJKP VJKU RCTCFKIO, URCEG KU OCFG HQT C UQWN-EQPEGRV (NJC1011) VJCV KU

CNKGP VQ $WFFJKUO. +P HCEV $WFFJKUO CVVGORVU VQ FGP[ QT FGUVTQ[ VJG 'UQWN'. #PKOKUVKE

URKTKVU, CPVJTQRQNQIKECNN[ TGHGTTGF VQ CU PWOKPC CTG HQT OCP[ NC[ 6KDGVCPU, VTWG

FKXKPKVKGU, PQV OGTG TGHNGEVKQPU QH VJG VTCPUEGPFGPVCN CDUQNWVG KPVQ YJKEJ $WFFJKUO JCU

TGECUV VJGO.

• 6JG TGUVQTCVKQP QH VGTTKVQTKCN EWNVU CTG KORQTVCPV HQT NQECN KFGPVKV[, RQNKVKECN NGCFGTUJKR

CPF PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP1012

• 6JG $WFFJKUV FQEVTKPG QH 'MCTOKE TGVTKDWVKQP' GZRNCKPU CP[ RTGUGPV OKUHQTVWPG CU VJG

HTWKVU QH RCUV OKUFGGFU, DWV VJKU ECPPQV UCVKUHCEVQTKN[ GZRNCKP VJG EQNNGEVKXG OKUHQTVWPG

GZRGTKGPEGF D[ VJG 6KDGVCP RGQRNGU, YJKEJ KU XKGYGF CU CP 'GXKN GTC' CPF RCTV QH C

1010 *WDGT 1999, −CTOC[ 1994

1011 [k

NJC KU 6KDGVCP HQT UQWN QT IQF.

1012 6GTTKVQTKCN FKXKPKVKGU ([WN-NJC) KPJCDKV HGCVWTGU QH VJG NCPFUECRG CPF CTG 'EQPVTQNNGF' D[ C 'UJCOCP/OGFKWO' (NJC-RC), YJQ OC[, FWTKPI KPXQECVKQP TKVGU/ RQUUGUUKQP RTQFWEG QTCN WVVGTCPEGU. 6JG NJC-RC ('UJCOCP') JCU PQV QPN[ CP KORQTVCPV TQNG KP OCKPVCKPKPI JCTOQP[ DGVYGGP JWOCPKV[, VJG URKTKV YQTNF CPF PCVWTG DWV KP QTFGT VQ GPUWTG UWEEGUU KP JWPVKPI CPF VQ CUM HQTIKXGPGUU HQT CP[ GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP QEEWTU ()TQUU 1997, 5COWGN 1993C + D, 7TC −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−QPIRQ $QPTK QT 6UCTK). 6JG NCVVGT KU RCTV QH C RTQEGUU QH "$WFFJCEK\CVKQP" YJKEJ KU EQPEGTPGF YKVJ VJG VTCPUEGPFGPV, CPF C VGZVWCN VTCFKVKQP, CPF KU EJCTCEVGTK\GF D[ UOCNN OQPCUVGTKGU CPF JGTOKVCIGU CPF RKNITKOU RGTHQTOKPI FGXQVKQPCN

GZGTEKUG (/E−C[ 2000 R 14). ;WN-NJC TKVWCNU, YJKEJ CTG RCTV QH C PQPNKVGTCVG VTCFKVKQP FQ PQV CVVTCEV $WFFJKUV FGXQVGGU DWV NC[RGQRNG (HCTOGT, PQOCF, VTCFGT, JWPVGT) CPF CTG EQPEGTPGF YKVJ VJG KOOGFKCVG YQTNF VJTQWIJ VJG WUG QH TKVWCNU CPF QHVGP YKVJ VJG CUUKUVCPEG QH C NJC RC (5JCOCP//GFKWO). #NVJQWIJ [W-NJC OQWPVCKP TKVWCNU (NJC

DUCPI) YGTG DCPPGF KP 1960U VJG[ YGTG TG-KPUVCVGF KP 1980U. 6[RKECNN[ NJC DUCPI TKVWCNU KPENWFG HWOKICVKQP QHHGTKPIU, VJG UECVVGTKPI QH YKPF JQTUGU, VJG RNCPVKPI QH RTC[GT HNCIU QT CTTQYU CPF RTC[GT VQ VJG [WN-NJC. 6JTQWIJ RTC[GT VJG YJQNG VGTTKVQT[ KU GXQMGF D[ VJG IGQITCRJKECNN[ QTFGTGF PCOKPI QH CNN VJG URGEKHKE NCPF FGKVKGU. 6JG CKO QH VJG TKVWCN KU KP HCEV VQ TGUVQTG TGNCVKQPUJKR (NKPMGF VQ TKVWCN EQOOGPUCNKV[) DGVYGGP VJG EQOOWPKV[ CPF VJG [WN NJC CPF EQPUKUVU QH DQVJ QHHGTKPI CPF TGSWGUVU. 6JG YQTUJKRRGTU ECNN QP VJG [WN NJC HQT RGTUQPCN RTQVGEVKQP, VJG TGCNK\CVKQP QH CODKVKQPU CPF HQTVWPG, CPF VJG UWDFWKPI QH GPGOKGU. 6JG[ TGICTF VJG [WN NJC CU C RTQXKFGT QH DNGUUKPI, INQT[, JQPQWT, HCOG, RTQURGTKV[, RQYGT, CPF RTQIGP[ HQT VJG RGQRNG CPF VJGKT RQNKVKECN CPF TGNKIKQWU NGCFGTUJKR. 2CTVKEKRCVKQP KP UWEJ C TKVWCN VJGTGHQTG KORNKGU VQVCN KPVGITCVKQP KPVQ VJG EQOOWPKV[, YJKEJ KP VWTP KORNKGU KPJGTKVGF UQEKCN CPF RQNKVKECN QDNKICVKQPU, OQTCN CPF KPFKXKFWCN TGURQPUKDKNKV[, CPF CP CHHKTOCVKQP QH EQOOWPCN UQNKFCTKV[ KP VJG HCEG QH GZVGTPCN CIITGUUKQP. 6JKU RJGPQOGPQP CRRGCTU VQ TGUQPCVG YKVJ C UKOKNCT CFKXCUK EWNV CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ UCETGF ITQXGU (UCTPC) KP +PFKC (2CTCLWNK 2001, RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 4CODNG 2003 YGDNQI). ;WN-NJC YQTUJKR KP 6KDGVCP EWNVWTG VJGTGHQTG RNC[U C XGT[ UKIPKHKECPV TQNG KP VJG DWKNFKPI WR QH KFGPVKV[ VJTQWIJ GCEJ KPFKXKFWCN'U KFGPVKHKECVKQP QH VJGOUGNXGU CU CEVKXG OGODGTU QH VJG EQOOWPKV[.




JKUVQTKE RTQEGUU. (QT VJG 6KDGVCPU VJG EQWPVGT KOCIG QH CP GXKN GTC KU VJG TGVWTP QH C

'IQQF GTC'. 6JKU RQUUKDKNKV[ HKPFU GZRTGUUKQP KP C PWODGT QH WVQRKCP DGNKGHU PCOGN[; VJG

TGVWTP QH −KPI )GUCT, VJG TGKIP QH 5JCODCNC, VJG EQOKPI CIG QH VJG $WFFJC /CKVTG[C,

CPF VJG TGVWTP QH VJG &CNCK .COC VQ 6KDGV1013.

• /KNNGPPKCN1014 OQXGOGPVU JCXG QEEWTTGF OQUVN[ KP KUQNCVGF PQOCFKE CTGCU (#OFQ CPF

0CIEJW), CPF OC[ KPETGCUG YKVJ VJG KPETGCUGF OCTIKPCNK\CVKQP QH VJG TWTCN 6KDGVCP

RQRWNCVKQP TGUWNVKPI HTQO WTDCP GEQPQOKE FGXGNQROGPV CPF VJG KPHNWZ QH %JKPGUG1015 .

+PFKXKFWCN CEVU QH TGUKUVCPEG CPF UGNH-UCETKHKEG CTG UWUVCKPGF D[ VJG EGTVCKPV[ VJCV VJG RQNKVKECN

FGUVKP[ QH 6KDGV KU RCTV QH C NCTIGT UVQT[ KP YJKEJ UWHHGTKPI YKNN HKPCNN[ DG XKPFKECVGF CPF IQQF

YKNN HKPCNN[ VTKWORJ. 6JGUG CEVU QHVGP HKPF GZRTGUUKQP KP 'TKVWCNU QH RTQVGUV'.

4KVWCNU QH RTQVGUV

0QV QPN[ JCXG 6KDGVCPU TGXKVCNK\GF VJGKT EWNVWTG CU C OGCPU QH GPJCPEKPI VJGKT KFGPVKV[, VJG[

JCXG FTCYP QP KV CU C UQWTEG QH U[ODQNU HQT TKVWCNK\GF RTQVGUV. 6KDGVCP PCVKQPCNKUV QRRQUKVKQP,

VQ PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG CRRTQRTKCVKQP CPF QRRTGUUKQP JCU VCMGP OCP[ HQTOU UKPEG VJG %JKPGUG

QEEWRCVKQP QH 6KDGV DGICP KP 1950. *QYGXGT, KP 1987 C PGY RGTKQF QH PQP-XKQNGPV RTQVGUV

URTGCF HTQO .JCUC, EQKPEKFKPI YKVJ VJG XKUKV D[ VJG &CNCK .COC VQ VJG 75# VJCV YCU RTGFKECVGF

QP TGNKIKQP CPF EWNVWTG, CPF RTQXKFGF C PGY OGCPU QH CTVKEWNCVKPI PCVKQPCN KFGPVKV[. 6JKU YCU

WPKPVGPVKQPCNN[ CKFGF D[ C %JKPGUG OKPQTKV[ RQNKE[ VJCV JCU RGTOKVVGF ITGCVGT GZRTGUUKQPU QH

6KDGVCP TGNKIKQP CPF EWNVWTG KP CP GHHQTV VQ OCMG VJGO UGTXG VJG KPVGTGUVU QH VJG %JKPGUG UVCVG.

2TQVGUV DGECOG TKVWCNK\GF, CUUWOKPI VJG UCOG U[ODQNKE HQTO GXGT[ VKOG KV QEEWTTGF CPF

VJTQWIJ KV, 6KDGVCPU YGTG CDNG VQ:

1013 $KUVTKEJ 2003, &CXKF-0GGN 1983, /WOHQTF 1989, 5COWGN 1993C, 5RQPDGTI GV CN 1988, 5EJYCTV\ 1994C + D 1014 C UQEKCN OQXGOGPV YKVJ C FQEVTKPG QH C PGY YQTNF (C OKNNGPPKWO) VQ DG CVVCKPGF CV NGCUV KP RCTV D[ URKTKVWCN OGCPU (−GGUKPI 1975 RCIG 514). 1015 1PG UWEJ OQXGOGPV VJG '*GTQGU QH .KPI', YJQUG NGCFGT ENCKOGF VQ DG C TGKPECTPCVKQP QH −KPI )GUCT QH .KPI,

CPF C OGFKWO HQT C FGKV[ PCOGF I[CVUC (>2k), YCU ETWUJGF D[ VJG %JKPGUG CWVJQTKVKGU. 6JG OQXGOGPV JCF

KFGPVKHKGF VJG %JKPGUG YKVJ FGOQPKE HQTEGU CPF ECNNGF QP VJG FGKVKGU VQ QXGTEQOG VJG RQYGT QH GXKN. 6JG TGCN RQNKVKECN VJTGCV, HQT VJG %JKPGUG NC[ KP VJG OQXGOGPV'U RQVGPVKCN HQT OCUU OQDKNK\CVKQP. /QXGOGPVU NKMG VJG '*GTQGU QH .KPI' CKO VQ TGUVQTG C UQEKCN YQTNF VJCV JCU DGGP XKQNGPVN[ FKUTWRVGF. 6JG RCTVKEKRCPVU CTG CDNG VQ TGEQXGT C UGPUG QH DQVJ KPFKXKFWCN CPF EQNNGEVKXG KPVGITKV[ D[ CNKIPKPI VJG 6KDGVCP GZRGTKGPEG QH %JKPGUG TWNG YKVJ VJG EQPHNKEV DGVYGGP URKTKVWCN RQYGTU QH IQQF CPF GXKN.




• 1XGTEQOG VJGKT QDLGEVKXG RQYGTNGUUPGUU CPF GZRGTKGPEG DQVJ UQNKFCTKV[, GSWCNKV[ CPF

'EQOOWPKVCU'1016 CU VJG[ OWVWCNN[ CEMPQYNGFIG VJGKT EQOOQP PCVKQPJQQF

• 4GUQNXG RTQDNGOU KP VJG HQTO QH C FTCOC QH U[ODQNU, EQPHNKEVU CPF EQPVTCFKEVKQPU KP

UQEKCN NKHG YJGTG VJGTG YCU PQ CRRCTGPV UQNWVKQP. +V QHHGTGF CP CPVKEKRCVQT[ TGUQNWVKQP QH

EQPHNKEV, CP KOCIKPCVKXG RTGHKIWTKPI QH VJG HWVWTG VJCV FTGY QP VJG U[ODQNKE RQVGPVKCN

QH VJG RTGUGPV CPF RCUV.

4KVWCNK\GF RTQVGUV, D[ 6KDGV'U $WFFJKUV GNKVG KU PQV EWTTGPVN[ "OKNNGPPKCN"1017 KP EJCTCEVGT1018

CNVJQWIJ KV KU NKPMGF YKVJ UQOG CPKOKUVKE CPF UJCOCPKUVKE RTCEVKEGU COQPI VJG PQOCFU. +V KU C

UWDUVKVWVG HQT NKEGPUGF RQNKVKECN FKUEQWTUG CPF EQOOWPKECVKQP. +V OWUV DG TGOGODGTGF VJCV VJG

%JKPGUG U[UVGO KU VQVCNKVCTKCP CPF VJG UVCVG OQPQRQNK\GU GXGT[ NGICN CXGPWG QH RWDNKE

GZRTGUUKQP, UWRRTGUUKPI CNN FKUUGPV, YJKNG KV OCPWHCEVWTGU VJTQWIJ KVU QYP QTICPU VJG QHHKEKCN

XGTUKQP QH 6KDGVCP TGCNKV[ CPF JKUVQT[. 6KDGVCP TKVWCN RTQVGUV KU CP CVVGORV VQ U[ODQNKECNN[ GXGP

VJG UECNGU, CPF ECP DG XKGYGF CU EQOOWPKECVKQP FGHGTTGF KP CP CVVGORV VQ GPICIG C

J[RQVJGVKECNN[ HCKT CTDKVTCVQT1019 KP VJG JQRG VJCV VTWVJ YKNN RTGXCKN. 6KDGVCP PCVKQPCNKUO,

GZRTGUUGF KP TKVWCN RQNKVKECN RTQVGUV, KU C OQFGTP RJGPQOGPQP COQPI 6KDGVCPU, CPF C TGURQPUG

VQ VJGKT TGEGPV GZRGTKGPEG YKVJ VJG %JKPGUG UQEKCNKUV UVCVG. 4KVWCN RTQVGUV, JQYGXGT FKF PQV CTKUG

HTQO C HGGNKPI QH OKPQTKV[ UVCVWU, CPF KU QXGTVN[ RQNKVKECN, VCTIGVKPI VJG %JKPGUG UVCVG CPF VJG

CRRCTCVWU QH UQEKCN EQPVTQN VJCV OCKPVCKPU UVCVG RQYGT. 0CVKQPCNKUO KP VJG EQPVGZV QH 6KDGV OWUV

DG SWCNKHKGF1020 DGECWUG VJG RQNKVKECN FKOGPUKQP VCMGU RTGEGFGPEG, YJKNG GVJPKE QRRQUKVKQP KU C

D[-RTQFWEV QH RQNKVKECN FQOKPCVKQP.

6JG %JKPGUG TGURQPUG VQ 6KDGVCP PCVKQPCNKUO JCU DGGP EQPUVCPV TGRGVKVKQP QH VJG UCOG

RTQRCICPFC VJGOGU, PCOGN[ VJCV:-

• 6KDGV JCU 'CNYC[U' DGGP RCTV QH %JKPC

• 6JG KFGC QH 6KDGVCP KPFGRGPFGPEG KU CP KORGTKCNKUV RNQV QTEJGUVTCVGF D[ VJG '&CNCK

ENKSWG' CPF 'TGCEVKQPCT[ GPGOKGU QH %JKPC'

• 6KDGVCPU JCXG YGNEQOGF VJG %JKPGUG CU 'NKDGTCVQTU'

1016 6WTPGT 1977 1017 C UQEKCN OQXGOGPV YKVJ C FQEVTKPG QH C PGY YQTNF (C OKNNGPPKWO) VQ DG CVVCKPGF CV NGCUV KP RCTV D[ URKTKVWCN OGCPU (−GGUKPI 1975 RCIG 514). 1018 $WTTKFIG 1969 1019 5WEJ CU VJG 70 1020 )GNNPGT 1983




#P GPQTOQWU RTQRCICPFC GHHQTV KU GZRGPFGF CVVGORVKPI VQ NGIKVKOK\G VJG %JKPGUG ENCKO VQ

'QYPGTUJKR' QH 6KDGV. #V VJG UCOG VKOG, VJG QHHKEKCN RQNKVKECN EWNVWTG CPF RQNKVKECN U[ODQNKUO CTG

GZENWUKXGN[ %JKPGUG. 6KDGVCPU HKPF VJGOUGNXGU KPENWFGF YKVJKP %JKPGUG PCVKQPCN EWNVWTG, CU

QPG QH OCP[ GVJPKE ITQWRU, CPF VJWU QDNKIGF VQ TGICTF VJG EGTGOQPKGU QH UVCVG RCVTKQVKUO CU

VJGKT QYP. %JKPC, NKMG QVJGT PCVKQP-UVCVGU KPXGPVU VTCFKVKQPU KP VJG HQTO QH U[ODQNU CPF

EGTGOQPKCNU VJCV DKPFU KVU EKVK\GPU VQ VJG GOGTIGPV UVCVG CPF IGPGTCVKPI OQTG NQ[CNV[ CPF

EQOOKVOGPV1021.

7PFGT VJGUG EQPFKVKQPU VJG EWNVWTCN CPF TGNKIKQWU HQTOU VJCV FGHKPG, '6KDGVCPPGUU' JCXG CUUWOGF

VJGKT EWTTGPV RQNKVKECN UKIPKHKECPEG. 6KDGVCPU, JQYGXGT JCXG TGURQPFGF YKVJ ITQYKPI

EQPHKFGPEG VQ %JKPGUG CVVGORVU VQ QDNKVGTCVG VJGKT RCUV, DWV KV KU VJG %JKPGUG YJQ JCXG VWTPGF

JKUVQTKECN OGOQT[ KPVQ C DCVVNGHKGNF, PQV 6KDGVCPU. 6JG TKVWCNU QH PCVKQPCNKUV RTQVGUV DWKNV

EQPVKPWKVKGU DGVYGGP VJG TGEQNNGEVGF 6KDGVCP RCUV, EQPVGORQTCT[ RQNKVKECN GZRGTKGPEG, CPF

WPKXGTUCNKUVKE XCNWGU. 6JWU GPCDNKPI VJG 6KDGVCPU VQ NGCR HTQI QXGT VJG KFGQNQIKGU QH %JKPGUG

FQOKPCVKQP CPF DWKNF C DTKFIG VQ VJG OQFGTP YQTNF.

6JG OCKP U[ODQNU QT U[ODQNKE UKVGU QH RTQVGUV JCXG KPENWFGF

• (GUVKXCNU: CNVJQWIJ VJG UVTWIING DGVYGGP %JKPC CPF 6KDGV KU QXGT UQXGTGKIPV[ CPF

PCVKQPCN KFGPVKV[, VJG DCVVNGITQWPF QP YJKEJ VJCV VJG DCVVNG KU HQWIJV KU TGNKIKQP. /QTG

URGEKHKECNN[, KV KU VJG HGUVKXCNU CPF CPPKXGTUCTKGU QH VJG 6KDGVCP TGNKIKQWU ECNGPFCT VJCV

RTQXKFG VJG EQPVGZV CPF NCPFOCTMU HQT VJG EGPVTCN FKURWVG DGVYGGP 6KDGVCPU CPF

%JKPGUG. (WTVJGTOQTG, VJG MG[ KUUWG KP VJG TGNKIKQWU DCVVNG KU YJGVJGT VJG HGUVKXCN YKNN

UKIPKH[ VJG UWUVCKPKPI QH C %JKPGUG QT 6KDGVCP UVCVG1022.

1021 *QDUDCYP CPF 4CPIGT 1983 1022 6JG UGEQPF YGGM KP /CTEJ JCU URGEKCN UKIPKHKECPEG, DGECWUG QH VJG PWODGT QH CPPKXGTUCTKGU, CPF YJGP OQUV QH 6KDGV'U RQNKVKECN DCVVNGU CTG HQWIJV. 6KOG CPF VKOG CICKP VJG %JKPGUG CRRGCT VQ JCXG DGGP WPCYCTG QH VJG RQYGT QH U[ODQNKUO KP VJGKT CVVGORV VQ PQWTKUJ VJG WPKQP QH TGNKIKQP CPF RQNKVKEU VJTQWIJ XKUKDNG 'UVCIGF' FKURNC[U QH TGNKIKQWU VQNGTCPEG. 6JG %JKPGUG QRGTCVKQP KP 6KDGV KU TKFFNGF YKVJ CPQOCNKGU CPF KTQP[. 6JG 2.# UQNFKGTU, HQT GZCORNG CTG QDNKIGF VQ RCVTQN CTQWPF VJG ,QMJCPI VGORNG KP CP CPVK-ENQEMYKUG FKTGEVKQP. 6JG[ JCXG NKVVNG EJQKEG DGECWUG KH VJG[ YCNMGF CTQWPF KP C ENQEMYKUG FKTGEVKQP, KV YQWNF U[ODQNKUG FGXQVKQP CPF TGURGEV VQ VJG $WFFJCU YKVJKP. $[ ECPEGNNKPI VJG /QPNCO HGUVKXCN KP 1989 CPF 1990 %JKPC TGPQWPEGF VJG U[ODQNKE EGPVTG QH VJGKT ENCKO VQ VQNGTCVG TGNKIKQWU RTCEVKEG KP 6KDGV. +P VJG GXGPV VJG 6KDGVCPU OCPCIGF VQ UVCIG VJTGG FC[U QH FGOQPUVTCVKQPU KP 1990, CPF VJG U[ODQNKUO KP ECPEGNNKPI KV YCU QXGTUJCFQYGF D[ VJG UVTQPIGT KOCIGU QH RTQVGUV CPF OCTVKCN NCY. 9KVJ VJG QPUGV QH OCTVKCN NCY KV DGECOG KORQUUKDNG VQ UVCIG RQNKVKECN FGOQPUVTCVKQPU KP VJG QDXKQWU YC[. 6KDGVCP TGNKIKQWU VTCFKVKQPU YJKEJ JCF CNYC[U VGPFGF VQ GZRTGUU PCVKQPCNKUV HGGNKPIU CU YGNN CU URKTKVWCN QPGU, DGECOG OQTG NCFGP YKVJ RQNKVKECN U[ODQNKUO.




• 6JG ,QMJCPI VGORNG: KP VJG EGPVTG QH .JCUC JCU DGEQOG VJG U[ODQNKE HQEWU QH

RQNKVKECN RTQVGUV RTGEKUGN[ DGECWUG KV GZGORNKHKGU EQPVKPWKVKGU, NKPMKPI 6KDGVCP KFGPVKV[

VQ KVU TGOGODGTGF RCUV1023.

• 6JG NGIGPFU QH 5QPIVUGP )CORQ CPF VJG CPEKGPV MKPIU: .KMGYKUG, TGKPHQTEG C

EQNNGEVKXG RQNKVKECN KFGPVKV[ CPF UWUVCKP C UGPUG QH RQNKVKECN CIGPE[ KP VJG HCEG QH

%JKPGUG RQNKVKECN FQOKPCVKQP.

• 6JG &CNCK .COC: CU C U[ODQN CPF TCNN[KPI-RQKPV QH 6KDGVCP RTQVGUV GZGORNKHKGU VJGUG

EQPVKPWKVKGU DGUV QH CNN, UKPEG JG GRKVQOK\GU DQVJ VJG 6KDGVCP TGNKIKQWU CPF RQNKVKECN RCUV

CPF C DTKFIG VQ VJG OQFGTP YQTNF. 6JG UGPUG QH EQPUVKVWVKPI C RQNKVKECN EQOOWPKV[ KU

EQPFGPUGF KPVQ VJG HKIWTG QH VJG &CNCK .COC, YJQ TGRTGUGPVU PQV QPN[ VJG RTG 1959

IQXGTPOGPV KP .JCUC, YJKEJ EQPVKPWGU KP GZKNG KP +PFKC, DWV C TGOGODGTGF RQNKVKECN

JKUVQT[ UVTGVEJKPI DCEM VQ VJG VKOG QH VJG CPEKGPV MKPIU

• /QPMU CPF PWPU: JCXG RNC[GF C NGCFKPI TQNG CU QTICPK\GTU CPF KPKVKCVQTU QH

FGOQPUVTCVKQPU, FTCYKPI QP $WFFJKUV TGNKIKQWU KFGCU CPF RTCEVKEGU VQ QRRQUG VJG RQYGT

QH VJG %JKPGUG UVCVG. 6JG TGDWKNFKPI QH $WFFJKUV KPUVKVWVKQPU JCU, OQTG VJCP CP[VJKPI

GNUG, DGGP CP QRRQTVWPKV[ VQ TGCUUGTV CP KPFGRGPFGPV 6KDGVCP KFGPVKV[ CPF TGUVQTG VJG

KPVGITKV[ QH 6KDGVCP UQEKCN KPUVKVWVKQPU. 6JG UKVWCVKQP KP 6KDGV WPFGT %JKPGUG TWNG ECP DG

EQORCTGF YKVJ RQNKVKECN FGXGNQROGPVU KP VJG 6JGTCXCFKCP $WFFJKUV EQWPVTKGU QH

6JCKNCPF, $WTOC CPF 5TK .CPMC1024.

4KVWCNU QH FGHKCPEG

• %KTEWOCODWNCVKQP1025 QT MJQTTC1026 JCU C EGPVTCN RNCEG KP 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO HQT

CEEWOWNCVKPI OGTKV. +V YCU HQTDKFFGP FWTKPI VJG %WNVWTCN 4GXQNWVKQP CPF QPN[ CNNQYGF

CICKP KP VJG 1980U. +V YCU VQNGTCVGF DGECWUG KV CRRGCTGF VQ DG RTKXCVG CPF RGTUQPCN CPF

FKF PQV EJCNNGPIG VJG CWVJQTKV[ QH VJG %JKPGUG UVCVG. 9JGP ITQWRU QH OQPMU DGICP VQ

WUG MJQTTC, CTQWPF ,QMJCPI VGORNG, CU C OGCPU QH RQNKVKECN RTQVGUV VJKU KNNWUVTCVGF VJG

1023 5EJYCTV\ 1994C + D 1024 −CRHGTGT 1988 1025 %KTEWOCODWNCVKQP KU VJG OQXGOGPV CTQWPF C JQN[ QDLGEV, QT QH C JQN[ QDLGEV. 6JG EQORNGVKQP QH C EKTENG QH

RTQVGEVKQP, QT QH EQOOWPKV[, ETGCVGU CP KPVGITKV[ VJCV KU QVJGTYKUG FKHHKEWNV VQ QDVCKP KP VJKU YQTNF. JVVR://YYY.VJGO[UVKEC.EQO/O[UVKEC/CTVKENGU/E/EKTEWOCODWNCVKQP.JVON CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005.

1026 "}:-:k

MQT-TC KU 6KDGVCP HQT EKTEWODWNCVKQP.

http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/c/circumambulation.html




NKOKVU QH %JKPGUG 'TGNKIKQWU HTGGFQO'. +P GHHGEV, VJG OQPMU HQTEGF VJG %JKPGUG VQ UVTKMG

QWV CV TGNKIKQP D[ UVTKMKPI QWV CV PCVKQPCNKUO. #V VJG UCOG VKOG, VJG OQPMU YGTG

UJQYKPI QTFKPCT[ 6KDGVCPU JQY VQ VTCPUHQTO VJGKT RGTUQPCN RTCEVKEG QH TGNKIKQP, YJKEJ

%JKPGUG RQNKE[ CNNQYU, KPVQ C RTCEVKEG YJKEJ, VJTQWIJ TGEQXGTKPI U[ODQNU QH

PCVKQPJQQF, DGEQOGU CP CEV QH TGDGNNKQP1027.

• +P 1EVQDGT 1989 VJG CWVJQTKVKGU KP .JCUC, HQWPF VJGOUGNXGU QDNKIGF VQ DCP VUCORC1028

VJTQYKPI CPF KPEGPUG DWTPKPI, CHVGT %JKPGUG VTQQRU CPF RQNKEG JCF URGPV VGP JQWTU

YCVEJKPI 6KDGVCPU YCNMKPI TQWPF VJG ,QMJCPI VGORNG VJTQYKPI VUCORC QXGT GCEJ QVJGT

CPF DWTPKPI LWPKRGT. 6JG[ YGTG EGNGDTCVKPI QRGPN[, DWV YKVJQWV YQTFU, VJG CYCTF QH VJG

0QDGN RGCEG RTK\G VQ VJG &CNCK .COC1029.

• 1OGPU CPF CPKOKUVKE CPF UJCOCPKUVKE DGNKGHU CTG KORQTVCPV DGECWUG VJG[ RTQXKFG C

RNCVHQTO HQT; PQP-XKQNGPV RTQVGUV, GPJCPEKPI ENCP KFGPVKV[ CPF GZRNKEKV PCVWTG

EQPUGTXCVKQP. 6JG[ JCXG NCTIGN[ TGOCKPGF KP VJG DCEMITQWPF, KP VGTOU QH RTQVGUV, C

UWRGTPCVWTCN INQUU VQ RQNKVKECN FGXGNQROGPVU1030.

• 2QRWNCT TGNKIKQP JCU KPETGCUGF HQNNQYKPI VJG NKHVKPI QH RTQJKDKVKQPU QP GZRTGUUKQPU QH

VTCFKVKQPCN EWNVWTG1031 CPF VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH OCTVKCN NCY. 6JG[ CTG RCTV QH C

URQPVCPGQWU CPF FKHHWUG RTQEGUU QH 'EWNVWTCN TGXKVCNK\CVKQP' CPF JCXG DGGP GZRTGUUGF KP

VGTOU QH KPETGCUGF QEEWTTGPEGU QH UJCOCPKUVKE URKTKV-RQUUGUUKQP CPF VJG OCPKHGUVCVKQPU

QH FGKVKGU. 5WEJ CEEQWPVU CTG UCPEVKQPGF D[ VTCFKVKQPCN TGNKIKQWU DGNKGHU CPF JCXG

1027 5EJYCTV\ 1994C

1028 21-.k

VUCORC KU 6KDGVCP HQT (RQRRGF) DCTNG[ HNQWT.

1029 6JKU PGY CPPKXGTUCT[ OWUV JCXG DGGP UQOGVJKPI QH C JWOKNKCVKQP HQT VJG CWVJQTKVKGU VJCV VJGKT MPQYNGFIG QH 6KDGVCP TGNKIKQWU TKVWCN YCU UQ UWRGTHKEKCN VJCV VJG[ YGTG WPCYCTG QH VJG URGEKCN TGNCVKQP QH NJC-TI[CN (VUCORC VJTQYKPI) VQ VJG RGTUQP QH VJG &CNCK .COC. #U C TGUWNV DQVJ VUCORC VJTQYKPI CPF LWPKRGT DWTPKPI DGECOG KNNGICN. 6JKU UVCVG QH CHHCKTU JCF OQTG UGTKQWU EQPPQVCVKQPU VJCP CV HKTUV CRRGCTGF. +PEGPUG QHHGTKPI KU EGPVTCN VQ TGNKIKQWU RTCEVKEG KP 6KDGV CPF PQV C VTKXKCN QTPCOGPV VQ TKVWCN. 6JG RTCEVKEG QH NJC-TI[CN KU NGUU EGPVTCN, CPF RTQDCDN[ JCU CPKOKUVKE/UJCOCPKUVKE TQQVU DWV KU UVKNN TGNKIKQWU RTCEVKEG. .JC-TI[CN OGCPU QHHGTKPI VQ VJG IQFU CPF KU FGUKIPGF VQ GPUWTG VJG HWVWTG YGNHCTG QH VJG RGTUQP DGKPI EGNGDTCVGF, KP VJKU ECUG VJG &CNCK .COC. 6JG 6KDGVCPU EQPEGPVTCVGF QP VJG DCP QP NJC-TI[CN TCVJGT VJCP KPEGPUG. 6JKU OC[ JCXG DGGP DGECWUG VUCORC KU VJG 6KDGVCP PCVKQPCN HQQFUVWHH, CPF UQ JCU C U[ODQNKE KORQTVCPEG DGECWUG KV KU UQOGVJKPI VJG %JKPGUG PGXGT GCV. +V OC[ JCXG GXGP OQTG UKIPKHKECPEG, CU C MG[ U[ODQN QH 6KDGVCP KFGPVKV[, DGECWUG VUCORC-GCVGTU KU VJG VGTO WUGF VQ FKUVKPIWKUJ 6KDGVCPU YJQ CFJGTG VQ 6KDGVCP VTCFKVKQPU HTQO VJQUG YJQ JCXG DGEQOG UKPKEKUGF. +P DCPPKPI VJG RTCEVKEG QH NJC-TI[CN VJG %JKPGUG OC[ JCXG DGGP GPJCPEKPI VJG KFGPVKV[ QH VJG 6KDGVCP QRRQUKVKQP TCVJGT VJCP UWDFWKPI KV ($CTPGVV 1994, 4CODNG 1993, 6UGTKPI 5JCM[C 1993). 1030 1PG GZCORNG QH CP QOGP KPENWFGF VJG TCKPDQY CPF GCTVJ VTGOQTU VJCV EQKPEKFGF YKVJ VJG FGOQPUVTCVKQP QP 27VJ 5GRV 1987. 6JG[ YGTG KPVGTRTGVGF CU UKIPU QH KORGPFKPI RQNKVKECN WRJGCXCN. 7PFGT QVJGT EQPFKVKQPU VJGUG GNGOGPVU OC[ EQOG KPVQ VJG HQTGITQWPF RTQFWEKPI C TGNKIKQWU TGXKXCN CNQPI OKNNGPPKCN NKPGU, YJGTG VJG RQNKVKECN EQPVGPV KU GZRTGUUGF VJTQWIJ TGNKIKQWU VJGOGU, CPF TGNKIKQWU NQPIKPI DGEQOGU C UWDUVKVWVG HQT GHHGEVKXG RQNKVKECN RQYGT. 1031 ,WN[ 1992




ETGFKDKNKV[ CU KPFKECVQTU VJCV VJG FGKVKGU CPF RTQVGEVQTU QH 6KDGV JCXG PQV CDCPFQPGF

VJGO. 5JCOCPKUO JCU C NQPI-UVCPFKPI DCUKU YKVJKP 6KDGVCP TGNKIKQWU RTCEVKEG,

RGTUKUVKPI CU RCTV QH RQRWNCT TGNKIKQP. +V KU PQV RTQVGEVGF WPFGT VJG %JKPGUG RQNKE[ QH

HTGGFQO QH TGNKIKQWU DGNKGH, CPF KU EQPUKFGTGF C HQTO QH 'HGWFCN UWRGTUVKVKQP', YJKEJ KU

RTQJKDKVGF. #U C URQPVCPGQWUN[ TGEQXGTGF HQNM RTCEVKEG, KV NKGU QWVUKFG VJG UEQRG QH UVCVG

EQPVTQN. #NVJQWIJ VJG UJCOCP (NJC-RC1032) WUWCNN[ QPN[ CFFTGUUGU RGTUQPCN CHHCKTU

(KNNPGUU OKUHQTVWPG GVE) VJG RQVGPVKCN HQT OCUU OQDKNK\CVKQP TGOCKPU C VJTGCV. 5RGCMKPI

VJTQWIJ VJG UJCOCP VJG URKTKV-IWKFG (RC-YQ1033) KU CDNG VQ KPVGTRTGV VJG RNKIJV QH

6KDGVCPU KP VGTOU QH TGNKIKQWU VJGOGU CPF RTQOKUG FKXKPG KPVGTXGPVKQPU VQ QXGTEQOG

GXKN CPF FTKXG CYC[ GPGOKGU1034.

6JG %JKPGUG CWVJQTKVKGU CRRGCT VQ JCXG DGEQOG KPXQNXGF KP C UVTWIING QXGT U[ODQNU KP YJKEJ

VJG[ YGTG EQPUVCPVN[ ECWIJV QP VJG FGHGPUKXG. #NVJQWIJ RCTV[ UVTCVGI[ JCU CNYC[U NCKF C

RTGOKWO QP VJG GZJCWUVKXG TG-YTKVKPI QH JKUVQT[, %JKPGUG QHHKEKCNU UGGO WPCDNG VQ EQPVCKP VJG

JKUVQTKECN TGUQPCPEGU YJKEJ VJG 6KDGVCP PCVKQPCNKUVU GXQMGF D[ VJGKT WUG QH CPPKXGTUCTKGU CPF

TKVWCNK\GF RTQVGUV. 6JG %JKPGUG RQUKVKQP QP TGNKIKQWU VQNGTCPEG YCU RTQITGUUKXGN[ KPXCNKFCVGF CU

VJG[ HQWPF KV JCTFGT VQ UGRCTCVG VJG CVVCEM QP PCVKQPCNKUO HTQO VJCV QP VJG RQNKVKEQ-TGNKIKQWU

U[ODQNU WUGF D[ VJG RTQ-KPFGRGPFGPEG OQXGOGPV. 6JG %JKPGUG UVCVG YCU DGKPI HQTEGF VQ

OCMG KPEWTUKQPU KPVQ VJG VJKP DWV ETWEKCN HCDTKE QH TGNKIKQWU VQNGTCPEG KP 6KDGV. 9JCV JCF DGGP,

WPVKN VJG NCVG 1980U CP KFGQNQIKECN OCPCIGOGPV KUUWG CDQWV UGEWTKV[ CPF VJG EQPVTQN QH RQNKVKECN

FKUUKFGPEG DGECOG C EJCNNGPIG VQ %JKPC'U UGNH-RTQENCKOGF CDKNKV[ VQ CEEQOOQFCVG C OGCUWTG

QH TGNKIKQWU CPF PCVKQPCN QT GVJPKE KFGPVKV[. 6JG 6KDGVCPU JCF NGF VJG %JKPGUG UVCVG KPVQ CP CTGPC

TKEJ KP U[ODQNKUO YJGTG, U[UVGOCVKECNN[, VJG KFGQNQI[ QH %JKPGUG NKDGTCNKUCVKQP YCU UVTKRRGF

QH XCNWG CPF GZRQUGF CU TJGVQTKE1035.

6JG 6KDGVCPU JCXG PQV QPN[ JCF VQ 'OCMG URCEG' YKVJKP *CP OKPQTKV[ FKUEQWTUG, D[ WUKPI

TKVWCNK\GF RTQVGUV CU C UWDUVKVWVG, DWV YKVJKP GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUG CU VJG[ JCXG YKVPGUUGF

VJG CRRTQRTKCVKQP CPF FGITCFCVKQP QH VJGKT PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU UKPEG 1950.

1032 [-.k

NJC-RC KU 6KDGVCP HQT UJCOCP.

1033 .-5}k

RC-YQ KU 6KDGVCP HQT URKTKV IWKFG. 1034 5COWGN 1993C 1035 $CTPGVV 1994




7.5 %*+0’5’ ’08+410/’06#. &+5%1745’

#NVJQWIJ GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUGU KP %JKPC, OC[ JCXG FGXGNQRGF CU 'TGIKQPCN FKUEWTUKXG

HQTOCVKQPU'1036 VJG[ ECPPQV DG EQPUKFGTGF CU UVCVKE QT KP KUQNCVKQP. +UUWGU UWEJ CU ENKOCVG

EJCPIG JCXG INQDCN KORCEV CPF UJCTG EQOOQPCNKVKGU YKVJ GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUG1037 CPF

'ITGGP IQXGTPOGPVCNKV[ '1038 VJCV YGTG FKUEWUUGF KP EJCRVGT 3 UGEVKQP 3.3. CPF 3.3.2.

’PXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUG KU UNQYN[ OCMKPI KVU YC[ KPVQ VJG RWDNKE FGDCVG KP %JKPC, CNVJQWIJ KV

ECPPQV DG HWNN[ EQPUKFGTGF YKVJQWV TGHGTGPEG VQ C PWODGT QH UWD-FKUEQWTUGU1039 CPF C

EQORCTKUQP QH /CKPNCPF %JKPGUG, 6CKYCP CPF 6KDGVCP VTCLGEVQTKGU. 6CKYCP JCU DGGP KPENWFGF

DGECWUG KV RTQXKFGU C VTCLGEVQT[ VJCV OCKPNCPF %JKPC OKIJV CFQRV KH VJG RQNKVKECN NCPFUECRG

EJCPIGF.

$QVJ %JKPC CPF 6CKYCP JCXG GZRGTKGPEGF, YKVJKP VJG NCUV 3 FGECFGU TCRKF GEQPQOKE ITQYVJ,

DWV CV VJG GZRGPUG QH VJG GPXKTQPOGPV CPF RGQRNG'U JGCNVJ1040. 6JG OCUUKXG FCOCIG VQ %JKPC'U

PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV, VJG CKT, YCVGT, HQTGUVU CPF NCPFU JCU DGGP ECWUGF D[ RGUVKEKFG

OKUOCPCIGOGPV CPF QH QXGT-TCRKF CPF WPFGT-TGIWNCVGF RTQEGUUGU QH KPFWUVTKCNK\CVKQP CPF

WTDCPK\CVKQP. 6JKU JCU VJTGCVGPGF VJG JGCNVJ CPF NKXGNKJQQF QH OKNNKQPU1041. #NVJQWIJ RGQRNG

JCXG NKXGF YKVJ UGXGTG RQNNWVKQP GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPUEKQWUPGUU JCU QPN[ UNQYN[ GOGTIGF,

DGECWUG CWVJQTKVCTKCP TWNG JCU RTQJKDKVGF VJGO, WPVKN TGEGPVN[ HTQO GPICIKPI KP GPXKTQPOGPVCN

FKUEQWTUG, OQXGOGPVU QT RQRWNCT RTQVGUV.

$[ EQPVTCUV, KP 1986, CP QRRQUKVKQP RCTV[ YCU HQTOGF KP 6CKYCP CPF −/6 NKHVGF VJG

38-[GCT-QNF OCTVKCN NCY, CPF CNNQYGF UVTKMGU, RTQVGUVU, VJG HQTOCVKQP QH RQNKVKECN RCTVKGU, CPF

HTGGFQO QH URGGEJ CPF RWDNKECVKQP. 6JGUG RQNKVKECN EJCPIGU, EQWRNGF YKVJ RTGXKQWU UWEEGUU QH

CPVK-RQNNWVKQP RTQVGUVU, JCF C FTCOCVKE GHHGEV QP 6CKYCP'U RQNKVKECN UEGPG. $GVYGGP 1980 CPF

1987, VJGTG YGTG 110 GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGUVU DWV DGVYGGP 1988 CPF 1991, VJGTG YGTG 3521042.

1036 .QYG 1991 1037 5GG RCTC 3.32 1038 .WMG 1999C, 6C[NQT CPF $WVVGN 1992 CPF RCIGU 32, 35, 115, 347 1039 0COGN[: - TGNKIKQWU GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO, PCVWTG FKUEQWTUG CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG. 1040 %JK 1994, *G 1991, 5OKN 1984 1041 5JWG 2001 1042 %JK GV CN 1996, *UKCQ 1994




+P %JKPC GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPUEKQWUPGUU GOGTIGF KP 1978 CPF UKPEG VJG RCTQZ[UO QH UVCVG

XKQNGPEG QP ,WPG 4VJ 1989, VJGTG JCXG DGGP OCP[ RQRWNCT RTQVGUVU DWV HGY OCLQT UQEKCN

OQXGOGPVU QT RTQVGUVU YKVJ VJG RQUUKDNG GZEGRVKQP QH VJG TGUWTIGPEG QH RQRWNCT TGNKIKQP1043.

#P[ HQTO QH RTQVGUV, D[ %JKPC'U OKPQTKV[ RGQRNG KU PQV GPEQWTCIGF, CPF KV JCU DGGP GXGP OQTG

FKHHKEWNV HQT VJGO VQ KFGPVKH[ C OGVCRJQT1044 QT C UVTCVGIKE FKUEQWTUG VQ QRRQUG *CP

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7.5.1 ’PXKTQPOGPVCN %QPUEKQWUPGUU

’PXKTQPOGPVCN EQPUEKQWUPGUU GOGTIGF KP 6CKYCP CPF %JKPC DGECWUG QH DQVJ UQEKQ-

RU[EJQNQIKECN CPF UVTWEVWTCN HCEVQTU. +P 6CKYCP, CHVGT 30 [GCTU QH TCRKF GEQPQOKE ITQYVJ, VJG

OCVGTKCN YGNN-DGKPI QH OQUV 6CKYCPGUG JCU KORTQXGF UKIPKHKECPVN[. 6JG KPETGCUG KP GEQPQOKE

UCVKUHCEVKQP JCU DTGF PQP-GEQPQOKE KPVGTGUVU, GURGEKCNN[ VJQUG TGNCVGF VQ VJG SWCNKV[ QH NKHG. 6JKU

KU GURGEKCNN[ VTWG QH VJG GOGTIKPI OKFFNG ENCUU YJQ JCXG DGGP KPHNWGPEGF D[ YGUVGTP

UQEKQ-EWNVWTCN-RQNKVKECN KFGCU CPF XCNWGU. 6JG[ JCXG RNC[GF CP KORQTVCPV TQNG KP 6CKYCP'U

VTCPUHQTOCVKQP CPF EQPUVKVWVG VJG OCKP UWRRQTVGTU QH 6CKYCP'U GPXKTQPOGPVCN OQXGOGPV1046.

6JG EWTTGPV CYCTGPGUU KP %JKPC QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP1047 EQPVTCUVU, CV VJG TJGVQTKECN

NGXGN, YKVJ HCKTN[ TGEGPV CVVKVWFGU QH EQORNCEGPE[ CPF UGNH-RTCKUG, YJGTGKP PQ QPG EQWNF VGNN VJG

VTWVJ YKVJQWV DGKPI UGGP VQ ETKVKEK\G UQEKCNKUO1048. 1PN[ UKPEG 1978 JCXG UGPKQT TGUGCTEJGTU CPF

YTKVGTU HKPCNN[ DGGP CDNG VQ URGCM QWV KP UGXGTCN FKHHGTGPV HQTOU: - UEKGPVKHKE LQWTPCNU,

EQPHGTGPEGU, U[ORQUKC, CPF FCKN[ PGYURCRGTU. 6JG IQXGTPOGPV TGURQPUG CRRGCTU VQ JCXG DGGP

OWNVKHCEGVGF CPF, UKPEG 1978, %JKPC JCU QTFGTGF DQVJ KPFWUVT[ CPF EQPUVTWEVKQP VQ EQPVTQN

RQNNWVKQP QT HCEG UJWVFQYP, DGICP VQ RCUU NCYU QP GPXKTQPOGPVCN RQNNWVKQP, LQKPGF CNN VJG

TGNGXCPV DTCPEJGU QH VJG 701049, CPF JCU OCFG GPEQWTCIKPI RTQITGUU KP PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP.

#NN VJGUG GHHQTVU JQYGXGT JCXG DGGP OCFG CICKPUV C DCEMITQWPF QH CVVGORVKPI VQ SWCFTWRNG

GEQPQOKE QWVRWV CPF C HGCT QH EKVK\GP OQXGOGPVU. (TQO CP KPFKXKFWCN UVCPFRQKPV, CNVJQWIJ

1043 (GWEJVYCPI 1999 1044 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 5C[GTU 2002 YGDNQI 1045 (GKV 2001 1046 %JCPI 1993, *UKCQ 1996 1047 −KTD[ 2002 1048 )CQ CPF ,KP 1980 1049 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU




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$GKLKPI CPF 5JCPIJCK1050 OQUV QH %JKPC'U GOGTIKPI OKFFNG ENCUU CRRGCT PQV VQ DG QXGTN[

EQPEGTPGF CDQWV VJG GPXKTQPOGPV CU NQPI CU VJG[ ECP UGEWTG JKIJGT EKV[ GCTPKPIU. 6JG 1989

GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGEVKQP NCY1051 JCU RTQXGF VQ DG YGCM CPF FKHHKEWNV VQ KORNGOGPV, PCVWTG

EQPUGTXCVKQP JCU NCEMGF UWUVCKPGF GPHQTEGOGPV CPF JCU DGGP WUGF HQT "GEQEQNQPKCNKUO"1052 CU

PCVWTG TGUGTXGU JCXG DGGP HQTEGHWNN[ GUVCDNKUJGF KP KPFKIGPQWU OKPQTKV[ CTGCU, KIPQTKPI VJGKT

TKIJVU, XCNWGU CPF MPQYNGFIG1053. ’XGP %JKPC'U GZVGPUKXG TGE[ENKPI RTQITCOOG, OWEJ

CFOKTGF D[ PCÊXG YGUVGTPGTU1054 KU PQV CNN KV UGGOU. +V QTKIKPCVGU HTQO PGEGUUKV[ QYKPI VQ

UJQTVCIG TCVJGT VJCP GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPUEKQWUPGUU1055.

7.5.2 ’PXKTQPOGPVCN /QXGOGPVU

2TKQT VQ VJG OKF 1990'U VJGTG YGTG PQ UKIPKHKECPV PQP-IQXGTPOGPV GPXKTQPOGPVCN OQXGOGPVU

(0)’/) KP %JKPC. 9KVJ CP GORJCUKU QP EGPVTCNK\CVKQP, NQECN IQXGTPOGPV'U TQNG CU C ECVCN[UV

HQT GPXKTQPOGPVCN NGIKUNCVKQP KU PQV NKMGN[ VQ JCRRGP CU KV FKF KP ,CRCP1056. +H 6CKYCP KU VQ DG

VCMGP CU C OQFGN KV KU RQUUKDNG VJCV GXGPVWCNN[ OCUUKXG RTGUUWTG EQWNF DG RWV QP EGPVTCN

IQXGTPOGPV HQTEKPI EJCPIG1057.

6JG UVGTGQV[RG VJCV VJG %JKPGUG CTG FQEKNG CPF WPKPVGTGUVGF KP ITCUU TQQVU RQNKVKECN OQXGOGPVU

EQPEGTPGF YKVJ VJG GPXKTQPOGPV JCU DGGP RTQXGF WPVTWG YKVJ VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH

GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTGUUWTG ITQWRU KP 6CKYCP, *QPI −QPI CPF /CECW. 6JGUG ITQWRU JCXG DGGP

UWEEGUUHWN CV EJCPIKPI VJG RNCPU QH IQXGTPOGPV CPF RTKXCVG GPVGTRTKUGU1058 DWV KV KU HCKT VQ UC[

VJCV VJG QPN[ UWDUVCPVKCN QRGP GPXKTQPOGPVCN OQXGOGPVU KP %JKPGUG UQEKGVKGU CTG KP 6CKYCP,

1050 ;QWPI 1996 1051 ’FOQPFU 1994 1052 GEQEQNQPKCNKUO KU VJG KORQUKVKQP QH GZQIGPQWU EQPUGTXCVKQP RCTCFKIOU CPF RQYGT UVTWEVWTGU QP KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CPF KU KPEQORCVKDNG YKVJ KPFKIGPQWU EQPEGRVU QH EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF JWOCP FKIPKV[ (%QZ CPF ’NOSXKUV 1997 CPF JVVR://YYY.COC\QP.EQO/IR/RJTCUG/TGH=UKRAVQRA3/104-5629773-1073558!%5(GPEQFKPI=76(8&UTE=0313307253&EJGEM5WO=YL%2$:55$RX84:6TXN%2(K%2(D[4)M<23PN$U,0373[H0L079%2()%2$1HDXH82#%3&%3&&RJTCUG=GEQNQIKECN%20EQNQPKCNKUO) CEEGUUGF 28VJ 1EV 2005. 1053 #JQTC0QY 2000, $QPPGT 1994 1054 −CRR 1975 1055 −KP\GNDCEJ 1981 1056 +OCOWTC 1989, 7GVC 1989 1057 *UKCQ 1986 1989 1058 ’FOQPFU 1994

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*QPI −QPI CPF /CECW. 6JG FKEVCVQTKCN RQNKVKECN U[UVGO CPF VJG NQECN NGXGN QH GEQPQOKE

FGXGNQROGPV JCXG JKPFGTGF VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH 0)’/U.

$GECWUG QH &GPI'U RQNKE[ QH QRGPKPI CPF TGHQTO (HTQO 1979), KPETGCUGU KP KPEQOG, CPF VJG

GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH C EQORNCKPV QHHKEG, VJKU FKF CNNQY HQT UQOG EQORNCKPVU CPF RTQVGUVU. +P 1979,

VJGTG YGTG C TGRQTVGF 339 EQPHTQPVCVKQPU, KP 5JCPIJCK, DGVYGGP HCEVQTKGU CPF VJG IGPGTCN

RWDNKE, CPF VJGTG JCU DGGP C EQPUKUVGPV GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGUV UKPEG &GPI'U TGHQTO DGICP1059.

/QUV QH VJG RTQVGUVU JCXG DGGP UVCIGF D[ RGCUCPVU CPIGTGF D[ HCEVQT[ RQNNWVKQP TWKPKPI VJGKT

ETQRU1060. 6JTQWIJQWV VJG 1980'U ITQWRU DGECOG OQTG QRGPN[ ETKVKECN QH IQXGTPOGPV CVVKVWFGU

VQYCTFU RQNNWVKQP, DWV CHVGT VJG ECTPCIG QH '6KCPCPOGP'1061 IQXGTPOGPV HGCT QH QTICPK\GF

EKVK\GP-DCUGF PCVKQPCN NGXGN GPXKTQPOGPVCN OQXGOGPVU KPETGCUGF, GURGEKCNN[ QH WPKXGTUKV[

DCUGF CEVKXKUV ITQWRU1062. +P VJG OKF 1990'U C VKP[ DWV KORQTVCPV PQP-IQXGTPOGPV ITGGP

UGEVQT1063 YCU CNNQYGF VQ GOGTIG DWV IQXGTPOGPV "HKTON[ TGVCKPU VJG 'ITGGP' KPKVKCVKXG YJGTG KV

KU XWNPGTCDNG VQ .... VGEJPQETCVKE EGPVTCNKUO"1064 YJKEJ YG CNNWFGF VQ KP %JCRVGT 3 UGEVKQP 3.1.3

CPF 3.1.4. #HVGT 6KCPCPOGP, GPXKTQPOGPVCN PQP-IQXGTPOGPV QTICPKUCVKQPU (0)1'U) JCF VQ

RKEM CPF EJQQUG ECWUGU CPF WUG UWDVGTHWIG. '(TKGPFU QH 0CVWTG' FKF PQV CFFTGUU VJG 6JTGG

)QTIGU &CO 2TQLGEV1065, DWV YCU CDNG VQ OQDKNKUG UWRRQTV VQ RTQVGEV VJG UPWD-PQUGF OQPMG[ KP

;WPPCP, CPF UWRRQTV VJG NQIIKPI DCP1066. '6JG )TGGP 5VWFGPV (QTWO', C PCVKQPYKFG PGVYQTM QH

OQTG VJCP 60 ITQWRU, TCVJGT VJCP RTQVGUVKPI CDQWV RQNNWVKQP HQEWUGF QP VJG RTQVGEVKQP QH

GPFCPIGTGF URGEKGU. +P TGEGPV [GCTU, JQYGXGT VJG[ JCXG DGGP CDNG VQ CFFTGUU C DTQCFGT TCPIG

QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN KUUWGU, CNVJQWIJ VJG[ UVKNN OQUVN[ CFFTGUU PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP. 4GEGPVN[ VJG[

YGTG CDNG VQ UGPF QPG QH VJGKT OGODGTU VQ VJG 75# VQ OGGV YKVJ #OGTKECP GPXKTQPOGPVCN

ITQWRU VQ NGCTP JQY VQ QTICPKUG, OQVKXCVG, GFWECVG CPF RTQVGUV1067.

1059 4QUU 1988 1060 4QUU 1988 1061 4VJ ,WPG 1989 1062 ’FOQPFU 1994, 9GP $Q 2000 1063 6JG 0)1'U KPXQNXGF KPENWFGF $GKLKPI ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV +PUVKVWVG, (TKGPFU QH 0CVWTG, +PUVKVWVG QH ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV CPF ;WPPCP /CP CPF 0CVWTG (QWFCVKQP (;QWPI 1996). 1064 ;QWPI 1996 RCIG 3 1065 JVVR://GP.YKMKRGFKC.QTI/YKMK/6JTGGA)QTIGUA&CO CEEGUUGF 29VJ 1EVQDGT 2005 1066 *CQ $KPI 1998 1067 9GP $Q 2000

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#NVJQWIJ VJGTG JCU DGGP EQPUKFGTCDNG KPVGTPCVKQPCN ETKVKEKUO1068 QH VJG 6JTGG )QTIGU &CO

2TQLGEV1069 CPF KVU YGUVGTP UWRRNKGTU1070 CPF WPFGTYTKVGTU1071, GURGEKCNN[ /QTICP 5VCPNG[1072, KV

KU TCTGN[ CNNQYGF VQ CRRGCT KP %JKPC'U UVCVG-EQPVTQNNGF OGFKC1073. +P 1999, JQYGXGT C %JKPGUG

CECFGOKE, YTQVG KP C NGCFKPI LQWTPCN VJCV VJG TGUGVVNGOGPV RTQITCOOG EQWNF DGEQOG "CP

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EGPVWT["1074. +P 2001 YJGP HQWT HCTOGTU EQORNCKPGF VQ YGUVGTP LQWTPCNKUVU CDQWV EQTTWRVKQP

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/C[ 2002 YJGP JWPFTGFU QH XKNNCIGTU HTQO ;CQYCP RTQVGUVGF CDQWV KPCFGSWCVG EQORGPUCVKQP,

JWPFTGFU QH RQNKEG CPF RCTCOKNKVCT[ VTQQRU YGTG FGRNQ[GF CPF 12 RGQRNG YGTG FGVCKPGF. 6JGTG

CTG HGCTU VJCV RTQVGUVU YKNN KPETGCUG CU TGUGVVNGOGPV CPF HNQQFKPI KU UVGRRGF WR. %JKPC'U (KPCPEG

/KPKUVT[ YCPV VQ TGNQECVG UQOG QH VJG 2 OKNNKQP RGQRNG VQ 6KDGV, YJKEJ YKNN CNUQ HWGN

CPVK-%JKPGUG UGPVKOGPV COQPI VJG GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU KP VJQUG CTGCU.

6JGTG JCU DGGP, CPF EQPVKPWGU VQ DG, C ITGCV FGCN QH TGHQTO VQ VJG NGICN U[UVGO KP TGNCVKQP VQ

GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGEVKQP. 6JGTG JCXG DGGP UGTKQWU RTQDNGOU YKVJ KORNGOGPVKPI TGIWNCVKQPU

CPF EQPVTQNU, RCTVKEWNCTN[ EQPEGTPKPI RQNNWVKQP HTQO HCEVQTKGU CPF RWDNKE RTQVGUV KU GOGTIKPI CU

C HQTEG FGOCPFKPI VJCV VJKU DG TGEVKHKGF. 6JG 2GQRNG'U &CKN[1075 TGIWNCTN[ RTKPVU CTVKENGU CDQWV

VJG ENQUWTG QH HCEVQTKGU, KPENWFKPI UVCVG QYPGF GPVGTRTKUGU, HQT PQV EQORN[KPI YKVJ GOKUUKQP

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QH RQNKE[ KORNGOGPVCVKQP KU VQ RWDNKE QRKPKQP. 5KIPKHKECPVN[, KP 1EVQDGT 2000 VJG IQXGTPOGPV

ENQUGF C HCEVQT[ KP $GKJCK TGRQTVGFN[ CU C FKTGEV TGUWNV QH UVTQPI RWDNKE RTQVGUV QXGT

1068 (TGG 6KDGV %CORCKIP, VGTPCVKQPCN 4KXGTU 0GVYQTM, %QTRYCVEJ, (TKGPFU QH VJG ’CTVJ (7−), 75 9CVGT 0GYU, 4KXGTU 9CVEJ, 2NCPGV #TM. 1069 JVVR://GP.YKMKRGFKC.QTI/YKMK/6JTGGA)QTIGUA&CO CEEGUUGF 29VJ 1EVQDGT 2005 1070 JVVR://YYY.RTQDGKPVGTPCVKQPCN.QTI/RTQDGKPV/6JTGG)QTIGU/YJQ.JVON CEEGUUGF 28VJ 1EV 2005 1071 .GJOCP $TQVJGTU, %TGFKV 5WKUUG, (KTUV $QUVQP, 5OKVJ $CTPG[ +PE, ,.2. /QTICP & %Q, $CPE #OGTKEC 5GEWTKVKGU +PE, 0QOWTC 5GEWTKVKGU CPF +$, 5GEWTKVKGU GVE. 1072 . /QTICP 5VCPNG[ G[GKPI NWETCVKXG DCPMKPI HGGU KP GOGTIKPI OCTMGVU CTG SWKEM VQ RKEM WR YJGTG RWDNKE DCPMU FGP[ HKPCPEG. .CEMKPI GPXKTQPOGPVCN QT UQEKCN ETKVGTKC /QTICP 5VCPNG[ CRRGCT VQ HKPCPEG FGUVTWEVKXG RTQLGEVU WPVKN EQPUWOGTU QT UJCTGJQNFGTU JQNF VJGO CEEQWPVCDNG. /QTICP 5VCPNG[ YGTG RNCPPKPI VQ WPFGTYTKVG VJG +PKVKCN 2WDNKE 1HHGTKPI (+21) HQT VJG 6JTGG )QTIGU 2QYGT QP VJG .QPFQP 5VQEM ’ZEJCPIG. 1073 &CK 3KPI 1994 1074 ,QJP 2QOHTGV 2001 RCIG #01 1075 JVVR://GPINKUJ.RGQRNGFCKN[.EQO.EP/QVJGT/CDQWV.UJVON CEEGUUGF 29VJ 1EVQDGT 2005

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KPHQTOCVKQP QP IQXGTPOGPV RQNKE[1077. +UUWGU QH RQNNWVKQP CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP JCXG

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WPFGTUVCPF VJGKT TGNCVKQPUJKR YKVJ PCVWTG CPF VJG RTKQTKV[ IKXGP VQ KV. 6JG RTQOKPGPEG QH

GPXKTQPOGPVCN KUUWGU KP VJG '2GQRNG'U &CKN['1078 KPFKECVGU PQV QPN[ VJG KORQTVCPEG YKVJ YJKEJ

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XKEVKOU, KP $GKLKPI. 6JG UWEEGUU CPF EQPVKPWGF WUG QH VJG EGPVTG FGRGPFU QP VJG TGUWNVU

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GPXKTQPOGPVCN KUUWGU. 6JG EGPVTG RTQXKFGU CP CXGPWG HQT EKVK\GPU VQ GZRTGUU FKUEQPVGPV, UGGM

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VGUVKPI VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP VJGUG VYQ UGEVQTU. 9JKNG VJG IQXGTPOGPV JCU OCFG C ECNN HQT

RWDNKE TGHQTO YKVJ TGURGEV VQ VTGCVOGPV QH VJG GPXKTQPOGPV VJGTG KU CNUQ RTGUUWTG WRQP KV VQ

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TGHQTO KVUGNH. 6JGTG KU CNUQ KPVGTPCVKQPCN RTGUUWTG QP %JKPC HQT KORTQXGOGPV. /GODGTUJKR QH

9611080 TGSWKTGU C EQOOKVOGPV VQ GPXKTQPOGPVCN UVCPFCTFU, DWV VJGTG CTG FCPIGTU VJCV YKVJ

HWNN GZRQUWTG VQ OCTMGV HQTEGU VJGTG YKNN DG NGUU EQPEGTP YKVJ GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGEVKQP.

7.5.4 %JKPGUG ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQVGUV

’PXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGUVU KP %JKPC CTG C TGNCVKXGN[ TGEGPV RJGPQOGPQP. 6JG RTQOWNICVKQP QH

%JKPC'U HKTUV GPXKTQPOGPVCN NCY, KP 1979, JCU PQV QPN[ RTQXKFGF C NGICN DCUKU HQT GPXKTQPOGPVCN

RTQVGEVKQP DWV CNUQ GPJCPEGF VJG RWDNKE'U UGPUG QH DCUKE TKIJVU KP HCXQWT QH LWUVKH[KPI HQTEGHWN,

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YGNN-DGKPI TCVJGT VJCP VT[KPI VQ UCXG VJG PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV HQT KVU QYP UCMG.

’PXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGUV PGGFU VQ DG WPFGTUVQQF CICKPUV C DCEMITQWPF QH OWNVKRNG UQWTEGU QH

TGUKUVCPEG, PCOGN[ ENCUU, IGPFGT, GVJPKEKV[, IGPGTCVKQP, CPF TGIKQPCN NQECVKQP, KP VJG HCEG QH VJG

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• 6JG FG HCEVQ TGFKUVTKDWVKQP QH RTQRGTV[ TKIJVU

• 6JG NC[KPI QHH QH VJQWUCPFU QH UVCVG-UGEVQT YQTMGTU

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1080 9QTNF 6TCFG 1TICPKUCVKQP JVVR://YYY.YVQ.QTI/ CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005.

http://www.wto.org/




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2TQVGUVU JCXG DGGP FKTGEVGF CICKPUV UVCVG RQNKEKGU, UVCVG RTCEVKEGU CPF UVCVG QHHKEKCNU, DWV OQUV

CEVKQPU JCXG TGOCKPGF NQECN CPF NKOKVGF. 6JG CWVJQTKVKGU, GXGT YCVEJHWN, JCXG CNN YQTMGF JCTF

VQ EQPVCKP UWEJ KPEKFGPVU CPF RTGXGPV VJGO ITQYKPI KPVQ NCTIGT-UECNG OCUU OQXGOGPVU. 0Q

UWUVCKPGF OQXGOGPV QH RQRWNCT QRRQUKVKQP HTQO YQTMGTU1081, OKITCPVU1082, RGCUCPVU1083,

YQOGP1084, KPVGNNGEVWCNU1085, GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU1086 QT GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUVU1087 JCU DGGP TGCNKUGF

YKVJ VJG RQUUKDNG GZEGRVKQP QH VJG TGUWTIGPEG QH RQRWNCT TGNKIKQP, UGEVU CPF MKPUJKR VKGU1088.

5KPEG VJG OKF 1980'U VJGTG JCU DGGP TGOCTMCDNG ITQYVJ KP DQVJ 'OKZKP'1089 CPF '\QPILKCQ'1090

TGNKIKQWU VTCFKVKQPU1091 YKVJ CP GUVKOCVGF 70 -100 OKNNKQP %JTKUVKCPU1092 CVVGPFKPI WPFGTITQWPF

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+P GXGT[ TGIKQP CPF RTQXKPEG CEVU QH FKUTWRVKQP D[ TGCEVKQPCT[ UGEVU CPF UQEKGVKGU JCXG QEEWTTGF.

%QPVTCT[ VQ QHHKEKCN TGRQTVU VJGUG CEVKXKVKGU JCXG PQV QPN[ VCMGP RNCEG KP VJG EQWPVT[UKFG KP

TGOQVG OQWPVCKP CTGCU CNQPI %JKPC'U DQTFGTU, DWV CTG YKFGURTGCF VJTQWIJQWV %JKPC YJGTG VJG[

CTG QHVGP VQNGTCVGF CU EWUVQO QT EQOOQFKHKGF HQT VQWTKUO1093.

.QPIUVCPFKPI XKNNCIG CPF MKPUJKR NQ[CNVKGU EQPVKPWG VQ UJCRG KPUWTIGPV KFGPVKVKGU KP TWTCN %JKPC

CU UQEKCN OQXGOGPVU FTCY QP VJGOGU CPF KOCIGU UCPEVKHKGF D[ VTCFKVKQP GXGP CU VJG[ GPICIG

1081 .GG 2000 1082 /CNNGG 2000 1083 $GTPUVGKP 2000 1084 JVVR://YYY.EJKPCNCDQTYCVEJ.QTI/GP/YGD/CTVKENG.RJR!CTVKENGAKF=50205 CEEGUUGF 29VJ 1EVQDGT 2005 1085 )QNFOCP 2000 1086 $WNCI 1999, &TG[GT 2000 1087 ,KPI 1999 1088 5EJGEJVGT 2000, 5JWG 2001, 9QPI CPF .KW 1999 1089 民心民心民心民心 OK2 ZKP4: KU XKGYGF CU UWRGTUVKVKQWU (OK KU RTQPQWPEGF KP VJG 2PF VQPG CPF ZKP KP VJG 4VJ).

1090 宗教宗教宗教宗教 \QPI1 LKCQ4: KU QHHKEKCNN[ TGEQIPK\GF D[ VJG UVCVG (\QPI KU RTQPQWPEGF KP VJG 1UV VQPG CPF LKCQ KP VJG 4VJ). 1091 #PVJTQRQNQIKUVU PQ NQPIGT ECVGIQTK\G TGNKIKQPU QP VJG DCUKU QH 'JKIJ' CPF 'NQY' DGECWUG VJG[ EQPUKFGT VJG NCVVGT VGTO VQ DG RGLQTCVKXG (RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP #PFGTUQP 7/2/2000 YGDNQI). 1092 JVVR://YYY.EDP.EQO/%$00GYU/%90/062504JGCXGPN[OCP.CUR CEEGUUGF 29VJ 1EVQDGT 2005 1093 (GWEJVYCPI 1999, /WPTQ 1989

http://www.chinalaborwatch.org/en/web/article.php?article_id=50205

http://www.cbn.com/CBNNews/CWN/062504heavenlyman.asp




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5QOG XKGY VJG TGUWTIGPEG QH KPVGTGUV KP MKPUJKR VKGU CPF RQRWNCT TGNKIKQP CU JCTDKPIGTU QH

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ETQUU-TGIKQPCN CUUQEKCVKQPU. 5KPEG VJG HQWPFKPI QH VJG 2GQRNG'U 4GRWDNKE, CVVGORVU VQ HQTIG

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1094 ,KPI 1999 1095 (GWEJVYCPI 1999 1096 2GTT[ CPF 5GNFGP 1999 1097 # HQTO QH FGOQETCE[ VJCV GXQNXGU HTQO UQEKCN VKGU VJCV YGTG CNYC[U DCUGF KP RCTVKEWNCT NQECNKVKGU CPF EQTRQTCVG KFGPVKVKGU, CPF PGXGT VJG CWVQPQOQWU KPFKXKFWCNU QH CP KFGCNK\GF 'YGUV'. 1098 9GNNGT 1999 1099 6JKU KU C EQPVGUVGF VGTO ($CTQP GV CN 2004, .GWPI 2002, 5VQNNG CPF .GYKU WPFCVGF). 1100 (CNWP )QPI (法輪功 � NKVGTCNN[ 2TCEVKEG QH VJG 9JGGN QH .CY) KU C EQPVTQXGTUKCN %JKPGUG URKTKVWCN OQXGOGPV YJKEJ YCU KPVTQFWEGF KP 1992 D[ .K *QPI\JK. %GPVTCN VQ (CNWP )QPI CTG HKXG UGVU QH GZGTEKUGU (HQWT UVCPFKPI, CPF QPG UKVVKPI) VJCV KPXQNXG OGFKVCVKQP CPF CTG UCKF VQ JGNR KP VJG RWTKHKECVKQP QH VJG OKPF CPF VJG DQF[. /CP[ VGCEJKPIU CTG UKOKNCT VQ VJQUG KP $WFFJKUO CPF &CQKUO � VJQWIJ KV CFFU C EQPUGTXCVKXG OQTCNKV[ CPF UGXGTCN 0GY #IG CPF CRQECN[RVKE DGNKGHU. #NUQ MPQYP CU (CNWP &CHC, VJG RTCEVKEG JCU ITQYP UYKHVN[ KP RQRWNCTKV[ CTQWPF VJG YQTNF. JVVR://GP.YKMKRGFKC.QTI/YKMK/(CNWPA)QPI CEEGUUGF 31UV 1EVQDGT 2005.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falun_Gong




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http://www.elinebgtraction.at/page/en/7




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http://www.infomine.com/index/companies/ATHABASKA_GOLD_RESOURCES_LTD..html

http://www.infomine.com/index/suppliers/Rescan_Engineering_Ltd..html




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http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4208179.stm




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http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=9956&article=Activist+Scales+Hotel+with+Tibetan+Flag+and+Calls+on+Bombardier+to+Leave+Tibet&t=1&c=1

http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=9956&article=Activist+Scales+Hotel+with+Tibetan+Flag+and+Calls+on+Bombardier+to+Leave+Tibet&t=1&c=1

http://www.iblf.org/csr/csrwebassist.nsf/content/f1.html

http://www.iblf.org/iblf/csrwebassist.nsf/content/f1b2a3e4.html

http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle.do?categoryId=9002630&contentId=7005204

http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/2/54sub/ood0808.htm




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http://english.people.com.cn/200205/16/eng20020516_95836.shtml

http://www.cnta.com/lyen/index.asp




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7PKQP JGNRGF %JKPC VQ DWKNF HCEVQTKGU KP VJG TGIKQP CPF KP VJG 1960'U /CQ <GFQPI CPPQWPEGF

RNCPU VQ FGXGNQR JGCX[ KPFWUVT[. +P VJG 1980'U, JQYGXGT, &GPI :KCQRKPI HQEWUGF JKU OCTMGV

TGHQTO RQNKE[ QP VJG ’CUV %QCUV, CPF WTIGF VJG YGUVGTP TGIKQPU VQ DG RCVKGPV, UVCVKPI VJCV VJGKT

VKOG YQWNF EQOG. 2TGUKFGPV ,KCPI <GOKP NCWPEJGF VJG ECORCKIP VQ FGXGNQR VJG YGUV YKVJ

ITGCV HCPHCTG KP ,WPG 1999. 6JG FGXGNQROGPV OQFGN DGKPI WUGF, JQYGXGT, TGUQPCVGU YKVJ

.QEMG CPF VTCFKVKQPCN /CTZKUO YJGTG UQEKGV[ KU FGGOGF VQ RTQITGUU VJTQWIJ UGV UVCIGU1199. 6JG

NGCFKPI ITQWR HQT 9GUVGTP &GXGNQROGPV, KP VJGKT UGCTEJ HQT CP CRRQUKVG FGXGNQROGPV OQFGN,

JCXG KIPQTGF ITCUU TQQVU RCTVKEKRCVKQP CPF EQPUWNVCVKQP, CPF NQECN PGGF, CPF HQEWUGF KPUVGCF QP

QWVOQFGF 19VJ EGPVWT[ EQNQPKCN OQFGNU QH FGXGNQROGPV1200. 6JG RTQLGEV YCU JGTCNFGF CU

'GRQEJ-OCMKPI' CPF C 'QPEG KP C OKNNGPPKWO QRRQTVWPKV['. +V YQWNF CRRGCT, JQYGXGT, VJCV

CNTGCF[ RQNKEKGU KORQUGF VQR-FQYP CTG HCKNKPI VQ CFFTGUU NQECN PGGFU CPF CTG FGVTKOGPVCN VQ VJG

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG. 2QNKEKGU YKVJ VJG CKO QH 'GEQNQIKECN RTQVGEVKQP', UWEJ CU VJG PGY HQTGUV

RQNKEKGU CTG FGRTKXKPI RGQRNG QH VJGKT NKXGNKJQQF. 6JG KPHNWZ QH *CP %JKPGUG OKITCPVU KU JCXKPI

C FTCOCVKE KORCEV QP VJG NKXGU CPF NKXGNKJQQFU QH VJG NQECN RGQRNG. +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNG HCEG

KPETGCUKPI EQORGVKVKQP HQT GORNQ[OGPV CPF OCTIKPCNKUCVKQP YKVJKP VJGKT QYP EQOOWPKVKGU

FWG VQ PWODGTU QH *CP OKITCPVU GPVGTKPI VJG CTGC, NGCFKPI VQ EQPEGTPU HQT VJG UWTXKXCN QH VJGKT

EWNVWTG CPF KFGPVKV[1201. 9JKNG $GKLKPI RTGUGPVU VJG ECORCKIP CU CP GPVKTGN[ RQUKVKXG KPKVKCVKXG

NGCFKPI VQ YGCNVJ ETGCVKQP CPF RQXGTV[ CNNGXKCVKQP, OCP[ VJKPM KVU C UOQMGUETGGP VQ VTCPUHGT

JWPFTGFU QH *CP %JKPGUG HQT RGTOCPGPV UGVVNGOGPV KPVQ OKPQTKV[ CTGCU, VQ HWTVJGT GZRNQKV

TGUQWTEGU, CPF VQ DGCT FQYP JGCXKN[ QP 'URNKVVKUO' QT RQNKVKECN KPVTCPUKIGPEG. 6QR-FQYP RQNKEKGU

UWEJ CU VJKU JCXG VGPFGF VQ GZENWFG VJG KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG HTQO RCTVKEKRCVKPI KP VJG UJCRKPI QH

VJGKT GPXKTQPOGPV CPF FGXGNQROGPV QH VJGKT GEQPQO[.

6JG .QIIKPI $CP

+P OKF-#WIWUV 1998, VJG 5VCVG %QWPEKN TGEQIPK\GF VJCV VJG ;CPIV\G TKXGT HNQQFU, FKUEWUUGF KP

KP EJCRVGT 8 UGEVKQP 8.1.7, YGTG TGNCVGF VQ FGHQTGUVCVKQP KP VJG WRRGT TGCEJGU CPF KV WTIGF CNN

IQXGTPOGPVU VQ RTQVGEV VJGKT HQTGUVU. 5KEJWCP RTQXKPEG TGURQPFGF D[ KPVTQFWEKPI C HGNNKPI DCP

1199 6+0 2000 1200 6JGKT 'GZGORNCTU' HQT UVWF[ KPENWFGF VJG 'FGXGNQROGPV' QH VJG #OGTKECP 9GUV, QH 20VJ EGPVWT[ 5KDGTKC, QH RQUV 992 ,CRCP, CPF VJG RQQTGT CTGCU QH $TC\KN CPF +PFKC. 1201 (KUEJGT 2005




QP 1 5GRVGODGT KP 54 EQWPVKGU1202 CPF ENQUKPI 9 OKNNKQP JC QH ITC\KPI VQ HCEKNKVCVG TGHQTGUVCVKQP.

+P NCVG #WIWUV, VJG 5VCVG %QWPEKN WTIGF 51 MG[ HQTGUVT[ GPVGTRTKUGU VQ UVQR, NQIIKPI CPF ;WPPCP

KPVTQFWEGF C HGNNKPI DCP, CNQPI KVU UGEVKQP QH VJG ;CPIV\G. +P &GEGODGT 6KDGV #4 ENQUGF CNN

UCYOKNNU KP UQWVJGCUV 6KDGV1203 CPF VJG 5VCVG %QWPEKN TCVKHKGF VJG DCP. #NOQUV KOOGFKCVGN[,

CHVGT VJG HGNNKPI DCP YCU KPVTQFWEGF VKODGT RTKEGU KP VJG $GKLKPI YQQF OCTMGV TQUG D[ WR VQ

30% CPF VJG CWVJQTKVKGU CPPQWPEGF VJG[ YGTG GZRGEVKPI C UJQTVHCNN QH 45OKNNKQP EWDKE OGVTGU,

QWV QH C VQVCN TGSWKTGOGPV QH 100 OKNNKQP EWDKE OGVTGU1204.

+P ;WPPCP, VJG NQIIKPI DCP YCU KORQUGF KP 54 EQWPVKGU1205 KPENWFKPI PKPG EQWPVKGU YJGTG

TGHQTGUVCVKQP GZRGTKOGPVCN WPKVU QRGTCVG. +V JCU JCF DQVJ RQUKVKXG CPF PGICVKXG KORCEVU. 6JG

RQNKE[ CRRGCTU VQ JCXG JGNRGF CEEGNGTCVG VJG RTQEGUU QH PCVWTCN HQTGUV RTQVGEVKQP. +PKVKCNN[ VJG

NQIIKPI DCP YCU YGNEQOGF CNVJQWIJ VJGTG YGTG KOOGFKCVG UKIPU VJCV KV YCU DGKPI HNQWVGF, CPF

QHHKEKCNU YJQ SWGUVKQPGF KH VJG HWPFKPI HQT EQPUGTXCVKQP (QHHGTGF KP NKGW QH NQIIKPI TGXGPWG)

YCU C UWUVCKPCDNG KPEQOG UVTGCO. %QPEGTPU YGTG CNUQ GZRTGUUGF CDQWV VJG KORCEV QH VJG DCP

CPF RCUVWTG ENQUWTG QP VJG NQECN KPJCDKVCPVU CPF VJCV OQUV QH VJG HWPFU HQT TGRNCPVKPI YQWNF IQ

VQ *CP %JKPGUG HQTGUVT[ YQTMGTU, KPUVGCF QH NQECN RGQRNG. +V ECWUGF OWEJ KPKVKCN JCTFUJKR VQ

EQWPV[ IQXGTPOGPVU CPF VJQUG TGEGKXKPI KPEQOG HTQO VJG NQIIKPI CPF VTCPURQTVCVKQP DWUKPGUU.

#FFKVKQPCNN[ VJQUG KPFKXKFWCNU YJQ JCF KPXGUVGF KP NQIIKPI QT VTCPURQTVCVKQP GSWKROGPV

TGEGKXGF PQ EQORGPUCVKQP CPF YGTG HQTEGF VQ UGNN CV XGT[ NQY RTKEGU. +V KU GUVKOCVGF VJCV KP

<JCQVQPI 2TGHGEVWTG1206, HQT GZCORNG NQECN KPEQOG YCU TGFWEGF D[ 35OKNNKQP 4/$1207, CPF KP

.KLKCPI D[ 70%1208. 6JG NQIIKPI DCP ITGCVN[ NKOKVGF UQWTEGU QH KPEQOG KP OCP[ XKNNCIGU

DGECWUG HCTOGTU YGTG PQV CDNG VQ GCTP KPEQOG HTQO EQNNGEVKXG HQTGUV CPF NCDQWT QRRQTVWPKVKGU

KP NQIIKPI QT VTCPURQTVCVKQP JCF IQPG1209. 6JKU FTQXG OCP[ VQ HKPF QHH-HCTO KPEQOG QT DCEM VQ

UWDUKUVGPEG NKHGUV[NGU CPF CU C TGUWNV, 1.2 OKNNKQP RGQRNG DGECOG 'RQQT'. 6JG KORCEV QP VJG

UWDUKUVGPEG UGEVQTU CRRGCTU NGUU UGXGTG, DGECWUG NKOKVGF CEEGUU VQ VJG HQTGUV YCU CNNQYGF HQT

1202 4.5OKNNKQP JC. 1203 9KPMNGT 1998C+D 1204 #PQP 1998C 1205 %QORTKUKPI 164,343 MO2 1206 +P ;WPPCP 2TQXKPEG. 1207 d2.4 OKNNKQP. 1208 75’ 2000, RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP <JCQ 21/8/01 1209 /CNNGG 2000




HKTGYQQF CPF PQP-VKODGT HQTGUV RTQFWEVU (06(2)1210. 6JG GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU YGTG GURGEKCNN[

WRUGV D[ VJG NQIIKPI DCP, DGECWUG VJG[ JCF DGGP WUKPI VJG HQTGUV UWUVCKPCDN[ HQT VJQWUCPFU QH

[GCTU1211. 9JKNG NQECN HCTOGTU CTG QRRQUGF VQ VJG DCP VJG[ MPQY VJCV VJG RQNKE[ EQOGU HTQO VJG

VQR CPF ECPPQV DG FKURWVGF. 6JG DCP TGKPHQTEGU VJGKT UGPUG QH RQYGTNGUUPGUU, LWUVKHKGU VJGKT

UEGRVKEKUO QH VJG FWTCDKNKV[ QH RQNKE[ KORQUKVKQPU, CPF YGCMGPU VJGKT UGEWTKV[ QH VGPWTG.

#NVJQWIJ GORNQ[OGPV YCU RTQXKFGF HQT VJQUG UVCVG GORNQ[GGU KP VJG NQIIKPI KPFWUVT[ CPF

UQOG EQORGPUCVKQP YCU IKXGP VQ NQECN IQXGTPOGPVU VJKU RTQXGF KPCFGSWCVG CV VJG VKOG. #U C

TGUWNV, VJG ECRCEKV[ QH NQECN IQXGTPOGPV VQ FGXGNQR KPHTCUVTWEVWTG CPF OCKPVCKP JGCNVJ CPF

GFWECVKQP UGTXKEGU YCU KORCKTGF1212. +P URKVG QH VJG KORCEV QH VJG NQIIKPI DCP, VJGTG YGTG UKIPU

QH NQECNKUGF TGEQXGT[ YKVJKP 2 [GCTU. +P &GSKP, HQT GZCORNG, YJGTG IQXGTPOGPV KPEQOG YCU

TGFWEGF D[ 80% CPF 340,000 RGQRNG DGECOG RQQT VJG GEQPQO[ EJCPIGF HTQO NQIIKPI VQ

VQWTKUO, CPF D[ 2001 CEEGUU HGGU VQ PCVWTG TGUGTXGU CNQPG RTQXKFG VJG UCOG KPEQOG CU NQIIKPI

WUGF VQ1213.

+PVGTPCVKQPCN UVWFKGU QH VJG KORCEV QH NQIIKPI DCPU UJQY XGT[ OKZGF TGUWNVU. +P UQOG ECUGU, C

NQIIKPI DCP JCU KPETGCUGF RTGUUWTG QP HQTGUVU KP PGKIJDQWTKPI EQWPVTKGU CPF KP QVJGT EQWPVTKGU

VJG[ JCXG RTQXKFGF RTQVGEVKQP HQT HQTGUVU CV TKUM. #P (#1 TGRQTV1214 QP NQIIKPI DCPU KP 0GY

<GCNCPF, %JKPC, VJG 2JKNKRRKPGU, 5TK .CPMC, 6JCKNCPF CPF 8KGV 0CO EQPENWFGF VJCV DCPU JCXG

KP UQOG ECUGU UVQRRGF QT UNQYGF FGHQTGUVCVKQP. 1P C TGIKQPCN QT INQDCN UECNG, JQYGXGT DCPU

JCXG PQV UKIPKHKECPVN[ UNQYGF FGHQTGUVCVKQP. # MG[ EQPENWUKQP VQ DG FTCYP KU VJCV NQIIKPI DCPU

CTG UKORN[ QPG UGV QH RQNKE[ VQQNU CXCKNCDNG VQ FGEKUKQP-OCMGTU YKVJKP C URGEVTWO QH QRVKQPU

CPF CNVGTPCVKXGU. 5GXGTCN ECUG UVWFKGU QP VJG %JKPGUG NQIIKPI DCP1215 JCXG EQPENWFGF:

• 6JG DCPPKPI QH NQIIKPI KP EQNNGEVKXG HQTGUVU CEVWCNN[ NCEMU C NGICN DCUKU. #EEQTFKPI VQ

VJG (QTGUV .CY HCTOGTU YJQ RNCPV VTGGU QP EQNNGEVKXG NCPF QYP VJGUG VTGGU CPF ECP

JCTXGUV VJGO DCUGF QP C JCTXGUV SWQVC U[UVGO.

• 6JCV UWDUKFKGU HCKNGF VQ CFFTGUU VJG RTQDNGOU QH VJG NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU FGRGPFGPV QP

VJG VKODGT GEQPQO[.

1210 :W RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQPO 18/9/01 1211 %QNEJGUVGT 2002 1212 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP :W 18/9/01 1213 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 9CPI &GSKCPI 24/9/01 1214 $TQYP GV CN 2001 1215 %%+%’& 2002, 2003




• $NCPMGV NQIIKPI DCPU ETGCVG C XGT[ RQYGTHWN FKUKPEGPVKXG HQT HCTOGTU CPF VJG RTKXCVG

UGEVQT VQ RNCPV VTGGU, KPENWFKPI PGICVKXG GHHGEVU QP UWUVCKPKPI HQTGUV FGXGNQROGPV KP VJG

OKF CPF NQPI VGTO

6JG ECUG UVWFKGU1216 RTQRQUG

• 6JG NQIIKPI DCP UJQWNF DG TGOQXGF HTQO EQNNGEVKXG HQTGUVU YJGTG CRRTQRTKCVG CPF VJG

HCTOGTU RTQXKFGF YKVJ UGEWTG RTQRGTV[ TKIJVU QXGT VJGKT HQTGUVU

• %QORGPUCVKQP UJQWNF DG RTQXKFGF HQT VJG NQUUGU QH RTKXCVG KPXGUVQTU

• 6JG PCVWTCN HQTGUV RTQVGEVKQP RTQITCO UJQWNF PQV DG EQPUKFGTGF GSWKXCNGPV VQ C NQIIKPI

DCP. +P OCP[ ECUGU, PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG EQPUGTXCVKQP ECP EQGZKUV YKVJ VKODGT CPF 06(2

WVKNK\CVKQP, IKXGP C ECTGHWNN[ FGUKIPGF QRGTCVKQPCN RNCP CPF CP CRRTQRTKCVG JCTXGUVKPI

TGIKOG.

• 6JG IQXGTPOGPV UJQWNF OCMG C ITCFWCN CPF ECTGHWNN[ RNCPPGF VTCPUKVKQP QXGT VKOG

HTQO C DNCPMGV DCP VQ C OQTG FKXGTUKHKGF HNGZKDNG CRRTQCEJ VJCV GPCDNGU UWUVCKPCDNG

HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV QH UVCVG-QYPGF HQTGUVU. 6JKU YKNN TGSWKTG RNCPPKPI HQT FKXGTUKHKGF

NCPF WUG VJCV KPENWFGU GPUWTKPI CFGSWCVG RTQVGEVKQP QH QNF ITQYVJ HQTGUVU, VTGG RNCPVKPI

CU YGNN CU PCVWTCN TGJCDKNKVCVKQP QH UKVGU1217

• 6JCV EQOOWPKV[-DCUGF PCVWTCN HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV UJQWNF DG EQPUKFGTGF CU CP QRVKQP

HQT DGVVGT OCPCIGOGPV QH PCVWTCN HQTGUVU KPUVGCF QH VJG NQIIKPI DCP1218

%NGCTN[, %JKPC EQWNF PQV JCXG CPVKEKRCVGF CNN VJG QWVEQOGU QH VJG NQIIKPI DCP, CPF KV YQWNF DG

WPHCKT VQ UKPING QWV %JKPC CNQPG HQT DNCOG. +P OQXKPI VQ CXQKF GEQNQIKECN FKUCUVGT CV JQOG,

$GKLKPI JQYGXGT JCU ECWUKPI C ECVCUVTQRJG CDTQCF, VQ UWRRN[ KVU JWIG FGOCPF HQT VKODGT CPF

VKODGT RTQFWEVU. ’PXKTQPOGPVCN ITQWRU CTG OQPKVQTKPI VJG CNCTOKPI KORCEV QH FGOCPF HTQO

%JKPC KP 4WUUKC, +PFQPGUKC, $WTOC, %CODQFKC, .CQU, 8KGVPCO, 6JCKNCPF, )CDQP CPF 2CRWC

0GY )WKPGC. ,CRCP'U JWPIGT HQT VKODGT JGNRGF FGUVTQ[ VJG TCKP HQTGUVU QH VJG 2JKNKRRKPGU CPF

$QTPGQ CPF GEQNQIKUVU PQY HGCT %JKPC YKNN HGNN VJG TGUV. 6Q OCMG OCVVGTU YQTUG KNNGICN NQIIGTU

1216 %%+%’& 2002, 2003 1217 %%+%’& 2003 1218 9GKLK &GPI PF




CTG VCMKPI CFXCPVCIG QH GPVTGPEJGF EQTTWRVKQP KP VKODGT-RTQFWEKPI EQWPVTKGU VQ UWRRN[ VJKU

FGOCPF. 6JG NQYNCPF HQTGUVU QH +PFQPGUKC, HQT GZCORNG CTG DGKPI U[UVGOCVKECNN[ FGUVTQ[GF D[

C EQTTWRV VTKCPING QH OKNKVCT[ QHHKEGTU, VKODGT DCTQPU CPF KPVGTPCVKQPCN EQORCPKGU. #V VJG

EWTTGPV TCVGU QH FGUVTWEVKQP, HQTGUVU YKNN FKUCRRGCT QP 5WOCVTC CPF −CNKOCPVCP DGHQTG 2010.

%JKPC KU OQXKPI KP CIITGUUKXGN[, OWUENKPI QWV EQORGVKVQTU CPF YCU TCRKFN[ DGEQOKPI VJG

NGCFKPI FGUVKPCVKQP HQT +PFQPGUKC'U KNNGICN NQIU. 6JGTG YCU GXKFGPEG VQ UWIIGUV VJCV KP 2002

%JKPC KORQTVGF 200 VKOGU VJG SWCPVKV[ QH NQIU TGRQTVGF D[ +PFQPGUKCP EWUVQOU. 0GCTN[ 50% QH

%JKPC'U KORQTVU EQOG HTQO VJG EQPKHGTQWU HQTGUVU QH 5KDGTKC CPF VJG 4WUUKCP (CT ’CUV CPF

KNNGICN NQIIKPI EQWNF GZEGGF 70% QH VJG VQVCN1219 YKVJ EQTTWRV QHHKEKCNU CPF ETKOKPCN ICPIU QP

DQVJ UKFGU QH VJG DQTFGT RNC[KPI C TQNG1220. 9KVJ C DQTFGT VJCV GZVGPFU CRRTQZKOCVGN[ 2000

OKNGU CPF FQ\GPU QH DQTFGT ETQUUKPIU1221 VJCV CNNQY HQT VJG WPTGIWNCVGF GZRQTV QH NQIU. .QECN

QDUGTXGTU ENCKO VJGTG KU NKVVNG OQPKVQTKPI QT NGICN EQPVTQN QH VJG VKODGT VTCFG CPF VJCV JWPFTGFU

QH UOCNN EQPVTCEVQTU CTG UWRRN[KPI %JKPGUG VKODGT DW[GTU. 5QOG %JKPGUG NQIIKPI EQORCPKGU

JCXG DGIWP KPXGUVKPI KP NQIIKPI EQORCPKGU1222 KP 5KDGTKC CPF VJG 4WUUKCP (CT ’CUV CPF VQ

OCPCIG NQIIKPI QRGTCVKQPU CU YGNN1223. +V KU GUVKOCVGF VJCV 70% QH %CODQFKC'U NQIIKPI KU

WPTGIWNCVGF CPF OWEJ QH KV KU FGUVKPGF HQT %JKPC. 2JPQO 2GPJ, JQYGXGT, GZRGNNGF VJG

GPXKTQPOGPVCN ITQWR )NQDCN 9KVPGUU1224, YJQ JCF DGGP EQPVTCEVGF VQ OQPKVQT KNNGICN NQIIKPI,

DGECWUG VJG[ PCOGF EQTTWRV QHHKEKCNU KP VJG VKODGT VTCFG1225. 6JG ECUJ-UVTCRRGF OKNKVCT[ TGIKOG

KP 4CPIQQP JCU DGGP CEEWUGF QH GZEGUUKXG NQIIKPI KP UQOG QH VJG YQTNF'U NCTIGUV TGOCKPKPI

VTCEVU QH XKTIKP VTQRKECN HQTGUV. ’ZVGPUKXG CTGCU QH RTKUVKPG HQTGUV KP −CEJKP UVCVG, QP VJG 9GUVGTP

UNQRGU QH )CQNKIQPIUJCP, JCXG DGGP HGNNGF VQ UWRRN[ VJG %JKPC VTCFG. 9JKNG VYQ PCVKQPCN

PCVWTG TGUGTXGU RTQVGEV VJG %JKPGUG UKFG QH VJG OQWPVCKPU, %JKPGUG EQORCPKGU CTG ECTT[KPI QWV

NCTIG-UECNG, WPTGIWNCVGF NQIIKPI CPF OKPKPI QRGTCVKQPU QP VJG $WTOGUG UKFG. 6JG KORNKECVKQPU

HQT NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU CPF VJG GPXKTQPOGPV YKNN DG ECVCUVTQRJKE1226. #U VJG NQIIKPI DCP VQQM

JQNF KP VJG NCVG 1990'U %JKPC UWFFGPN[ DGECOG VJG YQTNF'U UGEQPF DKIIGUV VKODGT KORQTVGT,

CHVGT VJG 75#. 6JG NQIIKPI DCP YCU C JWIG HCEVQT, DWV VJGTG CTG QVJGTU VQQ. &QOGUVKE

1219 17OKNNKQP EWDKE OGVTGU. 1220 .CIWG 2003, 2004 1221 #PF HTQ\GP TKXGTU. 1222 −NWEJK CPF ’RQU 1223 9GP $Q PF, −PKIJV 2000 1224 JVVR://YYY.INQDCNYKVPGUU.QTI/ CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005 1225 .CTOGT CPF 5GPQ 2003 1226 )NQDCN 9KVPGUU 2003

http://www.globalwitness.org/




EQPUWORVKQP KU ITQYKPI HCUV CU VJG OKFFNG ENCUUGU DW[ PGY JQOGU CPF %JKPC WPFGTVCMGU JWIG

EKXKN EQPUVTWEVKQP RTQLGEVU. %JKPC'U GPVT[ KPVQ 9611227 JCU FTKXGP VCTKHHU HQT OQUV VKODGT

KORQTVU FQYP VQ \GTQ, HWGNNKPI KORQTVU CU YGNN CU C TCRKFN[ GZRCPFKPI GZRQTV KPFWUVT[ OQUV QH

KV FGUVKPGF VQ VJG 75 CPF ’WTQRG. 6JG TKUG KP FGOCPF HTQO %JKPC KU RCTVKEWNCTN[ FGXCUVCVKPI HQT

#UKC KP VGTOU QH KVU VKOKPI CPF OQOGPVWO. (QTGUVU YGTG CNTGCF[ FGRNGVGF CHVGT FGECFGU QH

HGNNKPI, D[ VJG 75 CPF ’WTQRG CPF OQTG TGEGPVN[ ,CRCP, 6CKYCP CPF −QTGC, DGHQTG %JKPC

DGECOG C OCLQT RNC[GT. +P OCP[ #UKCP EQWPVTKGU EQPUGTXCVKQP RQNKEKGU YGTG QPN[ LWUV DGKPI

KORNGOGPVGF YJGP %JKPC'U GEQPQO[ VQQM QHH CPF VJGTG CTG HGCTU VJCV RTQVGEVKXG OGCUWTGU YKNN

RTQXG KPCFGSWCVG KP VJG HCEG QH GEQPQOKE RTGUUWTG. /CPCIKPI %JKPC'U TGSWKTGOGPVU KU XKVCN HQT

VJG UWTXKXCN QH UQOG QH VJG YQTNF'U OQUV XCNWCDNG TGOCKPKPI VTCEVU QH HQTGUV. &GURKVG VJG ITKO

QWVNQQM VJGTG CTG UKIPU VJCV $GKLKPI KU YKNNKPI VQ YQTM YKVJ HQTGKIP IQXGTPOGPVU CPF

GPXKTQPOGPVCN ITQWRU VQ VT[ VQ GPF VJG VTCFG KP KNNGICN NQIU CPF VKODGT RTQFWEVU.

+P &GEGODGT 2002, $GKLKPI CPF ,CMCTVC UKIPGF C OGOQTCPFWO QH WPFGTUVCPFKPI VQ EWTD VJG

HNQY QH KNNGICN VKODGT KPVQ %JKPC. +V QWVNKPGU PQ URGEKHKE RNCPU QT RQNKEKGU, QPN[ C NKUV QH

KPVGPVKQPU. +V KU JQYGXGT, C RQUKVKXG UVGR JQNFKPI DQVJ IQXGTPOGPVU CEEQWPVCDNG1228. /CP[

GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUVU JQYGXGT TGOCKP UEGRVKECN VJCV VJKU YKNN JCXG CP[ KORCEV WPVKN ,CMCTVC VCEMNGU

VJG EQTTWRVKQP UWTTQWPFKPI VJG NQIIKPI CPF VKODGT KPFWUVTKGU1229. 6JGTG CTG CNUQ JKIJ JQRGU VJCV

%JKPC YKNN LQKP KPVGTPCVKQPCN GHHQTVU VQ EGTVKH[ NGICNN[ NQIIGF VKODGT UQ VJCV KV ECP DG VTCEMGF

HTQO HQTGUV VQ GPF-WUGT.

$GKLKPI KU CNUQ EQOKPI WPFGT RTGUUWTG VQ TGNCZ KVU NQIIKPI DCP UGNGEVKXGN[ UQ VJCV FGUKIPCVGF

HQTGUVU ECP DG JCTXGUVGF QP C UWUVCKPCDNG DCUKU. #V VJG UCOG VKOG GPXKTQPOGPVCN ITQWRU, UWEJ

CU 99( CTG GPEQWTCIKPI %JKPC VQ GZRCPF KVU EQOOGTEKCN VKODGT RNCPVCVKQPU, YJKEJ EQWNF

TGRNCEG C DKI RTQRQTVKQP QH KORQTVU KH OCPCIGF GHHKEKGPVN[. 5QOG HQTGKIP-QYPGF VKODGT

RNCPVCVKQP EQORCPKGU XKGY %JKPC CU C 'UWRRNKGTU' OCTMGV HQT 20 [GCTU' CPF CTG GZRCPFKPI VJGKT

JQNFKPIU. 6JG 6QTQPVQ NKUVGF 5KPQ-(QTGUV %QTR, YJKEJ QRGTCVGU RNCPVCVKQPU KP UQWVJGTP %JKPC,

1227 9QTNF 6TCFG 1TICPKUCVKQP. 1228 .CTOGT CPF 5GPQ 2003 1229 .CIWG 2003




RNCPU VQ NKUV C UWDUKFKCT[, 5KPQ-9QQF, KP *QPI −QPI GCTN[ KP 2004 YKVJ VJG RTQEGGFU VQ DG WUGF

VQ HWPF GZRCPUKQP QP VJG OCKPNCPF1230.

0CVWTCN (QTGUV 2TQVGEVKQP 2TQITCOOG

+P &GE 2000, VJG 5VCVG %QWPEKN CPPQWPEGF C NCTIG CPF WPKSWG RNCP HQT RTQVGEVKPI %JKPC'U

PCVWTCN HQTGUVU, VJG 0CVWTCN (QTGUV 2TQVGEVKQP 2TQITCOOG (0(22). 6JG JKUVQTKE TQQVU HQT VJG

RNCP IQ DCEM VQ VJG 1970'U, DWV VJG KUUWGU YGTG FTCOCVKECNN[ DTQWIJV VQ RWDNKE CVVGPVKQP,

DGECWUG QH VJG JGCX[ HNQQFU KP 1998 CPF C PWODGT QH RTQXKPEGU KPVTQFWEGF C HGNNKPI DCP. +P VJG

VYQ [GCTU HQNNQYKPI, VJG %JKPGUG IQXGTPOGPV KPXGUVGF d0.68 DKNNKQP1231 KP 0(22 CPF TGNCVGF

CEVKXKVKGU. 5QOG QH VJG HWPFU YGTG WUGF VQ RTQXKFG PGY LQDU CPF UQOG HQT EQORGPUCVKQP VQ

NQECN IQXGTPOGPVU1232 DWV VJG OCKP HQEWU YCU QP HQTGUV RTQVGEVKQP CPF TGHQTGUVCVKQP. +P ;WPPCP,

VJKU RTQLGEV EQXGTU 8.5OKNNKQP JC QH HQTGUVNCPF1233 KP VJG OCKP TKXGT DCUKPU1234 EQORTKUKPI 74

EQWPVKGU1235. 6JG CKO QH VJGUG HQTGUVU KU VQ RTQXKFG CP GPXKTQPOGPVCN HWPEVKQP KP VGTOU QH

DKQFKXGTUKV[, ENKOCVG TGIWNCVKQP, PWVTKGPV E[ENKPI CPF YCVGT CPF UQKN EQPUGTXCVKQP. 6JG RTQLGEV

KPENWFGU PQV QPN[ VJG RTQVGEVKQP QH GZKUVKPI PCVWTCN HQTGUV DWV CHHQTGUVCVKQP D[ RNCPVKPI, CKT

UGGFKPI CPF OQWPVCKP ENQUWTG.

’VJPKE OKPQTKVKGU CTG ETKVKECN QH 0(22 CPF OQWPVCKP ENQUWTG KP CTGCU VJCV YGTG JKUVQTKECN

ITC\KPI NCPFU1236 DGECWUG VJTQWIJQWV VJGKT NKXGU, VJG[ JCF RTQVGEVGF VJGKT HQTGUV CPF GPJCPEGF

NQECN DKQFKXGTUKV[1237 CPF VJG[ YGTG PQV TGURQPUKDNG HQT VJG HGNNKPI. 6JG[ TGEGKXGF NKVVNG QT PQ

EQORGPUCVKQP CPF CTG GZRGEVGF VQ 'RTQVGEV' VJG HQTGUV, YJKEJ GZENWFGU VJGO CPF KIPQTGU VJGKT

EWUVQOCT[ TKIJVU, KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF NKPIWKUVKE GEQNQIKGU1238.

%CUG UVWFKGU1239 JCXG GZRTGUUGF EQPEGTP CDQWV 0(22

1230 JVVR://YYY.UKPQHQTGUV.EQO/ CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005 1231 VGP DKNNKQP %JKPC ;WCP 4GPOKPDK (4/$). 1232 /CNNGG 2000 1233 #EEQWPVKPI HQT 66% QH HQTGUV NCPF KP ;WPPCP. 1234 0COGN[ VJG WRRGT ;CPIV\G, /GMQPI, CPF 5CNYGGP. 1235 13 RTGHGEVWTGU. 1236 #PF CTG PQY FGUKIPCVGF HQT TGHQTGUVCVKQP, JCXG DGGP HGPEGF QHH CPF GPENQUGF CICKPUV VJGO. 1237 %JGP $Q GV CN 2003, *G, ;W, CPF .K 2000, ;KP 5JCQVKPI 2001 1238 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP *G 5JCQ ;KPI 2001 1239 %%+%’& 2001

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• FWG VQ VJG NCEM QH CP[ URGEKHKE QRGTCVKPI TGIWNCVKQPU HQT HQTGUV ECTG CPF OCPCIGOGPV

CPF KVU HCKNWTG VQ CFFTGUU VJG UWDUKUVGPEG PGGFU QH VJG RQQT

• VJCV VJG GEQNQIKECN IQCNU QH 0(22 CTG PQV DGKPI HWNN[ OGV KP VJCV VJG RTQOQVKQP QH

OQPQEWNVWTG RNCPVKPIU KP RTQVGEVGF CTGCU HCKNU VQ GPUWTG RTGUGTXCVKQP QH DKQFKXGTUKV[

7RNCPF %QPXGTUKQP (CITKEWNVWTG VQ HQTGUV)

6JG CKO QH '7RNCPF %QPXGTUKQP' (7%) YCU VQ EWTD CNN CITKEWNVWTG QP NCPFU YKVJ C UNQRG QH QXGT

25 FGITGGU. 7PFGT VJG RTQITCOOG, HCTOGTU YGTG GPEQWTCIGF VQ RNCPV VTGGU QP VJGKT UVGGRGT

HKGNFU, CPF YGTG QHHGTGF HTGG ITCKP CPF ECUJ EQORGPUCVKQP VQ OCMG WR NQUUGU. #FFKVKQPCN UWOU

YGTG CFXCPEGF VQ GUVCDNKUJ PWTUGTKGU CPF CESWKTG UCRNKPIU. 9JGP EQORNGVGF VJG CKO KU VQ

EQPXGTV CTQWPF 14.67 OKNNKQP JGEVCTGU QH ETQRNCPF VQ HQTGUV QT RCUVWTG. &WTKPI VJG HKTUV VJTGG

[GCTU, VJG RTQITCO URTGCF VQ 20 RTQXKPEGU, 400 EQWPVKGU CPF 27,000 XKNNCIGU CPF OQTG VJCP 15

OKNNKQP HCTOGTU RCTVKEKRCVGF KP VJG RTQITCO. 6JG RQVGPVKCN KORCEV QH WRNCPF EQPXGTUKQP KU JWIG

CPF EQWNF CHHGEV 25% QH VJG OQWPVCKP RQRWNCVKQP QH 5QWVJYGUV %JKPC. 6JGTG YGTG EQPEGTPU

VJQWIJ VJCV EQORGPUCVKQP QH ITCKPU CPF ECUJ KU KPCFGSWCVG HQT VJG NQECN RQRWNCVKQP CPF

CNVGTPCVKXG NKXGNKJQQF UVTCVGIKGU CTG TGSWKTGF1240.

+P ;WPPCP, VJG RTQLGEV DGICP KP PKPG RKNQV EQWPVKGU1241 DWV VJGTG KU RQVGPVKCN HQT VJG RTQITCOOG

VQ URTGCF VQ 1261242 EQWPVKGU, YJKEJ JCXG UVGGR NCPF. 6JG RTQITCOOG JCU DGGP YKFGN[ CFQRVGF

CPF FGOCPF HQT VTGG UGGFNKPI, D[ 2000 GZEGGFGF 6O/[GCT1243. $[ 0QXGODGT 2000, OQTG VJCP

50,000 TWTCN JQWUGJQNFU KP ;WPPCP JCF UKIPGF EQPVTCEVU, YJKNG QVJGTU1244 YGTG TGRQTVKPI C

FGENKPG KP KPEQOG CPF HCTONCPF1245. 6JG GPVJWUKCUO CV NQECN NGXGN ECP DG GZRNCKPGF D[ VYQ

HCEVQTU. (KTUVN[, VJG EQORGPUCVKQP QH HQQF CPF ECUJ RGT OW1246 IGPGTCNN[ GZEGGFGF VJG HCTOGT'U

[KGNF QP VJG VCTIGVGF NCPF. 5GEQPFN[, VJG RTGXKQWU VJTGG [GCTU JCF DGGP RQQT KP VGTOU QH

CITKEWNVWTCN QWVRWV CPF UVQTGF HQQF YCU TWPPKPI QWV. 6JG EQORGPUCVKQP, VJGP UGTXGF CU

1240 <JCQ GV CN 2002 1241 %QORTKUKPI 11.21OKNNKQP OW QH UVGGR NCPF QH YJKEJ 2O OW JCU DGGP VTCPUHGTTGF VQ VGTTCEG, 8OKNNKQP OW VQ HQTGUV CPF 1OKNNKQP OW VQ ITCUUNCPF. 1242 1H 128 EQWPVKGU. 1243 6+0 2000

1244 7UWCNN[ RQQT PQP-RCTVKEKRCPVU. 1245 .K 9GKEJCPI 2001, 9CTF CPF %JCWFT[ 2001 1246 15 OW = 1 JGEVCTG.




GOGTIGPE[ CKF VQ HCTOGTU. 6JGTG YCU GXKFGPEG JQYGXGT, VJCV WRNCPF EQPXGTUKQP KU ECWUKPI

UQEKQGEQPQOKE EJCPIG, KPENWFKPI NQUU QH KPEQOG CPF HCTONCPF, KPETGCUGF QWV-OKITCVKQP CPF

UEJQQN FTQRQWV TCVGU, TGFWEGF EQOOWPKV[ CEVKQP, NCDQWT GZEJCPIG CPF UQEKCN EQJGUKQP CPF C

FGETGCUG KP EQNNGEVKXG VTWUVGGUJKR QH PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU1247. %WTKQWUN[, VJKU NQUU QH 'EQOOQP

NCPF/HQTGUV EQOOQP' JCU VCMGP RNCEG CV VJG UCOG VKOG CU NQECN XKNNCIG GNGEVKQPU, YJKEJ CTG

RTGFKECVGF QP 'NQECN UGNH-IQXGTPCPEG'. 6JG VYQ RTQEGUUGU, VJG NQUU QH EQPVTQN QXGT EQOOQPN[

OCPCIGF TGUQWTEGU CPF KPETGCUGF XKNNCIG EQPVTQN CTG QDXKQWU EQPVTCFKEVQT[ RJGPQOGPC1248.

5QOG HCTOGTU JCXG DGGP HQTEGF VQ UGNN NKXGUVQEM, TGPV ITC\KPI, ITC\G KNNGICNN[ KP 'ENQUGF' HQTGUV

QT OQWPVCKPU, QT GXGP ETQUU KPVGTPCVKQPCN DQWPFCTKGU KP UGCTEJ QH ITC\KPI1249. ’VJPKE OKPQTKVKGU

JCXG DGGP ETKVKECN QH VJG KORNGOGPVCVKQP QH 7RNCPF %QPXGTUKQP CPF C FGNGICVKQP CV VJG

955&1250 EQORNCKPGF VJCV VJG RQNKE[ GZENWFGF VJGO, OCTIKPCNK\GF VJGO CPF KORQXGTKUJGF

VJGO LWUV CU OWEJ CU VJG NQIIKPI RTKQT VQ 1998.

#NVJQWIJ %JKPC JCU TGXGTUGF KVU RQNKEKGU, KV EQPVKPWGU VQ VTGCV OKPQTKV[ RGQRNG CU RTKOKVKXG CPF

DCEMYCTF YKVJ PQ RQUKVKXG TQNG VQ RNC[ KP VJG TGIGPGTCVKQP QH HQTGUV. 6JG FGNGICVKQP YQWNF

YGNEQOG VJG QRRQTVWPKV[ VQ RCTVKEKRCVG KP TGHQTGUVCVKQP VQ COGNKQTCVG GPXKTQPOGPVCN FCOCIG CU

EQTG UVCMGJQNFGTU CPF HQT EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[ DCUGF QP DGUV KPVGTPCVKQPCN RTCEVKEG TCVJGT VJCP

CU CP KPUVTWOGPV QH UQEKCN GPIKPGGTKPI. 6JG[ TGSWGUVGF 955& VQ RTGUU %JKPC VQ CNNQY CNN

GVJPKE OKPQTKV[ ITQWRU VQ DGEQOG HWNN RCTVPGTU KP UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV1251. 6JGTG CTG VJQUG

YJQ SWGUVKQP KH 7RNCPF %QPXGTUKQP KU GEQPQOKECNN[ UWUVCKPCDNG, YJCV YKNN JCRRGP YJGP VJG

EQORGPUCVKQP TWPU QWV CPF KH VJG EQORGPUCVKQP KU CFGSWCVG KP VJG NQPI VGTO1252. +H

EQORGPUCVKQP CTTKXGU NCVG VJKU ECP ECWUG RTQDNGOU CPF URGEKGU EJQKEG KU MG[ DGECWUG RGQRNG

PGGF KPEQOG GCTN[1253. +P OCP[ RCTVU QH −JCO, ITC\KPI EQPVKPWGU KP VJG PGY HQTGUV CTGCU, CPF

UQOG JCXG UWIIGUVGF VJCV HQT TGHQTGUVCVKQP VQ UWEEGGF VJG NQECN GEQPQO[ UJQWNF JCXG DGGP

CNNQYGF VQ FKXGTUKH[ KPVQ CTGCU NKMG 06(2 CPF GEQVQWTKUO1254. +P VGTOU QH DKQFKXGTUKV[ CPF

1247 %%+%’& 2001, &W CPF )WQ 2001 1248 5VWTIGQP 2003 1249 9CTF CPF %JCWFT[ 2001 1250 9QTNF 5WOOKV QP 5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV =2002?. 1251 *QYCTF 1994, .K CPF *G 1998 1252 75’ 2000 1253 6JG .KUW CPF 0W RGQRNG QH 0WLKCPI WUGF VQ ITQY %CPPCDKU UCVKXC =JGOR? CU C ECUJ ETQR, DWV DGECWUG GEQPQOKE VTGGU FQ PQV IKXG VJG UCOG TGVWTP, VJG IQXGTPOGPV EQORGPUCVGU VJGO HQT PQV ITQYKPI JGOR. +H VJG EQORGPUCVKQP CTTKXGU NCVG VJG RGQRNG JCXG VQ EWV VTGGU, HQT UCNG, HTQO VJGKT EQNNGEVKXG HQTGUV. 1254 6+0 2000




GTQUKQP RTGXGPVKQP VJGTG CTG VJQUG YJQ JCXG UWIIGUVGF VJCV C EQPKHGT OQPQEWNVWTG FQGU NKVVNG VQ

RTGXGPV GTQUKQP CPF VJCV VJG RTGXKQWU CITKEWNVWTCN NCPF OC[ JCXG GXGP UWRRQTVGF ITGCVGT

FKXGTUKV[. /WNVKRNG-UVQTG[ CITQ-HQTGUVT[ YQWNF JCXG DGGP C OQTG UWKVCDNG QRVKQP KP VGTOU QH

CFFTGUUKPI PWVTKVKQP, DKQFKXGTUKV[ CPF GTQUKQP RTGXGPVKQP1255. 6JG WPEGTVCKPV[ CPF CODKIWKVKGU

UWTTQWPFKPI VJG VGPWTG CTTCPIGOGPVU YKNN JCTFN[ CEV CU CP KPEGPVKXG HQT HCTOGTU EQPUKFGTKPI

EQPXGTUKQP, GURGEKCNN[ CU VGPWTG TKIJVU CTG FKHHKEWNV VQ UWRRQTV WPFGT %JKPGUG NCY1256. .CUVN[,

CFGSWCVG HWPFKPI JCU PQV DGGP RTQXKFGF VQ RTQVGEV CPF OCPCIG VJG HQTGUV CHVGT VJG[ DGEQOG

GUVCDNKUJGF1257. #NVJQWIJ VJG RTQITCO KU KORTGUUKXG KP VGTOU QH UECNG, UWEEGUU KU FGRGPFGPV PQV

QPN[ QP GTQUKQP TGFWEVKQP, CPF CFGSWCVG NGXGNU QH NQPI-VGTO KPEQOG VQ RCTVKEKRCVKPI HCTOGTU

DWV VJG YGNNDGKPI QH RQQT PQP- RCTVKEKRCPVU. 5WTRTKUKPIN[, IKXGP VJG NCTIG GZRGPFKVWTGU QH GHHQTV

CPF ECRKVCN, VJG IQXGTPOGPV JCU WPFGTVCMGP XGT[ NKVVNG U[UVGOCVKE GXCNWCVKQP.

9JKNG OCP[ EQWPVTKGU JCXG KORNGOGPVGF CODKVKQWU EQPUGTXCVKQP UGV-CUKFG RTQITCOOGU1258

NGUUQPU ECP DG NGCTPGF HTQO VJG 75 %QPUGTXCVKQP 4GUGTXG 2TQITCO (%42), DGECWUG QH KVU UECNG,

JKUVQT[ CPF OQFKHKECVKQPU. 1HHKEKCNU KP VJG 75 YGTG EQPEGTPGF CDQWV VJG EQUV-GHHGEVKXGPGUU QH

%42, KVU UWUVCKPCDKNKV[, CPF VJG RQUV-EQPVTCEV NCPF WUG FGEKUKQPU QH RCTVKEKRCVKPI HCTOGTU. 6JG[

HQWPF VJCV HCTOGTU YKVJ JKIJ EWTTGPV HCTO KPEQOG CPF VJQUG YKVJ JKIJN[ RTQFWEVKXG NCPF YGTG

NGUU NKMGN[ VQ TG-GPTQN KP %42 YJGP VJG EQPVTCEV GZRKTGF, CPF VJCV HCTOGTU VJCV YGTG NGUU TKUM

CXGTUG, JCXG JKIJGT FKUEQWPV TCVGU CPF JCXG OQTG FGDV YGTG OQTG NKMGN[ VQ TGVWTP VQ EWNVKXCVKQP.

9JKNG VJG RQNKE['U ETKVGTKQP YCU ENGCT, ECUG UVWFKGU QH 7RNCPF %QPXGTUKQP KP %JKPC1259 JCXG

UJQYP VJCV VJG URGGF, VQR-FQYP PCVWTG CPF QXGT-WPKHQTOKV[ QH KORNGOGPVCVKQP NGF VQ UQOG

CPQOCNKGU CPF HCKNKPIU:

• +P CFFKVKQP VQ NCPF YKVJ UVGGR UNQRGU UQOG TGIKQPU JCXG IKXGP RTKQTKV[ VQ HNCV UKVGU ENQUG

VQ VJG TQCF

• 6JG RTQITCO NCEMU U[UVGOCVKE KPFKECVQTU VJCV OGCUWTGU VJG GPXKTQPOGPVCN DGPGHKVU QH

GCEJ UKVG

1255 /CNNGG 2000 1256 /CNNGG 2000, RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP <JCQ 21/8/01 1257 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP *W CPF .W 16/8/01 1258 (GTTCTQ CPF 5KORUQP 2000, 7EJKFC GV CN 2004 1259 %%+%’& 2002, 2003




• 6JGTG CTG PQ ENGCT IWKFGNKPGU QXGT RTQRGTV[ TKIJVU QT HWVWTG TGURQPUKDKNKV[ HQT

OCPCIGOGPV QH VJG VTGGU

• 6JGTG JCU DGGP C OKUOCVEJ DGVYGGP NQECN CPF EGPVTCN IQXGTPOGPV VCTIGVU.

• 6TGG UWTXKXCN TCVGU JCXG KP IGPGTCN DGGP NGUU VJCP 50%

• 6JGTG YCU C VGEJPKECN DKCU HCXQWTKPI VTGG RNCPVKPI QXGT QVJGT XGIGVCVKQP CPF TGNKCPEG

JGCXKN[ QP CEVKXKVKGU NKOKVGF VQ VJG HQTGUVT[ UGEVQT.

• 6JG URGGF QH KORNGOGPVCVKQP YCU DG[QPF VJG HKPCPEKCN, VGEJPKECN, KPUVKVWVKQPCN CPF

JWOCP ECRCEKV[ QH VJG CEVQTU KPXQNXGF.

• 6JGTG YCU NKVVNG KPVGITCVKQP YKVJ QVJGT TGNCVGF CTGCU QH CITKEWNVWTG.

• 6JGTG YCU RQQT RNCPV/VTGG UGNGEVKQP CPF CP GEQPQOKE VTGG DKCU

• 6JGTG YCU CODKIWKV[ QXGT 'YCUVGNCPF' CPF 'DCTG NCPF' CHHQTGUVCVKQP

• 6JGTG YCU C VQVCN NCEM QH HCTOGT RCTVKEKRCVKQP KP VJG RNCPPKPI FGUKIP CPF NQPI-VGTO

OCPCIGOGPV QH VJG NCPF EQPXGTUKQP RTQITCO

• 6JGTG YCU RQQT GZVGPUKQP KP VGTOU QH VJG EQPVGPV QH VJG RQNKE[

• (CTOGTU JCF PQ KPHNWGPEG QP VJG EJQKEG QH VGEJPQNQI[ QT URGEKGU QH XGIGVCVKQP VQ DG

WUGF.

• +V NGCF VQ C FKUVQTVKQP QH NQECN OCTMGVU RWVVKPI FQYPYCTF RTGUUWTG QP RTKEGU, FGETGCUKPI

KPEQOGU HQT HCTOGTU YJQ CTG PQV KPXQNXGF KP 7% [GV UVKNN TGN[ QP ETQR RTQFWEVKQP.

6JG UVWFKGU RTQRQUGF

• 7RNCPF EQPXGTUKQP UJQWNF DG KPVGITCVGF KPVQ YCVGTUJGF OCPCIGOGPV

• 9CUVGNCPF RNCPVKPI UJQWNF DG TGFWEGF

• 4GNKCPEG QP PCVWTCN TGIGPGTCVKQP QH CPVK-FTQWIJV URGEKGU UJQWNF DG KPETGCUGF

• %QPUGTXCVKQP VGEJPQNQI[ UJQWNF DG KPVGITCVGF KPVQ VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH QTEJCTFU

• #P GZVGPUKQP VQ VJG EQORGPUCVKQP RGTKQF UJQWNF DG EQPUKFGTGF

• (CTOGT RTQRGTV[ TKIJVU QP EQPXGTVGF NCPF UJQWNF DG TGKPHQTEGF

• 6JG IQXGTPOGPV UJQWNF CFQRV C JQNKUVKE, OQTG HNGZKDNG CPF OWNVK-UGEVQTCN CRRTQCEJ VQ

OCMG WRNCPF EQPXGTUKQP DQVJ GEQNQIKECNN[ CPF GEQPQOKECNN[ UWUVCKPCDNG. 9JCV KU

PGGFGF KU CP CRRTQCEJ CKOGF CV CEJKGXKPI GEQNQIKECN TGUVQTCVKQP YJKNG RTQXKFKPI

TGCNKUVKE, GEQPQOKE OCTMGV-DCUGF KPEGPVKXGU VQ JQWUGJQNFU. 6JKU YKNN TGSWKTG C OQTG




HKPG-VWPGF, FGEGPVTCNK\GF, NQECVKQP-URGEKHKE CRRTQCEJ UWKVGF VQ JKIJN[ FKXGTUG WRNCPF

EQPXGTUKQP EKTEWOUVCPEGU.

• 6JG IQXGTPOGPV UJQWNF RTQOQVG TQWVKPG KPFGRGPFGPV OQPKVQTKPI CPF GXCNWCVKQP VQ

KORTQXG RNCPPKPI CPF KORNGOGPVCVKQP CV CNN NGXGNU, CFQRVKPI C RCTVKEKRCVQT[

EQPUWNVCVKXG CRRTQCEJ VQ RNCPPKPI VJCV KPXQNXGU UVCMGJQNFGTU.

0CVWTG %QPUGTXCVKQP

#NVJQWIJ PCVWTG TGUGTXGU YGTG KPVTQFWEGF KP 5QWVJYGUV %JKPC UQOG VKOG CIQ, VJGKT

KPVTQFWEVKQP JCU TGEGPVN[ DGGP KPETGCUGF CPF VJGKT KORCEV PGGFU VQ DG EQPUKFGTGF KP VCPFGO

YKVJ VJG QVJGT HQTGUV RQNKEKGU. 2NCPU YGTG HKTUV OCFG HQT PCVWTG TGUGTXGU KP ;WPPCP KP 1958, DWV

FWG VQ NCEM QH HWPFU CPF EQPUGTXCVKQP CYCTGPGUU, VJG[ YGTG PQV KORNGOGPVGF HQT 22 [GCTU.

&WTKPI VJCV VKOG 900 VKIGTU, 40,000 NGQRCTFU CPF 85,000 R[VJQPU YGTG MKNNGF. .GCTPKPI HTQO

VJKU NGUUQP VJG ;WPPCP 2TQXKPEKCN )QXGTPOGPV (;2)) JCU OCFG C UKIPKHKECPV KPXGUVOGPV KP VJG

GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH PCVWTG TGUGTXGU. $[ VJG GPF QH 1999, ;WPPCP JCF GUVCDNKUJGF OQTG PCVWTG

TGUGTXGU VJCP CP[ QVJGT RTQXKPEG KP %JKPC1260. /QUV PCVWTG TGUGTXGU1261 EQOG WPFGT VJG FKTGEV

OCPCIGOGPV QH VJG YKNFNKHG EQPUGTXCVKQP QHHKEG QH ;WPPCP (QTGUVT[ $WTGCW (;($).6JGTG CTG

RNCPU, KP ;WPPCP, VQ CFF 11 PCVWTG TGUGTXGU CPF 3 DCUGU HQT YKNF URGEKGU FWTKPI VJG 10VJ 5-[GCT

HQTGUVT[ RNCP. 0CVWTG TGUGTXGU CTG QHVGP UKVWCVGF PGCT VJG RQQT, YJQ OC[ TGEQIPK\G VJGKT

KORQTVCPEG DWV TGSWKTG HKTGYQQF, VKODGT, HQQF, OGFKEKPGU, CPF ITC\KPI HQT VJGKT UWDUKUVGPEG

NKXGNKJQQFU, YJKEJ NGCFU VQ EQPHNKEV. #FFKVKQPCNN[ DKTFU CPF CPKOCNU ECP FGUVTQ[ ETQRU, CPF

HCTOGTU TGEGKXG KPCFGSWCVG EQORGPUCVKQP1262. '8QNWPVCT[' TGNQECVKQP QH RGQRNG HTQO TGUGTXGU,

JCU RTQXGF RQUUKDNG KP UQOG RCTVU QH ;WPPCP, CNVJQWIJ KP &CPUJCPDCQ VQYPUJKR 30 HCOKNKGU

CUMGF VQ DG TGNQECVGF YKVJKP VJG VQYPUJKR TCVJGT VJCP OQXKPI VQ 5KOCQ 2TGHGEVWTG. %WTTGPVN[,

JQYGXGT, PQ HWPFKPI KU CXCKNCDNG HQT TGNQECVKQP YKVJKP C VQYPUJKR. 0CVWTG TGUGTXG OCPCIGTU

JQRG VJCV VQWTKUO YKNN DTKPI KPETGCUGF KPEQOG, DWV VJKU OC[ PGICVKXGN[ KORCEV VJG YKNFNKHG VJG

1260 112 TGUGTXGU YKVJ C VQVCN NCPF CTGC QH 2.2OKNNKQP JC EQORTKUKPI 6.6% QH VJG RTQXKPEG. 1261 100 QWV QH 112. 1262 G.I. &WTKPI 1998 CPF 1999 DKTFU FGUVTQ[GF 300 JC QH ETQRU KP .KLKCPI YGVNCPF TGUGTXG, CPF HCTOGTU QPN[ TGEGKXGF 75& 4,200 .




GPXKTQPOGPV CPF VJG NQECN EWNVWTG1263. /CP[ TGUGTXGU (GURGEKCNN[ KP PQTVJ ;WPPCP) CTG

QXGT-UVCHHGF, DWV WPFGT HWPFGF, CPF CU C TGUWNV VJGTG KU NKVVNG FCVC EQNNGEVKQP, KPXGPVQT[

FGXGNQROGPV QT TGRQTVKPI. /CPCIGOGPV ECRCDKNKV[ KU C OCLQT YGCMPGUU CPF VJGTG CTG PQ

U[UVGOU VQ OQPKVQT ITQYVJ CPF FGENKPG QH YKNFNKHG URGEKGU. 5WDUGSWGPVN[ VJG CEVWCN UVCVWU QH

YKNFNKHG RQRWNCVKQPU KP OCP[ QH ;WPPCP'U TGUGTXGU KU SWKVG WPEGTVCKP. $GVVGT RNCPPKPI KU

TGSWKTGF CPF OQTG ECRCEKV[ DWKNFKPI KP YKNFNKHG EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF VQWTKUO OCPCIGOGPV, CPF

OQTG TGUGCTEJ KU TGSWKTGF VQ HKPF C HQTOWNC VJCV DCNCPEGU GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF DKQFKXGTUKV[

RTQVGEVKQP, EWNVWTCN RTGUGTXCVKQP, CPF EQOOWPKV[ FGXGNQROGPV. +P QTFGT VQ OCKPVCKP VJG

TGUGTXGU CPF TGFWEG EQPHNKEV RTQXKUKQP JCU DGGP OCFG YKVJKP VJG PCVWTG TGUGTXG NGIKUNCVKQP (KP

VJG GZRGTKOGPVCN CTGCU) HQT: HWGN YQQF RNCPVCVKQPU; GEQPQOKE VTGGU; TWTCN GPGTI[; 06(2

FGXGNQROGPV; GEQ-VQWTKUO; KPHTCUVTWEVWTG FGXGNQROGPV CPF GORNQ[OGPV. 2TQXKUKQP CNUQ GZKUVU

HQT VJG LQKPV-OCPCIGOGPV QH PCVWTG TGUGTXG DGVYGGP VJG ;($ CPF VJG NQECN RGQRNG.

0QPG QH VJG HQTGUV RQNKEKGU ETKVKSWGF CDQXG GPJCPEG VJG GPXKTQPOGPV CPF VJG YGNN-DGKPI QH VJG

TGIKQP'U RQQT QT OKPQTKV[ RGQRNG. 6JG[ CNN CTG DCUGF QP C DKQEGPVTKE FKUEQWTUG VJCV RTKQTKVK\GU

GPXKTQPOGPVCN LWUVKEG QXGT UQEKCN LWUVKEG. +P UQ FQKPI, VJKU FKUEQWTUG UVTKMGU FKTGEVN[ CV GHHQTVU

VQ CFFTGUU VJG HGNV PGGFU QH VJG RQQT CPF KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU. 6JG QPN[ RQNKE[ VJCV OCMGU CP[

RTQXKUKQP HQT VJG UWDUKUVGPEG PGGFU1264 KU 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCVKQP. ’XGP VJKU CRRGCTU VQ DG C

EQPEGUUKQP TCVJGT VJCP C FGNKDGTCVG CKO. 1PG XKUKQP HQT HQTGUVT[ KP VJG TGIKQP YQWNF DG DCUGF

QP OWNVK-CKO EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[1265 DCUGF QP DGUV KPVGTPCVKQPCN RTCEVKEG, TCVJGT VJCP UQEKCN

HQTGUVT[1266, YJKEJ CRRGCTU VQ DG VJG CPVKVJGUKU. #P CNVGTPCVKXG OKIJV DG EQOOWPKV[- DCUGF

PCVWTCN HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV1267. 7PHQTVWPCVGN[, VJG OCKP QDUVCENG VQ YKFGT UWEEGUU KP

EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[ KU VJCV VJG CRRTQCEJ DGKPI FGOQPUVTCVGF CPF CFXQECVGF D[ C PWODGT QH

RTQLGEVU1268 KP ;WPPCP JCU PQV DGGP CFQRVGF D[ VJG IQXGTPOGPV. #NVJQWIJ VJG IQXGTPOGPV

RGTOKVU HQTGKIP CIGPEKGU VQ ECTT[ QWV EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[ KPKVKCVKXGU, CPF 5QWVJ 9GUV (QTGUVT[

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




%QNNGIG (;WPPCP) CPF 5KEJWCP (QTGUVT[ %QNNGIG JCXG CRRTQRTKCVG FGRCTVOGPVU, VJG

IQXGTPOGPV TGICTFU VJG CRRTQCEJ CU VQQ GZRGPUKXG CPF VKOG-EQPUWOKPI. +PFGGF CNN VJG PGY

HQTGUV RQNKEKGU TWP FKTGEVN[ EQWPVGT VQ EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[.

)KXGP VJG NCEM QH EQOOKVOGPV VQ EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[, YC[U UJQWNF DG UQWIJV VQ TGXKUG VJG PGY

RQNKEKGU UQ VJCV VJG[ GPJCPEG VJG GPXKTQPOGPV CPF VJG YGNN-DGKPI QH VJG RQQT KP VJG HQNNQYKPI

YC[U:-

• 6JGTG UJQWNF DG HWNN RCTVPGTUJKR/RCTVKEKRCVKQP HQT CNN GVJPKE CPF NQECN ITQWRU KP CNN

HQTGUVT[ RTQITCOU CNNWFGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 5 UGEVKQP 5.5, 5.7.1 5.7.2 5.7.3 CPF 5.9

• 6JG NQIIKPI DCP UJQWNF DG TGOQXGF HTQO EQNNGEVKXG HQTGUVU CPF RGQRNG RTQXKFGF

YKVJ RTQRGTV[ TKIJVU

• 6JGTG UJQWNF DG GCUKGT TGENCUUKHKECVKQP QH PCVWTG TGUGTXG1269

• (QTGUVU UWDLGEV VQ VJG NQIIKPI DCP UJQWNF ITCFWCNN[ DGEQOG UWUVCKPCDN[ OCPCIGF

(OWNVKRNG CKO) QT KPENWFGF KP EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[ RTQITCOOGU

• 10% QH CNN HQTGUVU UJQWNF DG FGUKIPCVGF HQT UWDUKUVGPEG WUG

• $CTG/DWTPV CTGCU KP CNN 0CVWTG 4GUGTXGU UJQWNF DG FGUKIPCVGF HQT %QOOWPKV[

2NCPVCVKQPU

• 6JG HKTGYQQF/06(2 SWQVC UJQWNF DG KPETGCUGF1270 HTQO HQTGUVU UWDLGEV VQ NQIIKPI

DCP.

• 6JCV UWDUKUVGPEG RTQXKUKQP (QH HWGN, 06(2 GVE) DG GUVCDNKUJGF KP VJG GZRGTKOGPVCN

\QPGU QH CNN 0CVWTG 4GUGTXGU

• 6JCV GZRGTKOGPVCN \QPGU KP 0CVWTG 4GUGTXGU DG NQECVGF PGCT XKNNCIGU

• 6JCV ENGCTGT VGPWTG CTTCPIGOGPVU DG OCFG HQT VJQUG RCTVKEKRCVKPI KP 7%

• 6JCV HWPFU HQT 7% HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV DG OCFG CXCKNCDNG

• 6JCV URGEKGU EJQKEG HQT 7% UJQWNF PQV LWUV EQORTKUG EQPKHGT OQPQEWNVWTGU DWV

UJQWNF CFFTGUU YCVGT CPF UQKN EQPUGTXCVKQP, DKQFKXGTUKV[ CPF CITQ-HQTGUVT[.

1269 (TQO EQTG VQ GZRGTKOGPVCN YJGTG TGSWKTGF. 1270 C UOCNN WPHKZGF SWQVC QH HKTGYQQF/06(2 YCU CNNQYGF HTQO HQTGUVU UWDLGEV VQ VJG NQIIKPI DCP KP QTFGT VQ CFFTGUU UWDUKUVGPEG PGGF.




7.7 %10%.75+105

+P VJKU EJCRVGT, YG EQPUKFGTGF %JKPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP GEQ-URKTKVWCN, PCVWTG, TCEG, CPF

GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUGU CPF RQNKE[ CPF TGCEJGF VJG HQNNQYKPI EQPENWUKQPU.

6TCFKVKQPCN TGNKIKQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CTG DGKPI TGEQPUKFGTGF KP #UKC HQT VJGKT

GPXKTQPOGPVCN RQVGPVKCN. +P 6JCKNCPF, OQPMU CTG VCEMNKPI GPXKTQPOGPVCN KUUWGU WUKPI,

&JCOOKE UQEKCNKUO, HQNM $WFFJKUV TKVWCNU CPF CP GEQNQIKECN KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH $WFFJKUV

VGCEJKPIU CPF KP +PFKC %JKRMQ, CEVKXKUVU CTG FTCYKPI QP C $KUJPQKU 8CKUJPCXKVG VTCFKVKQP. +P

%JKPC HGPIUJWK, &CQKUO CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CTG DGKPI TGXKXGF KP C RTQEGUU QH

PCVKXK\CVKQP, VJCV KU LWZVCRQUGF CICKPUV C RQNKVKECN NCPFUECRG VJCV GPEQWTCIGU 'UEKGPEG' CPF

'GEQPQOKEU' CV VJG GZRGPUG QH 'UWRGTUVKVKQP' CPF 'DCEMYCTF EWNVWTG'. 9G FKUEQXGTGF VJCV

CNVJQWIJ &CQKUO CPF HGPIUJWK JCXG TGUQWTEGU VJCV UWRRQTV PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP PGKVJGT CTG

GZGORNCTU QH GZRNKEKV PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP.

0GKVJGT ’CUVGTP PQT 9GUVGTP UQEKGVKGU CTG KPVTKPUKECNN[ KPHGTKQT QT UWRGTKQT KP VJGKT RGTURGEVKXGU

QH PCVWTG. %QPEGRVWCNN[ CPF GORKTKECNN[, DQVJ EWNVWTCN XKGYRQKPVU TGHNGEV HWPEVKQPCN CPF

F[UHWPEVKQPCN CVVKVWFGU VQYCTF VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF. (TQO C RQUKVKXG RGTURGEVKXG, DQVJ EWNVWTCN

VTCFKVKQPU JCXG GODGFFGF YKVJKP VJGKT EQPEGRVKQPU QH PCVWTG VJG UGGFU QH C RQYGTHWN GVJKE QH

CRRTGEKCVKQP, TGURGEV, CPF EQPEGTP HQT VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH PCVWTG. (TQO VJG ’CUV, YG FGTKXG CP

GPJCPEGF EQORCUUKQP CPF CRRTGEKCVKQP HQT NKHG, C RTQHQWPF KPVWKVKQP QH PCVWTG'U QPGPGUU, CPF

VJG YKNNKPIPGUU VQ GZKUV KP JCTOQP[ CPF DCNCPEG YKVJ VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF. (TQO VJG 9GUV, YG

WPFGTUVCPF PCVWTG GORKTKECNN[; YG JCXG C VTCFKVKQP QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN UVGYCTFUJKR, CPF VJG

DGNKGH KP YKUGN[ OCPCIKPI CPF EQPVTQNNKPI VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF.

6JG TKIJV HQT %JKPC'U KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG VQ OCKPVCKP VJGKT QYP EWNVWTCN KFGPVKV[ CPF NKHGUV[NG KP

VJG NCUV 20 [GCTU JCU DGEQOG C RCTCFQZ. /KPQTKVKGU CTG NGICNN[ TGEQIPK\GF, NQECN NGCFGTU OWUV

DGNQPI VQ C OKPQTKV[ ITQWR, CPF RTQXKUKQP KU OCFG HQT VJG GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH NQECN KPUVKVWVKQPU

DWV CV VJG GZRGPUG QH EWNVWTCN GTQUKQP. #NVJQWIJ VJG UVCVG KU KPVGTGUVGF KP VJG HQNMNQTKE FKXGTUKV[

QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG HQT VJG RWTRQUG QH CVVTCEVKPI VQWTKUVU VJG[ OCMG PQ CVVGORV VQ WPFGTUVCPF

KPFKIGPQWU EWNVWTCN XCNWGU QT MPQYNGFIG. 1HHKEKCN FKUEQWTUG EQORNGVGN[ KIPQTGU VJG YGCNVJ QH




KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF NCPF WUG U[UVGOU VJCV GZKUV. +P QTFGT VQ OCKPVCKP VJGKT EWNVWTCN

KFGPVKV[ VJG 6KDGVCPU JCXG JCF VQ CFQRV C HQTO QH TKVWCNK\GF RTQVGUV CU C UWDUVKVWVG HQT FKUEQWTUG.

6JTQWIJQWV %JKPC'U NQPI JKUVQT[ VJGTG KU GXKFGPEG QH C NQPI NGICE[ QH EQPUGTXCVKQP, 'PCVWTG

TGUGTXGU', CPF 'GEQ-VQWTKUO' DWV VJGTG CTG RCTCFQZGU KP DQVJ %JKPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP VTGCVOGPV QH

VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF, YJKEJ RTGUGPV EJCNNGPIGU VQ 0CVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEG

/CPCIGOGPV. %JKPC'U TGEGPV HQTGUVT[ RQNKEKGU CTG OCPKHGUVN[ QXGTN[ DKQEGPVTKE CPF XGT[ NKVVNG

CVVGPVKQP CRRGCTU VQ JCXG DGGP IKXGP VQ VJG KORCEV QH KPFKXKFWCN QT EQNNGEVKXG RQNKEKGU QP VJG

UWDUKUVGPEG GEQPQO[, VJG KPENWUKQP QH DGUV RTCEVKEGU KP EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[, QT VJG KORCEV QP

IGPFGT TGNCVKQP QT VJG RQQT, QT OKPQTKV[ ITQWRU.

+P URKVG QH UGXGTG RQNNWVKQP, GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPUEKQWUPGUU JCU QPN[ GOGTIGF UNQYN[ COQPI VJG

*CP %JKPGUG CPF CWVJQTKVCTKCP TWNG JCU QPN[ TGEGPVN[ CNNQYGF NKOKVGF GPICIGOGPV KP

GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUG, OQXGOGPVU CPF RQRWNCT RTQVGUV. +P VJG OKF 1990'U C VKP[, DWV

KORQTVCPV GPXKTQPOGPVCN OQXGOGPV YCU CNNQYGF VQ GOGTIG CNVJQWIJ VJG IQXGTPOGPV TGVCKPGF

VJG ITGGP KPKVKCVKXG, YJKEJ EQPVKPWGU VQ DG XWNPGTCDNG VQ VGEJPQETCVKE EGPVTCNKUO. #HVGT

6KCPCPOGP GPXKTQPOGPVCN 0)1U JCF VQ RKEM CPF EJQQUG ECWUGU CPF WUG UWDVGTHWIG, DWV UKPEG

2000 %JKPC'U GPXKTQPOGPVCN ETKUKU JCU DGEQOG VJG HQEWU QH C XGT[ RWDNKE FKCNQIWG DGVYGGP

UVCVG CPF UQEKGV[. # TG-PGIQVKCVKQP QH VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP VJG VYQ KU WPFGTYC[, CPF C PGY

CPF RQNKVKECNN[ UKIPKHKECPV F[PCOKE DGVYGGP VJGO KU GOGTIKPI. 6JKU FKCNQIWG KU DGKPI

GURGEKCNN[ CTVKEWNCVGF KP VJG OGFKC

’PXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGUVU KP %JKPC CTG C TGNCVKXGN[ TGEGPV RJGPQOGPQP. 6JG RTQOWNICVKQP QH

%JKPC'U HKTUV GPXKTQPOGPVCN NCY, KP 1979, JCU PQV QPN[ RTQXKFGF C NGICN DCUKU HQT GPXKTQPOGPVCN

RTQVGEVKQP DWV CNUQ GPJCPEGF VJG RWDNKE'U UGPUG QH DCUKE TKIJVU KP HCXQWT QH LWUVKH[KPI HQTEGHWN,

UQOGVKOGU GXGP XKQNGPV, GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGUVU. 5WEJ RTQVGUVU CNUQ GODQF[ C TKEJ, EWNVWTCNN[

KPHQTOGF TGRGTVQKTG QH UQEKCN OQXGOGPVU KP %JKPGUG JKUVQT[. 5RGEKHKECNN[, MKPUJKR, RQRWNCT

TGNKIKQP, OQTCN EQPEGTPU, CPF CPEKGPV VCNGU QH LWUVKEG UGTXG CU ETWEKCN KPUVKVWVKQPCN CPF U[ODQNKE

TGUQWTEGU KP VJG OQDKNK\CVKQP QH RTQVGUVGTU CV VJG ITCUUTQQVU NGXGN. )GPGTCN 2TQVGUVU JCXG DGGP

FKTGEVGF CICKPUV UVCVG RQNKEKGU, UVCVG RTCEVKEGU CPF UVCVG QHHKEKCNU, DWV OQUV CEVKQPU JCXG

TGOCKPGF NQECN CPF NKOKVGF. 6JG CWVJQTKVKGU, GXGT YCVEJHWN, JCXG CNN YQTMGF JCTF VQ EQPVCKP




UWEJ KPEKFGPVU CPF RTGXGPV VJGO ITQYKPI KPVQ NCTIGT-UECNG OCUU OQXGOGPVU. #NVJQWIJ VJG

NCPFUECRG QH ITCUUTQQVU RTQVGUV EJCPIGF CV VJG GPF QH VJG 1970U YJGP EQORNCKPVU QHHKEGU CPF

NGIKVKOCVG EJCPPGNU HQT RTQVGUV YGTG GUVCDNKUJGF, VJQUG VJCV RTQVGUV CNOQUV CNYC[U HCEG JQUVKNKV[,

DTKDGT[ CPF GXGP TGXGPIG.

#P[ HQTO QH RTQVGUV, D[ OKPQTKV[ RGQRNG KU PQV GPEQWTCIGF, CPF RQUV 11VJ 5GRV CTG QHVGP

KPVGTRTGVGF CU 'CEVU QH VGTTQTKUO' CPF KV JCU DGGP GXGP OQTG FKHHKEWNV HQT VJGO VQ KFGPVKH[ C

OGVCRJQT QT C UVTCVGIKE FKUEQWTUG VQ QRRQUG *CP FGXGNQROGPV QT VQ FGXGNQR VJGKT QYP

CWVQPQO[. 6JG 6KDGVCPU, JQYGXGT, CTG TGURQPFKPI VQ VJG FGUVTWEVKQP QH VJGKT PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU

CPF EWNVWTG KP C PWODGT QH YC[U D[ NQECN RTQVGUV, D[ FGXGNQRKPI NKPMU YKVJ KPVGTPCVKQPCN

GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF JWOCP TKIJVU ITQWRU, D[ XQKEKPI VJGKT EQPEGTPU CV KPVGTPCVKQPCN HQTC, CPF D[

RTQOQVKPI FKUEWTUKXG 'ITGGP' UVTCVGIKGU.

+P URKVG QH VJG KORCEV QH HQWT VQVCNK\KPI FKUEQWTUGU CPF GZVTCEVKXG HQTGUV RQNKEKGU GPFWTGF HQT

OQTG VJCP 50 [GCTU VJGTG TGOCKPU C UVTQPI VTCFKVKQP QH PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR COQPI

VJG RGQRNGU QH VJG −JCO. 6JGKT HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF WPKSWG NKPIWKUVKE GEQNQIKGU1271 DGCT

VGUVKOQP[ VQ VJGUG VTCFKVKQPU CU FQ VJGKT "GRKUVGOQNQIKGU QH PCVWTG". +P VJG PGZV EJCRVGT, YG YKNN

CVVGORV VQ CPCN[\G VJGUG RJGPQOGPC COQPI VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO YKVJ VJG TGUGCTEJ

OGVJQFU TGXKGYGF KP EJCRVGT 6 UGEVKQP 6.3.

1271 /WNJCWUNGT 1996





%JCRVGT 8 ’CUV −JCO 4GUWNVU


%*#26’4 8 (14’56 8#.7’5 +0 ’#56’40 −*#/:

4’57.65 1( %1)0+6+8’ /#22+0) 6JKU EJCRVGT YKNN HQEWU RTKOCTKN[ QP VJG EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI QH HQTGUV XCNWGU KP ’CUVGTP −JCO

KP RWTUWCPEG QH VJG CKOU QWVNKPGF CV VJG GPF QH EJCRVGT 5, DCUGF QP VJG OGVJQFU QWVNKPGF KP

EJCRVGT UKZ UGEVKQP 6.3 CPF CICKPUV VJG DCEMITQWPF QH VJG FKUEQWTUGU FKUEWUUGF KP VJG NCUV

EJCRVGT. $GHQTG, JQYGXGT, YG EQPUKFGT VJG TGUWNVU KV KU KORQTVCPV VQ TGEQIPK\G VJCV

PQVYKVJUVCPFKPI VJG KPHNWGPEG QH $GKLKPI FKUEWUUGF KP VJG NCUV EJCRVGT VJCV ’CUVGTP −JCO JCU

GZKUVGF CU C UGRCTCVG IGQ-RQNKVKECN GPVKV[ HQT OWEJ QH VJG NCUV OKNNGPPKWO. +P EQORCTKUQP

9GUVGTP −JCO, YJKEJ EWNVWTCNN[ JCU OWEJ KP EQOOQP YKVJ ’CUVGTP −JCO, JCU NCTIGN[ DGGP

EQPVTQNNGF HTQO .JCUC. $GECWUG QH VJGKT TGURGEVKXG DCEMITQWPFU, VJKU EJCRVGT YKNN DGIKP D[

CFFTGUUKPI DQVJ (5GG /CR 1-1). (QT OQTG FGVCKNU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO, TGHGT VQ /CR 8-2 HQT GVJPKE

ITQWRU, /CR 8-3 HQT VJG HQTGUV EQXGT, /CR 8-4 HQT EQWPVKGU, CPF /CR 8-5 HQT YCVGT ECVEJOGPVU.

8.1 −*#/

8.1.1 −JCO

−JCO (UWDUGSWGPVN[ TGHGTTGF VQ CU 'VJG TGIKQP') TGRTGUGPVU QPG QH VJG OQUV WPKSWG DKQNQIKECN

TGIKQPU QP GCTVJ. +V KU UKVWCVGF CV VJG GCUVGTP GPF QH VJG *KOCNC[C DGVYGGP VJG 3KPIJCK-

:K\JCPI1272 2NCVGCW CPF VJG EGPVTCN RNCKP QH %JKPC. 6JG URGEVCEWNCT PQTVJ-UQWVJ OQWPVCKP

TKFIGU UCPFYKEJGF DGVYGGP FGGR TKXGT IQTIGU EQPVCKP VJG OQUV FKXGTUG XCUEWNCT RNCPV HNQTC QH

CP[ TGIKQP QH EQORCTCDNG UK\G KP VJG VGORGTCVG \QPG, CPF CNOQUV JCNH QH %JKPC'U HNQYGTKPI

RNCPV URGEKGU. +FGPVKHKGF CU QPG QH VYGPV[ HKXG DKQFKXGTUKV[ 'JQVURQVU'1273 QP GCTVJ VJKU XCUV

TGIKQP, EQXGTKPI EC 400,000 US MO, EQPVCKPU QXGT 12,000 URGEKGU QH XCUEWNCT RNCPVU1274.

#NVJQWIJ UQOG DQVCPKECN GZRNQTCVKQP JCU DGGP EQPFWEVGF, VJG TGIKQP JCU PGXGT DGGP HWNN[

KPXGPVQTKGF DGECWUG QH VJG UGPUKVKXG RQNKVKECN GPXKTQPOGPV CPF VJG TWIIGF VGTTCKP OCMGU OWEJ

QH VJG CTGC FKHHKEWNV VQ VTCXGTUG. 6JG 4GIKQP EQPUVKVWVGU CDQWV 4% QH %JKPC'U NCPF CTGC,

1272 6KDGVCP. 1273 /[GTU 1988 1274 9KVJ CNOQUV 3,500 GPFGOKE URGEKGU CPF CV NGCUV 20 GPFGOKE IGPGTC.




/CR 8-1 QH 9GUVGTP CPF ’CUVGTP −JCO (GCUV QH VJG ;KCPIV\G 4KXGT)

9’56’40−*#/

’#56’40−*#/

6KDGVCP #WVQPQOQWU 4GIKQP

3KPIJCK 2TQXKPEG

5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEG

;WPPCP 2TQXKPEG

.WIW .CMG

’CUVGTP −JCO - EQIPKVKXGOCRRKPI EQWPVKGU

’CUVGTP −JCO - PQP EQIPKVKXGOCRRKPI EQWPVKGU

9GUVGTP −JCO

%WNVWTCN 6KDGV

KPENWFGU UGXGP OQWPVCKP TCPIGU1275 CPF EQORTKUGU '9GUVGTP −JCO'1276 CPF '’CUVGTP −JCO'1277.

’NGXCVKQPU TCPIG HTQO 1000O VQ QXGT 7556O1278 YKVJ C OGCP GNGXCVKQP QH 3500O. (QWT QH

#UKC'U NCTIGUV TKXGTU1279 HNQY VJTQWIJ VJG TGIKQP, YJKEJ QTKIKPCVG QP VJG 5000O JKIJ

3KPIJCK-<K\CPI1280 RNCVGCW CPF CTG QH ITGCV GEQPQOKE KORQTVCPEG VQ VJG RGQRNG YJQ NKXG CNQPI

VJGO. 6JG TCRKFN[ KPETGCUKPI GZQIGPQWU KORCEV QP VJG TGIKQP VJTGCVGPU PQV QPN[ VJG FKXGTUKV[

QH HNQTC CPF HCWPC, DWV CNUQ VJG UWTXKXCN QH KPFKIGPQWU EWNVWTGU VJCV FGHKPG OWEJ QH 5QWVJGCUV

#UKC. # DTKGH INKORUG CV VJG FQOKPCPV 6KDGVCP EWNVWTG KNNWUVTCVGU VJG TKEJN[ VGZVWTGF VTCFKVKQPU,

YJKEJ EJCTCEVGTK\G VJG TGIKQP. 6JG TGIKQP DGCTU VJG UVTQPI KORTKPV QH 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO, $QP

1275 5JCNWNK UJCP, 6CPKCPVCYGPI UJCP, 0W UJCP, )QNKIQPI UJCP, &CZWG UJCP, 3KQPINCK UJCP CPF /KP UJCP. 1276 2CTVU QH GCUVGTP :K\CPI CPF UQWVJGTP 3KPIJCK VQ VJG YGUV QH VJG ;CPIV\G TKXGT. 1277 2CTVU QH YGUVGTP 5KEJWCP CPF PQTVJGTP ;WPPCP VQ VJG GCUV QH VJG ;CPIV\G TKXGT. 1278 #V VJG UWOOKV QH )QPIIC 5JCP KP YGUVGTP 5KEJWCP. 1279 ;CPIV\G, /GMQPI, CPF 5CNYGGP CPF $TCJOCRWVTC. 1280 6KDGVCP.




CPF HQNM TGNKIKQP1281 YJKEJ KU FKURNC[GF KP NCTIG VGORNG EQORNGZGU, EJQTVGPU, RTC[GT HNCIU,

HGUVKXCNU, QTCENGU CPF PWOKPC CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ UCETGF NCPFUECRG HGCVWTGU1282. 5CETGF OQWPVCKPU

RWPEVWCVG VJG NCPFUECRG CPF VJG[ CTG WPKSWG KP VJCV VJGKT HQTGUVU JCXG PQV DGGP UWDLGEV VQ

NQIIKPI1283. #NVJQWIJ OQTG GVJPQDQVCPKECN TGUGCTEJ JCU DGGP FQPG KP VJG TGIKQP VJCP KP VJG TGUV

QH %JKPC, NKVVNG TGUGCTEJ JCU DGGP EQPFWEVGF QP EWUVQOCT[ PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP RTCEVKEGU,

NKPIWKUVKE GEQNQI[, GPXKTQPOGPVCN RGTEGRVKQP, QT VJG KORCEV QH RTQRQUGF NCPFUECRG WUG EJCPIGU

QP VJG NQECN RGQRNG

8.1.2 6JG −JCODC 2GQRNGU

1H PGCTN[ 5 OKNNKQP '6KDGVCPU'1284, NKXKPI KP %JKPC, VJGTG CTG CRRTQZKOCVGN[ 2 OKNNKQP YJQ URGCM

'−JCO'1285, YJKEJ KU SWKVG FKUVKPEV1286 HTQO VJG −JCO URQMGP KP OKF-YGUVGTP 0GRCN1287. 6JG[

KPJCDKV C XCUV CTGC DWV CTG RTKOCTKN[ EQPEGPVTCVGF HQT RQNKVKECN CPF JKUVQTKE TGCUQPU KP YGUVGTP

5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEG1288, C NCTIG RQTVKQP QH GCUVGTP 6KDGV1289, RCTVU QH UQWVJGTP 3KPIJCK

2TQXKPEG1290, CPF RCTVU QH 0QTVJGTP ;WPPCP1291. 6JG GCUVGTP −JCO NCPIWCIG (5GG /CR 8-21292)

KU D[ HCT VJG NCTIGUV QH VJG −JCO XCTKGVKGU YKVJ RQUUKDN[ 1,250,000 URGCMGTU. +V KU TGRQTVGF VQ

JCXG 8 FKCNGEVU CPF 80% NGZKECN UKOKNCTKV[ YKVJ EGPVTCN 6KDGVCP. 6JGTG CTG CNUQ CDQWV 50,000

3KCPIKE URGCMKPI RGQRNGU1293 KP ’CUVGTP −JCO YJQ CTG CNUQ ENCUUKHKGF CU '6KDGVCP'

1281 5COWGN 1993 C + D 5VGKP, 1972 1282 4CODNG CPF $TCWP 1993 1283 5VGXGPU 1993, 1997, 5VWFNG[ 2004E 1284 K.G. 藏族藏族藏族藏族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’TIQPI, ’TUW, /KP[CM, <JCDC, :KCPIEJGPI, 3WG[K, 0COW[K, 5JKZKPI, /CP[CM, CPF .W\W RGQRNGU (*CVVCYC[ 2000).

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/CR 8-2 6JG NCPIWCIG ITQWRU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO

3+#0)+%&+#.’%65−*#/

&+#.’%65

EQWPVKGU

OFU UKVGU

DGECWUG QH VJGKT EWNVWTG, EWUVQOU CPF DGNKGHU1294, DWV URGCM −JCODC CU C UGEQPF QT VJKTF

NCPIWCIG, CPF CTG WUWCNN[ OCVTKNKPGCN1295. 6JG OQUV KORQTVCPV EKVKGU KP −JCO KPENWFG: %JCOFQ,

&GTIG, ;WUJW, −CPFKPI CPF <JQPIFKCP, CPF COQPI VJGUG %JCOFQ1296 YKVJ C OQPCUVGT[

JQWUKPI 2500 OQPMU CPF FCVKPI HTQO 1473, KU TGICTFGF CU VJG OCKP EGPVTG. 1VJGT OCKP VQYPU

KPENWFG $C[K, YJGTG C OCUUKXG VGZVKNG CPF ECTRGV HCEVQT[ GORNQ[U 1,300 YQTMGTU, CPF $CVCPI,

YJKEJ CV 2,700 OGVGTU JCF C NCTIG %JKPGUG CPF UOCNN ’WTQRGCP UGVVNGOGPV RTKQT VQ 19501297.

1294 +P EQOOQP YKVJ VJG −JCODCU VJG[ CTG CPKOKUVKE/UJCOCPKUVKE CU YGNN CU 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUV CU YGNN CU DWTPKPI KPEGPUG CPF JQPQWTKPI OQWPVCKP IQFU CV [GCTN[ HGUVKXCNU. 1295 JVVR://YYY.CPUYGTU.EQO/VQRKE/SKCPI-1 CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005 1296 KP 9GUVGTP −JCO. 1297 )[WTOG &QTLG 1996

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6JG −JCODC JCXG C HGCTUQOG TGRWVCVKQP CU VJG OQUV JQUVKNG CPF XKQNGPV QH 6KDGVCPU. 6JG[ JCXG

DGGP FGUETKDGF CU VCNN CPF YGNN-DWKNV OGP, HGCTNGUU CPF QRGP QH EQWPVGPCPEG, VJG[ TGUGODNG

#RCEJG +PFKCPU, YKVJ RNCKVGF JCKT JCPIKPI HTQO GCEJ UKFG QH YGNN-OQFGNNGF JGCFU1298. −JCO KU

NCTIGT VJCP 5RCKP; C TGEVCPING QH CRRTQZKOCVGN[ 160,000 USWCTG OKNGU1299 N[KPI DGVYGGP EGPVTCN

6KDGV CPF %JKPC, CPF KU RCTV QH ')TGCVGT 6KDGV' QT '’VJPQITCRJKE 6KDGV'1300. $KUGEVGF D[ FGGR

IQTIGU CPF JKIJ RCUUGU −JCO'U CNVKVWFG, YGCVJGT, CPF CIITGUUKXG RQRWNCVKQP JCXG CNYC[U

WPKVGF VQ FGP[ GPVT[ VQ VJG HQTGKIPGT. ’XGP VQFC[, VJGTG CTG HGY CEEWTCVG OCRU VJCV FGHKPG KVU

EQPVQWTU, TGEQTF KVU XKNNCIGU CPF VJG UGETGV TQWVGU QH KVU PQOCFU. 6Q VJG ’WTQRGCPU, %JKPGUG CPF

.JCUC 6KDGVCPU, −JCO JCU CNYC[U DGGP C XCUV PQ-OCP'U-NCPF. 6Q VJG UQWVJ, KV KU DQWPFGF D[ VJG

*KOCNC[C CPF VJG $TCOCRWVTC, VQ VJG PQTVJ VJG #OPG /CEJKP TCPIG CPF VJG 6KDGVCP TGIKQP QH

#OFQ, CPF VQ VJG GCUV VJG 5KEJWCP $CUKP.

8.1.3 −JCO *KUVQT[

5RCEG QPN[ CNNQYU OG VQ UWOOCTKUG O[ CEEQWPV1301 QH VJG JKUVQT[ QH −JCO. +V KU JCTFN[

UWTRTKUKPI VJCV JGTG KP VJKU YKNF, HQTIQVVGP NCPF, UJQWNF DG HQWPF QPG QH VJG OQUV TWIIGF TCEGU

QP GCTVJ, CPF CP KPFGRGPFGPV HKIJVKPI URKTKV VJCV YCU DKTVJGF FWTKPI VJG TGKIP QH 6KDGVCP −KPI

5QPIVUGP )CORQ1302. 5QPIVUGP )CORQ YCU C 6KDGVCP EJKGHVCKP YJQ, KP #& 630 UGV QWV VQ WPKH[

VJG YKNF VTKDGU QH EGPVTCN #UKC. 6YGPV[ [GCTU CHVGT VCMKPI WR CTOU, JG JCF TCKUGF QPG QH VJG

HKGTEGUV CTOKGU QH CNN VKOG CPF GZVGPFGF JKU GORKTG QXGT −JCO CPF #OFQ, YJKEJ JCF DGGP VJG

FQOCKP QH VJG 9JKVG 9QNH 3KCPI, CU YGNN CU OQUV QH EGPVTCN #UKC CPF YGNN KPVQ %JKPC1303.

(TQO VJG HTKIJVGPGF %JKPGUG GORGTQT JG FGOCPFGF C FCWIJVGT KP OCTTKCIG. 6JG GORGTQT YCU

QDNKIGF VQ EQORN[ CPF CNUQ VQ RC[ CP CPPWCN VTKDWVG VQ VJG 6KDGVCP −KPI. 5Q RQYGTHWN YCU 6KDGV

CV VJKU VKOG VJCV YJGP KP #& 763 C UWDUGSWGPV %JKPGUG GORGTQT TGHWUGF VQ RC[ VJG HKHV[

VJQWUCPF TQNNU QH UKNM QYGF KP VTKDWVG VQ VJG 6KDGVCP EQWTV, 6TKUQPI &GVUQP1304, 5QPIVUGP

)CORQ'U ITGCV-ITCPFUQP, KPXCFGF %JKPC CPF ECRVWTGF VJG ECRKVCN QH VJG %GNGUVKCN ’ORKTG1305.

6JG 6KDGVCP MKPI VJGP FGRQUGF VJG %JKPGUG GORGTQT CPF TGRNCEGF JKO VGORQTCTKN[ YKVJ JKU

1298 *CVVCYC[ 2000 1299 414,400 US MO. 1300 5GG /CR 1-1 QP RCIG 7 1301 5VWFNG[ 2004 YYY.OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/−JCO *KUVQT[.TVH CEEGUUGF 12VJ (GD. 2004 1302 #& 617-650 1303 /CTUJCNN CPF %QQMG 1997 1304 #& 741-798 1305 9JKEJ YCU :K'CP (QT %JCPI'CP) KP VJQUG FC[U.

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QYP DTQVJGT-KP-NCY. .CVGT YJGP −KPI 4CNRCEJGP EQPXGTVGF VQ $WFFJKUO VJG 6KDGVCP GORKTG

DGICP VQ FKUKPVGITCVG, CPF −JCO DGECOG OQTG KPFGRGPFGPV. +P 821 FWTKPI C NWNN KP JQUVKNKVKGU,

6KDGV CPF %JKPC OCFG C RCEV QH PQPCIITGUUKQP1306.

+P VJG 1,200 [GCTU VJCV HQNNQYGF, JQYGXGT, VJG JKUVQT[ QH −JCO YCU OCTMGF D[ GPFNGUU HGWFU

DGVYGGP YCTTKQT EJKGHU KP FGCFN[ EQORGVKVKQP HQT UWRTGOCE[ QXGT −JCO'U TGOQVG

JKPVGTNCPFU1307. $[ VJG GPF QH VJG 12VJ EGPVWT[, VJG −KPIFQO QH .KPI, JQOG QH VJG GRKE JGTQ

−KPI )GUCT, JCF GZRCPFGF, VQ KPENWFG OQUV QH −JCO, KH YG CTG VQ DGNKGXG JKU "UWRGT JWOCP"

GZRNQKVU1308. +P VJG 1600'U VJG 0CZK −KPIU1309 HGNV UVTQPI GPQWIJ VQ OCMG KPEWTUKQPU KPVQ

6KDGVCP VGTTKVQT[, TGUWNVKPI KP TGEWTTGPV HKIJVKPI QP VJG UQWVJGTP −JCO EWNVWTCN-GEQNQIKECN

HTQPVKGT. 6JKU OCFG VJG 6KDGVCPU DWKNF YCVEJ CPF FGHGPEG VQYGTU CETQUU UQWVJGTP −JCO

UGRCTCVKPI VJG 6KDGVCPU HTQO VJG 6KDGVQ-$WTOCPU1310. 6JG MKPIFQO QH .KPI OWUV JCXG

FGENKPGF DGECWUG KV CRRCTGPVN[ RNC[GF PQ UKIPKHKECPV TQNG KP 1640 FWTKPI )WUJTK −JCP'U

ECORCKIPU KP −JCO, YJGP JKU RTKPEKRCN QRRQPGPV YCU VJG RTQ-$QP −KPI QH $GTK. $[ VJG 17VJ

EGPVWT[, VJG MKPIFQO QH &GTIG JCF GPNCTIGF KVUGNH CV .KPI'U CPF $GTK'U GZRGPUG, CPF

UWDUGSWGPVN[ OWEJ QH GCUVGTP −JCO DGECOG RCTV QH VJG GZVGPUKXG &GTIG GUVCVG. +V YQWNF

CRRGCT, JQYGXGT VJCV .KPI CPF $GTK EQPVKPWGF CU C UGOK-KPFGRGPFGPV UVCVGU. +P URKVG QH &GTIG'U

QXGTNQTFUJKR, GCUVGTP −JCO'U PQOCFU YGTG PQVQTKQWU HQT VJGKT KPFGRGPFGPV PCVWTG, CPF EQWNF

JCTFN[ DG EQPUKFGTGF UWDOKUUKXG VQ CP[QPG GZEGRV VJGKT KOOGFKCVG VTKDCN EJKGHU. 9JGP, CU

QEECUKQPCNN[ JCRRGPGF, C HQTGKIPGT YCU HQQNKUJ GPQWIJ VQ EJCNNGPIG VJG −JCODCU, VJG[ YQWNF

WPKVG, VJGKT SWCTTGNU OQOGPVCTKN[ HQTIQVVGP. 9JGP VJKU QEEWTTGF VJGTG YGTG HGY YJQ EQWNF

QRRQUG VJG "TCEG QH MKPIU", PQV VJG %JKPGUG, QT GXGP %JGPIIKU −JCP YJQ GXGPVWCNN[ ECOG VQ

VGTOU YKVJ VJGO QP VJG DCUKU QH RCVTQP-RTKGUV TGNCVKQPUJKR1311.

1306 5PGNNITQXG CPF 4KEJCTFUQP 1968, 5VGKP 1972, 5VTCWUU 1992 1307 .CPG 1994 1308 5COWGN 1992 1309 1H 09 ;WPPCP 1310 4QEM 1930C + D, 4QQUGXGNV CPF 4QQUGXGNV 1929, XCP 5RGPIGP 2002 1311 2GKUUGN 1972 RCIG 11-18




8.1.4 −JCODC +FGPVKV[

−JCO KU UKVWCVGF DGVYGGP VYQ RQYGT EGPVTGU, %JKPC CPF 6KDGV CPF HTQO VJG NCVG PKPGVGGPVJ VQ

VJG OKF-VYGPVKGVJ EGPVWT[, KORGTKCN, EQNQPKCN CPF NQECN HQTEGU ENCUJGF CPF KPVGTUGEVGF KP C

RTQEGUU QH RNCEG-OCMKPI CPF PCVKQP-DWKNFKPI. 6QQ QHVGP NCVVGT-FC[ %JKPGUG, 6KDGVCP CPF

9GUVGTP CEEQWPVU JCXG KIPQTGF VJKU CPF RGTKRJGTK\GF NQECN EQPEGTPU. 6JG OWNVKRNGZ EQPFKVKQPU

VJCV EQPUVKVWVGF VJG −JCODC IGQRQNKV[ JCXG TGEGKXGF NKVVNG CVVGPVKQP. 4GEGPV TGUGCTEJ JQYGXGT

JCU DGIWP VQ CFFTGUU CURGEVU QH VJG CZGU QH RQYGT, URCEG CPF KFGPVKV[ KP −JCO, VJG

QHVGP-FKUEQTFCPV XKUKQPU QH RCTVKGU YJQ YKUJGF VQ VTCPUHQTO KV CPF VJG XKUKQP QH VJG −JCODC.

6TCFKVKQPCN JKUVQTKQIGQITCRJ[ EJCTCEVGTK\GF −JCO CU C HTQPVKGT \QPG VQ DG KPEQTRQTCVGF CPF

EKXKNK\GF D[ VJG EGPVTGU QH RQYGT, CPF KIPQTGF VJG HTQPVKGT CU FKUEWTUKXG RTQEGUU. +P VTCFKVKQPCN

UVWFKGU QH HTQPVKGT RNCEGU, VJG RGQRNG YJQ KPJCDKV VJGO JCXG DGGP RQTVTC[GF CU RCUUKXG QDLGEVU,

CPF VJGKT TGURQPUGU VQ HQTEGU DG[QPF VJGKT KOOGFKCVG EQPVTQN UKORN[ KIPQTGF. 9JGP XKGYGF

HTQO VJG EGPVTGU QH RQYGT ($GKLKPI, %JGPIFW CPF .JCUC) HTQPVKGT \QPGU NKMG −JCO YGTG GCUKN[

TGNGICVGF VQ VJG OCTIKPU QH JKUVQT[. 6JKU RQUKVKQP JCU DGGP KPVGTTQICVGF KPETGCUKPIN[ KP TGEGPV

UEJQNCTUJKR QH VJG *CP HTQPVKGT CPF JCU NGF VQ C TGEGPVGTKPI QH VJG NQECN. 6JG −JCODCU JCXG

DGGP GORNQ[KPI RQNKVKECN UVTCVGIKGU, YJKEJ CRRTQRTKCVGF DQVJ NQECN CPF KPHNQYKPI TGUQWTEGU

VJWU VWTPKPI VJGO KPVQ RQYGT UQWTEGU CPF GUVCDNKUJKPI VJGKT UGPUG QH EGPVTCNKV[. #NVJQWIJ

OWEJ QH VJG GVJPQ-ITCRJKE CPF JKUVQTKECN UVWFKGU HQEWU QP EGPVTCN 6KDGV, YKVJ VJG GZEGRVKQP QH

−KPI )GUCT QH .KPI1312, KV YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV −JCO FKF PQV OCMG OWEJ KORTGUUKQP QP VJG

6KDGVCP QT %JKPGUG EQPUEKQWUPGUU WPVKN VJG OKF-PKPGVGGPVJ EGPVWT[ YKVJ VJG −JCODC YCTNQTF

P[CI TQPI OIQP RQ OCO TI[CN (OIQP OCO)1313 CPF %JKPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP CEVKXKVKGU KP VJG

DQTFGT TGIKQP. 6JGTG KU JQYGXGT UVTQPI KPFKECVKQPU VJCV GXGP DGHQTG VJKU RGTKQF VJGTG YCU CP

GOGTIGPV GVJPQ-PCVKQPCN EQPUEKQWUPGUU COQPI VJG −JCODCU QH YJKEJ OIQP OCO YCU QPN[ C

RCTV. &WTKPI VJG 4GRWDNKECP RGTKQF1314 VJGTG YGTG VJTGG OQXGOGPVU1315 HQT −JCODC CWVQPQO[,

VJG $CCP KPEKFGPV KP 1932, VJG 0WQNC +PEKFGPV KP 1935, CPF VJG )CP\G KPEKFGPV KP 1939, DWV VJG[

YGTG NCTIGN[ YTKVVGP QWV QH UVCPFCTF %JKPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP JKUVQTKGU. +P TGCNKV[, VJG −JCODCU'

CEVKQPU YGTG OCRRGF KP TGURQPUG VQ RQNKVKECN GZKIGPEKGU KP %GPVTCN 6KDGV CPF %JKPC. 6JG[ YGTG

1312 9JQUG UWRGT JWOCP GZRNQKVU KP VJG 11VJ EGPVWT[ KPENWFKPI EQPSWGTKPI OQUV QH VJG TGIKQP.

1313 (#-:}$-1#},-.}-W;k

P[CI TQPI OIQP RQ OCO TI[CN 1314 #& 1911-1949. 1315 2GPI 9GPDKP 2002, 3KPI 1975




CVVGORVKPI VQ GUVCDNKUJ TGIKQPCN CWVQPQO[ YJKNG EQRKPI YKVJ %JKPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP

PCVKQP-DWKNFKPI RTQLGEVU1316. 6JGTG JCU DGGP NKVVNG TGUGCTEJ GZRNQTKPI; OIQP OCO'U CVVGORV VQ

TGUVTWEVWTG UQEKGV[ CPF DWKNF C −JCODC UVCVG1317, VJG TGNKIKQ- RJKNQUQRJKECN WPKQP TGUWNVKPI

HTQO VJG TKU OGF1318 OQXGOGPV 1319 QT VJG TGXKXCN QH VJG −KPI )GUCT EWNV CU VJG HQWPFCVKQPCN

UCIC HQT WPKHKECVKQP1320. 6CMGP VQIGVJGT VJGUG OQXGOGPVU CRRGCT VQ UKIPCN C PCUEGPV UGPUG QH

WPKSWG −JCODC KFGPVKV[1321 YJKEJ EQPVKPWG VQ VJKU FC[ YJGTG VJG[ RTQXKFG VJG DCUKU HQT CP

QDNKSWG 'EQWPVGT FKUEQWTUGU' CICKPUV *CP %JKPC RTGFKECVGF QP TKVWCNU QH FGHKCPEG CPF RTQVGUV,

YJKEJ YG TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 7 UGEVKQP 7.4.4 CPF 7.5.5.

8.1.5 ’PXKTQPOGPVCN &GITCFCVKQP

6JG HQTGUVU QH −JCO1322 YGTG COQPI VJG OQUV GZVGPUKXG CTGCU QH HQTGUV EQXGT KP %JKPC CPF

EQORTKUG 95% QH HQTGUVNCPF HQWPF KP VJG 'JGCFYCVGTU QH VJG ;CPIV\G'. 5KPEG VJG[ YGTG

FGUKIPCVGF,1323 %JKPC'U 'UGEQPF VKODGT RTQFWEVKQP DCUG' CPF OCETQ-UECNG VKODGT RTQFWEVKQP

GPVGTRTKUGU YGTG GUVCDNKUJGF1324 CNN VJGUG CTGCU JCXG GZRGTKGPEGF KPFKUETKOKPCVG HGNNKPI1325. 6JG

OCLQTKV[ QH VJG FGUVTWEVKQP YCU PQV ECWUGF D[ RQRWNCVKQP RTGUUWTG, QT 'ETKOKPCN GNGOGPVU', QT

NQECN HCTOGTU, CPF KV FKF PQV OQUVN[ QEEWT "40 [GCTU CIQ VQ HWGN DCEM[CTF UVGGN HWTPCEGU QH

%JCKTOCP /CQ'U KNN HCVGF )TGCV .GCR (QTYCTF"1326. +V YCU ECWUGF D[ 'RNCPPGF' EQOOGTEKCN

VKODGT GZVTCEVKQP DCUGF QP IQXGTPOGPV SWQVCU1327. 6KODGT YCU PQV QPN[ TGSWKTGF HQT %JKPC'U

DQQOKPI GEQPQO[, DWV KV YCU QHVGP VJG OQUV KORQTVCPV UQWTEG QH ECUJ TGXGPWG HQT NQECN

CFOKPKUVTCVKQPU, GPCDNKPI VJGO VQ HWPF GFWECVKQP JGCNVJ CPF KPHTCUVTWEVWTG. 5VCVG HQTGUV

GPVGTRTKUGU YGTG TGSWKTGF VQ UGNN C OKPKOWO VKODGT SWQVC, YJKEJ YCU QHVGP CU OWEJ CU 3 VKOGU

VJG UWUVCKPCDNG [KGNF, CV C RTKEG VJCV YCU QHVGP DGNQY RTQFWEVKQP EQUVU1328. 6Q EQORGPUCVG HQT

VJKU VJG[ QHVGP UQNF GXGP OQTG VKODGT QP VJG HTGG OCTMGV. #U C TGUWNV, KP UQOG CTGCU CPPWCN

1316 (GPI 1992 1317 6UGTKPI 1985

1318 :m=-1{+k

TKU OGF 1319 # U[PVJGUKU QH CECFGOKE CPF UJCOCPKE CURGEVU QH 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO (5COWGN 1993C). 1320 5COWGN 2002 1321 ’RUVGKP 2002, 5COWGN 1993C 1322 +PENWFKPI 5’ 6KDGV #4, 9GUVGTP 5KEJWCP, 0QTVJGTP ;WPPCP, 5QWVJ 9GUV )CPUW, CPF 5’ 3KPIJCK. 1323 +P 1950 1324 +P 1956 1325 .K 1993, 4KEJCTFUQP 1990 1326 2GCTEG 1999 1327 5OKN 1984, 9KPMNGT 1998C+D 1328 9KPMNGT 1998C+D




HGNNKPI YCU HQWT VKOGU OQTG VJCP VJG UWUVCKPCDNG [KGNF. %QPUGSWGPVN[, (QTGUV EQXGT KP 6#4 HGNN

HTQO 9 % VQ 5 %1329, KP ;WPPCP HTQO 55 % VQ 30 %1330 , CPF KP 5KEJWCP HTQO 30% VQ 6.5%1331

1332. 5QOG QH VJG OQUV FKUSWKGVKPI TGRQTVU QP FGHQTGUVCVKQP EQOG HTQO 5KEJWCP CPF ;WPPCP

2TQXKPEG. &GHQTGUVCVKQP KP #DC 2TGHGEVWTG1333 DGICP KP VJG NCVG 1950'U, CPF CNVJQWIJ 5KEJWCP

FKF NQUG QPG VGPVJ QH KVU ITQYKPI UVQEM1334 FWTKPI VJG ')TGCV .GCR (QTYCTF'1335 VJKU YCU OQUVN[

KP VJG 5KEJWCP $CUKP1336. &GHQTGUVCVKQP CEEGNGTCVGF KP #DC 2TGHGEVWTG KP VJG NCVG 1960'U, YJGP

KV UWRRNKGF WR VQ 84% QH 5KEJWCP'U VKODGT SWQVC. +V YCU PQV WPVKN VJG 1980'U CPF 1990'U, YJGP

OQUV QH #DC'U HQTGUVU YGTG FGRNGVGF1337 VJCV NCTIG-UECNG FGHQTGUVCVKQP URTGCF KPVQ VJG OCKP

;CPIV\G ECVEJOGPV KP −JCO.

;WPPCP UVKNN TCPMU HQWTVJ KP %JKPC KP VGTOU QH VQVCN VKODGT TGUQWTEGU, DWV KP TGNCVKXG VGTOU, VJG

RTQXKPEG'U FGHQTGUVCVKQP JCU DGGP GXGP OQTG GZVGPUKXG VJCP KP 5KEJWCP, CPF KVU NQUU QH

HQTGUVNCPF CRRGCTU VQ DG D[ HCT VJG ITGCVGUV KP %JKPC. %NGCT HGNNKPI DGICP KP 0 ;WPPCP KP VJG

GCTN[ 1950'U YJGP CDQWV 55 RGTEGPV QH RTQXKPEG YCU EQXGTGF D[ HQTGUVU, DWV D[ VJG 980'U, KV JCF

FTQRRGF VQ 30 RGTEGPV1338, CPF CPPWCN YQQF EQPUWORVKQP YCU FQWDNG VJG ITQYVJ TCVG. 6Q OCMG

OCVVGTU YQTUG NCTIG UECNG ENGCT HGNNKPI YCU YKFGN[ RTCEVKEGF, VTGG RNCPVKPI VQ VTGG HGNNKPI TCVKQU

YGTG XGT[ NQY (1:10), VTGG UGGFNKPI UWTXKXCN TCVGU QH NGUU VJCP 30% YGTG EQOOQP1339, NGUU VJCP

40% QH YQQF[ DKQOCUU YCU WVKNK\GF, CPF QPN[ CDQWV 7% QH OKNNKPI YCUVGU YGTG WVKNK\GF1340 .

6JG FGUVTWEVKQP QH VJG HQTGUVU QH −JCO, HTQO VJG 1980'U CRRGCTU VQ JCXG DGGP RCTCNNGNGF D[ CP

CNOQUV CPPWCN QEEWTTGPEG QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGUVTWEVKQP1341 YKVJ HNQQFKPI CPF UPQY FKUCUVGTU.

1329 1950-1985 1330 1950-1975 1331 1950-1998 1332 2QOHTGV 1998, 9KPMNGT 1998C+D 1333 9GUVGTP 5KEJWCP. 1334 1T 1.24O JC. 1335 1958-61 1336 K.G. ’CUVGTP 5KEJWCP. 1337 +V QPN[ UWRRNKGF 15% QH 5KEJWCP'U VQVCN SWQVC KP 1980. 1338 +P UQOG CTGCU KV YCU OWEJ YQTUG CPF KP <JCQVQPI %QWPV[ HQTGUV EQXGT HGNN HTQO 50% VQ 8%. 1339 &QPI 1985, *G 1991 1340 5OKN 1993 1341 5VWFNG[ 1999C, 1999D, 5OKN 1984, 9CPI *QPIEJCPI WPFCVGF




8.1.6 %NKOCVG %JCPIG

6JG FGUVTWEVKQP QH HQTGUV, CPF ITCUUNCPF, KP −JCO, CRRGCTU VQ JCXG KORCEVGF PQV QPN[ TGIKQPCN

DWV CNUQ INQDCN ENKOCVKE RCVVGTPU. 6JG GPXKTQPOGPVCN, UQEKCN CPF GEQPQOKE KORCEV YCU PQV LWUV

EQPHKPGF VQ VJG TGIKQP1342. −JCO VQYGTU QXGT VJG ’WTCUKCP NCPFOCUU FGHNGEVKPI VJG 'LGV

UVTGCOU'1343, KP VJG WRRGT CVOQURJGTG KPHNWGPEKPI VJG CVOQURJGTKE EKTEWNCVKQP QH VJG PQTVJGTP

JGOKURJGTG. 6JG CTGC KU C ETKVKECN RNC[GT KP INQDCN ENKOCVG UVCDKNKV[ CPF JCU CP GURGEKCNN[

KORQTVCPV KPHNWGPEG QP VJG +PFKCP OQPUQQP. 9KVJ VJG JGNR QH EQORWVGT OQFGNNKPI WR VQ 29

KPFKECVQTU JCXG DGGP KFGPVKHKGF YJKEJ JGNR RTGFKEV VJG HQTOCVKQP QH OQPUQQPU. 6YQ KORQTVCPV

KPFKECVQTU CTG VJG LGV UVTGCO RCVVGTPU CPF VJG COQWPV QH UPQY EQXGT QP VJG CTGC. 6JG COQWPV QH

UPQY EQXGT KU RCTVKCNN[ FGVGTOKPGF D[ VJG COQWPV QH HQTGUV CPF ITCUU EQXGT, DWV OQTG

URGEKHKECNN[ CP[ TGFWEVKQP KP XGIGVCVKQP, KPETGCUGU CNDGFQ1344 YJKEJ FGNC[U TCVGU QH UPQY OGNV

FWTKPI VJG URTKPI. )TGGP HQTGUV EQXGT CDUQTDU 95% QH UQNCT GPGTI[, ENGCT-HGNNGF CTGCU CPF

ITCUUNCPFU CDUQTD 80% YJKNG DCTTGP NCPF CPF TQEM GXGP NGUU. (QTGUVGF CTGCU PQV QPN[ DTGCM WR

UPQY EQXGT DWV CNUQ TGVCKP JGCV. #U VJG RNCVGCW'U CDKNKV[ VQ CDUQTD UQNCT JGCV KU ETKRRNGF D[

FGHQTGUVCVKQP, CPF RCUVWTG FGITCFCVKQP, UPQY FKUCUVGTU CTG GZCEGTDCVGF1345 CPF UPQYOGNV KU

FGNC[GF. &WG VQ VJG FGNC[ KP UPQYOGNV, VJG JGCVKPI OGEJCPKUOU QH VJG CTGC FKOKPKUJ, CPF

VJTQWIJ C UGTKGU QH KPVGTEQPPGEVKQPU VJG RTGUUWTG U[UVGOU CTG CNVGTGF YJKEJ FGNC[ QT TGFWEG VJG

+PFKCP OQPUQQP. 6JG FKUTWRVKQP QH VJG OQPUQQP KU RQVGPVKCNN[ FKUCUVTQWU HQT +PFKCP

CITKEWNVWTG1346. #U VJG JGCVKPI ECRCDKNKVKGU QH VJG CTGC CTG FGNC[GF LGV UVTGCO RCVVGTPU VJCV CHHGEV

VJG GPVKTG PQTVJGTP JGOKURJGTG CTG CNVGTGF, CPF YKPF EWTTGPVU CTG FGHNGEVGF CPF EQORTGUUGF

QXGT VJQWUCPFU QH MKNQOGVTGU1347. # EQTTGNCVKQP JCU, HQT GZCORNG, DGGP GUVCDNKUJGF DGVYGGP

GZVGPFGF UPQY EQXGT KP 6KDGV CPF PQV QPN[ JGCX[ TCKPHCNN KP VJG ;CPIV\G DCUKP DWV JKIJ UGC

VGORGTCVWTGU QXGT VJG 0QTVJ #VNCPVKE, TGUWNVKPI KP UWPUJKPG KP ’WTQRG CPF V[RJQQPU KP VJG

1342 &GTD[UJKTG CPF )CUUG 1996, 5OKN 1984, 5VWFNG[ 1999C, 1999D 9CPI *QPIEJCPI PF 1343 6JG LGV UVTGCO KU C EWTTGPV QH HCUV OQXKPI CKT HQWPF KP VJG WRRGT NGXGNU QH VJG CVOQURJGTG. 6JKU TCRKF EWTTGPV KU V[RKECNN[ VJQWUCPFU QH MKNQOGVGTU NQPI, C HGY JWPFTGF MKNQOGVGTU YKFG, CPF QPN[ C HGY MKNQOGVGTU VJKEM. ,GV UVTGCOU CTG WUWCNN[ HQWPF UQOGYJGTG DGVYGGP 10-15 MO (6-9 OKNGU) CDQXG VJG GCTVJ'U UWTHCEG. JVVR://YY2010.CVOQU.WKWE.GFW/()J)/IWKFGU/OVT/E[E/WRC/LGV.TZON CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005 1344 6JG HTCEVKQP QH UQNCT GPGTI[ (UJQTVYCXG TCFKCVKQP) TGHNGEVGF HTQO VJG ’CTVJ DCEM KPVQ URCEG. 1345 1'−CPG, /. 12/12/1998, 5VWFNG[ 1999C, 1999D 1346 +P 1998, HQT GZCORNG, VJG GTTCVKE DGJCXKQWT QH VJG OQPUQQP (WPGZRGEVGF TCKPU CPF FTQWIJV) ECWUGF GZVGPUKXG FCOCIG VQ ETQRU, TGUWNVKPI KP GUECNCVKPI HQQF RTKEGU, CPF GZVTGOG JCTFUJKR. 1347 4GKVGT 1981

http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/Gh/guides/mtr/cyc/upa/jet.rxml




2CEKHKE1348. #NVJQWIJ VJGTG KU UQOG FGDCVG KP %JKPC1349 CDQWV UPQY FKUCUVGT TGFWEVKQP DGECWUG

QH INQDCN YCTOKPI VJG TGEGPV GXKFGPEG1350 UVKNN UWIIGUVU CNOQUV CPPWCN UPQY FKUCUVGTU KP VJG

TGIKQP. +P:-

� 1993-1994 - KP 0CIEJW 2TGHGEVWTG (6#4) 76% QH NKXGUVQEM FKGF

� 1995-1996 - KP ;WUJW 2TGHGEVWTG (3KPIJCK 2TQXKPEG) CPF 5JKSW CPF 5GTVC %QWPV[

800,000 [CM FKGF YKVJ NQUUGU QH 75& 14.5 OKNNKQP

� 1997-1998 - KP ;WUJW, %JCOFQ, CPF 0CIEJW 2TGHGEVWTGU (KP 6#4) 50% QH NKXGUVQEM FKGF

YKVJ NQUUGU QH 75& 125 OKNNKQP

� 1998- 1999 - KP 3KPIJCK 2TQXKPEG 100,000 [CMU FKGF YKVJ NQUUGU QH 75& 31 OKNNKQP

� 6JG URTKPI QH 2000, UQOG RCUVQTCN CTGCU KP :KPLKCPI CPF +PPGT /QPIQNKC UWHHGTGF HTQO

JGCX[ UPQY FKUCUVGTU. 25 RGTUQPU YGTG MKNNGF, 16 KP +PPGT /QPIQNKC CPF 9 KP :KPLKCPI.

788,000 CPKOCNU FKGF, 467,000 KP +PPGT /QPIQNKC CPF 321,000 KP :KPLKCPI1351.

� 6JG &GEGODGT 2002 EQPVKPWQWU UPQY HGNN KP +PPGT /QPIQNKC, CEEQORCPKGF D[ C FTCUVKE

VGORGTCVWTG FTQR CPF 20-40 EO QH UPQY. +P ,CPWCT[ 2003, VJG UPQY FKUCUVGT DGECOG YQTUG

CPF D[ VJG GPF QH (GDTWCT[, CPKOCNU YGTG UVKNN WPCDNG VQ IQ QWV HQT HQQF1352.

� ,WN[ 2003 TCKP, HNQQFU CPF JCKN ECWUGF JCXQE KP ;WUJW 6QYP (KP 3KPIJCK 2TQXKPEG).

#EEQTFKPI VQ NQECN IQXGTPOGPV TGRQTV, VJGTG YGTG 67 HCOKN[ JQOGU KP ;WUJW VQYP

EQORNGVGN[ FGUVTQ[GF ECWUKPI 348 RGQRNG VQ DGEQOG JQOGNGUU YKVJ PQVJKPI NGHV GZEGRV VJG

ENQVJGU QP VJGKT DCEMU. 6JGTG YGTG 5491 HCOKN[ JQOGU FCOCIGF QT RCTVKCNN[ FGUVTQ[GF CPF

33,023 RGQRNG CTG CHHGEVGF KP UQOG YC[1353.

� ,CPWCT[ 2005 EQPUVCPV UPQYHCNNU JKV #TK, 5JKICVUG CPF 0CIEJW KP 6KDGV #WVQPQOQWU

4GIKQP, ECWUKPI VJG FGCVJ QH 16,600 CPKOCNU CPF DNQEMKPI VTCPURQTV1354.

1348 9JGP VJG V[RJQQPU KP VJG 2CEKHKE KPVGTTWRV VJG VTCFG YKPFU QHH VJG 9GUV %QCUV QH 0QTVJ CPF 5QWVJ #OGTKEC, VJG[ OC[ ECWUG GN PKPQ, YJKEJ KU UGGOKPIN[ TGURQPUKDNG HQT FKUTWRVKQP CPF UVQTOU KP 2GTW, ’EWCFQT CPF %CNKHQTPKC CPF RQUUKDN[ FTQWIJVU KP 0GY <GCNCPF, +PFQPGUKC, #WUVTCNKC, +PFKC CPF UQWVJGTP #HTKEC. +V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV CNVGTCVKQPU VQ VJG CTGC'U XGIGVCVKQP EQXGT RNC[ C TQNG KP IGPGTCVKPI TGIKQPCN ENKOCVKE FKUTWRVKQPU YJKEJ JCXG VJG RQVGPVKCN VQ FQXGVCKN KPVQ INQDCN ENKOCVKE EJCPIG. 1349 +68.%1/ 2005, 2GQRNG'U &CKN[ 4/4/2003 1350 #(2 31/12/1997, 1'−CPG 12/12/1998, 6+0 13/3/98, 3/3/96, :KPJWC 28/8/94 1351 JVVR://YYY.\JD.IQX.EP/GPINKUJ/51’/UQGEJKPC2000/GPINKUJ/ENKOCVG/ENKOCVGAOCKPG.JVO CEEGUUGF 31UV 1EVQDGT 2005 . 1352 JVVR://YYY.\JD.IQX.EP/GPINKUJ/51’/UQGEJKPC2003/FKUCUVGT.JVO CEEGUUGF 31UV 1EVQDGT 2005. 1353 JVVR://YYY.LKPRC.QTI/PGYU/030813PGYU.CUR CEEGUUGF 31UV 1EVQDGT 2005. 1354 JVVR://GPINKUJ.UKPC.EQO/EJKPC/1/2005/0227/22558.JVON CEEGUUGF 29VJ 5GRV 2005

http://www.zhb.gov.cn/english/SOE/soechina2000/english/climate/climate_maine.htm

http://www.zhb.gov.cn/english/SOE/soechina2003/disaster.htm

http://www.jinpa.org/news/030813news.asp

http://english.sina.com/china/1/2005/0227/22558.html




6JKU GXKFGPEG WPFGTNKPGU HQT VJG RGQRNGU QH −JCO, KP EQOOQP YKVJ VJG %JKRMQ CEVKXKUVU YG

YKNN FKUEWUU KP EJCRVGT 10 UGEVKQP 10.1.1, VJCV QP VJG DCUKU QH 'HQNM UGPUG' VJG FGUVTWEVKQP QH VJG

HQTGUVU CPF RCUVWTG NCPF D[ VJG *CP %JKPGUG JCU C ECWUCN NKPM YKVJ ENKOCVG, GPXKTQPOGPV,

YGNN-DGKPI CPF GURGEKCNN[ VJG HNQQFU QH 1998.

8.1.7 6JG (NQQFU

&WTKPI VJG UWOOGT QH 1998, %JKPC1355 GZRGTKGPEGF UGXGTG HNQQFU CHHGEVKPI OCP[ QH #UKC'U

NCTIGUV TKXGTU, YJKEJ YG TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 7 UGEVKQP 7.6.2. 6JG ;CPIV\G GZRGTKGPEGF VJG

YQTUV HNQQFKPI UKPEG 1954, ENCKOKPI OQTG VJCP 3,650 NKXGU CPF ECWUKPI OQTG VJCP 75& 30

DKNNKQP QH FCOCIG. #NVJQWIJ OQUV QH VJG HNQQFKPI QEEWTTGF KP VJG %JKPGUG NQYNCPFU KV CNUQ

QEEWTTGF QP VJG 6KDGVCP RNCVGCW. +P 6KDGV #4, VJG ;CTNCPI 6UCPIRQ1356, VJG −[K-%JW CPF QVJGT

TKXGTU TQUG VQ TGEQTF NGXGNU TGUWNVKPI KP VJG NQUU QH CV NGCUV 53 RGQRNG CPF 4000 JGCF QH

NKXGUVQEM1357. /QTG VJCP 40 EQWPVKGU YGTG CHHGEVGF CPF OQUV QH 6#4'U TQCFU YGTG FCOCIGF.

(NQQF HTGSWGPE[ JCU DGGP KPETGCUKPI KP DQVJ 6KDGV CPF UQWVJYGUV %JKPC. &WTKPI VJG 3KPI

F[PCUV[,1358 VJG ;CPIV\G HNQQFGF GXGT[ FGECFG, CPF DGVYGGP 1921-1949, VJG HTGSWGPE[ TQUG VQ

QPEG GXGT[ UKZ [GCTU. +P VJG 1980'U VJG HTGSWGPE[ TQUG VQ C NCTIG HNQQF GXGT[ VYQ [GCTU. +P VJG

1990'U VJG UKVWCVKQP IQV YQTUG YKVJ HNQQFU KP 1994, 1995, 1996 CPF 1998. 6JG %JKPGUG

IQXGTPOGPV HKTUV QHHKEKCNN[ TGEQIPK\GF C ECWUCN NKPM DGVYGGP FGHQTGUVCVKQP CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN

FGUVTWEVKQP CHVGT VJG HNQQFU QH 1981 CPF 19831359 CPF OGCUWTGU YGTG KORNGOGPVGF KP UQOG

CTGCU. %JKPGUG HQTGUV TGUGCTEJGTU JCXG HQT OCP[ [GCTU DGGP FGXGNQRKPI RTCIOCVKE GEQ-HTKGPFN[

UKNXKEWNVWTCN CPF JCTXGUVKPI IWKFGNKPGU1360. #NN VJGUG OGCUWTGU, JQYGXGT YGNN-KPVGPVKQPGF JCXG

TCTGN[ DGGP VTCPUNCVGF KPVQ DGUV RTCEVKEG QP VJG ITQWPF. $GUV RTCEVKEG JCU CNYC[U JCF VQ EQORGVG

YKVJ VJG FQEVTKPG QH 'UQEKCN OCTMGV HQTEGU', YJKEJ JCU VTGCVGF VTGGU CU C HTGG IQQF CPF NCEMU VJG

HGGFDCEM RTQEGUUGU QH VJG EQPXGPVKQPCN OCTMGV GEQPQOKGU1361. #HVGT HQWT FGECFGU QH VKODGT

OKPKPI, VJG HNQQFU ECWUGF VJG IQXGTPOGPV VQ EQPUKFGT KP OQTG FGVCKN DQVJ NQIIKPI RTCEVKEGU CPF

TGHQTGUVCVKQP KP VJG JGCFYCVGTU QH OCP[ QH #UKC'U NCTIGUV TKXGTU.

1355 #U YGNN CU +PFKC CPF $CPINCFGUJ. 1356 $TCOCRWVTC. 1357 /QUVN[ ;CM. 1358 1644-1911. 1359 4KEJCTFUQP 1990 1360 GI ;CPI 1986, 1987 1361 <JCPI 1/11/1998




6JG RTGEGFKPI UGEVKQPU QH VJKU EJCRVGT JCXG RTQXKFGF C XKIPGVVG QH VJG JKUVQT[ CPF F[PCOKEU QH

−JCO CPF VJG −JCODC RGQRNGU CPF VJG URGEKHKEU QH VJG GPXKTQPOGPVCN EKTEWOUVCPEGU HCEKPI

VJG TGIKQP CPF KVU RGQRNGU QXGT TGEGPV [GCTU. 6JKU JCU RTQXKFGF C EQPVGZVWCN DCUG VQ EQPUKFGT KP

VJG HQNNQYKPI UGEVKQPU GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF HQTGUVT[ RGTEGRVKQP COQPI VJG −JCODC RGQRNGU

VJTQWIJ C RTGUGPVCVKQP QH EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI TGUGCTEJ EQPFWEVGF COQPIUV VJG RGQRNGU QH

GCUVGTP −JCO. 6JG LWUVKHKECVKQP HQT VJKU SWCPVKVCVKXG CRRTQCEJ CPF VJG OGVJQFQNQIKGU WUGF

FGUETKDGF CPF GXCNWCVGF CTG HQWPF KP EJCRVGT 6 UGEVKQP 6.1 CPF 6.3.

8.2 4’57.65

6JG TGUWNVU QH EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI YKNN DG FKUEWUUGF CPF CPCN[\GF HTQO C NQECN CPF TGIKQPCN

EQPVGZV CPF YKNN FTCY JGCXKN[ QP VYQ UVWFKGU HTQO CP GPENCXG QH −JCO CV .WIW .CMG

(KIWTG 8-1 )GPGVKE RTQHKNG QH UGNGEVGF GVJPKE ITQWRU

)GPGVKE NQEK, 2QN[OQTRJKUOU & *CRNQV[RGU

/130 /1 /89 =%-6?

=%-6? /9 =%-) ?

;#2 /15 /122 /119 /95 /45 /5

+ =%?

/103 & /88 & /120 /3 /117

/7 /134 /110 & /111

/50

’VJPKE ITQWR *1 *2 *3 *4 *5 *6 *7 *8 *9 *10 *11 *12 *13 *14 *15 *16 *17

*GPCP *CP 7.1 3.6 25 32.1 14.3 10.7 7.1

0QTVJGTP *CP 9.1 22.7 27.3 27.3 9.1 4.5

−JCODC 4 28 8 12 6 4 34 4

/QUWQ 6.4 23 .4 4.3 2.1 31.9 4 .3 6 .4 12.8 8.5

2WOK 2.1 70 .2 2.1 4.3 6.4 2 .1 6.4 4.3 2.1

0CZK 2.5 37 .5 10 2.5 47.5

*

TGEQIPK\GF D[ VJG 6KDGVCP IQXGTPOGPV-KP-GZKNG COQPI RGQRNG YKVJ UKOKNCT IGPGVKE UVQEM1362

(5GG (KIWTG 8-1) CU VJG −JCODC 6KDGVCPU. 6JG VYQ UVWFKGU YGTG FKUEWUUGF KP EJCRVGT 6 UGEVKQP

6.5.2, 6.5.3, KPENWFGF HQTGUV XCNWG TCPMKPI, CPF GVJPQHQTGUVT[.

1362 +V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV VJG −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




8.2.1 6JG (QTGUV 8CNWGU 7UGF HQT %QIPKVKXG /CRRKPI

6JG RWTRQUG QH EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI KU VQ WPFGTUVCPF; VJG TGNCVKXG KORQTVCPEG QH NQECN HQTGUV

XCNWGU VQ VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO, VJG EQIPKVKXG FQOCKPU1363 (QT UWDFQOCKPU) CPF

RCTCFKIOU VJG[ WUG, CPF VJG RGTEGRVWCN KORCEV QH GZVGTPCN KPVGTXGPVKQPU. 6JG ')CNKNGQ' /&5

VGEJPKSWG FKUEWUUGF KP EJCRVGT 6 UGEVKQP 6.3.1 YCU CFQRVGF KP QTFGT VQ EQIPKVKXGN[ OCR VJG 15

HQTGUV XCNWGU (5GG 6CDNG 8-1) VJCV YGTG KFGPVKHKGF FWTKPI VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UVWF[ FWTKPI HKGNF

VGUVKPI KP −JCO FGUETKDGF KP EJCRVGT 6 UGEVKQP 6.6.2.

6CDNG 8-1 (QTGUV XCNWGU CFQRVGF HQT EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI HTQO 1999-2005

;GCTU 6[RG QH 8CNWG 15 (QTGUV 8CNWG 17 (QTGUV 8CNWGU .QECN XCNWGU %QPUGTXCVKQP, $NGUUKPI,

6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO, [WN-NJC, 0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN (WPEVKQP, (QTGUV RTQFWEVU, 0CVWTCN *[FTQNQIKECN (WPEVKQP

%QPUGTXCVKQP, $NGUUKPI, 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO, [WN-NJC, 0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN (WPEVKQP, (QTGUV RTQFWEVU, 0CVWTCN *[FTQNQIKECN (WPEVKQP

1DLGEVU QH 8CNWG

(QTGUV CPF 9KNFNKHG (QTGUV CPF 9KNFNKHG

.QECN HQTGUV CEVQTU

/GP, 9QOGP, 5GNH /GP, 9QOGP, 5GNH

1999- 2005

’ZVGTPCN KPVGTXGPVKQPU

%QPUGTXCVKQP, *WPVKPI HQT HQTGKIP GZEJCPIG, +PFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP, 5QEKCNKUO

%QPUGTXCVKQP, *WPVKPI HQT HQTGKIP GZEJCPIG, +PFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP, 5QEKCNKUO

2003- 2005

1VJGT 6JKU RNCEG CPF )CP\K 6QYP

&WTKPI 1999-2002 /&5 YCU DCUGF QP UECNKPI DGVYGGP 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU (5GG 2NQV 8-1 CPF 8-2)

QT 105 RCKTU1364 TGHGTTGF VQ CDQXG CPF HTQO 2003- 2005 KV YCU DCUGF QP 17 HQTGUV XCNWGU (5GG

2NQV 8-3) QT 135 RCKTU1365. 6JG PGY XCNWGU CFFGF HTQO 2003 KPENWFGF 'VJKU RNCEG' CPF ')CP\K

6QYP'1366 VJG NCVVGT DGKPI CFFGF HQT EQORCTKUQP, DGECWUG VJG LWZVCRQUKVKQP QH 'RNCEG' CPF VJG

QVJGT XCNWGU YQWNF JCXG DGGP OGCPKPINGUU QP KVU QYP. '6JKU RNCEG' YCU CFFGF DGECWUG QH KVU

KPETGCUKPI KORQTVCPEG, KP VJG HCEG QH PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG CRRTQRTKCVKQP, CNQPI YKVJ EWNVWTCN

1363 &QOCKPU CTG OQUV V[RKECNN[ KPVTQFWEGF VQ EKTEWOUETKDG GZENWUKXG TGCNOU QT UGVU -- K.G., VJG[ UGTXG CU ECVGIQTK\CVKQP EQPUVTWEVU HQT UQTVKPI QWV WPKVKGU CPF RJGPQOGPC. JVVR://YYY.KORTKPV.EQ.WM/VJGUCWTWU/FQOCKP.JVO CEEGUUGF 5VJ 1EVQDGT 2005.

1364 ((15Z15)-15/2) 1365 ((17Z17)-17/2) 1366 YJKEJ IKXGU KVU PCOG VQ VJG 2TGHGEVWTG.





KFGPVKV[ ('UGNH' KP VJKU UVWF[) KP DQVJ VJG GPXKTQPOGPVCN RU[EJQNQI[ NKVGTCVWTG1367 CPF 6KDGVCP

NKVGTCVWTG1368.

#NVJQWIJ /&5 UQHVYCTG ECP JCPFNG JWPFTGFU QH XCNWGU, VJG HKGNF-VGUVKPI FGOQPUVTCVGF VJCV

TGURQPFGPVU 'NQUV HQEWU' UECNKPI 20 XCNWGU (QT 190 RCKTU QH XCNWGU) CPF 15 XCNWGU (105 RCKTU QH

XCNWGU) CRRGCTGF VQ DG VJG QRVKOWO. )KXGP (5GG 6CDNG 8-1) VJCV VJGTG YGTG 4 KPVGTXGPVKQPU, 3

NQECN CEVQTU, 2 QDLGEVU QH XCNWG VJKU QPN[ CNNQYGF WU VQ UGNGEV 6 NQECN XCNWGU HTQO VJG HQTGUV

XCNWG UVWF[, YJKEJ YGTG EJQUGP QP VJG DCUKU QH C HTGSWGPE[ QH 3 QT OQTG1369. +P CP[ EQIPKVKXG

OCRRKPI UVWF[ KV YCU KORQTVCPV VQ KPENWFG NQECN CEVQTU (/GP, 9QOGP, 5GNH) KP QTFGT VQ

FKHHGTGPVKCVG DGVYGGP CVVKVWFGU CPF DGNKGH. 6JG GZVGTPCN KPVGTXGPVKQPU VJCV YGTG UGNGEVGF YGTG

GKVJGT DGKPI KORNGOGPVGF QT RNCPPGF D[ NQECN IQXGTPOGPV CPF KV YCU KORQTVCPV VQ WPFGTUVCPF

VJGKT KORCEV QP UWUVCKPCDNG TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR. %QPUGTXCVKQP YCU EQPUKFGTGF D[ TGURQPFGPVU

VQ DG DQVJ C NQECN HQTGUV XCNWG CPF CP GZVGTPCN KPVGTXGPVKQP.

8.2.2 )GQITCRJKECN %QXGTCIG

/&5 YCU EQPFWEVGF COQPI 86 RGQRNG CV 86 UKVGU (5GG /CR 8-3) KP 16 EQWPVKGU (/CR 8-4) KP

’CUVGTP −JCO1370 CPF C HWNN DTGCMFQYP QH TGURQPFGPVU D[ EQWPV[, XKNNCIG, EQQTFKPCVGU, IGPFGT,

GVJPKEKV[, CIG, CPF ECVEJOGPV ECP DG HQWPF KP #RRGPFKZ 1.

1TKIKPCNN[, KV YCU RNCPPGF VQ UWTXG[ VJG YJQNG QH −JCO DWV EJCNNGPIKPI VGTTCKP, NCEM QH

EQPUWNVCPE[ QRRQTVWPKVKGU, GZRGPUG, CPF DWTGCWETCE[ OCFG VJKU KORQUUKDNG CPF ’CUVGTP −JCO

YCU UGNGEVGF FWG VQ KVU TGNCVKXG CEEGUUKDKNKV[ CPF QRGPPGUU. #NVJQWIJ GVJPQ-NKPIWKUVKECNN[ VJGTG

KU PQV OWEJ FKHHGTGPEG DGVYGGP ’CUVGTP CPF 9GUVGTP −JCO IGQ-RQNKVKECNN[ ’CUVGTP −JCO HQT

OWEJ QH KVU JKUVQT[ JCU TGRTGUGPVGF CP KPFGRGPFGPV VGTTKVQT[, YKVJ KVU QYP VTKDCN EJKGHVCKPU,

UCPFYKEJGF DGVYGGP .JCUC EQPVTQNNGF 6KDGV CPF *CP %JKPC.

1367 $QPCKWVQ GV CN 2002 1368 )QNFUVGKP CPF −CRUVGKP 1998, 5EJYCTV\ 1994 1369 K.G. XCNWGU VJCV YGTG OGPVKQPGF D[ VJTGG QT OQTG TGURQPFGPVU. 1370 5GG UKVG KPHQTOCVKQP #RRGPFKZ 1.




/CR 8-3 ’CUVGTP −JCO UJQYKPI VJG TGUGCTEJ CTGC KP TGF CPF EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UKVGU CU TGF USWCTGU

0Q HQTGUV5RCTUG HQTGUV/KZGF EQPKHGT/DTQCFNGCH$TQCFNGCH HQTGUV/QWPVCKPU 5000O+%QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UKVGU4GUGCTEJ CTGC

.WIW .CMG




/CR 8-4 6JG EQWPVKGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO

.WIW .CMG

&GPIMQ

&GMC 5JKSW

&GIG

)CP\K

.WJWQ

&CQY W:KPNQPI

$CK[W

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5+%*7#02418+0%’

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3+0)*#+2418+0%’

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/CR 8-5 6JG YCVGT ECVEJOGPVU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO

5#.9’’0 4+8’4 %#6%*/’06

/’−10) 4+8’4 %#6%*/’06

;+#0)6<’ 4+8’4 %#6%*/’06

;#,+#0) 4+8’4 %#6%*/’06

&#&7 4+8’4 %#6%*/’06

−JCODC URGCMGTU

−JCODC URGCMGTU KP VJG ;CLKCPI XCNNG[

3KCPIKE URGCMGTU

%QWPV[ DQWPFCTKGU

8.2.3 /WNVKFKOGPUKQPCN 5ECNKPI

+P ECUG, VJG TGCFGT JCU HQTIQVVGP /&5 CVVGORVU VQ CTTCPIG QDLGEVU (KP VJKU ECUG HQTGUV XCNWGU) KP

4GKOCPP URCEG (5GG (KIWTG 6-2) YKVJ C RCTVKEWNCT PWODGT QH FKOGPUKQPU UQ CU VQ TGRTQFWEG

OGCP FKUVCPEGU QT FKUUKOKNCTKVKGU. #U C TGUWNV, YG ECP 'GZRNCKP' VJG FKUVCPEGU KP VGTOU QH




WPFGTN[KPI ENWUVGTU (QT FQOCKPU1371), FKOGPUKQPU, CPF RCTCFKIOU. +P VJKU UVWF[, /&5 RNQVU

YGTG EQPUVTWEVGF DCUGF QP OGCP FKUVCPEGU1372 DGVYGGP CNN 15 XCNWGU (2NQV 8-2) QT 17 XCNWGU

(2NQV 8-3) CPF DCUGF QP VJG PWODGT QH FKOGPUKQPU1373 EJQUGP VQ GPUWTG CEEGRVCDNG NGXGNU QH

UVTGUU1374 (K.G. NGUU VJCP 0.05). #NVJQWIJ UGXGTCN FKOGPUKQPU CTG UQOGVKOGU TGSWKTGF VQ TGFWEG

UVTGUU CPF OCZKOK\G HKV, (T2) VYQ FKOGPUKQPU (2NQV 8-2) CTG QHVGP CFGSWCVG VQ KFGPVKH[ VJG OCKP

FKOGPUKQPU CPF ENWUVGTU. +P VJKU UVWF[, JQYGXGT VYQ FKOGPUKQPU FKF PQV HWNN[ GZRNCKP 'JWPVKPI'

UQ C VJKTF FKOGPUKQP YCU WUGF (2NQV 8-1). 5GG GZRNCPCVKQP QH JWPVKPI KP UGEVKQP 8.2.4 CPF 2NQV

8-4.

2NQV 8-1 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH ’CUVGTP −JCO UJQYKPI 15 XCNWGU KP 3 FKOGPUKQPU

2NGCUG PQVG KP /&5 RNQVU

CZGU CTG OGCPKPINGUU CPF

QTKGPVCVKQP KU CTDKVCT[

1371 &QOCKPU CTG OQUV V[RKECNN[ KPVTQFWEGF VQ EKTEWOUETKDG GZENWUKXG TGCNOU QT UGVU -- K.G., VJG[ UGTXG CU ECVGIQTK\CVKQP EQPUVTWEVU HQT UQTVKPI QWV WPKVKGU CPF RJGPQOGPC. JVVR://YYY.KORTKPV.EQ.WM/VJGUCWTWU/FQOCKP.JVO CEEGUUGF 5VJ 1EVQDGT 2005. 1372 QT FKUUKOKNCTKVKGU DGVYGGP VJG KPXGUVKICVGF QDLGEVU (KP VJKU ECUG HQTGUV XCNWGU). 1373 # EQOOQP YC[ VQ FGEKFG JQY OCP[ FKOGPUKQPU VQ WUG KU VQ RNQV VJG UVTGUU XCNWG CICKPUV FKHHGTGPV PWODGTU QH FKOGPUKQPU. # UVTGUU XCNWG DGNQY 0.05 KU CEEGRVCDNG CPFXCNWG DGNQY 0.01 KU EQPUKFGTGF IQQF. 1374 C UVCVKUVKECN VGTO WUGF VQ OGCPUWTG /&5 IQQFPGUU-QH-HKV.





2NQV 8-2 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH ’CUVGTP −JCO UJQYKPI 15 XCNWGU KP 2 FKOGPUKQPU

-1.50

-0.75

0.00

0.75

1.50

-2.00 -0.50 1.00 2.50 4.00

1

2

34

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

1213

1415

’CUVGTP −JCO - 15 XCNWGU (P=86)

&KO1

&KO

2&KOGPUKQPU 555&U 566.068155&H 13.45VTGUU 0.0234-5SWCTGF 69.37

(QTGUV 1 9KNFNKHG2 %QPUGTXCVKQP 3 $NGUUKPI 4 /GP 5 9QOGP 6 5GNH 7 6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8[WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 100’( 11

(QTGUVARTQFWEVU 120*( 13

+PFWUVTKCNAHQTGUVCVKQP 14 5QEKCNKUO 15

DKQ-RJ[UKECN


UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE

RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN


2NQV 8-3 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH ’CUVGTP −JCO UJQYKPI 17 HQTGUV XCNWGU KP 2 FKOGPUKQPU

-1.50

-0.75

0.00

0.75

1.50

-2.00 -0.75 0.50 1.75 3.00

1 2

34

56

78

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

’CUVGTP −JCO - 17 XCNWGU (P=57)

&KO1

&KO

2

&KOGPUKQPU 555&U 814.597780

55&H 27.077737

5VTGUU 0.033241

4-5SWCTGF 55.784626

(QTGUV 1 9KNFNKHG2 %QPUGTXCVKQP 3 $NGUUKPI 4 /GP 5 9QOGP 6 5GNH 7 6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8 6JKUARNCEG 9;WNANJC 10

*WPVKPI 110’( 12

(QTGUVARTQFWEVU 130*( 14

+PFWUVTKCNAHQTGUVCVKQP 15 5QEKCNKUO 16)CP\K 17

DKQ-RJ[UKECN


RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE





+V YQWNF CRRGCT HTQO /&5 (2NQV 8-1 CPF 8-2) VJCV, KP EQOOQP YKVJ HKGNF-VGUVKPI KP &GMC KP

EJCRVGT 6 UGEVKQP 6.6.2, VJGTG CTG HQWT ENWUVGTU, QPG UKPINGVQP ('JWPVKPI') CPF VYQ FKOGPUKQPU.

$CUGF QP JKGTCTEJKECN ENWUVGT CPCN[UKU1375 CPF O[ UWDLGEVKXG MPQYNGFIG QH VJG TGIKQP VJG HQWT

ENWUVGTU UWIIGUV VJG GZKUVGPEG QH HQWT EQIPKVKXG FQOCKPU1376 PCOGN[; UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE,

RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN, GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG1377 UGTXKEGU, CPF DKQRJ[UKECN FQOCKPU, YJKEJ

CTG FKUVTKDWVGF CNQPI VYQ CZKU QT FKOGPUKQPU (1=0CVWTCN 2=*WOCP). 1VJGT RQNGU QT RCTVKVKQPU

OC[ CNUQ DG RQUUKDNG CPF YJKNG VJG FCVC OC[ PQV DG KPEQPUKUVGPV YKVJ VJG KFGPVKHKGF ITQWRU,

VJGKT GZKUVGPEG KU D[ PQ OGCPU GSWKXQECN.

+P ECUG KV KU PQV ENGCT CNN 86 TGURQPFGPVU YGTG CUMGF VQ FKUVCPEG 15 XCNWGU CPF QH VJGO 57 YGTG

CUMGF VQ FKUVCPEG 2 CFFKVKQPCN XCNWGU (K.G. 17 XCNWGU) KP QTFGT VQ WPFGTUVCPF VJG TGNCVKXG

KORQTVCPEG QH RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV. +V CRRGCTU VJCV QP VJG DCUKU QH 15 XCNWGU (2NQV 8-2) VJCV 'UGNH' KU

NQECVGF KP DQVJ VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP, 'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU' KP VJG

'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' CPF 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKPU CPF EQPUGTXCVKQP KP

VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU', 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'DKQ-RJ[UKECN'.

+P EQPVTCUV YKVJ 17 XCNWGU (2NQV 8-3) 'UGNH' KV KU QPN[ NQECVGF KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP

'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU' KP VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP, EQPUGTXCVKQP KP VJG

'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' CPF 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKPU CPF 'RNCEG' KP VJG

'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' CPF 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP. 6JKU CRRGCTU VQ UWIIGUV VJCV VJG NCVVGT

TGURQPFGPVU (HTQO 2003) CTG OQTG VTCFKVKQPCN CPF FQ PQV ENQUGN[ KFGPVKH[ YKVJ VJG

'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP. 6JGTG KU UQOG PGGF HQT ECWVKQP VJQWIJ IKXGP VJG NQY NGXGNU QH T2.

+P VJG HQNNQYKPI UGEVKQPU YG YKNN GZRNQTG HQTGUV XCNWGU: DCUGF QP VJGKT FQOCKP RNCEGOGPV

UWIIGUVGF KP VJG EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI (8.2.4); QP VJG DCUKU QH FKUCIITGICVKQP (8.2.5); VJCV YGTG

GZENWFGF HTQO EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI (8.2.6); VJCV YGTG CFFTGUUGF KP EQPVGZVWCN UVWFKGU (8.2.7)

1375 *KGTCTEJKECN ENWUVGT CPCN[UKU KU C UVCVKUVKECN OGVJQF HQT HKPFKPI TGNCVKXGN[ JQOQIGPGQWU ENWUVGTU QH ECUGU DCUGF QP OGCUWTGF EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU. +V FQGU PQV, JQYGXGT CFFTGUU FKOGPUKQPCNKV[. 1376 &QOCKPU CTG OQUV V[RKECNN[ KPVTQFWEGF VQ EKTEWOUETKDG GZENWUKXG TGCNOU QT UGVU -- K.G., VJG[ UGTXG CU ECVGIQTK\CVKQP EQPUVTWEVU HQT UQTVKPI QWV WPKVKGU CPF RJGPQOGPC. JVVR://YYY.KORTKPV.EQ.WM/VJGUCWTWU/FQOCKP.JVO CEEGUUGF 5VJ 1EVQDGT 2005. 1377 6JKU JCU UQOG TGNGXCPEG KP VJG 0GY (QTGUV DGECWUG QH EQOOQPGTU TKIJVU DWV KV JCU NKVVNG TGNGXCPEG VQ FC[ XKUKVQTU.





CPF UGEQPFCT[ UQWTEGU. $CUGF QP VJG GXKFGPEG RTGUGPVGF DGNQY KV YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV VJG

EQPUVGNNCVKQPU QH HQTGUV XCNWGU OC[ YGNN EQPUVKVWVG HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU (8.2.8) CU FGHKPGF KP

EJCRVGT 2 UGEVKQP 2.2 YJKEJ OKIJV RTQXKFG VGORNCVGU HQT HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR.

8.2.4. (QTGUV 8CNWGU +PENWFGF KP VJG %QIPKVKXG /CRRKPI

.KHG UWRRQTV XCNWGU

+P ’CUVGTP −JCO VJG GPXKTQPOGPVCN NKHG-UWRRQTV RTQXKFGF D[ HQTGUVU KU IGPGTCNN[ NQECVGF (2NQV

8-2) KP VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP CPF YCU GZRTGUUGF FWTKPI VJG

HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[ KP VGTOU QH RTGXGPVKPI 'NCTIG-UECNG FQYPUVTGCO HNQQFKPI', C XKGY UWRRQTVGF

VJTQWIJ OWEJ QH '*KIJ #UKC'1378. 6JKU XKGY KU UWRRQTVGF D[ VJG /&5 YJGTG VJG 'PCVWTCN' TQNG

QH HQTGUVU KP NKHG UWRRQTV K.G. 'HQTGUV', ''PCVWTCN J[FTQNQIKECN HWPEVKQP'', CPF ''PCVWTCN

GPXKTQPOGPVCN HWPEVKQP'' CTG CNN KP TGNCVKXGN[ ENQUG RTQZKOKV[ CPF CV .WIW .CMG TGHGTTGF VQ KP

EJCRVGT 6 (5GG 6CDNG 6.5) YJGTG NKHG-UWRRQTV XCNWGU TCPMGF 1UV QWV QH 13 XCNWGU CPF TGRTGUGPVGF

14% QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG1379. +V YCU KPEQTTGEVN[ CUUWOGF1380 VJCV OCP[ NKHG-UWRRQTV

UGTXKEGU YGTG NCTIGN[ KPFGRGPFGPV QH JWOCP CIGPE[ CPF VQ GORJCUK\G VJGKT KPFGRGPFGPEG VJG[

YGTG RTGHKZGF YKVJ 'PCVWTCN'. +P URKVG QH VJKU, TGURQPFGPVU EQPVKPWGF VQ RNCEG 'UGNH' ENQUG VQ

''PCVWTCN J[FTQNQIKECN HWPEVKQP'' CPF ''PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPVCN HWPEVKQP'' (2NQV 8-2). +V OWUV DG

CUUWOGF VJCV HTQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH VJQUG UWTXG[GF VJG[ UGG GXGT[ NKXKPI CPF PQP-NKXKPI VJKPI

KP VJG YQTNF CU DGKPI KPVGTTGNCVGF CPF KPVGTFGRGPFGPV CPF VJG[ V[RKECNN[ GODGF PCVWTG KP

UQEKGV[1381.

%QPUGTXCVKQP XCNWGU

4GURQPFGPVU HTQO ’CUVGTP −JCO TGEQIPK\G VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP XCNWG QH HQTGUVU YJKEJ VJG[

NQECVG KP VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU', 'DKQ-RJ[UKECN' CPF 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN'

FQOCKPU CPF GZRTGUUGF KP VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[ KP VGTOU QH 'GEQU[UVGO UWRRQTV' CPF

1378 JVVR://DQUVQPINQDCNCEVKQP.PGV/7−/NCPFUNKFG.JVON CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005 JVVR://DQUVQPINQDCNCEVKQP.PGV/7−/EJKRMQ.JVON CEEGUUGF 7VJ ,WN[ 2005 1379 6JG UWO QH WUG CPF PQP-WUG XCNWGU YKVJ FWG EQPUKFGTCVKQP QH CP[ VTCFG-QHHU QT OWVWCNN[ GZENWUKXG WUGU QT HWPEVKQPU QH VJG TGUQWTEG/JCDKVCV KP SWGUVKQP. 5QWTEG: )NQDCN $KQFKXGTUKV[ #UUGUUOGPV )$# JVVR://GWTQRC.GW.KPV/EQOO/TGUGCTEJ/DKQUQEKGV[/NKDTCT[/INQUUCT[NKUVAGP.EHO!+PKV=6 CEEGUUGF 15VJ ,WN 2005. 1380 $CUGF QP C YGUVGTP OKPFUGV. 1381 5CJVQWTKU 1995

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http://bostonglobalaction.net/UK/landslide.html http:/bostonglobalaction.net/UK/chipko.html

http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/biosociety/library/glossarylist_en.cfm?Init=T




'GEQNQIKECN KORQTVCPEG FQ PQV, JQYGXGT TGCFKN[ TGEQIPK\G VJG TQNG QH UQEKGV[ QT VJCV QH VJG

%JKPGUG IQXGTPOGPV KP HQTGUV EQPUGTXCVKQP.

6JGUG XKGYU YGTG UWRRQTVGF CV .WIW .CMG YJGTG 'DKQFKXGTUKV[' TGRTGUGPVGF 7% QH VQVCN

GEQPQOKE XCNWG CPF D[ /&5 YKVJ GXKFGPEG QH 'PCVWTCN EQPUGTXCVKQP' (K.G. EQPUGTXCVKQP YKVJQWV

JWOCP CIGPE[)1382, 'GPFQIGPQWU EQPUGTXCVKQP' (EQPUGTXCVKQP YKVJ NQECN JWOCP CIGPE[ QT

KFGPVKHKECVKQP) 1383 CPF NKVVNG GXKFGPEG QH 'GZQIGPQWU EQPUGTXCVKQP' (EQPUGTXCVKQP D[ VJG UVCVG QT

KPVGTPCVKQPCN 0)1) 1384 . 6JG QPN[ GZEGRVKQP KP VJG NCUV ECUG DGKPI 'QNF' TGURQPFGPVU1385 (2NQV

8-10) CPF TGURQPFGPVU HTQO ';CLKCPI %QWPV[' (2NQV 8-11). 6JKU OC[ JCXG TGUWNVGF HTQO C

'RQNKVKECNN[ EQTTGEVGF' TGURQPUG HTQO VJG QNF YJQ ECP TGOGODGT VJG QEEWRCVKQP D[ VJG 2GQRNGU

.KDGTCVKQP #TO[ CPF VJG %WNVWTCN 4GXQNWVKQP CPF HQTGUVT[ GZVGPUKQP KP ;CLKCPI %QWPV[.

(QT VJG 6KDGVCPU VJG URKTKVWCN UKIPKHKECPEG QH EQPUGTXCVKQP1386 CRRGCTGF OQTG KORQTVCPV VJCP

VJG GEQNQIKECN UKIPKHKECPEG. −JCODC TGURQPFGPVU CTG GXKFGPVN[ UKOKNCT VQ UQOG QVJGT

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG1387, KP VJCV VJG[ CTG PQV FGNKDGTCVG EQPUGTXCVKQPKUVU QT GEQNQIKUVU, DWV VJG[

OCPKHGUV CP GVJKECN CVVKVWFG1388 D[ NQECVKPI 'UGNH' CPF 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN'

FQOCKP (2NQV 8-2) ENQUG VQ 'DNGUUKPI', '[WN-NJC' CPF '6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO'. 6JGUG HKPFKPIU YGTG

UWRRQTVGF KP KPHQTOCN FKUEWUUKQPU CV $GPIFC (5GG 6.6.2), &GPIMQ (5GG 6.5.1) CPF .WIW .CMG

(5GG 6.5.2) CDQWV HQTGUV EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF VTGCVOGPV QH UCETGF CTGCU (K.G. PQ ICVJGTKPI, JWPVKPI,

YQQF EJQRRKPI QT EWNVKXCVKQP) FWTKPI VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UVWF[, VJG 24# UVWF[ CPF GVJPQHQTGUVT[

UVWF[.

5RKTKVWCN CPF UCETGF XCNWGU

−JCODC XKGYU QH URKTKVWCN XCNWGU CTG KP UJCTR EQPVTCUV VQ VJG 7− YJGTG PQ QPG OGPVKQPGF C

URKTKVWCN FKOGPUKQP CU C HQTGUV XCNWG KP HKGNF-VGUVKPI1389. +V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV VJG "FG-UQWNKPI QH

PCVWTG"1390 D[ ,QJP .QEMG CPF JKU UWEEGUUQTU KU UVKNN C FQOKPCPV XKGY COQPI HQTGUV FC[-XKUKVQTU

1382 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' KU KP VJG 'DKQ-RJ[UKECN' CPF 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP KP 2NQV 8-2. 1383 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' KU KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP KP 2NQV 8-2. 1384 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' KU PQV KP QT ENQUG VQ VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP KP 2NQV 8-2. 1385 CIG 51+ 1386 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' KU ENQUGT VQ '[WN-NJC', '6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO' CPF 'DNGUUKPI' VJCP 'HQTGUV' CPF 'YKNFNKHG'. 1387 %CNNKEQVV 1982 1388 0QTOCVKXG IWKFGNKPGU IQXGTPKPI OCP'U CVVKVWFGU, DGJCXKQWT, CPF CEVKQP VQYCTF VJG PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV. 1389 YKVJ VJG GZEGRVKQP QH YKNFGTPGUU CPF VJGTCRGWVKE XCNWGU: YJKEJ FQ CRRGCT KP UQOG V[RQNQIKGU CU "URKTKVWCN" XCNWGU. 1390 $CPWTK CPF /CTINKP 1993 RCIG 18 CPF 19




CPF RTQHGUUKQPCN HQTGUVGTU KP VJG 7−1391. 95% QH TGURQPFGPVU KP ’CUVGTP −JCO TGEQIPK\GF C

URKTKVWCN FKOGPUKQP1392 KP VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[1393, YJKEJ KU IGPGTCNN[ NQECVGF KP VJG

'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP (2NQV 8-2). +P FKUEWUUKQP YKVJ VJG TGURQPFGPVU KP $GPIFC, VJG NKPM

DGVYGGP VJGKT CPKOKUVKE-UJCOCPKUVKE DGNKGHU YCU GZRTGUUGF KP 'DNGUUKPI' D[ VJG NQECN FKXKPKV[1394,

KP TGURQPUG VQ VJGKT ECTG QH VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF QH VJG FKXKPKV[1395. 6JG PCVWTG QH VJKU NKPM CRRGCTGF

VQ DG OWEJ OQTG F[PCOKE CPF RGTUQPCN VJCP YKVJ 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO1396, YJKEJ YCU OQTG

CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ YJCV VJG OQPMU CPF OQPCUVGTKGU FKF1397.

6JGUG XKGYU YGTG UWRRQTVGF D[ VJG EQPVGZVWCN UVWFKGU CV &GPIMQ CPF CV .WIW .CMG YJGTG

URKTKVWCN XCNWGU TGRTGUGPVGF 5% QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG, COQPI 2WOK OGP, KV TCPMGF UGEQPF

QWV QH 13 XCNWGU CPF VJG HKPFKPIU UWIIGUV VJCV UCETGF UKVGU RTQXKFG XGT[ IQQF GZGORNCTU QH

EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF DKQ-FKXGTUKV[, DCEMGF D[ TGNKIKQWU UCPEVKQP1398. +P EQOOQP YKVJ VJG RGQRNGU

QH $GPIFC1399, )QPIIC 5JCP1400, &GPIMQ1401 CPF &GSKP1402 VJG .WIW .CMG TGURQPFGPVU YGTG

CDNG VQ KFGPVKH[ UCETGF OQWPVCKPU, VTGGU, CPKOCNU, CPF URTKPIU.

6JG /WUWQ CPF 2WOK FGVCKNGF1403 VJG OGCUWTGU TGSWKTGF VQ RNCECVG NQECN PWOKPC, YKVJ VJG

1391 .GG 2001 CPF RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 28/4/2003 YGDNQI 1392 DNGUUKPI, 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO CPF [WN-NJC. 1393 +P HKGNF VGUVKPI KP −JCO UGG EJCRVGT 6 UGEVKQP 6.6.2.

1394 [WN-NJC 9v;-[k�

1395 K.G. VJG NQECNG QXGT YJKEJ JG RTGUKFGF.

1396 6KDGVCPU EQOOQPN[ FTCY C FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP VJTGG TGNKIKQWU VTCFKVKQPU, 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO [-&}=k

NJC EJQU,

$QP 0},-&}=k

DQP EJQU CPF /K EJQU 1m-&}=k

. OK EJQU KU C NKVGTCT[ VGTO CPF PQV WUGF D[ KNNKVGTCVG HCTOGTU, YJQ CTG

OQTG HCOKNKCT YKVJ [WN-NJC 9v;-[k VJG VGTTKVQTKCN/EQOOWPKV[ FKXKPKVKGU. 6JGTG CTG VJTGG RJCUGU QH DQP, CNVJQWIJ

OQFGTP DQP ECP DG TGICTFGF CU VJG HKHVJ UEJQQN QH 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO, YKVJ EGTVCKP FKHHGTGPEGU QH XQECDWNCT[, DWV PQ OCLQT FKHHGTGPEG KP EQPVGPV (5COWGN 1993C.). 1397 6TGG RNCPVKPI CPF VJG RTGXGPVKQP QH JWPVKPI. 1398 .CKTF 1995, /CTVKP 1999, 2GK 5JGPILK 1993 1399 +P $GPIFC &KUVTKEV VJGTG CTG VJTGG UCETGF OQWPVCKPU:- 0[QY[GG, 0[CLK &TCYIW, 5CYCTC.

1400 +P VJG CTGC CTQWPF )QPIIC 5JCP %CRTKEQTPKU UWOCVTCGPUKU (KP .CVKP , VJG UGTQY KP ’PINKUJ, VJG < Ÿ-Wk

UJC(YC\C) TCIC([C) KP 6KDGVCP) CTG TCTGN[ JWPVGF DGECWUG VJG[ CTG UCETGF VQ VJG 'NQTF QH VJG OQWPVCKP' ($NGKUEJ CPF 9QPI 1990). 1401 5VWFNG[ GV CN 1995 CPF 6CDNG 6-2 1402 2GK 1999, 60% 2005 1403 #TQWPF .WIW .CMG (5VWFNG[ 1999C + D, 2004E..F).




JGNR QH C UJCOCP1404/RTKGUV, CPF OCMG TGUVKVWVKQP YKVJ VJG NQECN EQOOWPKV[, YJGP VTGGU QT

CPKOCNU YGTG MKNNGF KP UCETGF CTGCU1405. 6[RKECNN[, COQPI CNN VJGUG ITQWRU CEEGUU VQ UCETGF

VGTTKVQT[ KU TGUVTKEVGF D[ "UQEKCN HGPEKPI"1406 CHHGEVGF D[ VCDQQU, EQFGU CPF EWUVQO VQ RCTVKEWNCT

CEVKXKVKGU CPF OGODGTU QH C EQOOWPKV[1407. +P EQOOQP YKVJ VJG RGQRNG QH $GPIFC VJG

TGURQPFGPVU CV .WIW CTG XGT[ CYCTG QH VJG DQWPFCTKGU1408 QH VJG VGTTKVQT[ YJGTG ICVJGTKPI,

JWPVKPI, YQQF EJQRRKPI CPF EWNVKXCVKQP CTG UVTKEVN[ RTQJKDKVGF. 6JG[ DGNKGXG VJCV VJGUG

CEVKXKVKGU YKNN OCMG VJG NQECN IQFU CPIT[ CPF DTKPI OKUHQTVWPG CPF FKUCUVGT WRQP VJG

EQOOWPKV[1409.

9JKNG CEEGUU VQ UCETGF CTGCU KU TGUVTKEVGF, VJG UCOG UCPEVKQPU FQ PQV CRRN[ VQ PQP-UCETGF CTGCU.

/QTG TGUGCTEJ KU TGSWKTGF VQ FGVGTOKPG VJG UCETGF/PQP-UCETGF ECVGIQTKGU TGEQIPK\GF D[ VJG

RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO. 9JCV KU MPQYP KU VJCV VJG 5JGTRCU1410 FQ PQV GZVGPF VJG UCOG FGITGG

QH EQPUGTXCVKQP EQPUEKQWUPGUU VQ PQP-UCETGF HQTGUV. 5QOG QH VJGKT HQTGUVU CTG ECTGHWNN[

OCPCIGF VQ RTQXKFG UWUVCKPCDNG UQWTEGU QH JKIJN[ XCNWGF RTQFWEVU UWEJ CU JQWUG DGCOU, DWV

OQUV VKODGT CPF HWGN-YQQF KU QDVCKPGF HTQO WPRTQVGEVGF WPOCPCIGF NQECN HQTGUVU CPF

YQQFNCPFU. 1TCN VTCFKVKQPU QH JKUVQTKECN FGITCFCVKQP CPF ENGCTKPI QH VJGUG JGCXKN[ WUGF CTGCU

EQPVTCUV UJCTRN[ YKVJ VJG GZVTCQTFKPCT[ TGURGEV YKVJ YJKEJ UCETGF HQTGUVU CTG RTQVGEVGF1411.

1404 $QVJ UJCOCP CPF RTKGUVU YGTG JGCXKN[ RGTUGEWVGF FWTKPI VJG %WNVWTCN 4GXQNWVKQP CPF CNVJQWIJ UQOG RTKGUVU CPF ;K DKOQ YGTG CNNQYGF VQ RTCEVKEG CICKP HTQO VJG GCTN[ 1980U VJG UJCOCP JCF VQ YCKV WPVKN VJG OKF 1990U, DGECWUG VJGKT DGNKGHU CPF RTCEVKEGU YGTG XKGYGF CU 'UWRGTUVKVKQWU'. #U C TGUWNV KP NQECN CTGCU VJKU VTCFKVKQP JCU CNOQUV FKGF QWV CPF VJGTG CTG QPN[ VYQ FCDC NGHV COQPI VJG /QUWQ RGQRNG CPF QPN[ QPG VJCV KU HCOKNKCT YKVJ CNN VJTGG FCDC VTCFKVKQPU (4KVWCN CPF TKVG QH RCUUCIG RTC[GTU, FKXKPCVKQP, UJCOCP/JGCNGT (%CK *WC 2001)). #VVGORVU JCXG DGGP OCFG VQ VTCKP CPF OGPVQT OQTG UJCOCP DWV VJG NWTG QH VQWTKUO RTQXGF VQQ OWEJ (5VWFNG[ 2004E..F,;CPI (WSWCP 2003). #NVJQWIJ KP VJG TGIKQP VJGTG KU C TGXKXCN COQPI VJG 2WOK JCPIWK CPF ;K DKOQ VJGTG CTG NQECN UJQTVCIGU. (QT VJG 2WOK YJQ NKXG PGZV VQ .WIW .CMG VJG PGCTGUV JCPIWK NKXG KP 5KEJWCP CPF HQT VJG ;K VJG PGCTGUV DKOQ NKXGU 40 MO CYC[, CNVJQWIJ JG FQGU XKUKV VJG CTGC TGIWNCTN[. 1405 +PVGPVKQPCNN[ QT D[ OKUVCMG. 1406 JVVR://YYY.VGTKKP.QTI/VGTKUEQRG/TGUWRFCVGU/HQTGUVGTU4KU.JVO CEEGUUGF 20VJ ,WN[ 2005 1407 −QVJCTK CPF &CU 1999 1408 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP $NQPFGCW 4/2/2003 YGDNQI 1409 2GK 5JGPILK 1993 CPF 1999 1410 9JQ CTG QH 6KDGVCP GVJPKE QTKIKP, RQUUKDN[ HTQO −JCO JVVR://YYY.MJCPFTQ.PGV/RNCEGA0GRCN.JVO CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005. 1411 5VGXGPU 1993

http://www.teriin.org/teriscope/resupdates/foresters4is.htm

http://www.khandro.net/place_Nepal.htm




(QTGUV RTQFWEVU

+P ’CUVGTP −JCO, TGURQPFGPVU TGEQIPK\GF VJG KORQTVCPEG QH '(QTGUV 2TQFWEVU' KP VJGKT

UWDUKUVGPEG NKHGUV[NG. 6JGKT KORQTVCPEG YCU GURGEKCNN[ TGEQIPK\GF KP &GPIMQ1412 CPF $GPIFC

YJGTG FWTKPI VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UVWF[ VJG[ TCPMGF JKIJGT VJCP CP[ QVJGT XCNWG. 6JKU KU UWRRQTVGF

D[ /&5 YJGTG '(QTGUV 2TQFWEVU' KU TGEQIPK\GF CU C EQORQPGPV QH VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF

UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' CPF 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP (2NQV 8-2) CPF CV .WIW .CMG 1413 YJGTG

UWDUKUVGPEG XCNWG TGRTGUGPVGF 10 % QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG EQORCTGF VQ 'EQOOGTEKCN

XCNWG'1414 YJKEJ KU QPN[ 5%. (QTGUV 2TQFWEVU CTG ETWEKCN GURGEKCNN[ KP VKOGU QH HCOKPG QT

FKUCUVGT DWV JCXG NCTIGN[ DGGP KIPQTGF D[ VJG %JKPGUG UVCVG KP TGEGPV HQTGUV RQNKEKGU.

+PFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP

+PFWUVTKCN HQTGUVT[ KU NQECVGF KP VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP CPF KFGPVKHKGF ENQUGN[ YKVJ

'UQEKCNKUO'. +V KU PQV EQPUKFGTGF VQ DG ENQUG VQ 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' QT VQ 'DNGUUKPI', '[WN-NJC' QT '6KDGVCP

$WFFJKUO'. +V YCU PQV GZCOKPGF KP CP[ QVJGT UVWF[.

5QEKCNKUO

#NVJQWIJ UQEKCNKUO YCU PQV KFGPVKHKGF FWTKPI VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[ KV YCU UGNGEVGF HQT

EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI DGECWUG KV TGRTGUGPVU CP CNKGP UGV QH XCNWGU (QT KFGCNU) VJCV RTQXKFGU C

RNCVHQTO HQT RQNKVKECN CPF UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE FGXGNQROGPV, PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG KPVGTXGPVKQP, CPF VJG

*CPKHKECVKQP QH %JKPC'U OKPQTKV[ RGQRNGU.

#NVJQWIJ VJG *CP XCNWGU QH VJG PCVKQP-UVCVG CTG WPFGTRKPPGF D[ C OKZVWTG QH %QPHWEKCP,

%QOOWPKUV, VTCFKVKQPCN CPF OCTMGV XCNWGU YJGP %JKPC'U 2TGUKFGPV, *W ,KPVCQ, VQQM QXGT KP

GCTN[ 2003 JG UKIPCNNGF PQ UJCTR FGRCTVWTGU HTQO VJG RQNKEKGU QH JKU RTGFGEGUUQT. %KVKPI VJG

"JWIG UVTKFGU" %JKPC JCU OCFG UKPEG VJG EQOOWPKUV TGXQNWVKQP, *W RNGFIGF VQ UVC[ VJG EQWTUG

CPF TGKVGTCVGF VJCV "1PN[ UQEKCNKUO ECP UCXG %JKPC, CPF %JKPC ECP FGXGNQR QPN[ WPFGT

1412 5GG 6CDNG 6-2 1413 5VWFNG[ CV CN 2005 1414 6JKU KU QHVGP VJG QPN[ XCNWG WUGF D[ GEQPQOKUVU, YJKEJ PQV QPN[ KIPQTGU UWDUKUVGPEG DWV OQUV QVJGT HQTGUV XCNWGU.




UQEKCNKUO YKVJ %JKPGUG EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU"1415. %QPUGSWGPVN[ OQUV QTICPU QH IQXGTPOGPV

QHHKEKCNN[ EQPVKPWG VQ QRGTCVG WPFGT VJG CGIKU QH C UQEKCNKUV RCTCFKIO. +V KU KORQTVCPV, KP VGTOU

QH VJKU UVWF[, VQ WPFGTUVCPF KH UQEKCNKUO RTQXKFGF C 'OQTCN' RNCVHQTO HQT PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP,

IKXGP VJCV VJG −JCODC 6KDGVCPU JCXG PGXGT HWNN[ CEEGRVGF KVU VGPGVU1416. 7PVKN XGT[ TGEGPVN[ KV

JCU DGGP FKHHKEWNV VQ LWFIG KVU KORQTVCPEG KP VGTOU QH EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI, DGECWUG CP[ ETKVKEKUO

YCU PQV VQNGTCVGF D[ CP[ UGEVQT QH UQEKGV[1417 CPF KV KU GXKFGPV VJCV KP URKVG QH VJG GOGTIGPEG QH

CP GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPUEKQWUPGUU KP *CP %JKPC XGUVKIGU QH VJKU NGICE[ TGOCKP. 9JGP CUMGF VQ

UECNG UQEKCNKUO OCP[ TGURQPFGPVU ICXG CP GODCTTCUUGF NCWIJ CPF ENGCTN[ FGEKFGF VJCV VJG[ JCF

DGVVGT GTT QP VJG RQNKVKECNN[ UCHG UKFG. +P URKVG QH VJKU QPG VTCPUNCVQT, YJQ YCU /KP[CM1418, DWV

JCF DGGP KP VJG CTO[, DGECOG EQPEGTPGF YJGP TGURQPFGPVU ICXG 'JQPGUV' TGURQPUGU.

1P VJG DCUKU QH VJG 'RQNKVKECNN[ EQTTGEVGF' FCVC, 'UQEKCNKUO' KU IGPGTCNN[ NQECVGF KP VJG

'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP (2NQV 8-2) CPF KV KU SWKVG FKUVCPV HTQO VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN',

'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU', CPF 'DKQ-RJ[UKECN' FQOCKP. &WG VQ KVU FKUVCPEG HTQO

VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP KV FQGU PQV CRRGCT VQ RTQXKFG VJG QRVKOWO RNCVHQTO HQT

EQPUGTXCVKQP CFXQECE[.

*WPVKPI HQT HQTGKIP GZEJCPIG

*WPVKPI YCU PQV KFGPVKHKGF FWTKPI VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[ EQPFWEVGF KP −JCO FWTKPI HKGNF

VGUVKPI (5GG 6.6.2) DWV KV YCU KPENWFGF KP EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI DGECWUG QH NQECN IQXGTPOGPV RNCPU

VQ KPVTQFWEG KV CU C OGCPU QH UGEWTKPI HQTGKIP GZEJCPIG. #NVJQWIJ UQOG CWVJQTU1419 YQWNF

JCXG WU DGNKGXG QVJGTYKUG VJG 6KDGVCPU KP EQOOQP YKVJ OQUV "RTG-OQFGTP"1420 RGQRNGU

CEVKXGN[ GZRNQKV VJG PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV, KP URKVG QH VJGKT DGNKGHU, CPF VJKU CRRGCTU VQ KPENWFG

JWPVKPI1421. *WPVKPI JQYGXGT KU KNNGICN CPF FKUEQWTCIGF D[ 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO CPF XKIKNCPVG

OQPMU.

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

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/2859367.stm

http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/archives/L/1998/A/un980436.html




2NQV 8-4 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH ’CUVGTP −JCO UJQYKPI &KOGPUKQP 3 CPF 4

-1.00

-0.38

0.25

0.88

1.50

-1.50 -0.88 -0.25 0.38 1.00

1

2

3

45

6

7

8

910

11

12

13

14

15

*WPVKPI (P=86)

&KO3

&KO

4&KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 566.0681

55&H 13.4

5VTGUU 0.023

4-5SWCTGF 69.37

(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

[WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI10

0’( 11

(QTGUVARTQFWEVU 12

0*( 13

+PFWUVTKCNAHQTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO 15

2NGCUG PQVG KP /&5 RNQVU

CZGU CTG OGCPKPINGUU CPF

QTKGPVCVKQP KU CTDKVCT[

6JGUG FKURCTCVG XKGYU CTG TGHNGEVGF KP VJG /&5 RNQVU YJGTG 'JWPVKPI' KU C UKPINGVQP CPF CRRGCTU

VQ DG XGT[ FKUVCPV HTQO CNN XCNWGU KP 2NQV 8-21422 DWV ENQUG VQ 'OGP' , 'DNGUUKPI', CPF '[WN-NJC' KP

2NQV 8-41423. #NVJQWIJ VJGUG HKPFKPIU CTG EQPUKUVGPV YKVJ −JCODC EWUVQO CPF EWNVWTG HWTVJGT

HKGNF TGUGCTEJ KU TGSWKTGF KP VGTOU QH GUVCDNKUJKPI YJCV FKOGPUKQP VJTGG CPF HQWT TGRTGUGPVU

HTQO C −JCODC RGTURGEVKXG.

/CP[ TGURQPFGPVU YJQ YGTG CYCTG QH VJG RTQJKDKVKQP, DWV WPUWTG QH O[ CIGPFC, 'FKUVCPEGF'

VJGOUGNXGU HTQO JWPVKPI DWV QVJGTU1424 UKVWCVGF VJGOUGNXGU CV ENQUG RTQZKOKV[ VQ JWPVKPI.

5QOG QH VJG TGURQPFGPVU KPFKECVGF VJCV JWPVKPI UJQWNF QPN[ VCMG RNCEG WPFGT VJG HQNNQYKPI

EQPFKVKQPU:- C) QPN[ RTGFCVQT[ CPKOCNU1425 D) QPN[ YJGP NKHG KU GPFCPIGTGF E) CU C UWTXKXCN

UVTCVGI[ HQT VJG XGT[ RQQT F) QPN[ KP EGTVCKP PQP-UCETGF NQECVKQPU. 4GURQPFGPVU CNUQ OGPVKQPGF

VJG TQNG QH OQPMU KP RTGXGPVKPI JWPVKPI KP UKVG URGEKHKE NQECVKQPU.

1422 &KOGPUKQP 1 CPF 2. 1423 &KOGPUKQP 3 CPF 4. 1424 9JQ LWFIKPI D[ VJGKT TGURQPUG JWPVGF. 1425 9QNXGU CPF $GCTU.




#NVJQWIJ 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO VGCEJGU VJCV NKHG KU UCETGF CPF VJG $WFFJKUV RWTICVQT[ KPENWFGU C

URGEKCN EQNF JGNN HQT UQWNU YJQ JCXG MKNNGF CPKOCNU VJG 6KDGVCPU JCXG CNYC[U DGGP CXKF JWPVGTU

CNVJQWIJ VJG[ JCXG CEEGRVGF UQOG TGUVTKEVKQPU QP NQECVKQPU CPF URGEKGU. *WPVKPI CRRGCTU VQ

JCXG DGGP CEEGRVGF D[ VJG GUVCDNKUJOGPV YJGP ICOG YCU RNGPVKHWN1426, KH VJGTG YCU C FGOCPF

HQT HWTU KP VJG OQPCUVGTKGU QT HTQO VJG GNKVG1427, QT HQT VTCFKPI RWTRQUGU KP ’CUVGTP −JCO1428.

#PEKGPV FTCOCU, UWEJ CU '&WP[WFWPLW'1429 CTG UVKNN RGTHQTOGF FGRKEVKPI VJG JGTQ'U NGCTPKPI VJG

CTV QH JWPVKPI CPF 6KDGVCP PQOCFU UVKNN UGGM VJG DNGUUKPI CPF RTQVGEVKQP QH VJGKT VGTTKVQTKCN IQFU

YJGP VJG[ IQ JWPVKPI1430.

2NCEG CVVCEJOGPV XCNWGU

#NVJQWIJ VJG −JCODC TGURQPFGPVU FKF PQV URGEKHKECNN[ XQNWPVGGT 'RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV' QT 'EWNVWTCN

KFGPVKV[' KP VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[ EQPFWEVGF KP −JCO FWTKPI HKGNF VGUVKPI (5GG 6.6.2) KV YCU

PQVGF KP IGPGTCN FKUEWUUKQPU VJCV TGURQPFGPVU JCF C UVTQPI UGPUG QH RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV VJCV KU

OQTG GXKFGPV COQPI VJG QNF VJCP VJG [QWPI1431 (5GG #IG KP UGEVKQP 8.2.5). '2NCEG' YCU KPENWFGF

KP EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI HTQO 2003 CPF KU IGPGTCNN[ NQECVGF KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP, CPF

')CP\K 6QYP', KPENWFGF HQT EQORCTKUQP, KU IGPGTCNN[ NQECVGF KP VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP

(2NQV 8-3). 6JGTG KU GXKFGPEG VJCV VJG 6KDGVCPU CTG GPJCPEKPI VJGKT EWNVWTCN KFGPVKV[1432 CPF

RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV1433 , KP VJG HCEG QH FQOKPCVKQP D[ VJG *CP %JKPGUG. +P EQOOQP YKVJ QVJGT

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU KP %JKPC1434 VJG −JCODCU CTG QDXKQWU EQPVKPWCNN[ TGEQPUVTWEVKPI NQECNK\GF

KFGPVKV[ CPF RNCEG HTQO VJG URCEG OCFG CXCKNCDNG D[ VJG DTQCFGT U[UVGOU QH RQNKVKECN GEQPQO[

CPF KP EQOOQP YKVJ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU INQDCNN[ D[ DQNUVGTKPI VJGKT 'GEQNQIKGU QH VJG JGCTV'.

8.2.5 &KUCIITGICVGF %QIPKVKXG /CRRKPI

6JWU HCT YG JCXG ICKPGF CP QXGTXKGY QH HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF VJGKT RNCEGOGPV KP VJG EQIPKVKXG

FQOCKPU QH VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO, DWV RGTJCRU OQTG KORQTVCPVN[, KP VGTOU QH VJKU UVWF[,

YG YKNN GZCOKPG, KP VJKU UGEVKQP, FKUCIITGICVGF HQTGUV XCNWGU. # EQORCTKUQP QH /&5 RNQVU QP

1426 5GG 0QTDW 1960 1427 4KEJCTFUQP 1986 1428 %QODG 1926, 6UITQPI 1990

1429 ò,-9v-ò,-'vk

FWP[WFWPLW�

1430 $NGKUEJ CPF 9QPI 1990 1431 16-25 [GCTU QH CIG. 1432 )QNFUVGKP CPF −CRUVGKP 1998, 5EJYCTV\ 1994C 1433 $WHHGVTKNNG CPF &KGODGTIGT 2002, ’RUVGKP CPF 9GPDKP 1998, *WDGT 1999C, −CTOC[ 1994 1434 1CMGU 1993




VJG DCUKU QH FKUCIITGICVKQP CRRGCTU VQ UWIIGUV FKHHGTGPV EQPUVGNNCVKQPU QH HQTGUV XCNWGU KP VGTOU

QH FQOCKP RNCEGOGPV YJKEJ UWIIGUVU FKHHGTGPV RCTCFKIOU. +P EQOOQP YKVJ QVJGT /&5 UVWFKGU

CFFTGUUKPI HQTGUV XCNWGU1435 VJG OQUV CRRQUKVG DCUKU HQT FKUCIITGICVKQP CRRGCTGF VQ DG D[

GVJPKEKV[, IGPFGT, CIG, EQWPV[, CPF YCVGT ECVEJOGPV CPF KH CRRNKECDNG C EQODKPCVKQP.

’VJPKEKV[

6JGTG CTG GXKFGPVN[ UQOG FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP −JCODC CPF 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU (5GG /CR 8-2

CPF /CR 8-5) KP VGTOU QH EQIPKVKXG FQOCKPU.

6JG −JCODCU NQECVG 'UGNH' KP DQVJ VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' CPF 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP,

'EQPUGTXCVKQP' KP VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU', 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF

'DKQ-RJ[UKECN' FQOCKP (2NQV 8-5), CPF 'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU' QPN[ VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG

UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP. 6JGTG KU UQOG PGGF HQT ECWVKQP VJQWIJ IKXGP VJG NQY NGXGNU QH T2 KP RNQV 8-5.

6JKU EQPVTCUVU YKVJ 3KCPI URGCMGTU (2NQV 8-6) YJQ NQECVG 'UGNH' KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP,

'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU' KP VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' CPF 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP

CPF 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' KP VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' CPF 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN'

FQOCKP.

6JKU UWIIGUVU VJCV CNVJQWIJ VJG −JCODCU KFGPVKH[ OQTG ENQUGN[ YKVJ VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE'

FQOCKP VJCP VJG 3KCPI, 'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU' CTG RCTV QH VJG UWDUKUVGPEG GEQPQO[. $[ EQPVTCUV VJG

3KCPI KFGPVKH[ YKVJ VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP DWV 'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU' CTG RCTV QH VJG OCTMGV

GEQPQO[.

6JG 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU NKXG ENQUGT VQ *CP %JKPC VJCP VJG −JCODC URGCMGTU CPF HKTGYQQF UWRRN[

CPF QT HQTGUV EQXGT CRRGCTU VQ DG OQTG ETKVKECN. &KHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP VJG −JCODC CPF 3KCPIKE

URGCMGTU YKNN DG GZRNQTGF HWTVJGT KP 9.4.2 CPF 9.4.3.

1435 %QNHGT GV CN 1996




2NQV 8-5 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU COQPI −JCO URGCMGTU

-1.50

-0.75

0.00

0.75

1.50

-2.00 -0.75 0.50 1.75 3.00

1

2

34

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

1213

14

15

−JCO URGCMGTU (P=65)

&KO1

&KO

2&KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 573.7022

55&H 14.73381

5VTGUU 0.025682

4-5SWCTGF 64.58

(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP 6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

;WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 10

0’( 11

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 12

0*(13

+PFAA(QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO15


DKQ-RJ[UKECN

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE


RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN

2NQV 8-6 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI RNQV QH 15 OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU QH 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU

&KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 547.6661

55&H 9.659390

5VTGUU 0.017637

4-5SWCTGF 83.09

(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP 6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

;WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 10

0’( 11

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 12

0*(13

+PFAA(QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO15


-1.50

-0.75

0.00

0.75

1.50

-2.00 -0.50 1.00 2.50 4.00

1

2

34

56

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

1415

3KCPIKE URGCMGTU (P=21)

&KO1

&KO

2

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE


RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCNDKQ-RJ[UKECN




)GPFGT

6JG /&5 RNQVU CRRGCT VQ UJQY, KP EQOOQP YKVJ UKOKNCT UVWFKGU EQPFWEVGF KP +PFQPGUKC1436,

VJCV VJGTG CTG QPN[ OKPQT FKHHGTGPEGU KP EQIPKVKXG ENWUVGTKPI QT GPXKTQPOGPVCN RGTEGRVKQP

DGVYGGP OGP CPF YQOGP.

/GP (2NQV 8-7) FQ NQECVG; 'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU' KP VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' CPF

'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP, 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF

UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP, CPF DQVJ 'UGNH' CPF 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' KP VJG RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN FQOCKP.

+P EQPVTCUV YQOGP (2NQV 8-8) NQECVG 'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU' CPF 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' QPN[ KP VJG

'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP.

6JKU UWIIGUVU VJCV OGP KFGPVKH[ HQTGUV RTQFWEVU OQTG YKVJ VJG OCTMGV VJCP UWDUKUVGPEG,

VJG[ KFGPVKH[ YKVJ EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF CUUQEKCVG KV YKVJ JWOCPMKPF.

6JG HKPFKPIU, KP EQOOQP YKVJ TGUGCTEJ KP 9GUV −CNKOCPVCP1437, CRRGCT VQ EQPVTCFKEV UVWFKGU

VJCV UWIIGUV VJCV VJGTG CTG OCLQT FKHHGTGPEGU KP GPXKTQPOGPVCN RGTEGRVKQP DGVYGGP VJG UGZGU1438

CPF VJCV YQOGP1439 CTG OQTG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCNN[ UGPUKVKXG'1440 VJCP OGP.

1436 %QNHGT GV CN 1996 1437 %QNHGT GV CN 1996 1438 0GYVQP 1977, 0GYVQP, $WEM CPF 9QGNHGN 1984

1439 G.I. &KCOQPF CPF 1TGPUVGKP 1990, )QOGU CPF −CPPGT 1995, 4QU\CM 1995 1440 6JCV KU C RTGFKURQUKVKQP VQ VCMG CP KPVGTGUV KP NGCTPKPI CDQWV VJG GPXKTQPOGPV, HGGNKPI EQPEGTP HQT KV, CPF CEVKPI VQ EQPUGTXG KV QP VJG DCUKU QH HQTOCVKXG GZRGTKGPEG (%JCYNC 1998).




2NQV 8-7 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU HQT CNN OGP

&KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 555.46815

55&H 11.000721

5VTGUU 0.0198

4-5SWCTGF 75.90

(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

;WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 10

0’( 11

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 12

0*( 13

+PFAA(QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO 15


-1.00

-0.38

0.25

0.88

1.50

-2.00 -0.50 1.00 2.50 4.00

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

1415

#NN /GP (P=52)

&KO1

&KO

2

DKQ-RJ[UKECN

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE


RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN

2NQV 8-8 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU HQT CNN YQOGP

&KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 529.8999

55&H 10.270066

5VTGUU 0.019381

4-5SWCTGF 77.48

(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

;WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 10

0’( 11

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 12

0*( 13

+PFAA(QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO 15


-1.50

-0.75

0.00

0.75

1.50

-3.00 -1.75 -0.50 0.75 2.00

1

2

34

5

6

7

89

10

11

12

1314

15

#NN 9QOGP (P=34)

&KO1

&KO

2

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE


RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN

DKQ-RJ[UKECN




#NVJQWIJ VJG /&5 FCVC FQGU PQV RTQXKFG GXKFGPEG QH OCLQT FKHHGTGPEGU KP GPXKTQPOGPVCN

RGTEGRVKQP, GPXKTQPOGPVCN UGPUKVKXKV[ QT IGPFGT UVGTGQV[RKPI HQWPF KP UQOG UVWFKGU1441 VJG

EQPVGZVWCN UVWFKGU, TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 6 UGEVKQP 6.5.3, UWIIGUVU IGPFGT FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP

HQTGUV XCNWGU D[ TCPMKPI1442 (6CDNG 8-2) CPF CNVGTPCVKXG TQNGU CPF TGNCVKQPU VQ VJG HQTGUV KP

&GPIMQ1443 CPF COQPI VJG /QUWQ1444 CPF 0CZK1445 CPF QVJGT GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU KP ;WPPCP1446.

9QOGP KP VJG TGIKQP JCXG FGXGNQRGF C FKTGEV TGNCVKQPUJKR YKVJ VJG HQTGUV DGECWUG QH VJGKT

TGSWKTGOGPVU HQT HKTGYQQF, YCVGT, CPKOCN DGFFKPI, HQFFGT, JGTDU, OGFKEKPCN RNCPVU, ITCUU,

OWUJTQQOU CPF DCODQQ, CPF KPXQNXGOGPV KP RNCPVKPI CPF XGTPCEWNCT HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV1447

6CDNG 8-2 (QTGUV XCNWGU (P=54 ffff=26) CV .WIW .CMG D[ IGPFGTGF TCPM QTFGT

(QTGUV 8CNWGU /GP (QTGUV 8CNWGU 9QOGP (QTGUV 8CNWGU #NN ITQWRU

.KHG UWUVCKPKPI 14.75 .KHG UWUVCKPKPI 13.33 .KHG UWUVCKPKPI 14.14

5WDUKUVGPEG 12.5 6JGTCRGWVKE 11.33 +PVTKPUKE 11.29

+PVTKPUKE 12 (WVWTG 11.00 5WDUKUVGPEG 10.43

#GUVJGVKE 10 +PVTKPUKE 10.33 #GUVJGVKE 9.43

.GCTPKPI 8.25 #GUVJGVKE 8.67 6JGTCRGWVKE 9.29

$KQFKXGTUKV[ 8 5WDUKUVGPEG 7.67 (WVWTG 9.00

6JGTCRGWVKE 7.75 .GCTPKPI 7.33 .GCTPKPI 7.86

(WVWTG 7.5 %QOOGTEKCN 6.33 $KQFKXGTUKV[ 6.71

%WNVWTCN 4.75 5RKTKVWCN 6.00 %QOOGTEKCN 5.29

%QOOGTEKCN 4.5 $KQFKXGTUKV[ 5.00 5RKTKVWCN 4.43

*KUVQTKE 4 *KUVQTKE 4.67 %WNVWTCN 4.43

5RKTKVWCN 3.25 4GETGCVKQPCN 4.33 *KUVQTKE 4.29

4GETGCVKQPCN 2.75 %WNVWTCN 4.00 4GETGCVKQPCN 3.43

)GPFGT FKHHGTGPEGU YKNN DG GZRNQTGF HWTVJGT KP EJCRVGT 10 UGEVKQP 10.1.3.

#IG

+V YCU PQVGF FWTKPI EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI KPVGTXKGYU VJCV [QWPI TGURQPFGPVU1448, YJQ JCF

TGEGKXGF UQOG GFWECVKQP CRRGCTGF VQ JCXG NKVVNG 'RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV' CPF VQ FGURKUG VTCFKVKQPCN

XCNWGU. 6JKU YCU UWRRQTVGF D[ VJG /&5 RNQVU QH 17 XCNWGU YJGTG 'UGNH' KU NQECVGF FKUVCPV VQ CNN

1441 %QNHGT 1981, 1983, &CXKUQP CPF 5WVNKXG 1991, &TCMG 1991, /CUJOCP 1991, 5WVNKXG 1991, 6UKPI 1993 1442 2GCTEG 1990 1443 5VWFNG[ GV CN 1995 1444 *G <JQPIJWC 2003 1445 ;CPI (WSWCP CPF :K ;WJWC 2003 1446 )QXKPF −GNMCT CPF 2JWPVUJQM 6UJGTKPI 2002, −GNMCT GV CN 2003 1447 *G %JQPI *WC 2000 1448 16-26 [GCTU QH CIG.




VJG XCNWGU KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP COQPI VJG [QWPI (2NQV 8-9). 6JKU OKIJV DG CP

KPFKECVQT QH VJG KORCEV QH *CPKHKECVKQP CPF/QT OQFGTPKV[ CPF CU C RJGPQOGPQP KU V[RKECN QH VJG

PGICVKXG KPHNWGPEGU QH 'YGUVGTP' GFWECVKQP, FGXGNQROGPV, HKNOU CPF 68 QP VTCFKVKQPCN UQEKGVKGU

CPF TGUQPCVGU YKVJ UKOKNCT RTQEGUUGU QH CNKGPCVKQP COQPI [QWPI 6KDGVCPU KP .CFCMJ1449.

+P VGTOU QH QVJGT HQTGUV XCNWGU, [QWPI TGURQPFGPVU NQECVG 'EQPUGTXCVKQP', 'KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP'

CPF ')CP\K' KP VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP CPF 'RNCEG' KP VJG

'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP.

+P EQPVTCUV QNF TGURQPFGPVU1450 RNCEG 'UGNH' ENQUG VQ CNN VJG XCNWGU KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP,

CPF 'KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP' CPF )CP\K KP VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP. 6JGTG KU JQYGXGT UQOG

PGGF HQT ECWVKQP IKXGP VJG NQY NGXGNU QH T2 KP RNQV 8-10.

0QV YKVJUVCPFKPI O[ EQOOGPVU CDQWV RQNKVKECNN[ EQTTGEVGF UECNKPI WUGF HQT UQEKCNKUO KV KU

KPVGTGUVKPI VQ PQVG VJCV CNN TGURQPFGPVU (2NQV 8-3) NQECVGF 'UQEKCNKUO' KP VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE'

FQOCKP QNF TGURQPFGPVU NQECVG KV KP VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP CPF

[QWPI TGURQPFGPVU KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP. 6JKU CRRGCTU VQ UWIIGUV VJCV [QWPI RGQRNG

KFGPVKH[ YKVJ UQEKCNKUO OQTG VJCP QVJGT TGURQPFGPVU.

1449 5GG 0QTDGTI-*QFIG 1992 1450 51+ [GCTU QH CIG.




2NQV 8-9 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH 17 HQTGUV XCNWGU QH [QWPI TGURQPFGPVU

-2.00

-1.13

-0.25

0.63

1.50

-3.00 -1.75 -0.50 0.75 2.00

12

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15 16

17

;QWPI (16-25) RGQRNG (P=20)

&KO1

&KO

2 &KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 811.12824

55&H 11.599427

5VTGUU 0.014300

4-5SWCTGF 81.90

(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP 6

5GNH 7

6 KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

6JKUARNCEG 9

;WNANJC 10

*WPVKPI 11

0’( 12

(QTGUVARTQFWEVU 13

0*( 14


5QEKCNKUO 16

)CP\K 1717 (QTGUV XCNWGU


DKQ-RJ[UKECN


RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE

2NQV 8-10 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH 17 HQTGUV XCNWGU QH QNF TGURQPFGPVU

-2.00

-1.00

0.00

1.00

2.00

-4.00 -2.50 -1.00 0.50 2.00

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

1NF (51+) RGQRNG (P=13)

&KO1

&KO

2

(QTGUV 1

9KNFN KHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP 6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

6JKUARNCEG 9

;WNANJC 10

*WPVKPI 11

0’( 12

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 13

0*( 14


5QEKCNKUO 16

)CP\K 17

&KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 842.145125

55&H 26.951268

5VTGUU 0.032003

4-5SWCTGF 61.39

17 (QTGUV XCNWGU


DKQ-RJ[UKECN


UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE

RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN




%QWPVKGU

# UWRGTHKEKCN GZCOKPCVKQP QH OGCP OCVTKZ FCVC D[ EQWPV[ UWIIGUVGF VJCV <JQPIFKCP EQWPV[

(5GG /CR 8-4) JCF JKIJGT VJCP CXGTCIG OGCPU CPF ;CLKCPI (5GG /CR 8-4) JCF NQYGT VJCP

CXGTCIG OGCPU.

+V YQWNF CRRGCT HTQO VJG /&5 RNQVU VJCV KP ;CLKCPI %QWPV[ 12 (QH 15) HQTGUV XCNWGU CTG KP ENQUG

RTQZKOKV[ CPF TGURQPFGPVU KFGPVKH[ YKVJ EQPUGTXCVKQP ('UGNH' CPF 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' CTG KP VJG

'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP). 6JKU UWIIGUVU VJCV VJG[ JCXG C RQUKVKXG XKGY QH VJGKT EWNVWTG,

GPXKTQPOGPV CPF GZVGTPCN KPVGTXGPVKQPU.

2NQV 8-11 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI RNQV QH 15 XCNWGU KP ;CLKCPI %QWPV[

(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP 6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

;WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 10

0’( 11

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 12

0*(13

+PFAA(QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO15

&KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 429.36000

55FH 16.729626

5VTGUU 0.038964

4-5SWCTGF 77.35


-1.50

-0.63

0.25

1.13

2.00

-4.00 -2.50 -1.00 0.50 2.00

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

89

10

11

12

13 1415

;CLKCPI %QWPV[ (P=10)

&KO1

&KO

2

DKQ-RJ[UKECN

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE

RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN


+P <JQPIFKCP (2NQV 8-12), D[ EQORCTKUQP, XCNWGU CTG UKVWCVGF OWEJ HWTVJGT CRCTV (GURGEKCNN[

'DNGUUKPI', 'KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP', CPF 'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU') 'UGNH' KU NQECVGF KP DQVJ VJG

'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP CPF 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' KU

NQECVGF KP DQVJ VJG 'DKQ-RJ[UKECN' CPF 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP. 6JGTG

KU JQYGXGT UQOG PGGF HQT ECWVKQP IKXGP VJG NQY NGXGNU QH T2 KP RNQV 8-12.




(WTVJGT TGUGCTEJ KU TGSWKTGF VQ GZRNCKP VJG FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP ;CLKCPI CPF <JQPIFKCP %QWPV[

DWV VJGTG CRRGCT VQ DG C PWODGT QH TGCUQPU HQT VJKU. +V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV VJG RGQRNG QH

<JQPIFKCP HGGN CNKGPCVGF HTQO VJGKT EWNVWTG CPF GPXKTQPOGPV CPF VJCV +PFWUVTKCN (QTGUVCVKQP

JCU PQV DGGP YGNN TGEGKXGF. 6JG 6KDGVCP RQRWNCVKQP KP <JQPIFKCP KU (41%) OWEJ UOCNNGT QP C

% DCUKU VJCP ;CLKCPI (89%) CPF KV KU QP VJG UQWVJGTP RGTKRJGT[ QH GVJPQITCRJKE 6KDGV. +V HCTGU

RQQTN[ GEQPQOKECNN[ KP EQORCTKUQP VQ QVJGT 6KDGVCP CTGCU, VQ QVJGT EQWPVKGU KP ;WPPCP CPF VQ

%JKPC CU C YJQNG. 6TGG HGNNKPI JCU DGGP EQPFWEVGF WPVKN TGEGPVN[ QP VJG DCUKU QH VJG UCOG

WPGSWCN F[PCOKE CU UGGP KP QVJGT NWODGT-TKEJ 6KDGVCP CTGCU; VJG TGOQXCN QH VKODGT QWV QH VJG

TGIKQP YKVJ HGY DGPGHKVU CEETWKPI VQ VJG NQECN 6KDGVCPU. #U C TGUWNV QH VJG VTGG HGNNKPI DCP KP

1998 VJG GORJCUKU EJCPIGF VQ PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF 'GEQVQWTKUO', DWV VJGUG YGTG KORQUGF

QP VJG NQECN 6KDGVCP RQRWNCVKQP YKVJQWV CFGSWCVG EQPUWNVCVKQP QHVGP KIPQTKPI VJGKT UCETGF CPF

CPVJTQRQIGPKE NCPFUECRG. %JKPGUG FGXGNQROGPV CPF RTQHQWPF NGXGNU QH *CPKHKECVKQP JCXG

EJCPIGF VJG GEQPQOKE CPF OCVTKNKPGCN RCVVGTPU QH VJG TGIKQP DWV VJG OCKP DGPGHKEKCTKGU CTG VJG

%JKPGUG UVCVG CPF %JKPGUG KOOKITCPVU, YJKEJ NGCXGU VJG 6KDGVCPU CU UGEQPFCT[ RNC[GTU KP VJG

GEQPQOKE EWNVWTCN CPF RQNKVKECN HKGNFU. 6JG COCNICOCVKQP QH VJKU OWNVK-GVJPKE CTGC KPVQ C UKPING

CFOKPKUVTCVKXG WPKV NGCXGU VJG 6KDGVCPU CU C FGOQITCRJKE OKPQTKV[ YKVJKP VJGKT UWRRQUGFN[

'CWVQPQOQWU' RTGHGEVWTG1451. +V KU PQV MPQYP YJCV VJG TQNG %JKPC'U HKTUV GPXKTQPOGPVCN 0)11452

JCF KP UJCRKPI XKGYU QH EQPUGTXCVKQP QT KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP KP <JQPIFKCP KP VJGKT CFXQECE[

QXGT <JQPIFKCP'U GPFCPIGTGF IQNFGP OQPMG[U1453. +P EQPVTCUV CNVJQWIJ ;CLKCPI JCU DGGP

JGCXKN[ FGHQTGUVGF KV KU UWTTQWPFGF D[ QVJGT 6KDGVCP EQWPVKGU, KV JCU DGGP NGUU *CPKHKGF, QWVUKFG

VJG EQWPV[ VQYP VJG RQRWNCVKQP KU CNOQUV GPVKTGN[ 6KDGVCP, CPF VJGTG CRRGCTU VQ JCU DGGP DQVJ

C 'UWEEGUUHWN' NCTIG UECNG UVCVG TGHQTGUVCVKQP RTQITCOOG CPF NQECN TGHQTGUVCVKQP RTQLGEVU1454.

6JGTG JCU PQV DGGP VJG UCOG NGXGN QH KPHTCUVTWEVWTG FGXGNQROGPV CU EQWPVKGU HWTVJGT GCUV, CPF

EQPUGSWGPVN[ %JKPGUG KOOKITCVKQP KU NQY, CPF VJGTG KU UVKNN C UVTQPI TGIKQPCN 6KDGVCP

KFGPVKV[1455.

1451 /CTUJCNN CPF %QQMG 1997 1452 (TKGPFU QH 0CVWTG.

1453 4JPQRKVJGEWU TQZGNNCPC (KP .CVKP, IQNFGP OQPMG[ KP ’PINKUJ, =m-D },-> m-c{;-={:k UK MJTQP I[K URTGN UGT KP

6KDGVCP CPF 四川金丝猴四川金丝猴四川金丝猴四川金丝猴 UK4 EJWCP1 LKP1 UK1 JQW2 KP %JKPGUG (UK KU 4VJ VQPG, EJWCP, LKP CPF UK CTG 1UV VQPG CPF JQW KP 2PF VQPG)) 1454 GI 2COCNKPI /QPCUVGT[. 1455 /CTUJCNN CPF %QQMG 1997




2NQV 8-12 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU KP <JQPIFKCP %QWPV[

&KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 699.56996

55&H 22.777900

5VTGUU 0.032560

4-5SWCTGF 51.29

(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP 6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

;WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 10

0’( 11

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 12

0*(13

+PFAA(QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO15


-1.50

-0.63

0.25

1.13

2.00

-3.00 -1.75 -0.50 0.75 2.00

12

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

<JQPIFKCP %QWPV[ (P=12)

&KO1

&KO

2

DKQ-RJ[UKECN


RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE

9CVGT ECVEJOGPVU

4GURQPFGPVU KP VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV CRRGCT VQ KFGPVKH[ YKVJ EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF NQECVG 'UGNH'

ENQUG VQ 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP XCNWGU CPF VQ VJG 'DKQ-RJ[UKECN' CPF

'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKPU.

$[ EQORCTKUQP TGURQPFGPVU KP VJG ;KCPIV\G ECVEJOGPV FQ PQV KFGPVKH[ YKVJ EQPUGTXCVKQP,

NQECVG 'UGNH' HCT HTQO OQUV XCNWGU, CPF RNCEG 'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU' KP VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP.

6JGTG KU JQYGXGT UQOG PGGF HQT ECWVKQP IKXGP VJG NQY NGXGNU QH T2 KP RNQV 8-14.

0QV YKVJUVCPFKPI VJG ECWVKQP KV YQWNF CRRGCT CU KH VJG TGURQPFGPVU NKXKPI KP VJG ;CPIV\G

ECVEJOGPV HGGN CNKGPCVGF HTQO VJGKT EWNVWTG CPF GPXKTQPOGPV CPF EQPUKFGT VJCV 'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU'

CTG RCTV QH VJG OCTMGV GEQPQO[. 6JKU UWDLGEV KU FKUEWUUGF HWTVJGT KP EJCRVGT 9 UGEVKQP 9.3.2.




2NQV 8-13 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU KP VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV

&KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 547.607

55&H 7.829

5VTGUU 0.0142

4-5SWCTGF 85.62


(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP 6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

;WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 10

0’( 11

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 12

0*(13

+PFAA(QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO15

-1.50

-0.75

0.00

0.75

1.50

-2.00 -0.50 1.00 2.50 4.00

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1112

13

14

15

;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV (P=49)

&KO1

&KO

2

DKQ-RJ[UKECN

RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN


UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE

2NQV 8-14 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU KP VJG ;CPIV\G ECVEJOGPV

-1.50

-0.88

-0.25

0.38

1.00

-2.00 -0.75 0.50 1.75 3.00

1

2

3

4

56

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

;CPIV\G ECVEJOGPV (P=37)

&KO1

&KO

2

&KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 597.9917

55&H 17.687253

5VTGUU 0.029578

4-5SWCTGF 52.17

RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN


(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP 6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

;WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 10

0’( 11

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 12

0*(13

+PFAA(QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO15

DKQ-RJ[UKECN


UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE




6JG −JCODCU NKXKPI KP VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV

#NVJQWIJ VJGTG KU GXKFGPEG1456 VJCV OQWPVCKP TCPIGU ECP RTGXGPV VJG URTGCF QH NCPIWCIG CPF

FKCNGEV, CPF CPGEFQVCN GXKFGPEG VJCV GXGT[ XCNNG[ KP −JCO JCU KVU QYP FKCNGEV KV YCU KORQTVCPV

VQ WPFGTUVCPF KH VJG HQTGUV XCNWGU QH VJG −JCODC URGCMGTU NKXKPI KP VJG ;CLKCPI XCNNG[ YGTG

UKOKNCT VQ VJGKT −JCODC URGCMKPI MKPUOGP, DWV UGRCTCVGF D[ 5000O OQWPVCKP TCPIGU, KP VJG

;KCPIV\G XCNNG[, QT VJGKT 3KCPIKE URGCMKPI PGKIJDQWTU (5GG /CR 8-5). +P QTFGT VQ RTQXKFG C

EQORCTKUQP 2NQV 8-15 YCU EQPVTCUVGF YKVJ 2NQV 8-5 (−JCO &KCNGEV), 2NQV 8-6 (3KCPIKE &KCNGEV)

CPF 8-14 (;CPIVUG ECVEJOGPV). +V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV VJG −JCODCU KP VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV

(2NQV 8-15), KP EQOOQP YKVJ VJGKT 3KCPIKE URGCMKPI PGKIJDQWTU (2NQV 8-6) NQECVG 'EQPUGTXCVKQP'

KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP, CPF 'UGNH' KP VJG

'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP. 6JGKT XKGYU, JQYGXGT, EQPVTCUV YKVJ −JCO URGCMGTU (2NQV 8-5) CPF

VJG ;KCPIV\G ECVEJOGPV (2NQV 8-14) YJGTG 'UGNH' KU NQECVGF KP DQVJ VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF

'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP, CPF 'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU' KU NQECVGF KP VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP.

6JGKT XKGYU, JQYGXGT, CTG PQV KFGPVKECN VQ VJGKT 3KCPIKE PGKIJDQWTU YJQ NQECVG 'HQTGUV RTQFWEVU'

KP VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' CPF 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP CPF NQECVG

'YQOGP' HWTVJGT CYC[ HTQO VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU'

FQOCKPU. 6JG NCVVGT HKPFKPI KU UWTRTKUKPI IKXGP VJCV VJG 3KCPIKE RGQRNGU JCXG C OCVTKNKPGCN

VTCFKVKQP YJKEJ KU QHVGP CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR1457.

1456 JVVR://YYY.[COCUC.QTI/CELU/GPINKUJ/NQECVKQP/NQECVKQPAGPXKTQPU.JVON CEEGUUGF 19VJ 1EVQDGT 2005 JVVR://MKTK.NKPI.ECO.CE.WM/OCTM/*KUV.KPI5.RFH CEEGUUGF 19VJ 1EVQDGT 2005 1457 −GNMCT GV CN 2003

http://www.yamasa.org/acjs/english/location/location_environs.html

http://kiri.ling.cam.ac.uk/mark/HistLing5.pdf




2NQV 8-15 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI QH −JCO URGCMGTU KP VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV

-1.50

-0.75

0.00

0.75

1.50

-2.00 -0.50 1.00 2.50 4.00

1

2

3

4

5

6

7 8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

−JCO URGCMGTU KP ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV (P=28)

&KO1

&KO

2

&KOGPUKQPU 5

55&U 551.892

55&H 7.506755

5VTGUU 0.013602

4-5SWCTGF 86.78

(QTGUV 1

9KNFNKHG 2

%QPUGTXCVKQP 3

$NGUUKPI 4

/GP 5

9QOGP 6

5GNH 7

6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8

;WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 10

0’( 11

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 12

0*(13

+PFAA(QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO15

DKQ-RJ[UKECN

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE


RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN


+V FQGU CRRGCT VJCV VJG −JCODC URGCMGTU QH VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV JCXG OQTG KP EQOOQP YKVJ

VJGKT 3KCPIKE PGKIJDQWTU VJCP VJG −JCODCU YJQ NKXG KP VJG ;CPIV\G ECVEJOGPV. 1P VJG DCUKU

QH /&5 RNQVU CNQPG KV KU FKHHKEWNV VQ FGVGTOKPG KH HQTGUV XCNWGU COQPI VJG −JCODC URGCMGTU KU

FGVGTOKPGF D[ EWNVWTG QT VQRQITCRJ[, YJKEJ YKNN DG GZRNQTGF HWTVJGT KP VJG HQNNQYKPI EJCRVGTU.

8.2.6. 8CNWGU +FGPVKHKGF KP VJG (QTGUV 8CNWG 5WTXG[ DWV PQV +PENWFGF KP %QIPKVKXG

/CRRKPI

6JWU HCT YG JCXG EQPUKFGTGF VJG HQTGUV XCNWGU CFFTGUUGF KP EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI CPF KP VJKU

UGEVKQP YG YKNN FKUEWUU HQTGUV XCNWGU GZENWFGF HTQO EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI1458 VJCV QHVGP CRRGCT KP

HQTGUV XCNWG V[RQNQIKGU.

%QOOGTEKCN XCNWGU

&WTKPI VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UVWF[ QPN[ QPG TGURQPFGPV OGPVKQPGF EQOOGTEKCN XCNWGU CNVJQWIJ

CPQVJGT OGPVKQPGF KV KP TGNCVKQP VQ CITKEWNVWTCN UWRRQTV. (QT VJKU TGCUQP KV YCU PQV KPENWFGF KP

1458 DGECWUG VJG[ YGTG OGPVKQPGF D[ 3 TGURQPFGPVU QT NGUU FWTKPI HKGNF VGUVKPI KP 7− QT %JKPC.




VJG EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UVWF[. 6JKU NGXGN QH TGURQPUG TGUQPCVGF YKVJ C UVWF[ CV .WIW .CMG1459

YJGTG EQOOGTEKCN XCNWG QPN[ TCPMGF 8VJ QWV QH 13 HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF QPN[ TGRTGUGPVGF 5% QH

VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG. %NGCTN[ UQOG ECTG OWUV DG VCMGP PQV VQ QXGT-KPVGTRTGV VJGUG TGUWNVU, DWV

QXGTCNN VJG[ FQ UWIIGUV VJCV HQTGUVT[ RTQLGEVU VJCV V[RKECNN[ WUG EQOOGTEKCN QT OCTMGV XCNWGU

QPN[ ECRVWTG C UOCNN RCTV QH VJG VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG QH VJG HQTGUV VQ NQECN RGQRNG.

%WNVWTCN, JKUVQTKE, U[ODQNKE CPF GOQVKQPCN XCNWGU

#NVJQWIJ UQOG −JCODC TGURQPFGPVU FKF KFGPVKH[ CGUVJGVKE XCNWGU KP VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UVWF[

EQPFWEVGF KP −JCO FWTKPI HKGNF VGUVKPI (5GG 6.6.2) PQ QPG URGEKHKECNN[ KFGPVKHKGF EWNVWTCN,

JKUVQTKE QT VJGTCRGWVKE XCNWGU. 6JG[ FKF, JQYGXGT, OGPVKQP VTGG UVQTKGU (5GG 6CDNG 6-2),

URKTKVWCN XCNWGU, UCETGF HQTGUV CPF OQWPVCKPU (6CDNG 6-2), VGTTKVQTKCN EWNVU CPF URGEKCN NQECNGU

YJGTG VJG[ YQWNF RC[ VJGKT TGURGEVU VQ $WFFJC CPF NQECN FKXKPKVKGU. 6JGTG KU GXKFGPEG VJCV CNN

HQWT XCNWGU FQ GZKUV KP VJG TGIKQP1460 CPF VJCV CV .WIW .CMG EWNVWTCN XCNWGU TGRTGUGPV 5 % QH

VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG, JKUVQTKE XCNWGU 5% QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG, CGUVJGVKE XCNWGU 10% QH VQVCN

GEQPQOKE XCNWG, CPF VJGTCRGWVKE XCNWGU 9% QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG. 6JGTG KU CNUQ GXKFGPEG

VJCV VJG VGTTKVQTKCN EWNVU VJCV TGXKXGF KP GCUVGTP −JCO KP VJG 1980'U CTG UKOKNCT VQ EWNVU HQWPF KP

+PFKC CPF #HTKEC. 6JG[ CTG EJCTCEVGTKUGF D[, YGNN FGHKPGF NQECNGU (KPENWFKPI RTQVGEVGF HQTGUVU

CPF OQWPVCKPU) FGFKECVGF VQ VGTTKVQTKCN URKTKVU ([WN-NJC), YJGTG RQNKVKECN WPKV[ CPF EQOOWPKV[

KFGPVKV[ OC[, CU KP VJKU ECUG, DG TGYQTMGF KP C EWNVWTG QH TGUKUVCPEG1461.

9KNFGTPGUU XCNWGU

9KNFGTPGUU XCNWGU YGTG PQV OGPVKQPGF D[ −JCODC TGURQPFGPVU KP VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UVWF[

DGECWUG 'YKNFGTPGUU' CPF KVU OCKPUVTGCO RCTCFKIOU1462 CTG CNKGP VQ VJGO KP EQOOQP YKVJ OQUV

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG1463. 6JG[ YGTG, JQYGXGT, KFGPVKHKGF KP VJG 7− HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[ (5GG 6.6.1)

CPF CTG DGKPI KPETGCUKPIN[ KPENWFGF KP HQTGUV XCNWG V[RQNQIKGU CPF TGEQIPK\GF D[ C PWODGT QH

1459 5VWFNG[ GV CN 2005 1460 5VWFNG[ GV CN 2005 1461 $NQPFGCW 1998, $WHHGTVTKNNG CPF &KGODGTIGT 2002, &KGODGTIGT 2002, ’NUV 2000, ’RUVGKP CPF 2GPI 1998, *WDGT 1999C, −CTOC[ 1994, 2CTCLWNK 2001C+D, 4CODNG 1998, 5EJYCTV\ 1994C 5VWCTV GV CN 1995, 1462 CPVJTQRQEGPVTKE QT DKQEGPVTKE (0CUJ 1982). 1463 −NGKP 1994




’0)1U YQTMKPI KP VJG TGIKQP. 6TCFKVKQPCNN[ VJG %JKPGUG 5VCVG JCU CFQRVGF C .QEMGCP

CPVJTQRQEGPVTKE RCTCFKIO, DWV YKVJ VJG CTTKXCN QH VJG PGY 'ITGGP YQTNF QTFGT' CP CNVGTPCVKXG

RCTCFKIO KU DGKPI KPVTQFWEGF VJCV JCU WPECPP[ UKOKNCTKVKGU VQ VJG UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[

RCTCFKIO1464. # EQCNKVKQP QH KPVGTPCVKQPCN ’0)1'U1465 CTG EWTTGPVN[ VT[KPI VQ 'UCXG' VJG TGIKQPU

DKQFKXGTUKV[ QP VJG DCUKU QH YJCV CRRGCTU VQ DG C 'DKQEGPVTKE' OQFGN1466. 6JKU OQFGN KU WUWCNN[

EJCTCEVGTKUGF D[ GNKVG MPQYNGFIG1467 CPF 'YKNFGTPGUU GPENQUWTGU' VJCV GZENWFG VJG NQECN RGQRNG

CPF VJGKT MPQYNGFIG, YKVJ CP CIGPFC VQ RGTOCPGPVN[ VTCPUHGT VTWUVGGUJKR "QH VJG OCLQT YQTNF

TGUQWTEGU VQ OCUUKXG GEQ-JQNFKPI"1468 ECTVGNU1469. #NVJQWIJ VJGUG ITQWRU YGTG KPXKVGF KPVQ

%JKPC CPF CITGGF PQV VQ CFQRV C 'DKQEGPVTKE' OQFGN1470 VJGTG KU GXKFGPEG VJCV VJG[ CTG FQKPI UQ

GNUGYJGTG1471 CPF CTG GXKFGPVN[ RCTV QH CP "GEQ-KORGTKCNKUVKE"1472 QT "GZVTGOG

GPXKTQPOGPVCN"1473 OQXGOGPV. (TQO VJKU XKGY "VJG EQNNGEVKXG PGGFU QH PQP-JWOCP URGEKGU

OWUV VCMG RTGEGFGPEG QXGT VJG PGGFU CPF FGUKTGU QH JWOCPU1474". ’XGP KH ’0)1U JCXG PQV

CFQRVGF VJGKT WUWCN OQFGN VJGTG KU GXKFGPEG VJCV %JKPC JCU CFQRVGF C UKOKNCT HQTO QH

'GEQNQIKECN EQNQPKCNKUO' CU PCVWTG TGUGTXGU JCXG DGGP HQTEGHWNN[ GUVCDNKUJGF KP KPFKIGPQWU

OKPQTKV[ CTGCU, KIPQTKPI VJGKT TKIJVU, EWNVWTG, XCNWGU CPF MPQYNGFIG1475 CPF TGUWNVKPI KP

KORQXGTKUJOGPV. 6JGTG KU CPGEFQVCN GXKFGPEG VJCV VJG ECFTGU JQRG VJG FKURNCEGF RGQRNG YKNN

FTKHV KPVQ VJG NQECN EKVKGU, HKPF LQDU, CPF OCMG C EQPVTKDWVKQP VQ %JKPC'U OCTMGV GEQPQO[.

8.2.7 (QTGUV 8CNWGU +FGPVKHKGF KP VJG %QPVGZVWCN 5VWFKGU

6JWU HCT YG JCXG CFFTGUUGF RGTVKPGPV HQTGUV XCNWGU KPENWFGF KP EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI QT KFGPVKHKGF

D[ TGURQPFGPVU KP −JCO CPF 7− FWTKPI HKGNF VGUVKPI. +P VJKU UGEVKQP YKNN FKUEWUU HQTGUV XCNWGU

VJCV YGTG QPN[ CNNWFGF VQ FWTKPI VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UVWF[ VJCV YGTG CFFTGUUGF CV .WIW .CMG CPF

CRRGCT KP HQTGUV XCNWG V[RQNQIKGU. 6JGUG XCNWGU DGECWUG VJG[ CTG VJG OQUV FKHHKEWNV VQ CTVKEWNCVG

CTG QHVGP VJG NGCUV WPFGTUVQQF HTQO C YGUVGTP YQTNFXKGY.

1464 )WJC 1996, 1997 1465 6JG 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCPE[ (75#), %QPUGTXCVKQP +PVGTPCVKQPCN, CPF 9QTNF 9KNFNKHG (WPF. 1466 −KVQUUC 2000 1467 )WJC 1997 1468 #DTCJCO 1990 %JCRVGT 3 JVVR://YYY.NCYHWNRCVJ.EQO/TGH/ITGGPKPI.UJVON#3 CEEGUUGF 5VJ &GE 2004 1469 #DTCJCO CPF 5CPFGTU 1993, %QHHOCP 1998, −GGNGT 2002, −KVQUUC 2000, −TWI 1994, /E/CMGP 2001 1470 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP *G 5JCQ;KPI 5/7/2003

1471 $TCPPCP 1996, −GGNGT 2002, 0QUU 1995 1472 −KVQUUC 2000 RCIG 24 1473 JVVR://YYY.HGG.QTI/XPGYU.RJR!PKF=4116#3 CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005

1474 $TCPPCP 1996 RCIG 6, 0QUU 1995 RCIG 20

1475 #JQTC0QY 2000, $QPPGT 1994, −KVQUUC 2000)

http://www.lawfulpath.com/ref/greening.shtml#3

http://www.fee.org/vnews.php?nid=4116#3




.GCTPKPI XCNWGU (QT YC[U QH MPQYKPI)

#NVJQWIJ VJG −JCODC TGURQPFGPVU FKF PQV KPENWFG 'NGCTPKPI XCNWG' KP VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UVWF[

VJG[ FKF OGPVKQP VTGG UVQTKGU (6CDNG 6-2) VJCV JCF DGGP RCUUGF FQYP VQ VJGO, CPF VJG

URGEKCNK\GF MPQYNGFIG QH RTKGUVU CPF UJCOCP. 6JKU TGUQPCVGF YKVJ VJG TGUGCTEJ CV .WIW .CMG

YJGTG 'NGCTPKPI XCNWG' TGRTGUGPVGF 8 % QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG CPF GVJPKE 'GRKUVGOQNQIKGU QH

PCVWTG' YGTG KFGPVKHKGF COQPI VJG 6KDGVCPU, 0CZK, /QUWQ, 2WOK, CPF ;K.:

6JG 6KDGVCPU, CU YG FKUEQXGTGF KP EJCRVGT 7 UGEVKQP 7.3.4 JCXG VYQ ECVGIQTKGU QH UCETGF

NCPFUECRG, PGTK1476

OQWPVCKPU RCTV QH C 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUV VTCFKVKQP1477 CPF NQECNGU YJKEJ CTG

GODQFKGF D[ C FKXKPKV[1478 YKVJ JWOCP RGTUQPCNKV[1479. 6JGUG NQECN FKXKPKVKGU ([WN-NJC) CTG

JQPQWTGF CPF CRRGCUGF VJTQWIJ VJG DWKNFKPI QH NCTVUG1480 YJKEJ CTG YQQFGP QT UVQPG ECKTPU

QP OQWPVCKP QT JKNNVQRU YJKEJ CTG CPPWCNN[ EQPUVTWEVGF KP EGTGOQPKGU XCT[KPI CEEQTFKPI

VQ VJG NWPCT ECNGPFCT. 6JKU KU QPG QH VJG QNFGUV 6KDGVCP EWUVQOU CPF KU HQWPF KP CNN

TGIKQPU KPJCDKVGF D[ 6KDGVCPU CPF JCU EQPVKPWGF VQ VJG RTGUGPV FC[ YKVJQWV KPVGTTWRVKQP. 6JG

[WN-NJC/ I\JK-DFC CPF QVJGT HQNM FKXKPKVKGU CTG RCTV QH 6KDGV'U CPKOKUVKE/ UJCOCPKUVKE VTCFKVKQP.

6JKU KU GURGEKCNN[ VJG ECUG COQPI 6KDGV'U NC[ RGQRNGU YJQ EQPVKPWG VQ FKURNC[ NGCPKPIU

VQYCTFU HQNM TGNKIKQP. 6JG [WN-NJC CPF QVJGT 'IQFU QH VJG RCUV' VJGQTGVKECNN[ 'VCOGF' D[

$WFFJKUO CTG ENQUGT VQ VJGO KP DQVJ IGQITCRJ[ KFGPVKV[ CPF KP UGPUGF RTGUGPEG. +P VJG

YQTNF QH VJG NC[ 6KDGVCP OCP[ NCPFUECRG HGCVWTGU RQKPV DCEM VQ VJG YQTUJKR QH CPEKGPV IQFU.

6JG[ CTG PQV QPN[ EQPUEKQWU QH VJG EQPUVCPV UETWVKP[ QH VJG [WN-NJC DWV YJGP PQOCFU IQ

JWPVKPI1481 DWV GPICIG KP HQNM-TGNKIKQWU TKVWCNU CPF RNCEG FGOCPFU QP VJGKT IQFU1482 HQT

RTQVGEVKQP CPF UWEEGUU KP JWPVKPI, VTCFKPI, VTCXGN, HCTOKPI, HQTGUVT[, CPF PCVWTG

EQPUGTXCVKQP. +P EQOOQP YKVJ VJG 5JGTRC 6KDGVCP XKNNCIGU1483 OQUV 6KDGVCPU CRRGCT VQ

1476 ,{-:mk

PGTK

1477 *WDGT 1999C

1478 #6mk

I\JK DFC QT 9v;-[k

[WN NJC - These terms can be used interchangeably although yul-lha

appears to be a literary term. 1479 $NQPFGCW GV CN 1998, −CTOC[ 1994, 4CODNG 1998, 5VWCTV GV CN 1995,

1480 ;:-2|k

NCTVUG 1481 0QOCFU IQ JWPVKPI OQTG HTGSWGPVN[ VJCP QVJGT 6KDGVCPU. 1482 1HVGP OGFKCVGF VJTQWIJ C UJCOCP. 1483 5VGXGPU 1993, 1997




TGEQIPK\G UGXGTCN FKHHGTGPV ECVGIQTKGU QH HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR HTQO UCETGF CPF WPVQWEJGF VQ

WPOCPCIGF CPF QXGTGZRNQKVGF.

6JG 0CZK RGQRNG JCXG C PWOKPC PCOGF UJW YJQ KU TGURQPUKDNG HQT IQXGTPKPI PCVWTG. ’CEJ

[GCT VJG RGQRNG YQTUJKR UJW CPF RTC[ HQT DNGUUKPIU HQT VJGKT QHHURTKPI, HCXQWTCDNG YGCVJGT

HQT CITKEWNVWTG, RTQURGTKV[ CPF NQPIGXKV[ QH VJG EQOOWPKV[. 6JG[ OCMG QHHGTKPIU VQ VJKU

URKTKV WUWCNN[ CV C URTKPI QT RQPF OGFKCVGF VJTQWIJ C FQPIDC1484 CU C OGCPU QH TGRC[OGPV HQT

VJG PQP VKODGT HQTGUV RTQFWEVU EQNNGEVGF HTQO VJG YQQFU CPF TGEQPEKNKCVKQP YKVJ PCVWTG. 6JKU

GPUWGU PQV QPN[ VJCV VJG[ NKXG KP JCTOQP[ YKVJ VJG URKTKV YQTNF DWV TGEGKXG GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF

UQEKCN 'DNGUUKPI'1485.

6JG /QUWQ CTG CPKOKUVKE/UJCOCPKUVKE CPF VJKU KU OQUV FKTGEVN[ GZRTGUUGF VJTQWIJ VJG

XGPGTCVKQP QH ICP OW1486 GODQFKGF D[ .KQP /QWPVCKP1487 CPF D[ UJKP COK

1488 GODQFKGF D[

.WIW .CMG1489. 6JG RGQRNG DGNKGXG VJCV CPKOCNU CPF VTGGU CTG KPPQEGPV CPF FQ PQV MKNN VJGO

YKVJQWV TGCUQP. 6JG[ CNUQ JCXG UCETGF VTGGU1490 CPF YGNNU CPF VJG[ CRRGCUG VJG URKTKVU QH VJGUG

NQECNGU GKVJGT CV NQECN CNVCTU QT FWTKPI OCLQT HGUVKXCNU. 6JG /QUWQ FCDC RNC[ C OCLQT TQNG CU

KPVGTOGFKCTKGU DGVYGGP VJG JWOCP-PCVWTCN-URKTKV FQOCKPU KP PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF

GPXKTQPOGPVCN GFWECVKQP DWV VJG[ CTG CNOQUV GZVKPEV FWG VQ RGTUGEWVKQP FWTKPI VJG %WNVWTCN

4GXQNWVKQP1491.

6JG 2WOK JCXG VTCFKVKQPCNN[ EQPUGTXGF HQTGUVU RNCPVU HKUJ CPF YKNF CPKOCNU CPF JCXG UCETGF

NCMGU OQWPVCKPU CPKOCNU CPF VTGGU. 6JG[ JCXG VCDQQU CDQWV RQNNWVKPI UCETGF NCMGU QT VJG

FGNKDGTCVG QT CEEKFGPVCN MKNNKPI QH CPKOCNU/VTGGU KP UCETGF CTGCU. 6JQUG YJQ VTCPUITGUU CTG

GZRGEVGF VQ:-

� $WVEJGT C RNQWIJKPI CPKOCN HQT VJG XKNNCIG VQ GCV

1484 'UJCOCP'. 1485 ;CPI (WSWCP 2003, :W GV CN 2004 1486 6JG IQFFGUU QH .QXG. 1487 # UCETGF OQWPVCKP. 1488 6JG OQVJGT IQFFGUU. 1489 # UCETGF NCMG. 1490 1HVGP ,WINCPU TGIKC. 1491 %CK *WC 2001, 5VWFNG[ 2004E..F, ;CPI (WSWCP 2003




� )Q VQ C 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUV .COC QT '.QECN .COC'1492 QT

� )Q VQ C JCPIWK VQ CRRGCUG VJG URKTKVU CPF TGUVQTG VQRQEQUOKE JCTOQP[1493.

.CMG .WIW KU GODQFKGF D[ C 2WOK IQFFGUU VCK CP [CP UQQ CPF YCU ETGCVGF HTQO VJG VGCTU QH VJG

IQFFGUU QH .KQP /QWPVCKP, ICP OW. 6JG[ DGNKGXG VJCV KH VJG[ RQNNWVG VJG NCMG VCK CP [CP UQQ

YKNN RWPKUJ VJGO CPF VJG[ VTCFKVKQPCNN[ WUGF C U[UVGO QH \QPGF HKUJKPI D[ HCOKN[. 6JG[

JCXG UGXGTCN UCETGF OQWPVCKPU1494 UGXGTCN UCETGF CPKOCNU1495 CPF UGXGTCN UCETGF VTGGU1496. 6JG[

DGNKGXG VJCV KH VJG DNCEM HQQVGF ETCPG1497 TGVWTPU VQ VJG .CMG KV YKNN DTKPI RTQURGTKV[.

#NVJQWIJ VJG ;K CV .WIW .CMG CTG PQV 6KDGVCP CPF FQ PQV EQPUVKVWVG CP GVJPKE ITQWR UVTKEVQ

UGPUW1498 VJG[ NKXG KP −JCO CU FGHKPGF D[ VJG 6KDGVCP IQXGTPOGPV-KP-GZKNG. +V YQWNF CRRGCT

VJCV UQOG ITQWRU ECVGIQTK\GF CU ;K1499 CTG CPKOKUVU YKVJ C VTCFKVKQP QH UCETGF NCPFUECRGU

PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF VQVGOKUO1500 GURGEKCNN[ VJG VKIGT1501 CPF UQOG ITQWRU1502 CTG OQTG

QHVGP CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP1503. 6JQUG KPVGTXKGYGF1504 YGTG PQV CYCTG

QH CP[ VTCFKVKQP QH PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP QT UCETGF NCPFUECRG CPF OGPVKQPGF VJCV JKUVQTKECNN[

VJG[ YGTG C JWPVKPI OKPQTKV[ CPF VJCV VJG DKOQ XKUKVGF VJGO OQUVN[ VQ RGTHQTO 'TKVGU QH

RCUUCIG'1505. 6JG DKOQ CRRGCT VQ DG ENGTKEU KP VJG 'JKIJ-TGNKIKQWU' VTCFKVKQP1506 CPF CNUQ

XKNNCIG KPVGNNGEVWCNU. 6JG DKOQ QHHGTU VJG EQOOWPKV[ C U[UVGO QH EQORNGZ RTQEGFWTGU

HQEWUKPI QP CXQKFKPI FKUCUVGT DTKPIKPI HQTVWPG CPF GUVCDNKUJKPI C JCTOQPKQWU TGNCVKQPUJKR

DGVYGGP JWOCPU, PCVWTG, CPF URKTKVWCN DGKPIU. 9JKNG VJG[ CTG MPQYNGFIGCDNG CDQWV HNQTC

CPF HCWPC VJGKT YQTNFXKGY FQGU PQV CRRGCT VQ KPENWFG CP[ CPKOKUVKE RCTCFKIOU QH GZRNKEKV

1492 (QT VJGKT QYP MCTOC. 1493 $QWTFKGW 1972, 4QDGTV 1999, 5VWFNG[ 2004E..F, 9GNNGPU 2002 CPF RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 21/11/2003 YGDNQI 1494 +PENWFKPI VJWYC, NJCIQP CPF \WVUC[. 1495 #PKOCNU KPENWFKPI 9KNF (TQIU =CP 7PENG? %TCPGU =C .COC? CPF /CIRKGU. 1496 1HVGP NCTIG YCNPWV VTGGU. 1497 )TWU URR 1498 +P VJG UVTKEV UGPUG JVVR://YYY.HKUJDCUG.QTI/)NQUUCT[/)NQUUCT[.EHO!6GTO’PINKUJ=UGPUW%20UVTKEVQ CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005 1499 +P %JWZKQPI, HQT GZCORNG. 1500 5[ODQNKE CUUQEKCVKQP DGVYGGP C UQEKCN ITQWR (GI, C NKPGCIG QT ENCP) CPF C MKPF QH DKTF, RNCPV, QT PCVWTCN RJGPQOGPQP. +P 'ENCUUKE' HQTOU, C OGODGT QH VJG UQEKCN ITQWR JCU UQOG URGEKCN TGNKIKQWU TGNCVKQPUJKR (GI, C HQQF VCDQQ) VQYCTF OGODGTU QH VJG PCVWTCN URGEKGU. JVVR://YYY.OQFGTPJWOCPQTKIKPU.EQO/ CEEGUUGF 25VJ ,WN[ 2005. 1501 .KW GV CN 1999, .KW GV CN 2000, :W GV CN 2004 1502 +P .KCPIUJCP. 1503 8GTOCPFGT 2000 1504 #TQWPF .WIW .CMG (5VWFNG[ 2004E..F). 1505 XCP )GPPWR 1960 1506 #NNKUQP 1984, /CTTKQVV 1955, /GPFGNDCWO 1964, *KGDGTV 1982 C + D, 4GFHKGNF 1955

http://www.fishbase.org/Glossary/Glossary.cfm?TermEnglish=sensu%20stricto%20

http://www.modernhumanorigins.com/




PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP. 9KVJKP VJG TGIKQP VJGTG CTG 5000 VQ 8000 [QWPIUVGTU YJQ CTG

GPICIKPI KP C URGEKCN GFWECVKQP UQ VJG[ ECP QHHGT VJGKT UGTXKEGU VQ VJG EQOOWPKV[1507.

+PVTKPUKE XCNWGU

+PVTKPUKE1508 XCNWG KU C EGPVTCN VGPGV QH OCP[ TGNKIKQWU DGNKGHU1509 YJGTG "GXGT[VJKPI QP GCTVJ KU

KPJGTGPVN[ XCNWCDNG DGECWUG KV JCU DGGP ETGCVGF D[ C FKXKPG DGKPI"1510. 6JGTG KU EQORGNNKPI

GXKFGPEG1511 IKXGP VJGKT URKTKVWCN XCNWGU, CPKOKUVKE/UJCOCPKUVKE DGNKGHU, CPF YQTNFXKGY VJCV VJG

RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO TGEQIPK\G VJG KPVTKPUKE XCNWGU QH HQTGUVU.

#NVJQWIJ KPVTKPUKE XCNWG YCU PQV XQNWPVGGTGF KP VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UVWF[1512 KV KU TGEQIPK\GF CV

.WIW .CMG1513 YJGTG KPVTKPUKE XCNWG TGRTGUGPVGF 11 % QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG, CPF TCPMGF

UGEQPF QWV QH VJKTVGGP XCNWGU. 6JG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO KP EQOOQP YKVJ QVJGT KPFKIGPQWU

RGQRNG1514 CRRGCT VQ JCXG C EQOOQP DGNKGH VJCV:-

• .KHG KU 'KPURKTKVGF'1515 CPF VJWU UCETGF YKVJ CP KPPCVG, KPVTKPUKE XCNWG CPF CNN QH ETGCVKQP

KU XGUVGF YKVJ URKTKV, OGCPKPI, CPF RWTRQUG.

• #NN GNGOGPVU QH VJG UCETGF YJQNG CTG KPVGTEQPPGEVGF, KPVGTFGRGPFGPV, KPVGTTGNCVGF CV VJG

FGGRGUV NGXGNU...CPF CNN UJQWNF DG VTGCVGF CU QWT TGNCVKXGU1516.

6JKU XKGY TGUQPCVGU YKVJ OCP[ TGNKIKQPU1517 VJCV EQPUKFGT GXGT[VJKPI QP GCTVJ VQ DG KPJGTGPVN[

UCETGF, CPF VJWU, KPVTKPUKECNN[ XCNWCDNG CPF JWOCPU CTG TGURQPUKDNG VQ ECTG HQT CPF TGURGEV VJGUG

ETGCVKQPU1518.

1507 $COQ #[K 2001 RCIG 118 1508 #P KPVTKPUKE IQQF KU UQOGVJKPI XCNWCDNG KP CPF QH KVUGNH (*CTOCP 2000). 1509 %CNNKEQVV 1986, 1999, +R 1983, 0CGUU 1984, <KOOGTOCP 1988 1510 .CXGTV[ CPF 5VGTNKPI 2004 JVVR://EPZ.TKEG.GFW/EQPVGPV/O12160/NCVGUV/#%CNNKEQVV CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005 1511 G.I. JVVR://YYY.VKDGV.EQO/’EQ/)TGGP97/DKQFKXGTUKV[.JVON CEEGUUGF 7VJ ,WN[ 2005 1512 +V RTQXGF VQ DG C FKHHKEWNV EQPEGRV VQ CTVKEWNCVG KP 7− CPF %JKPC CPF VQ VTCPUNCVG KPVQ %JKPGUG. 1513 5VWFNG[ CV CN 2005 1514 6JG 5CCOK QH 5ECPFKPCXKC CPF VJG #WUVTCNKCP #DQTKIKPG (*CTFKP 2003). 1515 6Q KPUVKN EQWTCIG QT NKHG KPVQ JVVR://YYY.CPUYGTU.EQO/KPURKTKVGFCPFT=67 CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005. 1516 ’CTVJ[QWVJ 2003 JVVR://GCTVJ[QWVJ.VCMKPIKVINQDCN.QTI/KUUWGU/HQTGUVU.JVON CEEGUUGF 15VJ ,WN[ 2005. 1517 %JTKUVKCPKV[, ,WFCKUO, +UNCO, $WFFJKUO, ,CKPKUO, $CJC'K, &CQKUO, *KPFWKUO. 1518 %CNNKEQVV 1999, .CXGTV[ CPF 5VGTNKPI 2004

http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m12160/latest/#Callicott

http://www.tibet.com/Eco/Green97/biodiversity.html

http://www.answers.com/inspirited&r=67

http://earthyouth.takingitglobal.org/issues/forests.html




(WVWTG XCNWGU

6JG KORQTVCPEG QH 'HWVWTG' HQTGUV XCNWGU (QT 'KPVGTIGPGTCVKQPCN CEEGUU VQ HQTGUV TGUQWTEGU') HQT

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU JCU DGGP TGEQIPK\GF1519 CPF FGDCVGF KP PWOGTQWU UVWFKGU1520. #NVJQWIJ VJG

6KDGVCPU JCXG TGRGCVGFN[ CUMGF VJG %JKPGUG HQT IWCTCPVGGU QH HQTGUV CEEGUU1521 'HWVWTG XCNWG'

YCU PQV XQNWPVGGTGF CU C XCNWG D[ VJG −JCODC TGURQPFGPVU. +V KU, JQYGXGT, TGEQIPK\GF CV .WIW

.CMG1522 YJGTG 'HWVWTG XCNWG' TGRTGUGPVGF 9 % QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG, CPF TCPMGF 7VJ QWV QH

VJKTVGGP XCNWGU1523. 6JG OGCPKPI QH KPVGTIGPGTCVKQPCN KU SWKVG ENGCT KP VJG 6KDGVCP EQPVGZV; VJG

HQTGUV TGUQWTEGU KP SWGUVKQP CTG HQT VJG DGPGHKV QH DQVJ VJG RTGUGPV CPF UWDUGSWGPV

IGPGTCVKQPU1524.

4GETGCVKQP CPF VQWTKUO

#NVJQWIJ VJG TGETGCVKQPCN TQNG QH %JKPC'U HQTGUVU KU TGEQIPK\GF 1525 CPF VJG TGURQPFGPVU

KPFKECVGF VJG[ YQWNF YGNEQOG VQWTKUVU VQ VJG CTGC CPF VJGKT JQOGU, VJG[ YGTG EQPEGTPGF CDQWV

VJG KORCEV QH VQWTKUO QP VJGKT EWNVWTG NCPIWCIG CPF TGNKIKQP. #NVJQWIJ KV YCU PQV XQNWPVGGTGF

KP VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UVWF[ KV OWUV DG CUUWOGF VJCV UQOG HQTGUV DCUGF CEVKXKV[ OC[ JCXG CP

GNGOGPV QH TGETGCVKQP. 6JKU XKGY KU TGEQIPK\GF CV .WIW .CMG1526 YJGTG 'TGETGCVKQP' TGRTGUGPVGF

3.5 % QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG1527 CPF TCPMGF 7VJ QWV QH 13 HQT /QUWQ YQOGP1528. 6JG ’CUVGTP

−JCO TGIKQP JCU TGEGPVN[ DGGP FGUKIPCVGF CU VJG "%JKPC 5JCPITK-NC ’EQNQIKECN 6QWTKUO <QPG"

YJKEJ YKNN EQORTKUG 50 EQWPVKGU CPF TGUWNV KP CP KPETGCUG KP VQWTKUO CPF HQTGUV TGETGCVKQP.

8.2.8 %QIPKVKXG &QOCKPU CPF (QTGUV 8CNWG 2CTCFKIOU

#NVJQWIJ + JCXG FKUEWUUGF FQOCKPU CPF RCTCFKIOU KP EJCRVGT 2 UGEVKQP 2.2 CPF EJCRVGT 5

UGEVKQP 5.7.3 CPF TGHGTTGF VQ FKUEQWTUGU VJTQWIJQWV VJKU UVWF[ + YKNN TGOKPF VJG TGCFGT CICKP QH

VJGKT OGCPKPI, IKXGP VJGKT KORQTVCPEG KP VJKU UVWF[.

1519 %QNHGT GV CN 1995, .QIQ 2002, 2TCDJW GV CN 1996, 1998, 1520 $GUNG[ 1995, (QTVOCPP CPF $TWEG 1988, .WGEM 1995, .[PEJ CPF #NEQTP 1994, 1UVTQO 1990. 1521 &++4 ,WN[ 2003 1522 5VWFNG[ CV CN 2005 1523 (QT ;K OGP VJG[ TCPMGF 1UV QWV QH 13 CPF HQT ;K YQOGP 3TF QWV QH 13. 1524 5GG $GEMGT 1997 HQT C DTKGH RJKNQUQRJKECN FKUEWUUKQP QH VJKU KUUWG. 1525 .KW ,KJCP CPF &QYNKPI 1991, 0GYD[ CPF *QPI 6CQ 1991, 5QHKGNF CPF .K 1998, 6KUFGNN 1996, ;KRKPI .K CPF *KPEJ 1998 1526 5VWFNG[ CV CN 2005 1527 CPF TCPMGF 10VJ QWV QH 13 HQTGUV XCNWGU. 1528 6JG /QUWQ EQOG HTQO UKOKNCT IGPGVKE UVQEM CU VJG −JCODC 6KDGVCPU (UGG (KIWTG 8-1).




%QIPKVKXG FQOCKPU QT UWD FQOCKPU OQUV V[RKECNN[ FGUETKDG GZENWUKXG TGCNOU QT UGVU YKVJKP

VJQWIJV RTQEGUUKPI YJKEJ UGTXG CU ECVGIQTK\CVKQP EQPUVTWEVU HQT UQTVKPI QWV WPKVKGU CPF

RJGPQOGPC. #NVGTPCVKXG VGTOU WUGF KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG QP MPQYNGFIG UVTWEVWTG KPENWFG UWD

RCTCFKIOU, QT UEJGOCVC. 6JG NKVGTCVWTG QP /&5 UWIIGUVU VJCV GCEJ ENWUVGT KU C FQOCKP QT UWD

FQOCKP YJKEJ UJQWNF DG CPCN[\GF KPFKXKFWCNN[1529. + CO UWIIGUVKPI VJCV KP VJKU ECUG VJCV VJG

HQWT ENWUVGTU QT FQOCKPU TGXGCNGF KP VJG /&5 RNQVU TGRTGUGPV HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU.

+H C RCTCFKIO KU C EQPUVGNNCVKQP QH EQPEGRVU, XCNWGU, DGNKGHU, RGTEGRVKQPU, OGVJQFQNQIKECN

CUUWORVKQPU CPF RTCEVKEGU UJCTGF D[ C EQOOWPKV[ VJGP C HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIO EQWNF DG

FGHKPGF CU HQNNQYU:-

# HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIO KU C EQPUVGNNCVKQP QH EQPEGRVU, XCNWGU, FQOCKPU, DGNKGHU,

RGTEGRVKQPU, OGVJQFQNQIKECN CUUWORVKQPU CDQWV VTGGU CPF HQTGUVU CPF HQTGUVT[

UVGYCTFUJKR RTCEVKEGU UJCTGF D[ C EQOOWPKV[.

'&KUEQWTUG', GV[OQNQIKECNN[ FGTKXGU HTQO VJG .CVKP 'FKUEWTUWU ' OGCPKPI TWPPKPI VQ CPF HTQ. +P

KVU OQFGTP WUCIG YG ECP FKUVKPIWKUJ DGVYGGP VYQ TGNCVGF UGPUGU QH 'FKUEQWTUG' KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG

CU EQPXGTUCVKQP, CPF CU VJG VGZVWCN VTGCVOGPV, TGIWNCVKQP CPF OCPCIGOGPV QH C UWDLGEV (DQVJ

YTKVVGP CPF URQMGP).

+P VJG HKTUV UGPUG QH EQPXGTUCVKQP, WVVGTCPEGU KP C NCPIWCIG 'TWP VQ CPF HTQ' DGVYGGP URGCMGTU

KORN[KPI VTCPUCEVKQP CPF KPVGTCEVKQP, C OQDKNKV[ QH UVCDNG HQTOU QH OGCPKPI DGVYGGP UVCDNG CPF

WPKVCT[ CEVQTU.

+P VJG UGEQPF UGPUG QH VJG VGZVWCN VTGCVOGPV, TGIWNCVKQP CPF OCPCIGOGPV QH C UWDLGEV, KFGCU,

EQPEGRVU CPF VGTOU 'TWP VQ CPF HTQ' DGVYGGP GCEJ QVJGT CU VGZV CPF DGVYGGP VGZVU, VJG EQWTUG QH

VJGKT VTCLGEVQTKGU GUVCDNKUJKPI VJG UWDLGEV. 6JKU UGPUG KORNKGU U[PEJTQPKE1530 VTCPUOWVCVKQP, C

VTCPUHQTOCVKQP QH WPUVCDNG HQTOU QH UKIPKHKECVKQP (UKIPKHKGTU) KPVQ OGCPKPI D[ XKTVWG QH VJG

UKOWNVCPGKV[ QH VJGKT CRRGCTCPEG CPF FGHGTGPEG VQ GCEJ QVJGT.

1529 JVVR://YYY.CPCN[VKEVGEJ.EQO/DQTICVVK/OFU.JVO CEEGUUGF 19VJ 1EVQDGT 2005 1530 CV C URGEKHKE RQKPV KP VKOG.

http://www.analytictech.com/borgatti/mds.htm




/WEJ QH UQEKQNKPIWKUVKE CPCN[UKU WUGU VJG HKTUV UGPUG YJKEJ KU CNUQ EQPPGEVGF VQ VJG OGUUCIG

OQFGN QH EQOOWPKECVKQP, YJKNG UQEKCN VJGQT[ KUUWKPI HTQO (QWECWNV UGGOU VQ WUG VJG UGEQPF

UGPUG YJKEJ KU EQPPGEVGF YKVJ VJG UGOKQVKE1531 OQFGN1532.

+ NKMG QVJGT CWVJQTU1533 FQ PQV EQPUKFGT RCTCFKIO (KP KVU RQUV-OQFGTP OGCPKPI) CPF FKUEQWTUG VQ

DG U[PQP[OQWU CNVJQWIJ + TGEQIPK\G ENQUG NKPMU DGVYGGP VJGO, GZGORNKHKGF KP EJCRVGT 7

UGEVKQP 7.2.2.YKVJ HGPIUJWK FKUEQWTUGU. &KUEQWTUGU CTG QHVGP TGICTFGF CU "RQYGT

RCTCFKIOU"1534 DGECWUG VJG[ CTG RTKXKNGIGF1535 QP EGTVCKP RCTCFKIOU, UWEJ CU VJG UEKGPVKHKE

FKUEQWTUG RCTCFKIO1536. 6JG[ ECP, JQYGXGT CNUQ DG WUGF VQ EJCNNGPIG FQOKPCPV RCTCFKIOU1537

UWEJ CU VJG FKUEWTUKXG UVTCVGIKGU WUGF D[ VJG ,COGU $C[ %TGG TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 3 UGEVKQP

3.3.3.#FFKVKQPCNN[ UQOG CWVJQTU EQPUKFGT VJCV RCTCFKIOU CTG EQPUVTWEVGF1538, NKOKVGF CPF

UJCRGF VJTQWIJ FKUEQWTUG YJKNG QVJGTU JCXG WUGF FKUEQWTUG CPCN[UKU VQ TGXGCN1539 , HQT GZCORNG

VJG RCTCFKIOU QH VJQUG CNNGIKPI ECPPKDCNKUO KP /GZKEQ KP VJG 15VJ EGPVWT[

+ YKNN CTIWG KP VJKU UGEVKQP VJCV VJG FKHHGTGPV EQPUVGNNCVKQPU QH HQTGUV XCNWGU WUGF D[ FKHHGTGPV

RQRWNCVKQPU QH TGURQPFGPVU KP GCUVGTP −JCO TGRTGUGPV FKUVKPEV HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU, YJKEJ

EQWNF DG WUGF CU VGORNCVGU HQT HQTGUVGTU RNCPPKPI HQTGUVT[ UVGYCTFUJKR DCUGF QP NQECN XCNWGU.

1P VJG DCUKU QH DQVJ OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN UECNKPI CPF ENWUVGT CPCN[UKU CPF O[ UWDLGEVKXG

MPQYNGFIG QH VJG TGIKQP VJGTG CRRGCTU VQ DG HQWT FQOCKPU QH HQTGUV XCNWGU PCOGN[:- VJG

RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN, UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE, GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU, CPF DKQ-RJ[UKECN

FQOCKP.

1531 KU VJG UVWF[ QH UKIPU CPF UKIP U[UVGOU. 1532 JVVR://YYY.CWUKU.EQO.CW/RQNUKO/RQYGT/.GE3.JVON CEEGUUGF 20VJ 1EVQDGT 2005. 1533 $GUV CPF −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

http://www.ausis.com.au/polsim/power/Lec3.html

http://www.ausis.com.au/polsim/power/Lec3.html

http://www2.ncsu.edu/ncsu/aern/muwangap.html

http://www.pmcguire.demon.co.uk/scientifparadigmsgamutgram.html

http://www.devserve.co.za/Lecture 1 Discourses of development.ppt

http://www.kent.ac.uk/wramsoc/conferencesandworkshops/conferenceinformation/berlinconferenc/paradigmshiftandlabourmarketreform.pdf

http://www.kent.ac.uk/wramsoc/conferencesandworkshops/conferenceinformation/berlinconferenc/paradigmshiftandlabourmarketreform.pdf

http://www.jqjacobs.net/anthro/cannibalism.html




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FQOCKP EJCPIG DWV FKHHGTGPV RQRWNCVKQPU NQECVG XCNWGU KP FKHHGTGPV FQOCKPU (5GG 6CDNG 8-3)

YJKEJ UWIIGUVU VJG[ WUG CNVGTPCVKXG RCTCFKIOU. +V YCU KPVGTGUVKPI VQ PQVG, HQT GZCORNG VJCV

YJGP VJG 2 PGY XCNWGU YGTG KPVTQFWEGF KP 2003 'RNCEG' YCU NQECVGF KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF

'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP, ')CP\K' KP VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP CPF 'UGNH' KP VJG

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TGEQPHKIWTCVKQP VJCV OC[ TGUWNV.

1P VJG DCUKU QH VJG TGUWNVU CPCN[\GF VJGTG CTG GXKFGPVN[ 12 HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU KP ’CUVGTP

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CTG RCKTGF YKVJ; 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU, ;CLKCPI %QWPV[ CPF ;KCPIV\G ECVEJOGPV.

+P VGTOU QH NQECN NGXGN HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR VJG RCTCFKIOU VJCV CTG OQUV CRRQUKVG CTG DCUGF QP

GVJPKE ITQWRU, EQWPV[ QT ECVEJOGPV (RCTCFKIOU 3, 4, 8-12). 6JG GVJPKE ITQWR RCTCFKIOU,

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QT OQFGTPKV[ QP HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF RCTCFKIOU. #U C TGUWNV VJG[ EQWNF DG WUGF HQT OQPKVQTKPI

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1540 5GG RCTCFKIO 2.




6CDNG 8-3 (QTGUV XCNWG EQIPKVKXG FQOCKPU CPF RCTCFKIOU

(QTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU %QIPKVKXG FQOCKPU

# 0COG $KQ-RJ[UKECN 2U[EJQ-EWNVWTCN’PXKTQPOGPVCN CPF

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TGEQIPK\G; VJG KORQTVCPEG QH WR VQ 20 HQTGUV XCNWGU, VJG GZKUVGPEG QH HQWT EQIPKVKXG FQOCKPU

CPF QH WR VQ 12 HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU. #NVJQWIJ VJKU KPHQTOCVKQP KU WUGHWN KP VJCV KV JGNRU WU

WPFGTUVCPF HQTGUV RGTEGRVKQP HTQO C NQECN RGTURGEVKXG HQT HQTGUVT[ UVGYCTFUJKR KV HCKNU VQ

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RCTCFKIOU CETQUU ’CUVGTP −JCO, KP QTFGT VQ KFGPVKH[ JQOQIGPQWU CTGCU QH HQTGUV XCNWGU, CPF

VJG EQKPEKFGPEG QH EJCPIG KP HQTGUV XCNWG YKVJ EWNVWTCN QT DKQ-RJ[UKECN RJGPQOGPC.


%JCRVGT 9 5RCVKCN CPF $QWPFCT[ #PCN[UKU


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FKCNGEV CPF C EQODKPCVKQP QH GNGOGPVU. 9G EQPENWFGF, JQYGXGT VJCV QPN[ RCTCFKIOU DCUGF QP

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NQECN HQTGUV XCNWGU. 6JGTG KU PQ UKPING IGQUVCVKUVKECN VGEJPKSWG VJCV YKNN CFFTGUU VJGUG CKOU UQ

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FGVGTOKPCVKQP. 6JKU VGEJPKSWG QPN[ CNNQYU HQT QPG < XCTKCDNG (KP CFFKVKQP VQ VJG EQQTFKPCVGU)

CPF UQ C OGCP HKIWTG HTQO GCEJ QH VJG 86 UKVGU WUGF HQT EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI YCU CFQRVGF.

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GZCOKPKPI DKCU KU VQ RTQFWEG UGOKXCTKCPEG UWTHCEG OCRU. +P QWT UVWF[ )5+7, 5WTHGT 8 CPF




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VQ DG CV 80Q (θ) PQTVJ QH VJG RQNCT CZKU (’CUV) CPF CNQPI VJKU CZKU CNQPG UGOKXCTKCPEG KU DGNQY

0.3. 6JKU KU MPQYP CU VJG RTKPEKRCN CZKU CPF KU WUGF HQT FGVGTOKPKPI VJG CPKUQVTQRKE

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1541 ’CUVOCP GV CN 1987-2004, )&5 1989-2004, )5+ 2002 1542 0 = NQY CPF 1 = JKIJ 1543 ’CUVOCP GV CN 1987-2004, )&5 1989-2004 1544 )5+ 2002




CHVGT C NQV QH YQTM1545. 6JKU UWIIGUVU VJCV KP VJKU UVWF[ VJG CPKUQVTQRKE OQFGN UJQWNF DG

EQPUKFGTGF YKVJ UQOG ECWVKQP.

5GOKXCTKQITCOU1546 CTG EQORWVGT OQFGNU YJKEJ RTGFKEV YJCV'U IQKPI QP KP WP-UCORNGF

NQECVKQPU CPF RTQXKFG C RTQDCDKNKV[ QH XCNWGU DGVYGGP VJG UCORNGF NQECVKQPU. 6JG[ FKURNC[ JCNH

VJG CXGTCIG FKHHGTGPEG KP < XCNWGU QH VYQ FCVC RQKPVU (QT RCKTU) CU C HWPEVKQP QH VJG UGRCTCVKQP

FKUVCPEG DGVYGGP VJG RQKPVU. +H VJGTG KU PQ URCVKCN DKCU KP C FCVC UGV CP QOPKFKTGEVKQPCN QT

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VJG RTKPEKRCN CZKU.

+P QWT UVWF[ VJG UWTHCEG OCR RTQFWEGF D[ 5WTHGT 81547 KPFKECVGU VJG FKTGEVKQP QH NQYGUV

UGOKXCTKCPEG VQ DG CV 80Q (θ) PQTVJ QH VJG RQNCT EQQTFKPCVG (’CUV) CPF C UGOKXCTKQITCO DCUGF

QP CP CPKUQVTQRKE1548 OQFGN YCU FGVGTOKPGF ((KIWTG 9-2). (QT EQORCTKUQP C UGOKXCTKQITCO

DCUGF QP CP KUQVTQRKE OQFGN ((KIWTG 9-3) YCU CNUQ FGVGTOKPGF.

(KIWTG 9-2 #PKUQVTQRKE OQFGN QH OGCP HQTGUV XCNWG FCVC

/QFGN &KTGEVKQP: 80FGI 6QNGTCPEG: 30FGI0.101822PWI(0)+0.329114’ZR154014

(OGVTGU)

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(KIWTG 9-3 +UQVTQRKE OQFGN QH OGCP HQTGUV XCNWG FCVC

/QFGN &KTGEVKQP: 1OPKFKTGEVKQPCN0.135138PCI(0)+0.155052’ZR82351.5

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OQFGN RTQXGF UWRGTHNWQWU KP VJKU UVWF[ VJG[ YGTG TGVCKPGF VQ FGOQPUVTCVG VJG UVCIGU KPXQNXGF.

+PKVKCNN[ KUQVTQRKE MTKIKPI YCU EQPFWEVGF WUKPI )5+7 CPF +FTKUK1550 CPF UWDUGSWGPVN[ D[ 5WTHGT

81551 YJKEJ, D[ FGHCWNV, RTQFWEGF C OCR QP VJG DCUKU QH 20 KPETGOGPVCN ECVGIQTKGU KP MTKIGF

HQTGUV XCNWG HTQO 1.276 VQ 3.342. /CR 9-1 UJQYU VJCV <JQPIFKCP, $CVCPI, CPF GCUVGTP .WJWQ

%QWPV[ KPENWFG CTGCU YKVJ MTKIGF HQTGUV XCNWGU QH 2.9+ CPF VJCV /WNK, &CQYW CPF ;CLKCPI

%QWPV[ JCXG MTKIGF HQTGUV XCNWGU DGNQY 1.7. 6JG FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP <JQPIFKCP CPF ;CLKCPI

YGTG FKUEWUUGF KP EJCRVGT 8 UGEVKQP 8.2.5.

1549 ’CUVOCP GV CN 1987-2004, )&5 1989-2004 1550 ’CUVOCP GV CN 1987-2004, )&5 1989-2004 1551 )5+ 2002




/CR 9-1 +UQVTQRKE MTKI RNQV QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU FKURNC[GF KP 20 ECVGIQTKGU

/QFGN &KTGEVKQP; 1OPKFKTGEVKQPCN0.135138PCI(0)+0.155052’ZR82351.5

−TKIGF HQTGUV XCNWG TCPIG KP 20 ECVGIQTKGU EQWPV[ DQWPFCTKGU

;CLKCPI

/WNK

$CVCPI

<JQPIFKCP

.WJWQ

−TKIGF HQTGUVXCNWGU UECNKPI

&CQYW

/CP[ QH VJG ECVGIQT[ CTGCU KFGPVKHKGF, JQYGXGT, FKF PQV CRRGCT VQ EQKPEKFG YKVJ CP[

TGEQIPK\CDNG HGCVWTGU (EQWPV[, GVJPKE QT YCVGTUJGF DQWPFCTKGU) CPF UQ VJG KPETGOGPVCN

VJTGUJQNFU DGVYGGP 1.276 CPF 3.342 YGTG CNVGTGF VQ 3 ECVGIQTKGU TCVJGT VJCP 20.

/CR 9-2 KU DCUGF QP 3 KPETGOGPVCN ECVGIQTKGU QH MTKIGF HQTGUV XCNWGU (DGNQY 2.11, 2.11-2.4,

2.4+) CPF YCU CFQRVGF DGECWUG KV KFGPVKHKGF CTGCU VJCV CRRGCTGF VQ EQKPEKFG YKVJ DQVJ

UQEKQ-EWNVWTCN CPF DKQ-RJ[UKECN HGCVWTGU. %CVGIQT[ 1 (DGNQY C MTKIGF HQTGUV XCNWG QH 2.11)

GXKFGPVN[ EQTTGURQPFU YKVJ 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU KP VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV CPF ECVGIQT[ 3 (CDQXG

C MTKIGF HQTGUV XCNWG QH 2.4) YKVJ −JCODC URGCMGTU KP VJG ;CPIV\G ECVEJOGPV.




/CR 9-2 +UQVTQRKE MTKI RNQV QH 15 HQTGUV XCNWGU (3 ECVGIQTKGU)

/QFGN WUGF0.11720PWI(0)+0.27340’ZR53100T2=0.577 455=0.0157

−TKIGF HQTGUV XCNWG UECNKPI %CVGIQT[ 1: DGNQY 2.11 %CVGIQT[ 2: 2.11-2.4 %CVGIQT[ 3: 2.4 + OQWPVCKPU (5000O+)

OFU UKVGU EQWPV[ DQWPFCTKGU TKXGTU

+P QTFGT VQ EQPHKTO VJGUG HKPFKPIU /&5 RNQVU YGTG ETGCVGF HQT ECVGIQT[ 1 CPF 3 (2NQV 9-1 CPF

9-2).




2NQV 9-1 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH MTKIGF HQTGUV XCNWGU DGNQY 2.11 KP ECVGIQT[ 1 CTGCU.

-1.00

-0.38

0.25

0.88

1.50

-4.00 -2.50 -1.00 0.50 2.00

1

2

3 4

56

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

1415

−TKI ECVGIQT[ 1 - DGNQY 2.11 (P=27)

&KO1

&KO

2

&KOGPUKQPU 555&U 423.934155&H 11.35315VTGUU 0.02674-5SWCTGF 79.72


(QTGUV 1 9KNFNKHG2 %QPUGTXCVKQP 3 $NGUUKPI 4 /GP 5 9QOGP 6 5GNH 7 6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8;WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 100’( 11

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 120*( 13+PFAA(QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO 15

UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE

RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN

DKQ-RJ[UKECN


2NQV 9-2 %QIPKVKXG OCR QH MTKIGF HQTGUV XCNWGU QH 2.40+ KP ECVGIQT[ 3 CTGCU

-1.50

-0.75

0.00

0.75

1.50

-3.00 -1.75 -0.50 0.75 2.00

12

3

4

5 6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

−TKI ECVGIQT[ 3 - 2.4+ (P = 25)

&KO1

&KO

2

&KOGPUKQPU 555&U 793.86142555&H 30.297046

5VTGUU 0.038164 4-5SWCTGF 3.694730

(QTGUV 1 9KNFNKHG2 %QPUGTXCVKQP 3 $NGUUKPI 4 /GP 5 9QOGP 6 5GNH 7 6KDGVCPA$WFFJKUO 8;WNANJC 9

*WPVKPI 100’( 11

(QTGUVA2TQFWEVU 120*( 13+PFAA(QTGUVCVKQP 14

5QEKCNKUO 15


UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE

RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN

DKQ-RJ[UKECN

GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF

UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU




+P %CV 1 CTGC (;CLKCPI) 'UGNH' KU KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP CPF

'EQPUGTXCVKQP KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'DKQ-RJ[UKECN' FQOCKP. 6JKU EQPVTCUVU YKVJ VJG %CV 3

CTGC (;KCPIV\G) YJGTG 'UGNH' KU KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP, 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' KU KP VJG

'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP CPF 'DNGUUKPI' KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF

'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP. #NVJQWIJ VJG RGQRNGU QH %CV 1 KFGPVKH[ YKVJ

EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' CPF 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP VJG RGQRNGU QH %CV 3

CRRGCT VQ TGICTF VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU' FQOCKP CU C DNGUUKPI.

+V CRRGCTU CU KH VJG RGQRNGU YKVJKP VJG CTGCU FGHKPGF D[ MTKIKPI PQV QPN[ JCXG FKHHGTGPV HQTGUV

XCNWGU DWV FKHHGTGPV HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU YJKEJ YG YKNN GZRNQTG HWTVJGT KP URCVKCN CPCN[UKU,

YQODNKPI CPF QXGTNCR CPCN[UKU.

9.2 52#6+#. #0#.;5+5

5RCVKCN CPCN[UKU KU DCUGF QP VJG FKUVCPEGU DGVYGGP VJG 105 HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU ((15Z15)-15/2)

WUGF HQT EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI CV 86 UKVGU CPF YKNN DG WUGF VQ GZCOKPG FKTGEVKQPCN DKCU KP HQTGUV

XCNWGU CPF VJG QTKIKPU CPF URCVKCN VTGPFU QH CP[ URCVKCN RJGPQOGPC (G.I. $GKLKPI, %JGPIFW,

OKITCVKQP RCVVGTP VTGPFU). 6JG TGUWNVU CTG RTQFWEGF GKVJGT HQT HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU QT VJG CXGTCIG

QH CNN VJG RCKTU. 6JKU UJQWNF PQV DG EQPHWUGF YKVJ MTKIKPI QT DCTTKGT CPCN[UKU YJKEJ WUG

EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UKVG/TGURQPFGPV OGCPU QH CNN VJG XCNWGU.

5RCVKCN CPCN[UKU QHHGTU C PWODGT QH CPCN[VKECN VQQNU PQV HQWPF KP VJG QVJGT OGVJQFU WUGF KP VJKU

UVWF[. +V KU CDNG VQ CPCN[\G DGVYGGP FCVC FKUVCPEGU, IGQITCRJKE FKUVCPEGU CPF FKTGEVKQP. +V KU CDNG

VQ RTQXKFG UVCVKUVKECN GXKFGPEG QH URCVKCN RCVVGTPU, URCVKCNN[ UKIPKHKECPV EQGHHKEKGPVU, FKTGEVKQPCN

VTGPFU KP HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF ENKPGU1552 KP HQTGUV XCNWGU.

6JG RWTRQUG QH URCVKCN CPCN[UKU YCU VQ KFGPVKH[ FKTGEVKQPCN VTGPFU CPF ENKPGU KP VJG HQTGUV XCNWG

FCVC CPF FKUEWUU CPF CPCN[\G VJG KORNKECVKQPU VJG HKPFKPIU JCXG HQT VJKU UVWF[. 9G JCXG

1552 HTQO VJG )TGGM κλι�νω, VQ NGCP .# ENKPG KU C ITCFWCN EJCPIG KP C EJCTCEVGT QT HGCVWTG CETQUU VJG FKUVTKDWVKQPCN TCPIG QH C URGEKGU QT RQRWNCVKQP, WUWCNN[ EQTTGNCVGF YKVJ CP GPXKTQPOGPVCN QT IGQITCRJKE VTCPUKVKQP JVVR://YYY.CPUYGTU.EQO/VQRKE/ENKPG CEEGUUGF 10VJ 0QX 2005.

http://www.answers.com/topic/cline




CFQRVGF C UWKVG QH URCVKCN CPCN[UKU VGEJPKSWGU CXCKNCDNG KP 2CUUCIG1553 CPF TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT

6 UGEVKQP 6.3.2. 6JG HQWT VQQNU WUGF CNN FGOQPUVTCVG FKHHGTGPV CURGEVU QH URCVKCN CPCN[UKU;

EQTTGNQITCOU FGOQPUVTCVG VJG UVCVKUVKECN UKIPKHKECPEG QH VJG FCVC UGV, DGCTKPI CPCN[UKU RTQXKFGU

VJG FKTGEVKQP QH OCZKOWO EQTTGNCVKQP DGVYGGP FCVC FKUVCPEGU CPF IGQITCRJKE FKUVCPEGU,

YKPFTQUG EQTTGNQITCOU RTQXKFG FKTGEVKQPCN EQTTGNCVKQP HTQO FCVC FKUVCPEG CPF FKTGEVKQP,

DGCTKPI EQTTGNQITCOU RTQXKFG ENKPCN FKTGEVKQP HQT FCVC FKUVCPEGU CPF FKTGEVKQP, CPF CPIWNCT

EQTTGNQITCOU RTQXKFG CPIWNCT EQTTGNCVKQP HQT KPFKXKFWCN XCNWGU.

9.2.1 %QTTGNQITCOU

%QTTGNQITCOU CTG QPG QH VJG OQUV EQOOQP HQTOU QH URCVKCN CWVQEQTTGNCVKQP KP IGQITCRJ[. 6JG

WRRGT HKIWTG KU /QTCP'U + CPF VJG NQYGT HKIWTG )GCT['U E. 6JG TGF NKPG KU VJG OGCP CPF UQNKF TGF

EKTENGU TGRTGUGPV UKIPKHKECPV EQGHHKEKGPVU, CPF QRGP EKTENGU PQPUKIPKHKECPV.

2NQV 9-3 UJQYU VJG URCVKCN EQTTGNQITCOU HQT HQTGUV XCNWGU. +V UJQYU C RCVVGTP V[RKECN QH C

ITCFKGPV1554, YKVJ VJG OCIPKVWFG QH /QTCP'U + FGENKPKPI NKPGCTN[ YKVJ FKUVCPEG. 46 QWV QH 105

HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU WUKPI /QTCP'U + CPF 48 QWV QH 1051555 HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU WUKPI )GCT['U E CTG

UKIPKHKECPV VQ R<0.05.

2NQV 9-3 %QTTGNQITCO CPCN[UKU QH CNN HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU (105 RCKTU)

(OGVTGU) P=86

(OGVTGU) P=86

1553 4QUGPDGTI 1998-2004 1554 5QMCN 1979 1555 6JG EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI YCU DCUGF QP FKUVCPEKPI DGVYGGP 105 RCKTU ((15Z15)-15/2).




+V YCU ETWEKCN HQT VJKU UVWF[ VQ WPFGTUVCPF KH VJG IGQURCVKCN FKUVTKDWVKQP QH HQTGUV XCNWG FCVC

CETQUU GCUVGTP −JCO YCU V[RKECN HQT URCVKCNN[ FKUVTKDWVGF FCVC CPF UKIPKHKECPV PQV QPN[ HQT

URCVKCN DWV DCTTKGT CPCN[UKU. 6JKU CPCN[UKU EQPHKTOGF VJCV VJG FCVC UGV WUGF KP VJKU UVWF[ YCU

V[RKECN QH C ITCFKGPV1556 YKVJ UVCVKUVKECNN[ UKIPKHKECPV CXGTCIGU. 1PN[ CDQWV JCNH QH HQTGUV XCNWG

RCKTU YGTG UKIPKHKECPV YJKEJ RTQDCDN[ GZRNCKPU UQOG QH VJG CPQOCNKGU YKVJ TGITGUUKQPCN

CPCN[UKU, YJKEJ YCU PQV GXGPVWCNN[ KPENWFGF KP VJKU UVWF[. +V FQGU UWIIGUV VJCV ECNEWNCVKQPU

DCUGF QP KPUKIPKHKECPV HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU UJQWNF DG VTGCVGF YKVJ UQOG ECWVKQP. 2TQDCDN[ VJG

QPN[ CNVGTPCVKXG VQ GPUWTG JKIJGT PWODGTU QH UKIPKHKECPV HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU YQWNF JCXG DGGP VQ

VCMG OQTG UCORNGU DWV VJKU RTQXGF KORQUUKDNG IKXGP VKOG, TGUQWTEG CPF CEEGUU EQPUVTCKPVU

TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 1.5..

9.2.2 $GCTKPI #PCN[UKU

$GCTKPI CPCN[UKU KU C OGVJQF QH FGVGTOKPKPI VJG FKTGEVKQP QH ITGCVGUV EQTTGNCVKQP DGVYGGP FCVC

FKUVCPEGU CPF IGQITCRJKE FKUVCPEG. 6JG EQTTGNCVKQP KU EQORWVGF HQT C UGTKGU QH UGV CPINGU, KP CP

CPVKENQEMYKUG FKTGEVKQP HTQO 1 FGI (’CUV) VQ 180 FGI (9GUV) WUKPI 36 HKZGF DGCTKPIU. 9JKNG

PQV CU KPHQTOCVKXG CU UQOG QH VJG QVJGT CPKUQVTQR[ OGVJQFU, VJKU OGVJQF ECP DG CRRNKGF YKVJ

UOCNN UCORNG UK\GU.

2NQV 9-4 $GCTKPI CPCN[UKU QH CXGTCIG HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU HQT −JCODC URGCMGTU (P=65)

2NQV 9-4 UJQYU VJG TGUWNVU QH VJG DGCTKPI CPCN[UKU HQT HQTGUV XCNWGU HQT −JCODC URGCMGTU. 6JG

FCVC UJQYU VJG FKTGEVKQP QH ITGCVGUV EQTTGNCVKQP (5GG /CR 9-3) VQ DG CV 44 1 (θ) PQTVJ QH VJG

1556 5GG 4QUGPDGTI 2001 HQT OQTG QP VJG UKIPKHKECPEG QH V[RKECN ITCFKGPVU.




RQNCT CZKU (’CUV)1557 CPF VJG FKTGEVKQP QH NGCUV EQTTGNCVKQP VQ DG 150 1 (θ) PQTVJ QH VJG RQNCT CZKU

(’CUV)1558. 6JKU KPFKECVGU VJG FKTGEVKQP QH ITGCVGUV EJCPIG.

6JGTG OC[ DG C PWODGT QH GZRNCPCVKQPU HQT VJKU KPENWFKPI RTQEGUUGU QH CUUKOKNCVKQP,

CEEWNVWTCVKQP QT 'GZVGPUKQP' HTQO VJG 5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEKCN ECRKVCN (%JGPIFW) YJKEJ KU NQECVGF CV

TQWIJN[ 751 HTQO VJG EGPVTG QH VJG TGUGCTEJ CTGC CPF D[ −JCODC IGPGVKE, NKPIWKUVKE QT EWNVWTCN

FKHHWUKQP CPF VTCPUOKUUKQP HTQO 3KPIJCK CPF )CPUW 2TQXKPEG. 6JKU YKNN DG GZRNQTGF HWTVJGT KP

EJCRVGT 10 UGEVKQP 10.1.2.

2NQV 9-5 UJQYU VJG TGUWNVU QH VJG DGCTKPI CPCN[UKU HQT 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU. 6JG RNQV UJQYU VJG

FKTGEVKQP QH ITGCVGUV EQTTGNCVKQP (5GG /CR 9-3) VQ DG CV 10 1 (θ) PQTVJ QH VJG RQNCT CZKU (’CUV)1559

CPF VJG FKTGEVKQP QH NGCUV EQTTGNCVKQP VQ DG 170 1 (θ) PQTVJ QH VJG RQNCT CZKU (’CUV)1560. 6JKU

KPFKECVGU VJG FKTGEVKQP QH ITGCVGUV EJCPIG (5GG /CR 9-3).

2NQV 9-5 $GCTKPI CPCN[UKU QH CXGTCIG HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU HQT 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU (P=21).

6JGTG OC[ DG C PWODGT QH GZRNCPCVKQPU HQT VJKU KPENWFKPI RTQEGUUGU QH CUUKOKNCVKQP,

CEEWNVWTCVKQP QT 'GZVGPUKQP' HTQO VJG 5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEKCN ECRKVCN (%JGPIFW) YJKEJ KU NQECVGF CV

TQWIJN[ 751 HTQO VJG EGPVTG QH VJG TGUGCTEJ CTGC CPF D[ 3KCPIKE IGPGVKE, NKPIWKUVKE, QT EWNVWTCN

1557 46 FGITGGU CU CP C\KOWVJ. 1558 300 FGITGGU CU CP C\KOWVJ

1559 80 FGITGGU CU CP C\KOWVJ. 1560 280 FGITGGU CU CP C\KOWVJ.




FKHHWUKQP CPF VTCPUOKUUKQP HTQO *GPCP 2TQXKPEG.. 6JKU YKNN DG GZRNQTGF HWTVJGT KP EJCRVGT 10

UGEVKQP 10.1.2.

9.2.3 9KPFTQUG %QTTGNQITCOU

9KPFTQUG EQTTGNQITCOU CTG CPQVJGT VGEJPKSWG VJCV ECP DG WUGF VQ UGG KH HQTGUV XCNWG FCVC KU

CPKUQVTQRKE DWV WPNKMG VJG QVJGT OGVJQFU KV CIITGICVGU QDUGTXCVKQPU KPVQ KPFGRGPFGPV FKUVCPEG

CPF FKTGEVKQP ENCUUGU YKVJ GCEJ JCXKPI KVU QYP YGKIJV OCVTKZ.

# YKPFTQUG EQTTGNQITCO EQPUKUV QH OWNVKRNG TKPIU QT CPPWNK YKVJ GCEJ CPPWNWU TGRTGUGPVKPI C

FKUVCPEG KPVGTXCN. 6JG QWVGT TCFKWU QH VJG KVJ CPPWNWU KU FGVGTOKPGF D[

TK = %K2 + &K + ’

CPF VJG KPPGT TCFKWU QH VJG KVJ CPPWNWU KU FGVGTOKPGF D[ VJG RTGXKQWU CPPWNWU. 6JG PWODGT QH

DKPU QT ENCUUGU KP VJG KVJ CPPWNWU KU FGVGTOKPGF D[

PK = #K - 2

CPF VJG YKFVJ QH GCEJ UGIOGPV KP FGITGGU KU 360/P.

+P 2NQV 9-61561 VJG UK\G QH VJG UGEVQT KPFKECVGU UKIPKHKECPEG (1FGP CPF 5QMCN 1986) CPF FCUJGF

UGEVQTU EQPVCKP NGUU VJCP 20 RCKTU QH RQKPVU. .KIJV EQNQWTU KPFKECVG PGICVKXG CWVQEQTTGNCVKQP,

FCTM EQNQWTU RQUKVKXG CWVQEQTTGNCVKQP. (WNN UGEVQTU CTG UKIPKHKECPV (R 0.05) CPF JCNH UGEVQTU CTG

PQV UKIPKHKECPV1562. 6JG UGXGP CPPWNK TGRTGUGPV FKUVCPEG KPVGTXCNU WR VQ 17.6, 70.3, 157.9, 280.6,

438.2, 630.9 CPF 858.5 MO TGURGEVKXGN[. 2NQV 9-6 UJQYU CXGTCIG HQTGUV XCNWG FCVC YKVJ VJG

FKTGEVKQP QH ITGCVGUV RQUKVKXG CWVQEQTTGNCVKQP 1563 VQ DG DGVYGGP 901 (θ) -100 1 (θ) PQTVJ QH VJG

RQNCT CZKU (’CUV)1564, CPF VJG FKTGEVKQP QH ITGCVGUV PGICVKXG CWVQEQTTGNCVKQP TWPPKPI TQWIJN[

HTQO YGUV VQ GCUV . 57 QH 105 YKPFTQUG EQTTGNQITCOU CTG UKIPKHKECPV.

1561 YJKEJ KU DCUGF QP %=17500, &=100, ’=0 CPF #=4. 1562 VJGTG CTG PQ JCNH UGEVQTU. 1563 CV VJG 5VJ CPPWNWU.

1564 350 - 10 FGITGGU CU CP C\KOWVJ.




2NQV 9-6 /QTCP'U + YKPFTQUG EQTTGNQITCO HQT CXGTCIG HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU (P=86).

0 17.6 70.3 157.9 280.6 438.2 630.9 858.5−KNQOGVTGU

6JGTG OC[ DG C PWODGT QH TGCUQPU HQT VJKU, KPENWFKPI VQRQITCRJ[ YKVJ VJG OCKP TKXGT XCNNG[U

TWPPKPI1565 OQUVN[ CV 345 1 CPF 5000O + TKFIGU UGRCTCVKPI XCNNG[U (5GG /CR 9-2) CPF −JCODC

IGPGVKE, NKPIWKUVKE, QT EWNVWTCN FKHHWUKQP CPF VTCPUOKUUKQP HTQO 3KPIJCK CPF )CPUW 2TQXKPEG.

6JGUG HKPFKPIU YKNN DG GZRNQTGF DGNQY KP EJCRVGT 10 UGEVKQP 10.1.2.

9.2.4 $GCTKPI %QTTGNQITCOU

$GCTKPI EQTTGNQITCOU CTG UKOKNCT VQ PQTOCN EQTTGNQITCOU, GZEGRV VJCV VJG YGKIJVU CTG UECNGF VQ

KPFKECVG FKTGEVKQP CU YGNN CU FKUVCPEG1566.

2NQV 9-7 UJQYU VJG DGCTKPI EQTTGNQITCO HQT CXGTCIG HQTGUV XCNWGU. 4GF EKTENGU KPFKECVG

UKIPKHKECPV RQUKVKXG XCNWGU QH /QTCP'U +, DNCEM UKIPKHKECPV PGICVKXG CPF ITG[ PQPUKIPKHKECPV

XCNWGU. ’CEJ CTE TGRTGUGPVU C UWEEGUUKXGN[ HCTVJGT FKUVCPEG ENCUU (HTQO 47MO VQ 635MO). 6JG

EJCPIG HTQO RQUKVKXG VQ PGICVKXG CWVQEQTTGNCVKQP QEEWTU (5GG /CR 9-3) OQUV SWKEMN[ DGVYGGP

40 15 (θ)-70 1 (θ) HTQO VJG RQNCT CZKU (’CUV)1567 YJKEJ KU VJG FKTGEVKQP QH C ENKPG KP XCNWG.

2QUKVKXG CWVQEQTTGNCVKQP GZKUVU KP CNN FKTGEVKQPU KP VJG 1UV FKUVCPEG ENCUU CPF PGICVKXG

CWVQEQTTGNCVKQP KP VJG 4VJ, 7VJ CPF 8VJ FKUVCPEG ENCUU.

1565 5QWVJ QH 31.5Q0 DQVJ VJG ;CLKCPI CPF ;KCPIV\G HNQY TQWIJN[ KP C 345Q FKTGEVKQP CNVJQWIJ PQTVJ QH 31.5Q0 VJG[ HNQY TQWIJN[ KP C 315Q FKTGEVKQP. 1566 4QUGPDGTI 2000 1567 DGVYGGP 20 -50 FGITGGU CU CP C\KOWVJ.




2NQV 9-7 # DGCTKPI EQTTGNQITCO HQT CXGTCIG HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU (P=86).

47 112 154 196 227 260 305 380 490 635−KNQOGVGTU

6JGTG OC[ DG C PWODGT QH TGCUQPU HQT VJKU, RTQEGUUGU QH CUUKOKNCVKQP, CEEWNVWTCVKQP CPF

'GZVGPUKQP' HTQO VJG 5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEKCN ECRKVCN (%JGPIFW) YJKEJ KU NQECVGF CV TQWIJN[ 751

HTQO VJG EGPVTG QH VJG TGUGCTEJ CTGC CPF D[ IGPGVKE, NKPIWKUVKE QT EWNVWTCN FKHHWUKQP CPF

VTCPUOKUUKQP. 6JGUG HKPFKPIU YKNN DG GZRNQTGF HWTVJGT KP EJCRVGT 10 UGEVKQP 10.1.2.

9.2.5 #PIWNCT %QTTGNQITCOU

#PIWNCT EQTTGNQITCOU FGVGTOKPG VJG FGITGG QH CPKUQVTQR[ KP C FCVC UGV. 6JKU OGVJQF FQGU PQV

ECNEWNCVG CXGTCIG EQTTGNCVKQP HQT CNN HQTGUV XCNWG RCKTU. +V FQGU, JQYGXGT, ECNEWNCVG VJG FKUVCPEG

DGVYGGP KPFKXKFWCN RCKT RQKPVU RTQLGEVGF QPVQ C XGEVQT KP C URGEKHKGF FKTGEVKQP CPF VJG

FKHHGTGPEGU KP VJG XCNWGU CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ VJQUG VYQ RQKPVU1568. #NVJQWIJ VJKU VQQN KU PQV XGT[

WUGHWN HQT TGUGCTEJGTU CFFTGUUKPI HQTGUV XCNWG UGVU KVU XGT[ WUGHWN HQT GZCOKPKPI KPFKXKFWCN

XCNWGU. # EQORNGVG TCPIG QH RCKTKPIU YCU GZCOKPGF DWV HQTGUV-6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO YCU UGNGEVGF

DGECWUG CU C VTCFKVKQPCN XCNWG KV YCU OQTG UVCVKUVKECNN[ UKIPKHKECPV1569 VJCP HQTGUV-[WN-NJC QT

HQTGUV-DNGUUKPI CPF KV YCU KORQTVCPV VQ WPFGTUVCPF KH VJGTG YCU CPKUQVTQR[ CPF KH UQ KP YJCV

FKTGEVKQP.

2NQV 9-8 UJQYU VJG CPIWNCT EQTTGNCVKQP1570 QT VJG FKTGEVKQP QH OCZKOWO ENKPG (5GG /CR 9-3) HQT

(QTGUV-6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO CPF QP VJG DCUKU QH RQNCT EQQTFKPCVGU (θ CPF T) 1571 VQ DG CV 18 1 (θ)

1568 5KOQP 1997 1569 R = 0.000 1570 OCZ T = 0.3678 R =0.0000 1571 # YC[ VQ FGUETKDG VJG NQECVKQP QH C RQKPV QP C RNCPG. # RQKPV KU IKXGP EQQTFKPCVGU (T, θ). T KU VJG FKUVCPEG HTQO VJG RQKPV VQ VJG QTKIKP. θ KU VJG CPING OGCUWTGF EQWPVGTENQEMYKUG HTQO VJG RQNCT CZKU VQ VJG UGIOGPV EQPPGEVKPI VJG RQKPV VQ VJG QTKIKP.

http://www.mathwords.com/p/point.htm

http://www.mathwords.com/p/plane.htm

http://www.mathwords.com/o/origin.htm

http://www.mathwords.com/a/angle.htm

http://www.mathwords.com/c/counterclockwise.htm

http://www.mathwords.com/p/polar_axis.htm

http://www.mathwords.com/l/line_segment.htm




FGITGGU PQTVJ QH VJG RQNCT CZKU (’CUV)1572. $NWG EKTENGU KPFKECVG RQUKVKXG T CPF RKPM PGICVKXG T.

2NQV 9-8 #PIWNCT EQTTGNCVKQP HQT HQTGUV-6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO (P=86).

T

6JGTG OC[ DG C PWODGT QH TGCUQPU HQT VJKU, DWV VJG HKPFKPIU CTG PQV KPEQPUKUVGPV YKVJ VTCFKVKQPCN

XCNWGU DGKPI RGTEGRVWCNN[ ENQUGT YKVJ FKUVCPEG HTQO %JGPIFW (CV 75 FGITGGU).

9.2.6 %QPENWUKQPU

+V YQWNF CRRGCT QP VJG DCUKU QH VJTGG EQTTGNCVKQP OGCUWTGU1573 CPF QPG UGOKXCTKCPEG

OGCUWTG1574 VJCV OQUV QH VJG FKTGEVKQPCN VTGPFU, DKCUGU CPF ENKPGU CTG DGVYGGP 3501-501 (5GG

/CR 9-3). 6JGTG OC[ DG C PWODGT QH TGCUQPU HQT VJKU: RTQEGUUGU QH CUUKOKNCVKQP, CEEWNVWTCVKQP

CPF 'GZVGPUKQP' HTQO %JGPIFW1575 CNVJQWIJ VJKU KU NQECVGF CV TQWIJN[ 751 HTQO VJG EGPVTG QH VJG

TGUGCTEJ CTGC; IGPGVKE, NKPIWKUVKE, CPF EWNVWTCN FKHHWUKQP CPF VTCPUOKUUKQP YJKEJ KU EQPUKUVGPV

YKVJ −JCODC QTKIKPU KP 3KPIJCK CPF )CPUW; VQRQITCRJKE KPHNWGPEGU YKVJ VJG OCKP TKXGT

XCNNG[U TWPPKPI 009-55’1576 YKVJ 5000O + TKFIGU UGRCTCVKPI XCNNG[U (5GG /CR 9-2).

1572 QT 72 FGITGGU CU CP C\KOWVJ. 1573 DGCTKPI CPCN[UKU HQT −JCODC URGCMGTU, YKPFTQUG EQTTGNQITCOU, DGCTKPI EQTTGNQITCOU. 1574 VJG FKTGEVKQP QH OCZKOWO URCVKCN EQPVKPWKV[ QT NQYGUV UGOKXCTKCPEG XCNWGU 5GG (KI 9-1 1575 6JG 5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEKCN ECRKVCN. 1576 5QWVJ QH 31.5Q0 DQVJ VJG ;CLKCPI CPF ;KCPIV\G HNQY TQWIJN[ KP C 345Q FKTGEVKQP CNVJQWIJ PQTVJ QH 31.5Q0 VJG[ HNQY TQWIJN[ KP C 315Q FKTGEVKQP.




6JG QPN[ GZEGRVKQP KU VJG DGCTKPI CPCN[UKU HQT 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU YJGTG VJG OCZKOWO

EQTTGNCVKQP DGVYGGP FCVC FKUVCPEG CPF IGQITCRJKE FKUVCPEG KU CV 101 (θ) PQTVJ QH VJG RQNCT CZKU

(’CUV)1577. 6JGTG OC[ DG C PWODGT QH TGCUQPU HQT VJKU:-. RTQEGUUGU QH CUUKOKNCVKQP, CEEWNVWTCVKQP

CPF 'GZVGPUKQP' HTQO %JGPIFW1578 YJKEJ KU NQECVGF CV TQWIJN[ 751 HTQO VJG EGPVTG QH VJG

TGUGCTEJ CTGC QT IGPGVKE, NKPIWKUVKE, CPF EWNVWTCN FKHHWUKQP CPF VTCPUOKUUKQP YJKEJ KU EQPUKUVGPV

YKVJ 3KCPIKE QTKIKPU KP *GPCP 2TQXKPEG. 6JGUG HKPFKPIU YKNN DG GZRNQTGF HWTVJGT KP EJCRVGT 10

UGEVKQP 10.1.2.

1577 80 FGITGGU CU CP C\KOWVJ. 1578 6JG 5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEKCN ECRKVCN.



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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Page 283

Map 9-3 showing directional trends and clines from spatial analysis




9.3 $170 #0#.;5+5

$CTTKGT CPCN[UKU, DCUGF QP VJG OGCP QH 105 HQTGUV XCNWG ((15Z15)-15/2) FKUVCPEGU CV 86 UKVGU

RTQXKFGF FWTKPI EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UWTXG[, YKNN DG WUGF HQT EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI, YQODNKPI,

UWD-DQWPFCT[ KFGPVKHKECVKQP CPF QXGTNCR UVCVKUVKEU. . 6JG UWKVG QH VQQNU YKNN DG WUGF VQ KFGPVKH[

EJCPIGU KP HQTGUV XCNWG FCVC CPF VJGKT EQKPEKFGPEG YKVJ UQEKQ-EWNVWTCN QT DKQRJ[UKECN

RJGPQOGPC.

6JWU HCT YG JCXG KFGPVKHKGF UGXGTCN JQOQIGPQWU CTGCU QH HQTGUV XCNWGU KP ’CUVGTP −JCO CPF

FKTGEVKQPCN VTGPFU KP VJG FCVC UGV. $QWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU YKNN DWKNF QP VJGUG HKPFKPIU D[

FGOCTECVKPI VJG JQOQIGPQWU TGIKQPU (EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI) CPF \QPGU QH TCRKF EJCPIG KP

OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU (YQODNKPI) CPF VJGKT EQKPEKFGPEG (QXGTNCR CPCN[UKU) YKVJ DKQ-RJ[UKECN1579,

GVJPQ-NKPIWKUVKE1580, CPF UQEKQ-RQNKVKECN RJGPQOGPC1581. 6JG UWKVG QH VQQNU CFQRVGF HQT VJKU

CPCN[UKU, CXCKNCDNG KP $QWPFCT[5GGT� , YCU FKUEWUUGF KP EJCRVGT 6 UGEVKQP 6.3.3.

9.3.1 5RCVKCNN[ %QPUVTCKPGF %NWUVGTKPI

5RCVKCNN[ EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI KFGPVKHKGU JQOQIGPQWU CTGCU CPF VJGP FGNKPGCVGU ENQUGF CTGCN

DQWPFCTKGU CNQPI VJGKT GFIGU. 6JG ENWUVGTKPI KU URCVKCNN[ EQPUVTCKPGF KP VJCV VYQ NQECVKQPU ECP

DG CUUKIPGF VQ VJG UCOG ENWUVGT QPN[ KH VJG[ CTG CFLCEGPV KP IGQITCRJKE URCEG. $QWPFCT[5GGT

(,CESWG\ CPF /CTWEC 2001) CIINQOGTCVGU ENWUVGTU WPVKN KV TGCEJGU VJG QRVKOWO ENWUVGT PWODGT

KFGPVKHKGF WUKPI C IQQFPGUU-QH-HKV OQFGN.

(KIWTG 9-4 )QQFPGUU-QH-HKV OQFGN WUGF HQT EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI

/GVTKE V[RG:5SWCTGF ’WENKFGCP -%QPPGEVGFPGUU 0.5-M-OGCP TGHKPGOGPV -.KPMCIG ENWUVGTKPI

1579 YCVGTUJGFU CPF HQTGUVU. 1580 NCPIWCIG CPF FKCNGEV. 1581 EQWPVKGU, FKUVCPEG HTQO RTQXKPEKCN ECRKVCNU.




1P VJG DCUKU QH C IQQFPGUU-QH-HKV OQFGN ((KIWTG 9-4) 24 ENWUVGTU YGTG UGNGEVGF CU VJG QRVKOWO

PWODGT HQT URCVKCNN[ EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI CPF KFGPVKHKGF YKVJ DNWG DQWPFCTKGU QP /CR 9-4.

+V YQWNF CRRGCT KP /CR 9-4 VJCV 78% QH HQTGUV XCNWG UKVGU (ITGGP FQVU QP /CR) CTG NQECVGF KP

8 ENWUVGTU. /CLQT EJCPIGU (VJKEM TGF NKPGU QP /CR 9-4) KP OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU CRRGCT VQ QEEWT KP

.WJWQ, ;CLKCPI, .KVCPI, $CVCPI CPF &CQEJGPI EQWPVKGU. +V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV VJG OGCP XCNWG

ECVGIQTKGU, YKVJ VJG GZEGRVKQP QH .WJWQ CPF ;CLKCPI EQWPVKGU, CTG NQYGT KP VJG GCUV VJCP VJG

YGUV. 6JG GCUVGTP CTGC KU OQUVN[ KP VJG ;CLKCPI YCVGT ECVEJOGPV CPF JCU C JKIJGT RTQRQTVKQP QH

3KCPIKE URGCMGTU.

/CR 9-4 %QPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI QH OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU

/GCP HQTGUV

XCNWGU

1-2

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%JCPIG DQWPFCTKGU

%NWUVGT DQWPFCTKGU

%QWPVKGU

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$CVCPI

.KVCPI

;CLKCPI

&CQEJGPI




#NVJQWIJ EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI FQGU KFGPVKH[ DQWPFCTKGU DGVYGGP HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF VJG HQTGUV

XCNWG FKUVTKDWVKQP 'RCVVGTP' FQGU OKTTQT VJG MTKI OCR (/CR 9-2) VJGTG YCU KPUWHHKEKGPV FCVC VQ

KFGPVKH[ VJG 24 ENWUVGTU YKVJ CP[ UQEKQ-RQNKVKECN QT DKQ-RJ[UKECN DQWPFCTKGU.

9.3.2 9QODNKPI

/GVJQFU HQT FGNKPGCVKPI FKHHGTGPEG DQWPFCTKGU YGTG FKUEWUUGF KP EJCRVGT 6 UGEVKQP 6.3.3 CPF

CTG ECNNGF YQODNKPI VGEJPKSWGU CHVGT 9QODNG (1951). 9QODNG SWCPVKHKGF VJG URCVKCN TCVG QH

EJCPIG D[ GUVKOCVKPI UWTHCEG ITCFKGPVU KP C TCUVGT UVTWEVWTG. &KHHGTGPEGU COQPI YQODNKPI

OGVJQFU CTG TGNCVGF VQ FCVC HQTOCV (XGEVQT, TCUVGT QT VTCPUGEV), FCVC V[RG (PWOGTKE QT ECVGIQT[),

CPF DQWPFCT[ V[RG (ETKUR QT HW\\[).

$QWPFCT[ .KMGNKJQQF 8CNWGU ($.8U) OGCUWTG VJG URCVKCN TCVG QH EJCPIG CPF NQECVKQPU YJGTG

XCTKCDNG XCNWGU EJCPIG TCRKFN[ CTG OQTG NKMGN[ VQ DG RCTV QH C DQWPFCT[. $.8U CTG ETGCVGF HTQO

ITCFKGPV OCIPKVWFGU YKVJ RQKPV CPF TCUVGT FCVC CPF FKUUKOKNCTKV[ OGVTKEU HQT ECVGIQTKECN CPF

RQN[IQP FCVC.

6JG RWTRQUG QH YQODNKPI KP VJKU UVWF[ YCU VQ KFGPVKH[ DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU KP HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF

VJG RQUUKDNG ECWUGU QH EJCPIG CPF VJG GZKUVGPEG QH URCVKCN RCTCFKIOU

(QTGUV XCNWGU

/CR 9-5 UJQYU OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU D[ RQKPV YQODNKPI CPF JCU OCLQT DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU KP

<JQPIFKCP CPF ;CLKCPI %QWPVKGU CPF OKPQT QPGU KP &CQEJGPI, /WNK, &CTFQ (−CPFKPI) CPF

5JKSW %QWPV[ CPF VJGTG CTG PQ UKIPKHKECPV UWD-DQWPFCT[ UVCVKUVKEU. 6JGUG HKPFKPIU CTG NCTIGN[

UWRRQTVGF D[ EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI CPF MTKIKPI YJKEJ UWIIGUV VJCV <JQPIFKCP %QWPV[ JCU JKIJGT

OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU VJCP KVU PGKIJDQWTU CPF VJCV ;CLKCPI %QWPV[ JCU NQYGT. 6JGUG HKPFKPIU YGTG

GZRNQTGF KP OQTG FGVCKN KP EJCRVGT 8 UGEVKQP 8.2.5 CPF EJCRVGT 9 UGEVKQP 9.3.2.




/CR 9-5 (QTGUV XCNWGU ((8) RQKPV YQODNKPI

5JKSW

<JQPIFKCP

/WNK

&CQEJGPI

;CLKCPI

&CTFQ

OFU UKVGU

TGUGCTEJ CTGCTGUGCTEJ CTGC

EQWPVKGU

OFU UKVGU

OFU UKVGU DQWPFCT[: NKPMU

OFU UKVGU DQWPFCT[: RQKPVU

(QTGUV XCNWGU D[ EQWPV[

/CR 9-6 UJQYU OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU D[ EQWPV[ WUKPI RQN[IQP YQODNKPI CPF JCU DQWPFCT[

GNGOGPVU DGVYGGP &GIG, 5JKSW CPF )CP\K EQWPV[, .KVCPI CPF ;CLKCPI EQWPV[ CPF &CQEJGPI

CPF :KCPIEJGPI EQWPV[. &GIG %QWPV[ JCU C JKIJ HQTGUV XCNWG OGCP CPF ;CLKCPI CPF 5JKSW

%QWPVKGU JCXG C NQY OGCP. 6JGUG HKPFKPIU YGTG UWRRQTVGF D[ MTKIKPI CPF RCTVKCNN[ D[

EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI. 6JGTG KU GXGT[ TGCUQP VQ UWIIGUV VJCV OQTG EQWPV[ RCTCFKIOU GZKUV..




/CR 9-6 /GCP HQTGUV XCNWGU D[ EQWPV[ RQN[IQP

;CLKCPI

.KVCPI

5JKSW

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&GIG

&CQEJGPI

:KCPIEJGPI

EQWPVKGU

OFU UKVGU

EJCPIG DQWPFCT[

EQWPVKGU : HQTGUV XCNWGU

1.84 2.825

(QTGUV XCNWGU D[ YCVGTUJGF

/CR 9-7 UJQYU OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU D[ OKETQ YCVGTUJGF1582 WUKPI RQN[IQP YQODNKPI CPF JCU

DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU KP <JQPIFKCP, &CQEJGPI CPF )CP\K %QWPV[. #NVJQWIJ VJGTG KU PQ QVJGT

UWRRQTV HQT VJGUG HKPFKPIU VJGTG KU GXGT[ TGCUQP VQ UWIIGUV VJCV WR VQ 12 OKETQ-ECVEJOGPV

RCTCFKIOU OC[ GZKUV. /GCP HQTGUV XCNWGU JQYGXGT FQ CTG GXKFGPVN[ JKIJGT KP VJG YGUV (PGCT VJG

1582 ETGCVGF D[ )+5.




;KCPIV\G) VJCP VJG GCUV (PGCT VJG ;CLKCPI) YJKEJ KU UWRRQTVGF D[ EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI CPF

MTKIKPI. $NCPM YCVGTUJGFU JCXG PQ HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[ UKVGU.

/CR 9-7 /GCP HQTGUV XCNWGU D[ OKETQ YCVGTUJGF RQN[IQP

)CP\K

<JQPIFKCP

&CQEJGPI

OFU UKVGU

EJCPIG DQWPFCT[

TKX GTU

EQWPVKGU

OQWPVCKPU

YCVGTUJGF HQTGUV XCNWGU

1.899 2.793

(QTGUV XCNWGU D[ NCPIWCIG CTGC

/CR 9-8 UJQYU OGCP HQTGUV XCNWGU D[ NCPIWCIG CTGC WUKPI RQN[IQP YQODNKPI CPF JCU

DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU KP <JQPIFKCP CPF &CQEJGPI EQWPV[ YJKEJ EQKPEKFG YKVJ FKCNGEV

DQWPFCTKGU DGVYGGP VJG &GSKP CPF <JQPIFKCP FKCNGEVU QH −JCO. #NVJQWIJ VJGTG YCU PQ QVJGT

UWRRQTV HQT VJGUG HKPFKPIU VJGTG YCU RCTVKCN UWRRQTV HTQO MTKIKPI CPF EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI YJKEJ

UJQYGF HQTGUV XCNWG FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP −JCODC CPF 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU. 6JGTG KU GXGT[ TGCUQP

VQ UWIIGUV VJCV OQTG NCPIWCIG RCTCFKIOU OC[ GZKUV.

6JG NCPIWCIG RQN[IQPU YGTG QDVCKPGF HTQO )NQDCN /CRRKPI +PVGTPCVKQPCN CPF FKIKVK\GF HTQO

*CVVCYC[ (2000).




/CR 9-8 /GCP HQTGUV XCNWGU D[ NCPIWCIG RQN[IQP

<JQPIFKCP

&CQEJGPI

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EQWPVKGU

NCPIWCIG ECVGIQTKGU

1P VJG DCUKU QH YQODNKPI VJGTG KU GXKFGPEG QH DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU QT \QPGU QH EJCPIG KP HQTGUV

XCNWGU KP OQUV EQWPVKGU. +P UQOG KPUVCPEGU VJGUG DQWPFCTKGU ECP DG GZRNCKPGF CU URCVKCN

TGRTGUGPVCVKQPU QH VJG RCTCFKIOU FKUEQXGTGF VJTQWIJ EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI. 6JGTG KU GXGT[ TGCUQP

VQ UWIIGUV VJCV OQUV QH VJG EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI RCTCFKIOU EQWNF DG TGRNKECVGF URCVKCNN[.

9.3.3 1XGTNCR #PCN[UKU

+P VJG NCUV UGEVKQP YG GUVCDNKUJGF VJG NQECVKQPU KP ’CUVGTP −JCO YJGTG \QPGU QH EJCPIG KP

HQTGUV XCNWGU QEEWTTGF CPF KP VJKU UGEVKQP YG YKNN WUG QXGTNCR UVCVKUVKEU VQ GZCOKPG YJGVJGT

DQWPFCTKGU KP HQTGUV XCNWGU EQKPEKFG QT QXGTNCR VQ C UKIPKHKECPV GZVGPV1583 YKVJ DKQ-RJ[UKECN QT

UQEKQ-EWNVWTCN RJGPQOGPC.

1583 ,CESWG\ 1995




(QTGUV XCNWGU CPF YCVGTUJGFU

/CR 9-9 UJQYU C UKIPKHKECPV QXGTNCR DGVYGGP OCETQ YCVGTUJGF ECVGIQTKGU(I)1584 CPF HQTGUV

XCNWGU(J) CPF UKIPKHKECPV DQWPFCT[-NKMG UWD-DQWPFCT[ UVCVKUVKEU1585. 6JG DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU (KP

FCTM DNWG) EQKPEKFG YKVJ VJG ;KCPIV\G-;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV

/CR 9-9 (QTGUV XCNWGU (J) CPF YCVGTUJGF ECVGIQTKGU (I) QXGTNCR

;KCPIV\G

ECVEJOGPV

;CLKCPI

ECVEJOGPV

QXGTNCR: 1J =.010

OFU UKVGU

TGUGCTEJ CTGC

YCVGTUJGF ECVGIQTKGU

1 = ;KCPIV\G

2 = ;CL KCPI

YCVGTUJGF: $.8U

0.00 1.00

1584 1= ;CPIV\G CPF 2 = ;CLKCPI TKXGTU. 1585 5GG ,CESWG\ CPF /CTWEC 2001 RCIG 153




6JGUG HKPFKPIU CTG UWRRQTVGF D[ VJG /&5 ECVEJOGPV RNQVU (2NQV 8-14 CPF 2NQV 8-13) CPF

MTKIKPI RNQVU (2NQV 9-1 CPF 2NQV 9-2) CPF CRRGCT VQ UWIIGUV VJG GZKUVGPEG QH URCVKCN ECVEJOGPV

RCTCFKIOU.

+V YQWNF CRRGCT QP VJG DCUKU QH VJG DCTTKGT CPCN[UKU CPF /&5 RNQVU VJCV VJG −JCODCU YJQ NKXG

KP VJG ;CPIV\G XCNNG[ HGGN OQTG CNKGPCVGF HTQO VJGKT 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN', 'DKQ-RJ[UKECN' CPF

'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' YQTNF VJCP VJQUG KP VJG ;CLKCPI 8CNNG[. #NVJQWIJ VJG[ NKXG KP VJG JGCTV QH VJG

−JCO YQTNF VJG[ NKXG QP VJG RGTKRJGT[ QH 5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEG CPF VJG ;CPIV\G 4KXGT XCNNG[ JCU

DGGP UWDLGEV VQ OWEJ JGCXKGT FGHQTGUVCVKQP VJCP VJG ;CLKCPI XCNNG[. 6JGTG YCU, JQYGXGT, PQ

UKIPKHKECPV QXGTNCR DGVYGGP HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF OKETQ YCVGTUJGFU FWG VQ KPUWHHKEKGPV FCVC.

(QTGUV XCNWGU CPF FKCNGEVU

/CR 9-10 UJQYU C UKIPKHKECPV QXGTNCR DGVYGGP FKCNGEV ECVGIQTKGU (I)1586 CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU (J)

CPF UKIPKHKECPV DQWPFCT[-NKMG UWD-DQWPFCT[ UVCVKUVKEU1587. 6JG DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU (KP DNWG)

EQKPEKFG YKVJ DQWPFCTKGU DGVYGGP −JCODC URGCMGTU CPF 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU.

+V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV EJCPIGU KP HQTGUV XCNWG DGVYGGP VJG −JCODC 6KDGVCPU CPF 3KCPIKE

URGCMGTU CRRGCT VQ EQKPEKFG YKVJ NKPIWKUVKE CPF RQUUKDN[ IGPGVKE DQWPFCTKGU1588. 6JGUG HKPFKPIU

CTG UWRRQTVGF D[ VJG /&5 FKCNGEV RNQVU (2NQV 8-5 CPF 8-6) VJG MTKIKPI ECVGIQTKGU (2NQV 9-1 CPF

9-2) CPF URCVKCN CPCN[UKU (2NQV 9-5 CPF 9-6) CPF CRRGCT VQ UWIIGUV VJG GZKUVGPEG QH URCVKCN

RCTCFKIOU QH HQTGUV XCNWG D[ FKCNGEV.

6JG −JCODC 6KDGVCPU JCXG DGGP ITQWRGF WPFGT HQWT OCKP FKCNGEV ITQWRU:- ’CUVGTP −JCO,

:KCPIEJGPI, &GSKP & <JQPIFKCP. 6JG '’CUVGTP −JCO' NCPIWCIG CTGC EQXGTU1589 238,403.92

MO2 GCUV QH 951 ’ CPF VJGTG KU QPN[:-

• CPGEFQVCN GXKFGPEG VJCV 'GXGT[ XCNNG[ JCU KVU QYP FKCNGEV'

• NGZKECN KPHQTOCVKQP QP 5 FKCNGEVU1590 QH ’CUVGTP −JCO DWV PQ FKCNGEV OCRU1591

1586 1 = −JCO URGCMGTU CPF 2 = 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU. 1587 5GG ,CESWG\ CPF /CTWEC 2001 RCIG 153 1588 .C2QNNC 2003 1589 )+5 ECNEWNCVKQP. 1590 &GIG, )CP\K, $CVCPI, .KVCPI CPF &CTVUGFQ. 1591 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP $KGNOGKGT 11/3/05 YGDNQI




• NGZKECN KPHQTOCVKQP QP &GSKP CPF <JQPIFKCP FKCNGEVU DWV PQ FKCNGEV OCRU1592

• NKUVU QH −JCODC FKCNGEVU ECVGIQTK\GF CU "ENWUVGT", "PQP-ENWUVGT", "VTCPUKVKQPCN" QT

"WPURGEKHKGF"1593, EQORKNGF CU 'RNCEG PCOG' FKCNGEVU HTQO VJG TGEQTFU QH JKUVQTKE

VTCXGNNGTU VJCV CTG PQV EQPUKFGTGF VQ DG TGNKCDNG1594

/CR 9-10 (QTGUV XCNWGU (J) CPF FKCNGEV ECVGIQTKGU (I) QXGTNCR

3KCPIKE

URGCMGTU

3KCPIKE

URGCMGTU

−JCODC

URGCMGTU

QXGTNCR: 1I =.010 1IJ =.030

OFU UKVGU

TGUGCTEJ CTGC

FKCNGEV ECVGIQTKGU

1 = −JCODC

2 = 3KCPIKE

FKCNGEV ECVGIQTKGU: $.8U

0.00 1.00

1P VJG DCUKU QH VJG FCVC EQNNGEVGF HQT VJKU UVWF[ VJGTG KU OCZKOWO EQTTGNCVKQP QH HQTGUV XCNWGU

QP VJG DCUKU QH DGCTKPI CPCN[UKU CV 44 FGITGGU (θ) PQTVJ QH VJG RQNCT CZKU (’CUV). 6JKU CRRGCTU VQ

DG EQPUKUVGPV YKVJ VJGKT RQUUKDNG QTKIKPU (5GG /CR 9-3) KP 3KPIJCK CPF )CPUW 2TQXKPEG YJKEJ

KU UKVWCVGF VQ VJG PQTVJ CPF PQTVJGCUV QH VJG TGUGCTEJ CTGC,

1592 *QPINCFCTQO 1996 1593 &GPYQQF 1999 RCIGU 290-292 1594 RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP $KGNOGKGT 11/3/05 YGDNQI




#NVJQWIJ FKCNGEV OCRU GZKUV HQT VJG 3KCPIKE URGCMKPI ITQWRU KP ’CUVGTP −JCO1595 NKVVNG IGPGVKE

TGUGCTEJ JCU DGGP EQPFWEVGF COQPI VJG 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO. +V YQWNF CRRGCT

VJCV QP VJG DCUKU QH VJG FCVC EQNNGEVGF HQT VJKU UVWF[ VJGTG KU OCZKOWO EQTTGNCVKQP QH HQTGUV

XCNWGU, DCUGF QP DGCTKPI CPCN[UKU CV 10 FGITGGU (θ) PQTVJ QH VJG RQNCT CZKU (’CUV). 6JKU CRRGCTU

VQ DG EQPUKUVGPV YKVJ VJGKT RQUUKDNG QTKIKPU KP *GPCP 2TQXKPEG (5GG /CR 9-3) YJKEJ KU UKVWCVGF

CV CDQWV 73 1 HTQO VJG EGPVTG QH VJG TGUGCTEJ CTGC QT YKVJ RTQEGUUGU QH CUUKOKNCVKQP

CEEWNVWTCVKQP QT GZVGPUKQP HTQO %JGPIFW YJKEJ KU UKVWCVGF CV CDQWV 75 1 HTQO VJG EGPVTG QH VJG

TGUGCTEJ CTGC. 6JKU KU PQV EQPUKUVGPV1596 YKVJ VJG 0-5 CZKU YJKEJ KU UKIPKHKECPV HQT 3KCPIKE

NKPIWKUVKE VQPQIGPGUKU1597. +V YQWNF CRRGCT JQYGXGT VJCV CU VQPQIGPGUKU KU EQPVCEV KPFWEGF CPF

KPETGCUGU KP UVCDKNKV[ PGCT VQPCN NCPIWCIGU1598 KV KU CP KPFGRGPFGPV RJGPQOGPQP HTQO HQTGUV

XCNWGU QT 3KCPI OKITCVKQP RCVVGTPU.

6JGTG KU PQ UKIPKHKECPV QXGTNCR QT CXQKFCPEG DGVYGGP HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF 'NCPIWCIG' (/CR 9-8)

CPF YJKNG KV KU TGEQIPK\GF VJCV NCPIWCIG DQWPFCTKGU QHVGP EQKPEKFG YKVJ IGPGVKE CPF GEQNQIKECN

DQWPFCTKGU1599 HKTO EQPENWUKQPU CTG FKHHKEWNV KP VJKU ECUG. 6JG UCORNG UK\G KU PQV NCTIG GPQWIJ

CPF VJGTG KU KPCFGSWCVG NKPIWKUVKE FCVC. 8GT[ NKVVNG GVJPQNKPIWKUVKE TGUGCTEJ JCU DGGP EQPFWEVGF

KP VJG TGIKQP CPF OCP[ QH %JKPGUG IGPGVKEKUVU CRRGCT VQ JCXG C RQNKVKECN CIGPFC KP VGTOU QH

"EQPUVTWEVKPI VJG *CP"1600 CPF OKPQTKV[ ITQWRU.

(QTGUV XCNWG CPF HQTGUV EQXGT

+ FQP'V MPQY QH CP[ GXKFGPEG KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG UWIIGUVKPI VJCV HQTGUV EQXGT QT V[RG (URGEKGU) KU

C FGVGTOKPCPV QH HQTGUV XCNWGU CNVJQWIJ VQ OG KV KU UGNH-GXKFGPV. +P VJG EQWTUG QH EQPFWEVKPI

EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI, JQYGXGT, + PQVKEGF VJCV TGURQPFGPVU VJCV NKXGF KP QT PGCT HQTGUV VGPFGF VQ

RNCEG 'UGNH' ENQUG VQ 'HQTGUV' CPF 'DNGUUKPI' CPF VJQUG VJCV FKF PQV NKXG ENQUG NQECVGF VJGO HWTVJGT

CRCTV. 6JKU KU KORQTVCPV DGECWUG KV UWIIGUVU VJCV NQUU QH HQTGUV EQXGT JCU CP KORCEV QP HQTGUV

XCNWGU CPF PQV LWUV DKQFKXGTUKV[.

1595 *CVVCYC[ 2000 CPF )NQDCN /CRRKPI +PVGTPCVKQPCN JVVR://YYY.IOK.QTI/ CEEGUUGF 12VJ (GD 2003 1596 .C2QNNC 1998 1597 6JG FGITGG VQ YJKEJ VQPGU CTG C UVCDNG CPF KORQTVCPV RCTV QH VJG RJQPQNQIKECN U[UVGO (’XCPU 2001). 1598 +P VJKU ECUG 5KEJWCPJWC QT 5KEJWCP /CPFCTKP JVVR://YYY.INQUUKMC.EQO/GP/FKEV/FKCNGEVO.JVO CEEGUUGF 12VJ #WIWUV 2005.

1599 $CTDWLCPK CPF 5QMCN 1990, *CTOQP 1996, 1998 1600 JVVR://EKQ.EGW.JW/EQWTUGU/%+1/OQFWNGU//QFWNG08&KMQGVVGT/&KMQGVVGTAKPFGZ.JVON CEEGUUGF 9VJ #WIWUV 2005

http://www.gmi.org/

http://www.glossika.com/en/dict/dialectm.htm

http://cio.ceu.hu/courses/CIO/modules/Module08Dikoetter/Dikoetter_index.html




/CR 9-11 UJQYU C UKIPKHKECPV QXGTNCR DGVYGGP HQTGUV EQXGT ECVGIQTKGU (I)1601 CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU

(J) CPF PQ UKIPKHKECPV UWD-DQWPFCT[ UVCVKUVKEU. 6JGTG CTG DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU KP <JQPIFKCP,

&GTQPI, :KCPIEJGPI, ,KWNQPI, &CTFQ (−CPFKPI), :KPNQPI, 5JKSW CPF )CP\K %QWPV[. #NVJQWIJ

VJKU KU CP KORQTVCPV HKPFKPI KP VGTOU QH WPFGTUVCPFKPI VJG KPHNWGPEG QH HQTGUV EQXGT QP HQTGUV

XCNWGU KV FQGU PQV JGNR WU VQ KFGPVKH[ URCVKCN RCTCFKIOU.

/CR 9-11 (QTGUV XCNWGU (J) CPF HQTGUV EQXGT (I) QXGTNCR

&GTQPI

<JQPIFKCP

:KCPIEJGPI

,KWNQPI

&CTFQ

)CP\K

:KPNQPI

5JKSW

QXGTNCR: 1J=0.020

OFU UKVGU

TGUGCTEJ CTGC

EQWPVKGU

HQTGUV EQX GT ECVGIQTKGU

0 = PQ HQTGUV

1 = 10-30% EQX GT

2 = 30%+ EQX GT

HQTGUV EQX GT DQWPFCT[ RQKPVU

HQTGUV EQX GT DQWPFCT[ NKPMU

HQTGUV EQX GT DQWPFCT[ VTKCPINGU

(QTGUV XCNWG CPF HQTGUV V[RG

/CR 9-12 UJQYU C UKIPKHKECPV QXGTNCR DGVYGGP HQTGUV V[RG ECVGIQTKGU (I)1602 CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU

(J) CPF UKIPKHKECPV CXQKFCPEG DGVYGGP HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF HQTGUV V[RG ECVGIQTKGU. 6JGTG YCU PQ

1601 0 = PQ HQTGUV 1 = 10-30% VTGG EQXGT 2 = 30% + VTGG EQXGT. 1602 0 = URCTUG, 188 = OKZGF, 215 = DTQCFNGCH.




UKIPKHKECPV UWD-DQWPFCT[ UVCVKUVKEU. 6JGTG CTG DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU KP <JQPIFKCP, :KCPIEJGPI,

,KWNQPI, &CTFQ (−CPFKPI), )CP\K, :KPNQPI, .WJWQ, 5JKSW, ;CLKCPI CPF &CQYW %QWPV[.

#NVJQWIJ VJGTG KU UKIPKHKECPV QXGTNCR DGVYGGP 'HQTGUV EQXGT' (I) CPF 'HQTGUV XCNWGU' (J) (/CR

9-11) VJKU KU PQV TGRGCVGF YKVJ 'HQTGUV V[RG' (I) (/CR 9-12) YJGTG VJGTG KU UQOG GXKFGPEG QH

CXQKFCPEG.

+V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV HQT VJG TGURQPFGPVU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO 'HQTGUV EQXGT' (KVU RTGUGPEG QT CDUGPEG)

KU OQTG UKIPKHKECPV VJCP 'HQTGUV V[RG' (VTGG URGEKGU) DWV PGKVJGT FCVC UGV RTQXKFG VJG DCUKU HQT

URCVKCN RCTCFKIOU.

/CR 9-12 (QTGUV XCNWGU (J) CPF HQTGUV V[RG (I) QXGTNCR

)CP\K

.WJWQ

&CQYW

&CTFQ

,KWNQPI

:KPNQPI

<JQPIFKCP

:KCPIEJGPI

5JKSW

;CLKCPI

QXGTNCR: 1J =.030 CPF 1IJ =.050

CXQKFCPEG: 1I = 0.010

OFU UKVGU

TGUGCTEJ CTGC

EQWPVKGU

HQTGUV EQXGT ECVGIQTKGU

0 = PQ HQTGUV

1 = 10-30% EQXGT

2 = 30%+ EQX GT

HQTGUV EQXGT DQWPFCT[ RQKPVU

HQTGUV EQXGT DQWPFCT[ NKPMU

HQTGUV EQXGT DQWPFCT[ VTKCPINGU




&KUVCPEG DGVYGGP RTQXKPEKCN ECRKVCNU (2T%) CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU

/CR 9-13 UJQYU C UKIPKHKECPV QXGTNCR DGVYGGP 2T% FKUVCPEGU (I) CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU (J) CPF

UKIPKHKECPV CXQKFCPEG DGVYGGP HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF 2T% FKUVCPEGU. 6JG UWD-DQWPFCT[ UVCVKUVKEU

KPFKECVG UKIPKHKECPV HTCIOGPVCVKQP1603. 6JGTG CTG DQWPFCT[ GNGOGPVU KP <JQPIFKCP, &GTQPI,

&CQEJGPI, /WNK, &CTFQ (−CPFKPI), ;CLKCPI, .KVCPI, CPF $CVCPI %QWPV[.

/CR 9-13 2TQXKPEKCN ECRKVCN FKUVCPEG (I) CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU (J) QXGTNCR

&GTQPI

<JQPIFKCP

&CQEJGPI

/WNK

&CTFQ

;CLKCPI

$CVCPI

.KVCPI

OFU UKVGU

TGUGCTEJ CTGC

EQWPVKGU

2% FKUVCPEG DQWPFCT[ RQKPVU

2% FKUVCPEG DQWPFCT[ NKPMU

2% FKUVCPEG DQWPFCT[ VTKCPINGU

&KUVCPEG ECVGIQTKGU KP MO

1XGTNCR:1I=.010

#XQKFCPEG: 1J = .0101JI = .010

6JGUG HKPFKPIU CTG KORQTVCPV KP VGTOU QH WPFGTUVCPFKPI VJG KPHNWGPEG VJCV RTQXKPEKCN ECRKVCNU

JCXG QP HQTGUV XCNWGU CNVJQWIJ PQV WUGHWN KP VGTOU QH KFGPVKH[KPI URCVKCN RCTCFKIOU.

1603 5GG ,CESWG\ CPF /CTWEC 2001 RCIG 153




6JG UKIPKHKECPV CXQKFCPEG DGVYGGP HQTGUV XCNWGU (J) CPF IGQITCRJKE FKUVCPEG HTQO RTQXKPEKCN

ECRKVCNU (I) UWIIGUVU VJCV KV KU PQV RQUUKDNG VQ RTGFKEV IGQITCRJKE FKUVCPEG HTQO RTQXKPEKCN

ECRKVCN, HTQO HQTGUV XCNWGU.

1P VJG DCUKU QH QXGTNCR CPCN[UKU KV YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV CV VJG OCETQ NGXGN HQTGUV XCNWGU JCXG DGGP

KPHNWGPEGF EWNVWTCNN[1604 CPF DKQRJ[UKECNN[1605 CPF VJGTG KU UQOG GXKFGPEG QH URCVKCN RCTCFKIOU

HQT YCVGTUJGFU CPF FKCNGEVU VJKU YCU NGUU GXKFGPV CV VJG OKETQ-NGXGN, FWG VQ UCORNG UK\G.

+P URKVG QH VJGUG NKOKVCVKQPU VJGTG KU GXGT[ TGCUQP VQ UWIIGUV QP VJG DCUKU QH EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI

VJCV YKVJ OQTG UCORNGU OQTG URCVKCN RCTCFKIOU YQWNF DGEQOG GXKFGPV.

(QT UKOKNCT TGCUQPU KV YCU PQV RQUUKDNG VQ FTCY CP[ EQPENWUKQPU HTQO EQPUVTCKPGF ENWUVGTKPI

=/CR 9-4? DG[QPF PQVKPI VJCV VJG OGCP HQTGUV XCNWG 'RCVVGTP' FQGU OKTTQT VJG MTKI OCR (/CR

9-2).

9.4 %10%.75+105

+P VJG NCUV EJCRVGT YG YGTG CDNG VQ TGEQIPK\G VJG KORQTVCPEG QH WR VQ 20 HQTGUV XCNWGU, VJG

GZKUVGPEG QH HQWT EQIPKVKXG FQOCKPU CPF QH WR VQ 12 HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU YJKEJ YG JCXG

GZRNQTGF URCVKCNN[ KP VJKU EJCRVGT WUKPI MTKIKPI, EQTTGNQITCOU, YQODNKPI CPF QXGTNCR UVCVKUVKEU.

9G YGTG CDNG VQ KFGPVKH[ VJTGG JQOQIGPGQWU CTGCU QH HQTGUV XCNWGU VJTQWIJ MTKIKPI YJKEJ

CRRGCT VQ EQKPEKFG YKVJ ;KCPIV\G CPF ;CLKCPI YCVGT ECVEJOGPVU CPF VJG −JCODC CPF 3KCPIKE

URGCMKPI CTGCU. 6JGTG KU GXGT[ TGCUQP VQ UWIIGUV OQTG CTGCU GZKUV DWV VJCV YQWNF TGSWKTG OQTG

UCORNGU.

6JG EQTTGNQITCOU UJQYGF; C RCVVGTP V[RKECN QH C ITCFKGPV, VJCV VJGTG YGTG HKXG OGCUWTGU YJKEJ

UWIIGUV UKIPKHKECPV FKTGEVKQPCN VTGPFU CNQPI C 3501-501 - 1701-2301 CZKU YJKEJ EQKPEKFGU YKVJ

−JCODC OKITCVKQP RCVVGTPU CPF VQRQITCRJ[ CPF QPG OGCUWTG UWIIGUVKPI CP CPIWNCT DKCU QH 801

1604 OCETQ FKCNGEV ECVGIQTKGU CPF RTQZKOKV[ VQ VJG RTQXKPEKCN ECRKVCN. 1605 OCETQ YCVGTUJGF ECVGIQTKGU CPF HQTGUV.




YJKEJ UGGOKPIN[ EQKPEKFGU YKVJ 3KCPI OKITCVKQP RCVVGTPU CPF QT RTQEGUUGU QH CEEWNVWTCVKQP

HTQO %JGPIFW (VJG 5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEKCN ECRKVCN)

9QODNKPI RTQXKFGF UQOG GXKFGPEG QH UKIPKHKECPV URCVKCN DQWPFCTKGU QP VJG DCUKU QH EQWPV[,

OKETQ-YCVGTUJGF CPF NCPIWCIG FCVC DWV VJCV OQTG UCORNGU YGTG TGSWKTGF VQ KFGPVKH[ UKIPKHKECPV

DQWPFCTKGU HQT CNN VJTGG HGCVWTGU EQXGTKPI CNN QH ’CUVGTP −JCO.

+V YQWNF CRRGCT QP VJG DCUKU QH UKIPKHKECPV QXGTNCR UVCVKUVKEU VJCV HQTGUV XCNWGU JCXG DGGP

KPHNWGPEGF DKQ-RJ[UKECNN[ (HQTGUV EQXGT, YCVGT ECVEJOGPV) CPF UQEKQ-EWNVWTCNN[ (FKCNGEV CPF

FKUVCPEG HTQO RTQXKPEKCN ECRKVCNU) CPF VJCV FKCNGEVU CPF ECVEJOGPVU TGRTGUGPV URCVKCN HQTGUV

XCNWG RCTCFKIOU.

#NN VJGUG OGCUWTGU EQPUKFGTGF KP EQPEGTV RTQXKFG EQORGNNKPI GXKFGPEG VJCV HKXG QH VJG

RCTCFKIOU KFGPVKHKGF KP EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI JCXG DGGP TGRNKECVGF IGQURCVKCNN[.

6JGUG EQORTKUG VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV, ;KCPIV\G ECVEJOGPV, −JCODC URGCMGTU, 3KCPIKE

URGCMGTU, CPF −JCODC URGCMGTU KP VJG ;CLKCPI ECVEJOGPV.

+P VJG NCUV VYQ EJCRVGTU YG JCXG UQWIJV VQ FGOQPUVTCVG EQIPKVKXGN[ CPF IGQURCVKCNN[ VJG

GZKUVGPEG QH HQTGUV XCNWGU, FQOCKPU CPF RCTCFKIOU COQPI VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO CU C

RQUUKDNG DCUKU HQT NQECN HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR. 6JGTG CTG FCPIGTU JQYGXGT YJGP VT[KPI VQ CRRN[

VJKU OGVJQFQNQI[ CPF VQQNU; WPKXGTUCNN[, ETQUU-EWNVWTCNN[ QT CU C OGCPU QH KPVGITCVKPI HQTGUV

XCNWG. 5GOCPVKECNN[, EQPEGRVWCNN[ CPF KFGQNQIKECNN[ VJG HQTGUV XCNWGU TGEQIPK\GF CPF XCNWGF D[

QPG RGQRNG ITQWR OC[ DG WPFGTXCNWGF CPF PQV TGEQIPK\GF D[ CPQVJGT ITQWR YJQ OC[ PQV JCXG

C F[PCOKE GSWKXCNGPV1606. #FFKVKQPCNN[ KPFKIGPQWU GRKUVGOQNQIKGU CPF RU[EJQNQIKGU CTG

OGVCRJ[UKECN CPF RQN[RJCUKE YJKNG YGUVGTP CTG TCVKQPCN CPF OQPQRJCUKE. +P VJG PGZV EJCRVGT

1606 F[PCOKE GSWKXCNGPEG UGGMU VQ TGRTGUGPV CFGSWCVGN[ CPF CEEWTCVGN[ KP C VCTIGV NCPIWCIG ITCOOCT, UV[NG, CPF KFKQO, VJCV YJKEJ VJG YQTFU CPF EQPUVTWEVKQPU KP VJG UQWTEG NCPIWCIG EQPXG[GF VQ VJG QTKIKPCN TGEKRKGPVU (0KFC 1964).




YG YKNN EQPUKFGT NQECN HQTGUV XCNWGU KP C YKFGT EQPVGZV CPF YC[U CPF OGCPU QH DTKFIKPI

DGVYGGP VJGO.


%JCRVGT 10 (QTGUV 8CNWGU KP VJG 9KFGT %QPVGZV


%*#26’4 10 (14’56 8#.7’5 +0 6*’ 9+&’4 %106’:6 +P %JCRVGT HKXG YG EQPENWFGF VJCV OQUV HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU KPENWFKPI PGQ-RQRWNKUV QPGU

QRGTCVG YKVJKP VJG UCOG FKUEWTUKXG VGTTCKP CU 'UEKGPVKHKE' HQTGUVT[ CPF CTG VJGTGHQTG PQV IGTOCPG

VQ VJKU UVWF[. 6JG QPN[ GZEGRVKQP CRRGCTGF VQ DG C RQUV-OQFGTP CRRTQCEJ DCUGF QP

GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU. #NVJQWIJ YG JCXG KFGPVKHKGF KP VJG RTGEGFKPI

EJCRVGTU VJG KORQTVCPEG QH HQTGUV XCNWGU VQ VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO CPF VJG GZKUVGPEG QH

RCTCFKIOU VJG UWEEGUU QH VJG CRRTQCEJ KU RTGFKECVGF QP HQTIKPI ETQUU-EWNVWTCN DTKFIGU DGVYGGP

HQTGUV XCNWG U[UVGOU CPF C EQOOKVOGPV VQ IGPFGT CPF GVJPKEKV[ OCKPUVTGCOKPI VJCV IQGU

DG[QPF TJGVQTKE. 6JTGG TGEGPV GZRGTKGPEGU KNNWUVTCVG VJG PCVWTG QH VJGUG FKHHKEWNVKGU RCTVKEWNCTN[

ENGCTN[.

+P GCTN[ 2005 + CEEQORCPKGF VYQ YGUVGTP GEQPQOKUVU VQ .WIW .CMG, TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 6

UGEVKQP 6.5.3 VQ EQPFWEV C HQTGUV XCNWG TCPMKPI GZGTEKUG VQ GPCDNG WU VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJG VQVCN

GEQPQOKE XCNWG QH HQTGUVU HQT NQECN GVJPKE ITQWRU. 6JG NQECN TGURQPFGPVU TCPMGF KPVTKPUKE XCNWG

2PF QWV QH 13 HQTGUV XCNWGU KP C TCPMKPI GZGTEKUG. 6JKU ECWUGF RCTCFKIOKE RTQDNGOU HQT VJG

GEQPQOKUVU YJQ FQ PQV V[RKECNN[ KPENWFG KPVTKPUKE XCNWGU CU C EQORQPGPV QH VJG VQVCN GEQPQOKE

XCNWG (6’8) QH HQTGUVU1607. 6JG[ JCF VQ CFF VJG HQNNQYKPI ECXGCV VQ VJG TGUWNVU:-

"+PVTKPUKE XCNWG JCU DGGP KPENWFGF KP VJG 6’8 HTCOGYQTM.... JQYGXGT D[ FGHKPKVKQP

KV KU OGVJQFQNQIKECNN[ KORQUUKDNG HQT JWOCPU VQ CVVCEJ C XCNWG VQ KV - KV JCU VJWU

DGGP FKUEQPPGEVGF HTQO VJG OCKP XCNWG EQORQUKVKQP CTTCPIGOGPV KP VJG EJCTV,

CNVJQWIJ KV YCU NGHV CU C XCNKF EQORQPGPV KP VJG HQEWU ITQWR"1608

.

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http://www.mekonginfo.org/mrc_en/doclib.nsf/0/199DE229E72FF8F747256A0F000AD042/$FILE/FULLTEXT.html

http://www.mekonginfo.org/mrc_en/doclib.nsf/0/199DE229E72FF8F747256A0F000AD042/$FILE/FULLTEXT.html

http://www.bath.ac.uk/cree/sterling.htm




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http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Mystical

http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Cult-%28religion%29

http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Entheogen




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CEEGUU MPQYNGFIG VJTQWIJ C XCTKGV[ QH RGTEGRVWCN RTQEGUUGU, TCVJGT VJCP OGTGN[ VJTQWIJ

GXGT[FC[ YCMKPI TGCNKV[. /CP[ QH VJGUG RGTEGRVWCN RTQEGUUGU CTG VTCPUTCVKQPCN CNVGTGF UVCVGU QH

EQPUEKQWUPGUU DWV CTG PQV EQPUKFGTGF XCNKF RTQEGUUGU HQT CEEGUUKPI MPQYNGFIG D[ GORKTKECN

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UVCVGU QH EQPUEKQWUPGUU, OGCPKPI VJCV UWEJ V[RGU QH EQPUEKQWUPGUU CTG VQ DG HQWPF KP OQUV

JWOCP UQEKGVKGU CPF CTG EQPUKFGTGF 'PQTOCN.' %WTTGPVN[, CNVJQWIJ PGY RGTEGRVWCN VTCLGEVQTKGU,

UWEJ CU VTCPURGTUQPCN RU[EJQNQI[1642 CTG ICKPKPI EWTTGPE[ KP VJG 9GUV, RQN[RJCUKE

EQPUEKQWUPGUU KU DGKPI FGXCNWGF KP OCP[ UQEKGVKGU CU KV KU UKOWNVCPGQWUN[ DGKPI TGRNCEGF D[

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EWNVWTCN FKXGTUKV[ KP UQEKGVKGU (3) GRKUVGOQNQIKECN FKXGTUKV[ KP YC[U QH MPQYKPI, YG CNUQ CTG

NQUKPI (4) RGTEGRVWCN FKXGTUKV[ KP JWOCP EQIPKVKXG RTQEGUUGU. #NN HQWT NQUUGU QH FKXGTUKV[

(DKQFKXGTUKV[, EWNVWTCN, GRKUVGOQNQIKECN CPF EQIPKVKXG) CTG KPVGTTGNCVGF.

%WNVWTGU VJCV XCNWG RGTEGRVWCN FKXGTUKV[ CTG OQTG CFCRVCDNG VJCP EWNVWTGU VJCV FQ PQV.

2GTEGRVWCNN[ FKXGTUG EWNVWTGU CTG DGVVGT CDNG VQ WPFGTUVCPF YJQNG U[UVGOU1643 VJCP CTG EWNVWTGU

VJCV TGN[ QPN[ QP VJG 'UEKGPVKHKE' OGVJQF, YJKEJ FKUUGEVU U[UVGOU. 6JG[ CNUQ CTG DGVVGT UVGYCTFU

QH VJGKT GPXKTQPOGPVU, DGECWUG VJG[ ITCUR VJG XCNWG QH VJG YJQNG QH DKQFKXGTUKV[ VJTQWIJ

VTCPUTCVKQPCN CU YGNN CU UEKGPVKHKE RTQEGUUGU. 7PFGTUVCPFKPI VJTQWIJ RGTEGRVWCN FKXGTUKV[ NGCFU

VQ C JKIJGT FGITGG QH CFCRVCDKNKV[ CPF 'GXQNWVKQPCT[' EQORGVGPEG.

6JGTG CTG FCPIGTU VJCV 'FGXGNQROGPV' YKNN EQPVKPWG VQ FGUVTQ[ RGTEGRVWCN FKXGTUKV[ DGECWUG KV

GZRQTVU OQPQRJCUKE EQIPKVKXG RTQEGUUGU QT KP VJG ECUG QH %JKPC VJG "UKPIWNCTN[ TCVKQPCN,

UEKGPVKHKE, CPF WPSWGUVKQPCDN[ UWRGTKQT EQIPKVKXG U[UVGO"1644 QH /CTZ CPF .GPKP. &GUVTQ[KPI

RGTEGRVWCN FKXGTUKV[, KP VWTP, NGCFU VQ VJG FGUVTWEVKQP QH EWNVWTCN FKXGTUKV[ CPF DKQEQORNGZKV[.

1639 9CNUJ CPF 8CWIJCP 1993 1640 YJKEJ KU DCUGF RTKOCTKN[ WRQP SWCPVKHKECVKQP, TGFWEVKQPKUO, CPF VJG GZRGTKOGPVCN OGVJQF. 1641 $QWTIWKIPQP 1973 1642 6TCPURGTUQPCN RU[EJQNQI[ (62) KU VJG HKGNF YJKEJ HQEWUGU QP GZRGTKGPEGU, UVCVGU QH EQPUEKQWUPGUU, CPF YC[U QH DGKPI KP YJKEJ VJG UGPUG QH KFGPVKV[ GZVGPFU DG[QPF VJG KPFKXKFWCN QT RGTUQPCN VQ KPENWFG YKFGT CURGEVU QH JWOCPMKPF, PCVWTG, QT EQUOQU (9CNUJ CPF 8CWIJCP, 1993). 1643 DGECWUG VJG[ WUG C XCTKGV[ QH RGTEGRVWCN RTQEGUUGU VQ WPFGTUVCPF U[UVGOU. 1644 *QYCTF 1994 JVVR://YYY.ELE-QPNKPG.EC/XKGYCTVKENG.RJR!KF=231&NC[QWV=JVON CEEGUUGF 14VJ #WI 2005

http://www.cjc-online.ca/viewarticle.php?id=231&layout=html




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RGTEGRVWCN RTQEGUUGU CPF CNUQ PGGF VQ HKPF C YC[ VQ KPENWFG CPF XCNKFCVG RGTEGRVWCN FKXGTUKV[ KP

VJGKT VJGQTGVKECN CPF CRRNKGF HTCOGYQTMU.

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VJKU EJCRVGT, HCKNGF VQ KFGPVKH[ CP[ EQPETGVG GZCORNGU QH 'DTKFIKPI' DGVYGGP GRKUVGOQNQIKECN

VTCLGEVQTKGU CVVGORVU CTG DGKPI OCFG VQ DTKFIG VJG GRKUVGOQNQIKECN CPF RU[EJQNQIKECN FKXKFG.

+P *CYCKK, "KPFKIGPQWU JGWTKUVKE CEVKQP TGUGCTEJ" JCU DGGP CFQRVGF. 6JKU CRRTQCEJ EQPUVKVWVGU

C HWUKQP QH GZKUVKPI OGVJQFQNQIKGU DNGPFGF YKVJ HGCVWTGU KFGPVKHKGF CU FKUVKPEVN[ KPFKIGPQWU1647.

+P ’EWCFQT, VJGTG KU TGEQIPKVKQP1648 VJCV GRKUVGOQNQIKECN DTKFIKPI EQWNF DG WUGF VQ CFFTGUU QPG

QH VJG MG[ EJCNNGPIGU QH TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV. +PFKIGPQWU GRKUVGOQNQIKGU CNNQY HQT VJG

OGGVKPI VJG PGGFU QH KPFKXKFWCNU YJKNG CV VJG UCOG VKOG UWUVCKPKPI RWDNKE IQQFU HQT VJG

EQOOWPKV[. 6JG DGPGHKVU QH WVKNK\KPI VJKU U[PGTI[ DGVYGGP VTCFKVKQPCN MPQYNGFIG CPF C

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+P 0GY <GCNCPF1649 VJG EQORCTKUQP QH EQPHNKEVKPI CPF EQPXGTIKPI /CQTK KPFKIGPQWU CPF

UEKGPVKHKE EQPUGTXCVQT[ XCNWGU, CTG C ETKVKECN CURGEV QH VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH C U[PGTIKUVKE RTQEGUU.

%QORCTKUQP, CNNQYU VJG UGCTEJ HQT U[PGTI[ VJTQWIJ VJG TGCNKIPOGPV QH VJG CHHKPKVKGU CPF

FKHHGTGPEGU CPF FKUVKPEVKQPU DGVYGGP /CQTK KPFKIGPQWU CPF UEKGPVKHKE GRKUVGOQNQI[. 6JG HQECN

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PGZWU QH /CQTK KPFKIGPQWU CPF UEKGPVKHKE EQPUGTXCVQT[ XCNWGU GZKUVU. +V KU UGGOKPIN[ YKVJKP VJKU

EQPXGTIGPEG QH UKOKNCTKVKGU CPF UJCTGF FKUEQWTUG1650 VJCV VJG U[PGTIKUVKE RQVGPVKCN QH /CQTK

KPFKIGPQWU CPF UEKGPVKHKE EQPUGTXCVQT[ XCNWGU ECP DG HQWPF.

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CTG CVVGORVKPI VQ KFGPVKH[ RU[EJQNQIKGU VQ OGGV VJG PGGFU QH /CQTK RGQRNG, KP C YC[ VJCV

1645 KP 2004 1646 JVVR://YYY.OKNNGPPKWOCUUGUUOGPV.QTI/GP/#DQWV./GGVKPIU.$TKFIKPI.2TQEGGFKPIU.CURZ CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005 1647 −CJCMCNCW 2004 RCIG 19 1648 $GEMGT CPF )JKOKTG 2003 1649 5KOQP 2002 1650 KP VJKU ECUG RQUV-OCVGTKCNKUV ITGGP WPFGTUVCPFKPIU QH VJG JWOCPMKPF-GPXKTQPOGPV TGNCVKQPUJKR (&QDUQP 1990,1999, &QDUQP GV CN. 1995, /GTEJCPV 1989,1996, 0QTVJ 1995, 2GRRGT 1993, 1996, 9QTUVGT 1993).

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/About.Meetings.Bridging.Proceedings.aspx




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RU[EJQNQIKUVU1653 CTG CVVGORVKPI VQ FGXGNQR; OWNVKRNG RU[EJQNQIKGU KPVQ C "WPKHKGF UEKGPEG"

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10.2 (14’56 8#.7’5

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CEMPQYNGFIGF VJTQWIJQWV VJG TGIKQP. #FFKVKQPCNN[ GCEJ GVJPKE ITQWR KP VJG TGIKQP CRRGCTU VQ

JCXG KVU QYP "GRKUVGOQNQIKGU QH PCVWTG"1658. 6JGUG XCNWGU CTG PQV QPN[ KORQTVCPV COQPI

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GZEGRVKQP TCVJGT VJCP VJG TWNG, CPF JCXG OCFG NKVVNG QT PQ KORTGUUKQP KP %JKPC, FWG VQ VJG

KPJGTGPV KFGQNQIKECN EQPVTCFKEVKQPU QH VTCFKVKQPCN XCNWGU, TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 7 UGEVKQP 7.4.

1651 EWUVQOCT[ RTCEVKEGU. 1652 0KMQTC GV CN 2004 RCIG 3 1653 −KO CPF $GTT[ 1993 1654 #\WOC 2000 RCIG 9 1655 %KIFGP −CIKVEKDCU 2000 RCIG 6, &CXKFUQP 2002 RCIG 104 1656 &CUGP $GTT[ CPF 5CTVQTKWU 1988 RCIG 306 1657 #TQWPF .WIW .CMG (5VWFNG[ GV CN 2005). 1658 /CEFQPCNF 2003, 2TCUCF CPF ’NOGU 2005 RCIG 887 1659 $GPIUVQP CPF :W 1995 RCIG 1




6JG KPENWUKQP QH HQTGUV XCNWGU KP RNCPPKPI JCU DGGP NCTIGN[ RTGFKECVGF QP KPVGITCVKQP YKVJ

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.GCTPKPI XCNWG

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.GCTPKPI XCNWGU CTG GXKFGPV COQPI VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO KP VTGG UVQTKGU, VJG URGEKCNK\GF

MPQYNGFIG QH RTKGUVU CPF UJCOCP, CPF VJG GRKUVGOQNQIKGU QH PCVWTG CPF CV .WIW .CMG (5GG

UGEVKQP 6.5.3) YJGTG VJG[ TGRTGUGPVGF 8% QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG. .GCTPKPI JQYGXGT KP

EQOOQP YKVJ OWEJ QH VJG OCLQTKV[ YQTNF KU IWKFGF D[ KPFKIGPQWU GRKUVGOQNQIKGU1662 CPF

RU[EJQNQIKGU YJKEJ CTG KORQTVCPV PQV QPN[ VQ PWTVWTG VJG KPVGTTGNCVKQPUJKR QH PCVWTG CPF EWNVWTG

DWV VQ GPJCPEG DKQFKXGTUKV[.

1660 0KFC 1964 1661 1H QT TGNCVKPI VQ OGCPKPI, GURGEKCNN[ OGCPKPI KP NCPIWCIG 1662 6JG UVWF[ QH VJGQTKGU QH MPQYNGFIG QT YC[U QH MPQYKPI, RCTVKEWNCTN[ KP VJG EQPVGZV QH VJG NKOKVU QT XCNKFKV[ QH VJG XCTKQWU YC[U QH MPQYKPI JVVR://YYY.RDU.QTI/HCKVJCPFTGCUQP/IGPINQUU/GRKUV-DQF[.JVON CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005.

http://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/gengloss/epist-body.html




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KPVGTEQPPGEVGFPGUU QH CNN CURGEVU QH PCVWTG1663. −PQYNGFIG KU VJGTGHQTG "VJG GZRTGUUKQP QH VJG

XKDTCPV TGNCVKQPUJKRU DGVYGGP VJG RGQRNG, VJGKT GEQU[UVGOU, CPF VJG QVJGT NKXKPI DGKPIU CPF

URKTKVU VJCV UJCTG VJGKT NCPFU"1664. +V KU RCTV QH C JQNKUVKE CPF URKTKVWCN RTQEGUU YJKEJ "ICVJGTU

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TGUGCTEJ VQQNU1666 OC[ KPENWFG HGGNKPIU, JKUVQT[, RTC[GT TGNCVKQPU, URKTKV JGNRGTU1667 CPF

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CPF NGCTPKPI1669. .GCTPKPI XCNWGU CTG DGIKPPKPI VQ DG KPENWFGF KP HQTGUV RNCPPKPI1670 CPF

TGUGCTEJ1671 DWV IKXGP VJG FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP YGUVGTP CPF KPFKIGPQWU 'OQFGU QH NGCTPKPI' CPF

'OQFGU QH RGTEGRVKQP' KV PGGFU VQ HQEWU QP "DTKFIKPI VJG GRKUVGOQNQIKGU" 1672 CPF

RU[EJQNQIKGU1673 VJCV KPHQTO HQTGUVT[-TGNCVGF MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU 1674.

%QPUGTXCVKQP XCNWGU CPF DKQFKXGTUKV[

%QPUGTXCVKQP CPF DKQFKXGTUKV[ XCNWGU, YJKEJ YG TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 3 UGEVKQP 3.3 CPF 4

UGEVKQP 4.5.2, CFFTGUU VJG UVGYCTFUJKR CPF GPJCPEGOGPV QH RNCPV CPF CPKOCN EQOOWPKVKGU.

5QOG EQPHWUKQP GZKUVU QXGT VJGUG XCNWGU DGECWUG VJTGG V[RGU QH EQPUGTXCVKQP CTG TGEQIPK\GF D[

VJG RGQRNGU QH −JCO, 'PCVWTCN' (QT DKQRJ[UKECN) YKVJQWV JWOCP CIGPE[, 'GPFQIGPQWU

CPVJTQRQIGPKE' YKVJ NQECN JWOCP CIGPE[, CPF 'GZQIGPQWU CPVJTQRQIGPKE' D[ VJG UVCVG QT 0)1U.

1663 $CUVKGP 2004, %CLGVG 2000, %CTFKPCN CPF *KNFGDTCPFV 2000, %QNQTCFQ 1989, ’TOKPG 1995; 1664 $CVVKUVG CPF *GPFGTUQP 2000, RCIG 42 1665 %QNQTCFQ 1989 RCIG 52 1666 4CXGP 5KPENCKT 2003 1667 6JG URKTKV JGNRGTU, HQT UQOG RGQRNG, CTG C EQPFWKV QH KPHQTOCVKQP CPF MPQYKPI CPF FTGCOU CTG C XGT[ KORQTVCPV OGCPU QH CESWKTKPI KPHQTOCVKQP, KPENWFKPI MPQYNGFIG QH RNCPVU, UQPIU CPF GXGPVU QH VJG HWVWTG (’TOKPG 1995 #PMGTDGTI CPF 9GNFQP 2005). 1668 0COMJCK 0QTDW WPFCVGF, 9C[OCP 1967 1669 ’TOKPG 1995 1670 $TQYP CPF 4GGF 2000 1671 )WTWPI 1994, .CKTF 2004 1672 /’# 2004 1673 9GUVGTP "OQPQRJCUKE" CPF KPFKIGPQWU "RQN[RJCUKE" (&CXKU 1999, 0KMQTC GV CN 2004, .WORMKP 2001 RCIG 37). 1674 $QWTIWKIPQP 1973 .WORMKP 2001 RCIG 37




+V KU PQV WPWUWCN VQ HKPF1675 VJCV CPVJTQRQIGPKE CPF DKQRJ[UKECN RTQEGUUGU CTG GSWCNN[ KORQTVCPV

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NQECVG KP VJG 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU', 'DKQ-RJ[UKECN' CPF 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN'

FQOCKPU CPF GZRTGUUGF KP VJG HQTGUV XCNWG UWTXG[ KP VGTOU QH 'GEQU[UVGO UWRRQTV' CPF

'GEQNQIKECN KORQTVCPEG FQ PQV, JQYGXGT TGCFKN[ TGEQIPK\G VJG TQNG QH UQEKGV[ QT VJCV QH VJG

%JKPGUG IQXGTPOGPV KP HQTGUV EQPUGTXCVKQP. (QT VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO KP EQOOQP YKVJ

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CPEKGPV VGTTCKP, CPF ECP DG EQPVTCUVGF YKVJ VJG .QEMGCP CPF/QT CPVJTQRQOQTRJK\GF XKGYU QH

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+PFKIGPQWU EWNVWTCN RTCEVKEGU FGHKPG RQNKVKEU CPF GVJKEU CU GZKUVKPI KP VJG TGCNO QH GEQU[UVGOU,

CPF YQWNF CTIWG VJCV KV OCMGU PQ UGPUG VQ NKOKV RQNKVKEU CPF GVJKEU QPN[ VQ JWOCP DGKPIU.

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YQTNF, CNVJQWIJ VJKU FQGU PQV OGCP VJCV CPKOCNU QT RNCPVU UJQWNF PQV DG VCMGP QT WUGF HQT HQQF

QT ENQVJKPI. 6JG[ WPFGTUVCPF VJCV VJG VCMKPI QH NKHG TGRTGUGPVU NQUU QH NKHG VQ C HGNNQY DGKPI VJCV

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CPF TGEKRTQEKV[1680.

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CFFKPI KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG EQORQPGPVU KPVQ FGXGNQROGPV RTQLGEVU. .CNQPFG JCU EQORNGVGF

1675 2GTGKTC, 2. CPF 2KTGU FC (QPUGEC /, 2003. 0CVWTG XU. PWTVWTG: VJG OCMKPI QH VJG OQPVCFQ GEQU[UVGO. %QPUGTXCVKQP ’EQNQI[ 7(3): 7. =QPNKPG? 74.: JVVR://YYY.EQPUGEQN.QTI/XQN7/KUU3/CTV7/ CEEGUUGF 1UV &GEGODGT 2005 1676 (QT OQTG QP CNVGTPCVKXG "GVJKEU" UGG 2CVGTUQP 1999, 2KGTQVVK CPF 9KNFECV 1999, )QNNKEJGT 1999, /E.CWIJNKP 1985, %CNNKEQVV 1982, +R 2Q −GWPI 1983. 1677 .CXGTV[ CPF 5VGTNKPI 2004 JVVR://EPZ.TKEG.GFW/EQPVGPV/O12160/NCVGUV/#%CNNKEQVV CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WN[ 2005 1678 RGTOKUUKQP UGGMKPI, TKVWCNU, RTQRKVKCVKQP. 1679 G.I. UJCOCP. 1680 %CUVTQ 1991, &QXG 1993D, 4GKEJGN 1992 1681 6KVQNC 990

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VYQ TGRQTVU1682 QP VJKU VQRKE HQT VJG %CPCFKCP +PVGTPCVKQPCN &GXGNQROGPV #IGPE[. 6JG 9QTNF

$CPM JGNF C UGOKPCT QP VJG TQNG QH KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG HQT CITKEWNVWTCN FGXGNQROGPV1683.

6YQ KPHNWGPVKCN RQNKE[ FQEWOGPVU JCXG TGEGPVN[ DGGP RTGRCTGF D[ VJG 7.5. 0CVKQPCN 4GUGCTEJ

%QWPEKN, QPG HQEWUGF QP VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH DKQFKXGTUKV[1684, VJG QVJGT QP UWUVCKPCDKNKV[

KUUWGU1685 KP CITKEWNVWTG CPF PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV. #NVJQWIJ VJKU OKIJV UQWPF

RTQOKUKPI VJG TGCNKV[ KU VJG FKUVCPEG DGVYGGP FQOKPCPV FKUEQWTUGU QH DKQFKXGTUKV[ CPF

KPFKIGPQWU DKQFKXGTUKV[ EQPUGTXCVKQP KU ITGCV CPF RGTJCRU ITQYKPI. $KQFKXGTUKV[ FKUEQWTUG KU

PQV EQPITWGPV YKVJ NQECN EQUOQNQIKGU TGNCVGF VQ NQECN RTCEVKEGU QH DKQFKXGTUKV[ WUG. 6JG

EQPEGRV QH DKQFKXGTUKV[, CU GODQFKGF KP VJG %QPXGPVKQP QP $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[, KU UVTQPIN[

GZRGTV DCUGF. 6JG HQEWU KU V[RKECNN[ QP IGPGU, PWODGTU QH URGEKGU, QT GEQU[UVGO V[RGU, CPF KV

HCKNU VQ RTQVGEV EWNVWTCN FKXGTUKV[ CPF VTCFKVKQPCN MPQYNGFIG QT TGEQIPK\G VJG PGGF VQ RTGUGTXG

DKQFKXGTUKV[ KP CTGCU YJGTG RGQRNG NKXG CPF TGN[ QP NQECN DKQFKXGTUKV[1686.

5WEJ 9GUVGTP UEKGPVKHKE CRRTQCEJGU CTG WUWCNN[ PQV RCTV QH VJG OKPFUGV QH NQECN RGQRNGU YJQ

NKXG KP CTGCU QH TKEJ CPF VJTGCVGPGF DKQFKXGTUKV[. 6Q TGKVGTCVG HTQO EJCRVGT 4 UGEVKQP 4.5 VJG[

QHVGP JCXG VJGKT QYP EQUOQNQIKGU, KP YJKEJ, HQT KPUVCPEG, URGEKGU QEEWR[ URGEKCN RNCEGU, DWV

PQV CU URGEKGU VJCV UJQWNF DG 'EQPUGTXGF ' HQT VJG TGCUQPU IKXGP YKVJKP VJG EQPVGZV QH VJG

%QPXGPVKQP QP $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[.

6JG NCEM QH EQPITWGPE[ DGVYGGP YGUVGTP DKQFKXGTUKV[ FKUEQWTUG CPF KPFKIGPQWU RTCEVKEG

UGGOKPIN[ ECWUGU VJG HQNNQYKPI VGPUKQPU:

• VJG UCOG URGEKGU CTG PQV PGEGUUCTKN[ TGICTFGF CU YQTVJ RTGUGTXKPI

• VJG WPKXGTUCNKUVKE VGPFGPEKGU QH 9GUVGTP UEKGPEG RTQJKDKV C RQUKVKXG CEMPQYNGFIOGPV QH

NQECN FKXGTUKV[

• FKHHGTGPV PQVKQPU QH QYPGTUJKR CPF EQPVTQN CTG WUGF

• VJG UECNG QH NGICN UQNWVKQPU EQPUKFGTGF D[ VJG %QPXGPVKQP QP $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[1687,

KU CV QFFU YKVJ VJG UECNG QH NQECN 'NGICN' RTCEVKEGU

1682 .CNQPFG 1991C, 1991D 1683 9CTTGP 1991 1684 0CVKQPCN 4GUGCTEJ %QWPEKN 1992 1685 0CVKQPCN 4GUGCTEJ %QWPEKN 1991 1686 )TWDD GV CN 1995 1687 K.G. VJG PCVKQPCN UECNG.




• �VJGTG KU C FCPIGT QH UVKIOCVK\KPI NQECN RGQRNGU HQT WPUWUVCKPCDNG WUG QH DKQFKXGTUKV[

1RRQTVWPKVKGU VQ NGUUGP VJGUG VGPUKQPU CTG HQWPF KP, FKCNQIWG, �DWKNFKPI QP UKOKNCTKVKGU DGVYGGP

9GUVGTP CPF NQECN EQUOQNQIKGU, �UJCTKPI QH DGPGHKVU CPF EQUVU, �EQOOQP DWV FKHHGTGPVKCVGF

TGURQPUKDKNKVKGU1688. 9C[U OWUV DG HQWPF KP VJG URCEGU QH GPEQWPVGT CPF FGDCVG HQT CECFGOKEU,

UEKGPVKUVU, 0)1U CPF KPVGNNGEVWCNU VQ TGHNGEV UGTKQWUN[ QP, CPF UWRRQTV, VJG CNVGTPCVKXG

HTCOGYQTMU VJCV, YKVJ C ITGCVGT QT NGUUGT FGITGG QH GZRNKEKVPGUU CPF UQRJKUVKECVKQP, VJCV

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU JCXG ETCHVGF. 6JG YQTNF OWUV DG TGFGHKPGF CPF TGEQPUVTWEVGF HTQO VJG

RGTURGEVKXG QH VJG OWNVKRNG EWNVWTCN CPF GEQNQIKECN RTCEVKEGU VJCV EQPVKPWG VQ GZKUV COQPI OCP[

EQOOWPKVKGU. #NVJQWIJ VJKU JCU C RQNKVKECN FKOGPUKQP, KV GPVCKNU UGTKQWU GRKUVGOQNQIKECN,

EWNVWTCN, CPF GEQNQIKECN EQPUKFGTCVKQPU1689./QTG TGUGCTEJ KU TGSWKTGF EQORCTKPI VJG FGITGG QH

EQPUGTXCVKQP EQPUEKQWUPGUU, CPF GVJKECN CVVKVWFGU, DGVYGGP UCETGF UKVGU CPF PQP-UCETGF UKVGU

CPF VJG TGNGXCPEG QH VJG HQWT KPFKIGPQWU GPXKTQPOGPVCN RCTCFKIOU UWIIGUVGF D[ 7OGPU1690.

5RKTKVWCN CPF UCETGF XCNWGU

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YKVJ UCETGF DWKNFKPIU QT ETGCVGF D[ C FKXKPG DGKPI.

#NVJQWIJ VJGTG KU PQ UGOCPVKE FKHHKEWNV[ YKVJ UCETGF XCNWGU VJGTG KU C RCTCFKIOKE QPG HQT

HQTGUVT[. 6JCPMU VQ ,QJP .QEMG PCVWTG JCU DGGP FGUQWNGF CPF OQUV HQTOCN HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU

NCEM C URKTKVWCN FKOGPUKQP. 6JG 7− (QTGUVT[ %QOOKUUKQP'U OQUV TGEGPV VGEJPKECN RCRGT1691 QP

HQTGUV RGTEGRVKQPU, CVVKVWFGU CPF RTGHGTGPEGU HCKNGF VQ CFFTGUU URKTKVWCN XCNWGU CV CNN.

5RKTKVWCN CPF UCETGF HQTGUV XCNWGU CTG PQV QPN[ KORQTVCPV HQT VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO DWV

QVJGT 6KDGVCPU CU YGNN. 4GHGTGPEG JCU CNTGCF[ DGGP OCFG KP EJCRVGT 7 UGEVKQP 7.3.4 CPF 7.5.5 VQ

VQ HQTGUVU CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ [WN-NJC VGTTKVQT[ CPF KP EJCRVGT 7 UGEVKQP 7.3.4 VQ PGTK OQWPVCKPU DWV

1688 ;QWPI 2WIYCUJ/+55 2002 1689 ’UEQDCT 1998 1690 # IKXKPI GPXKTQPOGPV, C TGEKRTQECVKPI GPXKTQPOGPV, C FKURQUCDNG GPXKTQPOGPV CPF C RTQJKDKVKPI GPXKTQPOGPV UWIIGUVGF D[ 7OCPU (1992). 1691 .GG 2001




CPQVJGT ECVGIQT[ QH UCETGF HQTGUV KU CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ "JKFFGP XCNNG[U"1692 QT $G[WNU1693. $G[WNU

CTG IGPGTCNN[ TGOQVG OQWPVCKP XCNNG[U YJGTG RGQRNG YQWNF HKPF CPF UGGM TGHWIG. )WTW

4KPRQEJG1694 KU DGNKGXGF, KP VJG GKIJVJ EGPVWT[ #& VQ JCXG GORQYGTGF 108 QH VJGUG JCXGPU,

RNCEGU YJGTG VJGTG YCU RGCEG CPF RTQURGTKV[, CPF URKTKVWCN RTQITGUU YCU HCEKNKVCVGF. 6JGUG

CTGCU CTG DGKPI ITCFWCNN[ KFGPVKHKGF D[ 6GTVQPU1695 YJQ 'FKUEQXGTGF' VGTOC

1696 YJKEJ FGUETKDG

CEEGUU. 6JKU RTCEVKEG KU PQY RCTV QH C TGUWTIGPV 0[KPIOC VTCFKVKQP, TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 7

UGEVKQP 7.4.4 QH 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO1697 KP YJKEJ VJG TQNG QH VGTOC1698 KP TGXKXKH[KPI1699

VJG UCETGF NCPFUECRG KU HWPFCOGPVCN VQ VJG TG-HQTOCVKQP QH 6KDGVCP KFGPVKV[1700. 6[RKECNN[

DG[WNU CTG KUQNCVGF, RGCEGHWN, VTCPSWKN XCNNG[U CDWPFCPV YKVJ PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU CPF OC[ JCXG

RTQXKFGF VJG KPURKTCVKQP HQT '5JCPITK-NC' KP ".QUV *QTK\QP"1701. �

6JG OQUV YGNN MPQYP DG[WNU CTG CV −CKNCU, 6UCTK, CPF .CREJK KP 6KDGV #4, &GOC\QPI KP

1692 5JGTRC 2003 RCIG 101

1693 )=-9v;k

UDCU [WN KU 6KDGVCP HQT JKFFGP RNCEG.��

1694 *G UGGOKPIN[ GUVCDNKUJGF $WFFJKUO KP VJG *KOCNC[C CPF 6KDGV D[ 'OGTIKPI' KV YKVJ RTG-$WFFJKUV DGNKGHU.

6JG 6KDGVCP PCOG QH )WTW 4KPRQEJG KU 2CFOC ,WPIPG .+1-'v$,{k

CPF VJG 5CPUMTKV PCOG KU 2CFOCUCODJCXC

Tü©xÉqpÉuÉ YJKEJ OGCU '*G YJQ YCU DQTPG QWV QH VJG .QVWU' CPF TGHGTU VQ JKU CRRCTGPV OKTCEWNQWU DKTVJ HTQO C

NQVWU DNQUUQO.

1695 #){:-%},k

IVGT UVQP KU 6KDGVCP HQT VTCUWTG-UGGMGTU.

1696 #){:-1k

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1697 5JGTRC 2003 RCIG 101, )GTOCPQ 1998

1698 ,{-9m#k

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1699 VQ IKXG PGY GPGTI[ CPF UVTGPIVJ VQ CP GXGPV QT CEVKXKV[ JVVR://YYY.HTGGUGCTEJ.EQ.WM/FKEVKQPCT[/TGXKXKH[KPI CEEGUUGF QP 18VJ 5GRV 2005. 1700 0QV QPN[ KU VJG WPKSWGN[ 6KDGVCP RCUV CICKP [KGNFKPI KVU IKHVU, DWV VJG NCPF KVUGNH KU [KGNFKPI EQPETGVG HTWKVU KPVGTVYKPGF YKVJ VJCV RCUV. +P OCP[ YC[U VJG TGDWKNFKPI QH UCETGF UKVGU, CNQPI YKVJ VJG QVJGT TCOKHKECVKQPU QH VGT, KU C FKTGEV TGURQPUG VQ VJG NQUU QH FKOGPUKQPCNKV[ KP 6KDGV: FWTKPI VJG %WNVWTCN 4GXQNWVKQP, QT OQTG CEEWTCVGN[ VJG EWNVWTCN FGXCUVCVKQP, GXGT[VJKPI KP 6KDGV YCU HNCVVGPGF QWV EWNVWTCNN[, LWUV CU RJ[UKECNN[ VJG VJQWUCPFU QH UVWRCU CPF OQPCUVGTKGU YGTG TGFWEGF VQ TWDDNG NKVVGTKPI VJG NCPFUECRG. 6JG 6GT OQXGOGPV GZVGPFU VJG TQQVU QH VJG RTGUGPV PQV QPN[ KP VJG EQPVGORQTCT[ IGQITCRJKE NCPFUECRG DWV CNUQ KP VJG NCPFUECRG QH 6KDGV'U TGOGODGTGF RCUV. +P VJKU YC[, KV KU QH WPKSWG XCNWG KP KODWKPI VJG RTGUGPV YKVJ ITGCVGT XCNWG CPF TGUQPCPEG HQT C XGT[ WPUGVVNGF IGPGTCVKQP QH 6KDGVCPU ()GTOCPQ 1998). 1701 *KNVQP 1933

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5KMMKO1702, VJG 5JGTRC1703 −JWODW1704, &QNRQ1705 CPF −JGPDCNWPI1706 KP 0GRCN1707 CPF

2GOCMQ KP 9GUVGTP −JCO1708. #U UCETGF UKVGU DG[WNU RQUUGUU PCVWTCN CPF EWNVWTCN EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU

VJCV YKNN EQPVKPWG VQ HCXQWT DKQFKXGTUKV[ EQPUGTXCVKQP, YJKEJ TGUQPCVGU YKVJ HKPFKPIU HTQO QVJGT

UCETGF UKVGU KP VJG TGIKQP. 4GUGCTEJGTU1709 JCXG JKIJNKIJVGF VJG KORQTVCPEG QH UCETGF UKVGU CU

PCVWTCN EQPUGTXCVKQP CTGCU CPF FKUEQXGTGF HQT GZCORNG, KP .KLKCPI %QWPV[, VJCV QP VJG DCUKU QH

C DKQFKXGTUKV[ KPFGZ1710, VJGTG KU ITGCVGT URGEKGU TKEJPGUU CPF TGNCVKXG CDWPFCPEG KP UCETGF

HQTGUV1711, EQORCTGF VQ EQPVTQN RNQVU1712. 6JG[ UVTGUU VJG KORQTVCPEG QH UCETGF UKVGU CU IGPG

RQQNU, VQ RTQVGEV YKNFNKHG CPF VQ RTGXGPV VJG PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV HTQO HWTVJGT FGITCFCVKQP CPF

PQVG VJCV CNVJQWIJ VJG %JKPGUG IQXGTPOGPV JCU GUVCDNKUJGF PKPG QH ;WPPCP'U PCVWTG TGUGTXGU

QP VJG DCUKU QH UCETGF OQWPVCKPU, VJGTG CTG UVKNN OCP[ UCETGF UKVGU VJCV CTG KIPQTGF D[ QWVUKFGTU.

4GNCVKQPUJKR VQ UCETGF NCPFUECRG XCTKGU VJTQWIJQWV VJG YQTNF, CNVJQWIJ OQUV TGURQPFGPVU KP

’CUVGTP −JCO URQMG QH 'DNGUUKPI' KP QVJGT TGIKQPU QH VJG YQTNF VJGTG CNUQ GZKUVU C TGNCVKQPUJKR

VJCV EQODKPGU HGCTHWN TGURGEV CPF CYG CV VJG DGCWV[ CPF O[UVKECN UQWTEG QH NKHG JGNF YKVJKP

HQTGUVU. $WFFJC UCV CNQPG KP VJG FGRVJU QH VJG HQTGUV, NQUV KP OGFKVCVKQP, CPF KV YCU KP VJG OKFUV

QH C DGCWVKHWN HQTGUV VJCV JG YCU UJQYP VJG 'HQWT ITGCV VTWVJU'1713. +P )JCPC, DGNKGHU CDQWV HQTGUVU

KPENWFG VJG DGNKGH VJCV VJG[ CTG VJG JQOG QH FYCTHU, CPF VJG FQOCKP QH VJG O[VJKECN

5CUCDQPUCO, C NGIGPFCT[ HKIWTG TGURQPUKDNG HQT CNN VJG YQGU QH OCPMKPF CPF VQ YJKEJ OKUJCRU

1702 JVVR://YYY.[WMUQO-VQWTU.EQO/DWFFJKUOAVQWT.JVON CEEGUUGF 30VJ #WIWUV 2005

1703 <:-.k

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1704 JVVR://YYY.KCPJKNNU.PGV/RJQTVUGEQOOWPKV[RTQLGEV/UJGTRCU.JVO CEEGUUGF 9VJ #WI 2005 1705 JVVR://YYY.KEKOQF.QTI/HQEWU/DKQFKXGTUKV[/YJAUKVG.JVO CEEGUUGF 29VJ /CTEJ 2004

1706 1",-.-;v$k

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1707 6JG CWVJQT XKUKVGF VJKU 'JKFFGP XCNNG[' CU UQQP CU KV QRGPGF VQ YGUVGTPGTU KP 1990. 1708 JVVR://YYY.VKDGVVQWT.EQO.EP/GPV/RKE/OCRU/17A2995.LRI CEEGUUGF 2PF #WI 2005 1709 .WQ 2GPI GV CN 2003 1710 $KQNQIKUVU JCXG FGXGNQRGF OCP[ OCVJGOCVKECN KPFKEGU VQ SWCPVKVCVKXGN[ OGCUWTG DKQFKXGTUKV[. 6JGUG KPFKEGU FGRGPF QP VJG CPCN[UKU QH URGEKGU TKEJPGUU CPF TGNCVKXG CDWPFCPEG. 1PG QH VJG OQTG EQOOQPN[ WUGF KPFKEGU KU VJG

5JCPPQP-9KGPGT KPFGZ (/CIWTTCP 1988) *' = -5RK NQIG RK YJGTG *' = VJG 5JCPPQP-9KGPGT DKQFKXGTUKV[ KPFGZ, RK = RTQRQTVKQP QH VJG KVJ URGEKGU, NQIG = VJG PCVWTCN NQI QH RK CPF 5 = VJG PWODGT QH URGEKGU KP VJG EQOOWPKV[. 6Q ECNEWNCVG *, FGVGTOKPG VJG RTQRQTVKQP QH GCEJ URGEKGU KP VJG EQOOWPKV[ (RK) CPF VJG NQIG QH GCEJ RK. 6JGP, OWNVKRN[ GCEJ RK VKOGU NQIG RK CPF UWO VJG TGUWNVU HQT CNN URGEKGU (U). 6JG OKPKOWO XCNWG HQT * YQWNF DG 0 HQT C EQOOWPKV[ YKVJ QPN[ QPG URGEKGU CPF YQWNF KPETGCUG CU URGEKGU TKEJPGUU KPETGCUGU CPF TGNCVKXG CDWPFCPEG DGEQOGU OQTG GXGP. 1711 * = 1.87 1712 * = 1.79 1713 2QTVGQWU 1928

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CPF GXGT[VJKPI GXKN CTG CVVTKDWVCDNG1714. 6JG &CK RGQRNG KP UQWVJGTP ;WPPCP DGNKGXG VJCV VJG

HQTGUV KU VJG ETCFNG QH JWOCP NKHG, CPF VJCV HQTGUVU CTG CV QPG YKVJ VJG UWRGTPCVWTCN TGCNO. 6JG[

DGNKGXG VJCV VJG KPVGTTGNCVKQPUJKR QH JWOCP DGKPIU YKVJ VJGKT RJ[UKECN GPXKTQPOGPV EQPUKUVU QH

HKXG OCLQT GNGOGPVU: HQTGUV, YCVGT, NCPF, HQQF CPF JWOCPKV[1715. #NVJQWIJ UCETGF HQTGUVU QEEWT

VJTQWIJQWV VJG YQTNF, VJG[ UJCTG OCP[ UKOKNCT HGCVWTGU, YJKEJ CTG UWOOCTK\GF KP VJG

FGUETKRVKQPU1716 QH VJG HQWT JWPFTGF "JQN[ JKNNU"1717 QT "FTCIQP JKNNU"1718 KP ;WPPCP 2TQXKPEG CU

"... C MKPF QH PCVWTCN EQPUGTXCVKQP CTGC... C HQTGUVGF JKNN YJGTG VJG IQFU TGUKFG. #NN VJG RNCPVU

CPF CPKOCNU VJCV KPJCDKV VJG JQN[ JKNNU CTG GKVJGT EQORCPKQPU QH VJG IQFU QT UCETGF NKXKPI VJKPIU

KP VJG IQFU' ICTFGPU. +P CFFKVKQP.... VJG URKTKVU QH ITGCV CPF TGXGTGF EJKGHVCKPU IQ VQ VJG *QN[

*KNNU VQ NKXG HQNNQYKPI VJGKT FGRCTVWTG HTQO VJG YQTNF QH VJG NKXKPI"1719.

5CETGF HQTGUVU CTG URGEKHKE HQTGUV CTGCU KODWGF YKVJ RQYGTU DG[QPF VJQUG QH JWOCPU; VJG[ CTG

JQOG VQ URKTKVU VJCV ECP VCMG QT IKXG NKHG; VJG[ QTKIKPCVG HTQO C TCPIG QH TQQVU, CPF KPENWFG: UKVGU

NKPMGF VQ URGEKHKE GXGPVU; UKVGU UWTTQWPFKPI VGORNGU; DWTKCN ITQWPFU QT EGOGVGTKGU JQWUKPI VJG

URKTKVU QH CPEGUVQTU; VJG JQOGU QH RTQVGEVKXG URKTKVU; VJG JQOGU QH FGKVKGU HTQO YJKEJ RTKGUVU

FGTKXG VJGKT JGCNKPI RQYGTU; JQOGU VQ C RQYGTHWN CPKOCN QT RNCPV URGEKGU; HQTGUV CTGCU VJCV

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UGV FQYP D[ RTKGUVU1723 YKVJ MPQYNGFIG QH VJG HQTGUV FGKVKGU, VJGKT VKGU VQ VJG UWTTQWPFKPI

NCPFUECRG, CPF VJGKT KPHNWGPEG QP VJG FCKN[ NKXGU QH VJG EQOOWPKV[. #PEKGPV HQNMNQTG CPF UVQTKGU

CTG VQNF YJKEJ KPENWFG HCKTN[ URGEKHKE FGVCKN QP VJG UWRGTPCVWTCN RGPCNVKGU VJCV YKNN TGUWNV UJQWNF

VJG ITQXGU DG FGUGETCVGF, HQT GZCORNG D[ HGNNKPI VTGGU. *QYGXGT, EQPVTQN QXGT GZVTCEVKXG

CEVKXKVKGU KP UCETGF HQTGUVU XCTKGU D[ XKNNCIG, CPF KP OCP[ RNCEGU C EQORNGVG DCP KU PQV KP RNCEG,

CPF NKOKVGF EQNNGEVKQP QH HCNNGP YQQF, HTWKV HTQO VJG HQTGUV HNQQT, OGFKEKPCN RNCPV EQNNGEVKQP,

JQPG[ EQNNGEVKQP, VCRRKPI QH VJG ,CIIGT[ RCNO1724 VQ OCMG CP CNEQJQNKE DGXGTCIG, CPF QVJGT

CEVKXKVKGU CTG RGTOKVVGF, KH UVTKEVN[ EQPVTQNNGF1725.

5CETGF HQTGUVU JCXG UWTXKXGF HQT OCP[ JWPFTGFU QH [GCTU CPF VQFC[ CEV CU TGUGTXQKTU QH OWEJ

NQECN DKQFKXGTUKV[. +P /CJCTCUJVTC1726 UVCVG VJG 40 EQPVKIWQWU UCETGF HQTGUVU CEEQWPV, CU C

YJQNG, HQT OQUV QH VJG RNCPV URGEKGU RTGUGPV KP VJG TGIKQP. 6JG HQTGUV UVTWEVWTG KU CNUQ WPKSWG,

TGRTGUGPVKPI VJG NGCUV FKUVWTDGF KUNCPFU QH QNF ITQYVJ. %JKPC'U 'JQN[ JKNNU' CNUQ OCMG C

UKIPKHKECPV EQPVTKDWVKQP VQ DKQFKXGTUKV[ EQPUGTXCVKQP QP C PWODGT QH NGXGNU: VJG[ EQPVTKDWVG VQ

VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH VJTGCVGPGF HQTGUV GEQU[UVGOU; VJG[ RTQVGEV C NCTIG PWODGT QH GPFGOKE QT

TGNKE RNCPV URGEKGU; CPF VJG NCTIG PWODGT QH JQN[ JKNNU FKUVTKDWVGF VJTQWIJQWV VJG TGIKQP HQTO

'ITGGP KUNCPFU' QT 'UVGRRKPI UVQPGU' DGVYGGP NCTIGT PCVWTG TGUGTXGU1727.

#U C TGUWNV QH VJG JKIJ EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF DKQFKXGTUKV[ XCNWGU JGNF KP UCETGF HQTGUVU, KPETGCUKPI

CVVGPVKQP KU DGKPI RCKF VQ VJGKT RQVGPVKCN CU C VQQN CPF OQFGN HQT DKQFKXGTUKV[ EQPUGTXCVKQP.

6JGTG CTG C PWODGT QH TGCUQPU HQT VJKU. 5CETGF HQTGUVU JCXG UGTXGF CU KORQTVCPV TGUGTXQKTU QH

DKQFKXGTUKV[, RTGUGTXKPI WPKSWG URGEKGU QH RNCPVU, KPUGEVU, CPF CPKOCNU. 5CETGF CPF VCDQQ

CUUQEKCVKQPU CVVCEJGF VQ RCTVKEWNCT URGEKGU QH VTGGU, HQTGUVU, OQWPVCKPU, TKXGTU, ECXGU, NCMGU, CPF

VGORNG UKVGU UJQWNF VJGTGHQTG EQPVKPWG VQ RNC[ CP KORQTVCPV TQNG KP VJG RTQVGEVKQP QH RCTVKEWNCT

1722 2GK 5JGPILK 1999 RCIG 381

1723 MPQYP CU mÉÑeÉËU RWLCTK QT pÉaÉiÉ DJCICVU.

1724 %CT[QVC WTGPU KP .CVKP, 董棕 FQPI3 \QPI1 KP %JKPGUG (3TF VQPG CPF 1UV VQPG) CPF qÉËU OCTK KP *KPFK

JVVR://YYY.HNQTKFCVC.EQO/TGH/%/ECT[AWTG.EHO CEEGUUGF 10VJ ,WN[ 005. 1725 $JCTWEJC 1999 1726 +P +PFKC. 1727 2GK 5JGPILK 1999

http://www.floridata.com/ref/C/cary_ure.cfm




GEQU[UVGOU D[ NQECN RGQRNG YJKEJ OKIJV RTQXKFG CP CNVGTPCVKXG CPF KPPQXCVKXG CRRTQCEJ VQ

GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPUGTXCVKQP VJCV KU PQV RTGFKECVGF QP CNKGP YGUVGTP NGICN LWTKURTWFGPEG1728.

2CTVKEWNCT RNCPV URGEKGU CTG QHVGP WUGF D[ VTCFKVKQPCN JGCNGTU CPF RTKGUVU YJQ JCXG C UVTQPI

KPVGTGUV KP VJG RTGUGTXCVKQP QH UWEJ UKVGU CPF GEQU[UVGOU. +P UQOG TGIKQPU QH VJG YQTNF, DGNKGHU

VJCV URKTKVU KPJCDKV TGNKEV CTGCU JCXG UGTXGF VQ SWKEMN[ TGIGPGTCVG CDCPFQPGF UYKFFGP RNQVU KPVQ

OCVWTG HQTGUV. +P QVJGT CTGCU, UCETGF RNCEGU RNC[ C OCLQT RCTV KP UCHGIWCTFKPI ETKVKECN UKVGU KP VJG

J[FTQNQIKECN E[ENG QH YCVGTUJGF CTGCU. (WTVJGTOQTG, KP C PWODGT QH KPUVCPEGU UCETGF UKVGU JCXG

CNUQ DGGP KPUVTWOGPVCN KP RTGUGTXKPI VJG GEQNQIKECN KPVGITKV[ QH GPVKTG NCPFUECRGU. (QT VJGUG

TGCUQPU, UCETGF UKVGU ECP JGNR KP CUUGUUKPI VJG RQVGPVKCN PCVWTCN XGIGVCVKQP QH FGITCFGF

GEQU[UVGOU QT GEQU[UVGOU OQFKHKGF D[ JWOCPU1729.

5CETGF HQTGUVU JCXG UWTXKXGF KP OCP[ TGIKQPU FGURKVG VTGOGPFQWU GEQPQOKE RTGUUWTG QP HQTGUV

TGUQWTEGU. +P UQOG RCTVU QH +PFKC, HQT GZCORNG, UCETGF HQTGUVU JCXG TGVCKPGF JKIJ NGXGNU QH

DKQFKXGTUKV[ CPF TGOCKP NCTIGN[ KPVCEV, YJKNG IQXGTPOGPV-EQPVTQNNGF HQTGUV TGUGTXGU CTG QHVGP KP

RQQT EQPFKVKQP. .QECN NGXGN EQPVTQN JCU DGGP XKVCN VQ VJG RTQVGEVKQP QH VJGUG CTGCU, DWV GEQPQOKE

RTGUUWTGU CTG OQWPVKPI, CPF EJCPIKPI NCPF-WUG RCVVGTPU JCXG EQPVTKDWVGF VQ C UGTKQWU FGRNGVKQP

QH TGUQWTEGU CPF C RJGPQOGPCN TKUG KP VJG RTKEG QH NCPF. 6JKU KP VWTP JCU RTQXKFGF CP KTTGUKUVKDNG

KPEGPVKXG HQT UQOG NQECN RGQRNG VQ UGNN VJG HQTGUVU, KTTGURGEVKXG QH VJG UGPVKOGPV VJCV CV QPG VKOG

YCU UWHHKEKGPV VQ RTGUGTXG VJGO1730.

’XGP KP ECUGU YJGTG NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU CTG FGVGTOKPGF VQ TGVCKP UCETGF HQTGUVU, VJG[ CTG QHVGP

CU XWNPGTCDNG VQ QWVUKFG RQNKVKECN CPF GEQPQOKE HQTEGU CU QVJGT HQTGUV CTGCU. +P ’CUV −CNKOCPVCP,

HQT GZCORNG, QKN RCNO RNCPVCVKQP CPF NQIIKPI QRGTCVKQPU CTG ENGCTKPI CPEGUVTCN (CFCV) HQTGUV.

6JG CFCV EQXGTU HQWT V[RGU QH HQTGUV: RGTGPPKCN VTGG ICTFGPU1731, HTWKV VTGG ICTFGPU1732, UYCOR[

CTGCU1733, CPF TCVVCP ICTFGPU1734. 6JG EQORCPKGU RTQOKUG KP TGVWTP VQ GPEQWTCIG 'EQOOWPKV[

RCTVKEKRCVKQP', 'VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV', CPF 'KPEQOG IGPGTCVKPI

1728 5EJCCH 1999 1729 70’5%1 1996 JVVR://YYY.CITQHQTGUVT[.PGV/QXGTUVQT[/QXGTUVQT[93.JVON CEEGUUGF 5VJ #WI 2005 1730 $JCTWEJC 1999, 2TCOQF 2CTCLWNK 1999 1731 UKRWPI DGPIMWV 1732 UKRWPI DWC 1733 UKRWPI RC[Q 1734 UKRWPI WYG





UEJGOGU', YJKEJ CTG EQPUKFGTGF 'GORV[ CPF RQKPVNGUU' QHHGTU HQT C RTKEGNGUU CPEGUVTCN HQTGUV VJCV

ECPPQV DG GSWCVGF YKVJ OQPGVCT[ CPF OCVGTKCN EQPFKVKQPU1735.

6JGTG CTG, JQYGXGT, ENGCTN[ FCPIGTU QH CVVGORVKPI VQ CFQRV UCETGF HQTGUVU CU C OQFGN HQT

EQPUGTXCVKQP QT HQT VJGKT KPEQTRQTCVKQP KPVQ 'OQFGTP' EQPUGTXCVKQP OGVJQFU, DWV GSWCNN[ QH

CUUWOKPI VJCV VJGTG KU PQ RQUUKDKNKV[ QH DWKNFKPI DTKFIGU DGVYGGP CNN VJG FKURCTCVG VTCLGEVQTKGU

QH EQPUGTXCVKQP. #NVJQWIJ UCETGF HQTGUVU WPFQWDVGFN[ EQPVTKDWVG VQ VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH

DKQFKXGTUKV[, UQOG SWGUVKQP 1736 YJGVJGT VJG EQORNGZ JKUVQT[ CPF VTCFKVKQPU VJCV JCXG ETGCVGF

CPF OCKPVCKP VJGUG CTGCU ECP DG QRGTCVKQPCNK\GF CU C VQQN QT OQFGN HQT HWTVJGT EQPUGTXCVKQP

GHHQTVU. %QPUGTXCVKQP KU QHVGP C UKFG-GHHGEV QH EWUVQOU VJCV CUUQEKCVG QT FGFKECVG HQTGUV

TGUQWTEGU VQ VJG FGKVKGU. +P VJG 9GUVGTP )JCVU QH +PFKC, TCVJGT VJCP OCPCIKPI TGUQWTEGU HQT

HWVWTG WUG, EQOOWPKVKGU CTG KPUVGCF CVVGORVKPI VQ DGPGHKV HTQO VJG RTQVGEVKQP CPF IQQF-YKNN

CHHQTFGF D[ VJG FGKV[ KP TGVWTP HQT PQV FKUVWTDKPI VJG UCPEVKV[ QH VJG UCETGF HQTGUV1737. 6JKU

YQWNF DG C FKHHKEWNV F[PCOKE VQ TGRTQFWEG KP C EQPUGTXCVKQP RTQITCOOG. +P 5QWVJGTP )JCPC,

(CNEQPGT1738 CTIWGU VJCV UCETGF HQTGUVU GZKUV CU RCTV QH C U[UVGO UQ EQORNGZ CPF XCTKCDNG VJCV C

OWEJ ENGCTGT WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH VJG URKTKVWCN, O[UVKECN CPF RQNKVKECN HWPEVKQPU CPF DGNKGHU QH

UCETGF HQTGUVU KU PGGFGF DGHQTG VJG[ ECP DG KPEQTRQTCVGF KPVQ EQPUGTXCVKQP RTQITCOOGU. +P

5QWVJ +PFKC, UCETGF HQTGUVU CTG RQRWNCVGF D[ FGCF URKTKVU RTGXGPVGF HTQO VTCPUHQTOKPI CPF

JGPEG TGOCKPKPI IJQUVU HQTGXGT. 6JGKT NKHG HQTEG GPIGPFGTU VTGGU VQ ITQY YKNF, CPF IKXGU TKUG VQ

JKIJN[ HGTVKNG DWV GZVTGOGN[ FCPIGTQWU UCETGF HQTGUVU, YJKEJ CTG HTKIJVGPKPI CPF JKIJN[

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UCPEVWCTKGU QH DKQFKXGTUKV[, JQOG VQ DGPKIP CPF RTQVGEVKPI FGKVKGU. 6JG UWIIGUVKQP VJCV VJG

DGNKGH U[UVGOU VJCV JCXG RTQVGEVGF VJGUG HQTGUVU UJQWNF DG RTQOQVGF VQ GPEQWTCIG VJG

EQPUGTXCVKQP QH NCTIGT HQTGUV CTGCU KIPQTGU VJG HCEV VJCV, YJKNG DQVJ GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUVU CPF NQECN

RGQRNGU XKGY VTGGU CU XKVCN CPF JQNFKPI TGIGPGTCVKXG RQYGT, VTGGU KP VTCFKVKQPCN +PFKC CTG PQV

DGPKIP RTQVGEVQTU, VJG[ CTG HTKIJVHWN CPF VJG RQYGT QH VJGKT NKHG HQTEG KU GZVTGOGN[ FCPIGTQWU.

1735 ’PTKU CPF 5CTOKCJ 1999 1736 .CKTF 1997-2005 JVVR://YYY.CITQHQTGUVT[.PGV/QXGTUVQT[/QXGTUVQT[93.JVON CEEGUUGF 20VJ ,WN[ 2005 1737 $JCTWEJC 1999 1738 (CNEQPGT 1999 1739 4KXCN 1999





9JKNG KORQTVCPV TGUGTXQKTU QH DKQFKXGTUKV[, .CKTF1740 VJKPMU KV KU WPNKMGN[ VJCV YKVJ VJG

GZEGRVKQP QH C HGY CTGCU, VJG EWNVWTCN DGNKGHU CPF OCPCIGOGPV U[UVGOU VJCV JCXG NGF VQ VJG

EQPUGTXCVKQP QH UCETGF HQTGUVU EQWNF GCUKN[ DG KPEQTRQTCVGF KPVQ VJG YGUVGTP EQPUGTXCVKQP.

+TTGURGEVKXG QH VJG WUG QT PQP WUG QH UCETGF ITQXGU VQ RTQOQVG EQPUGTXCVKQP, KV KU UGGOKPIN[

OQTG KORQTVCPV, TCVJGT VJCP CVVGORVKPI VQ KPEQTRQTCVG UCETGF ITQXGU KPVQ YGUVGTP EQPUGTXCVKQP

RCTCFKIOU, VQ DTKFIG QT HKPF U[PGTI[ COQPI OWNVKRNG RCTCFKIOU QH EQPUGTXCVKQP. 4GHGTGPEG

JCU DGGP OCFG KP EJCRVGT 8 UGEVKQP 8.2.7 CPF GCTNKGT KP VJKU EJCRVGT KP UGEVKQP 10.1.1 CPF 10.1.2

VQ GRKUVGOQNQIKECN CPF RU[EJQNQIKECN DTKFIKPI DWV URKTKVWCN DTKFIKPI KU CU KORQTVCPV HQT

EQPUGTXCVKQP.

+P OWEJ QH VJG 'YGUV' OCP[ 'RGQRNG QH HCKVJ' JCXG NKVVNG UGPUG QH JQY FKXKPKV[ RGTOGCVGU VJG

ETGCVGF QTFGT. 6JGTG KU CNOQUV PQ UGPUG QH C UCETGF FKOGPUKQP VQ ETGCVKQP KP OQUV EJWTEJGU QT

VGORNGU. 9JCVGXGT CYCTGPGUU QT TGEQIPKVKQP QH )QF KP ETGCVKQP WUWCNN[ EQOGU HTQO

GZRGTKGPEGU KP PCVWTG. #U C TGUWNV TQOCPVKEU1741, %JTKUVKCP O[UVKEU1742 QT PCVWTG O[UVKEU1743

JCXG DGGP VJG 'RTQRJGVU QH GEQNQI[' TCVJGT VJCP VJG ENGTI[. +PUVGCF KPUVKVWVKQPCN TGNKIKQP JCU

CNNQYGF C UGEWNCT UEKGPVKUO VQ KPHNWGPEG KVU FQEVTKPGU CPF UMGY KVU VGCEJKPIU UWEJ VJCV C

.QEMGCP UGRCTCVKQP GPVGTGF KPVQ KVU CUUWORVKQPU CDQWV )QF CPF ETGCVKQP, JGCXGP CPF GCTVJ, CPF

GURGEKCNN[ JWOCPU CPF VJG DKQNQIKECN U[UVGOU QH VJG RNCPGV. 6JG EQPUGSWGPEG KU VJCV OQUV

RGQRNG PGXGT OCMG VJG UKORNG EQPPGEVKQPU DGVYGGP )QF CU %TGCVQT CPF VJG OCP[ FKHHGTGPV

HQTOU QH NKHG KP PCVWTG. 6JG EQPUGSWGPEGU CTG VJCV C URKTKVWCNN[ CVTQRJKGF JWOCP UQEKGV[ JCU

CNNQYGF PCVWTG VQ DG EQOOQFKHKGF KPVQ TGUQWTEGU HQT GZRNQKVCVKQP. 6JGTGHQTG C EWNVWTG, WPKSWG

KP JWOCP JKUVQT[, JCU CTKUGP YJKEJ EQPUKFGTU VTGGU, CPKOCNU CPF VJG GCTVJ KVUGNH CU UGRCTCVG

HTQO )QF CPF VJGTGHQTG C EQOOQFKV[, FKXQTEGF HTQO FKXKPKV[, YJKEJ ECP DG WUGF YKVJQWV

TGICTF HQT EQPUGSWGPEGU. #PF VJG YC[ RGQRNG UGG PCVWTG KPHNWGPEGU CNN QH VJGKT QVJGT CVVKVWFGU,

GZVGPFKPI GXGP VQ QVJGT RGQRNG1744. /CP[ RGQRNG QH HCKVJ CNUQ UVTWIING YKVJ VJG CPKOKUO

1740 .CKTF 1997-2005 JVVR://YYY.CITQHQTGUVT[.PGV/QXGTUVQT[/QXGTUVQT[93.JVON CEEGUUGF 20VJ ,WN[ 2005 1741 UWEJ CU )QGVJG, 6JQTGCW, ’OGTUQP, 9QTFUYQTVJ, %QNGTKFIG CPF $NCMG (5GG %QQRGT 1990D). 1742 UWEJ CU 5V #WIWUVKPG, (TCPEKU QH #UUKUK QT /GKUVGT ’EMJCTV (5GG )CVGU 2004). 1743 UWEJ CU ,COGU, 7PFGTJKNN, /GTEGT, <CGJPGT, QT *CRRQNF (5GG −KPI 1995). 1744 −TWGIGT WPFCVGF





CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ UCETGF HQTGUV DGECWUG VJG[, NKMG OCP[ YGUVGTPGTU, JCXG FKXKFGF VJG WPKXGTUG

KPVQ VYQ UGRCTCVG YQTNFU1745 CPF JCXG GZENWFGF UWRGTPCVWTCN HQTEGU KP VJG OCVGTKCN WPKXGTUG1746.

5QOG CVVGORVU CTG DGKPI OCFG VQ KPENWFG UCETGF XCNWGU KP HQTGUVT[ RNCPPKPI1747 CPF VJG 75

HQTGUV UGTXKEG, HQT GZCORNG, JCXG FGXGNQRGF C UCETGF UKVG RQNKE[ KP 5QWVJ &GMQVC WUKPI VJG

.CMQVC FGHKPKVKQP QH UCETGF1748. 9C[U OWUV DG UQWIJV VQ DTKFIG QT HKPF U[PGTI[ COQPI

GEQ-URKTKVWCN RCTCFKIOU QP C ECUG D[ ECUG DCUKU. #NVJQWIJ UQOG CVVGORVU1749 CTG DGKPI OCFG

OQUV CTG RTGFKECVGF QP KPVGITCVKQP QT KPEQTRQTCVKQP DWV HCKN VQ RTQXKFG C EQPEGRVWCN HTCOGYQTM.

)KXGP VJG FCPIGTU QH KPVGITCVKQP TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 2.2, 3.3.5, 4.5.4, 5.9 CPF 5.9.2 KV YQWNF

CRRGCT VQ DG OQTG CRRQUKVG VQ CFQRV U[PGTIKUVKE DTKFIKPI DGVYGGP URKTKVWCN RCTCFKIOU.

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GXGT[VJKPI QP GCTVJ (KPENWFKPI HQTGUVU) KU KPJGTGPVN[ XCNWCDNG DGECWUG KV JCU DGGP ETGCVGF D[ C

FKXKPG DGKPI. 6JKU EQPVTCUVU YKVJ OQUV FKEVKQPCT[ FGHKPKVKQPU YJGTG KV KU FGHKPGF CU "1H QT

TGNCVKPI VQ VJG GUUGPVKCN PCVWTG QH C VJKPI"1750 CPF YKVJ VJCV QH UQOG GEQPQOKUVU YJQ FQP'V

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6JG HQTOGT XKGY YCU RTGXCNGPV KP YGUVGTP RJKNQUQRJ[ RTKQT VQ VJG ’PNKIJVGPOGPV, YJGP

KPVTKPUKE XCNWG YCU, EQPUKFGTGF FKHHGTGPV HTQO CPF UWRGTKQT VQ GZEJCPIG XCNWG. 5KOKNCT XKGYU

GZKUVGF KP %JKPC WUWCNN[ DCUGF QP %QPHWEKCPKUO, &CQKUO, $WFFJKUO QT CPKOKUO/UJCOCPKUO.

$GECWUG KPVTKPUKE XCNWG KP ’WTQRG CPF %JKPC YCU C OGVCRJ[UKECN EQPEGRV KV ECOG WPFGT

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1745 C VTCPUEGPFGPV YQTNF DG[QPF QWTU CPF CP GORKTKECN YQTNF QH QWT UGPUGU. 1746 *KGDGTV 1982D 1747 $TQYP CPF 4GGF 2000 1748 JVVR://YYY.HU.HGF.WU/T2/DNCEMJKNNU/PGYU/XPT/TGNGCUGU/VTKDCNAUCETGFUKVGUACFXKUQT[AYGDA021905.RFH CEEGUUGF 14VJ 1EVQDGT 2005 1749 JVVR://YYY.HCQ.QTI/FQEWOGPVU/UJQYAEFT.CUR!WTNAHKNG=/FQETGR/Z0963’/Z0963G08.JVO CEEGUUGF 5VJ #WI 2005 JVVR://YYY.EKF.JCTXCTF.GFW/EKFDKQVGEJ/EQOOGPVU/EQOOGPVU35.JVO CEEGUUGF 5VJ #WI 2005 JVVR://YYY.EDKM.QTI/EDKM-GP/EDKM/CDQWVAWU/TAUVTCVGI[.JVO CEEGUUGF 5VJ #WI 2005 $GEMGT CPF )JKOKTG 2003, 4QVJ 2004 1750 JVVR://YYY.CPUYGTU.EQO/VQRKE/KPVTKPUKE CEEGUUGF 10VJ 0QXGODGT 2005

http://www.fs.fed.us/r2/blackhills/news/vnr/releases/tribal_sacredsites_advisory_web_021905.pdf

http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/x0963E/x0963e08.htm

http://www.cid.harvard.edu/cidbiotech/comments/comments35.htm

http://www.cbik.org/cbik-en/cbik/about_us/r_strategy.htm

http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol8/iss1/art1/main.html#author

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.answers.com/topic/intrinsic




VJG YGUVGTP YQTNF D[ OQTG 'UEKGPVKUOKE' GZRNCPCVKQPU QH GZEJCPIG XCNWG DCUGF QP

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YJQ JCXG FGCNV YKVJ EQPEGRVU QH KPVTKPUKE XCNWG. 2W EQNNGEVGF QXGT 500 HQNM UVQTKGU CV VJG

DGIKPPKPI QH VJG 3KPI F[PCUV[1753 CPF QPG UVQT[, 'VJG RWTG XQKF UVQPG' KNNWUVTCVGU UQOG EQPEGRVU

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http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m12160/latest/

http://www.deh.gov.au/pcepd/economics/estimating/estim2.html




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http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/nationality/miao/




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WPFGTIQKPI TCRKF EJCPIG CPF KV KU PQV UWTRTKUKPI VJCV C FKXGTIGPEG QH XKGYU QP OGCUWTGU HQT

NCPF RTQVGEVKQP GZKUVU YKVJKP CNN VJTGG EWNVWTGU.

1775 #NVJQWIJ KP VJG 7−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−KVQUUC 2000 1778 %QNEJGUVGT 2001 1779 )WJC 1997 1780 )WJC 2000




9GUVGTP EWNVWTG KU CP COCNICO QH EWNVWTGU, NCTIGN[, DWV PQV GZENWUKXGN[ ’WTQRGCP, VJCV JCU CPF

KU WPFGTIQKPI TCRKF EJCPIG. 6JKU CEEGNGTCVGF EJCPIG KU VJG RTQFWEV QH VJG KPFWUVTKCN CPF

VGEJPQNQIKECN TGXQNWVKQP. 7PNKMG OQUV QH VJG EWNVWTGU VJCV KV JCU CDUQTDGF CPF VJCV JCF GXQNXGF

QXGT OKNNGPPKC QH TGNCVKXG UVCDKNKV[, 9GUVGTP EWNVWTG KU PQY C EWNVWTG KP VTCPUKVKQP, HWGNNGF D[ VJG

TCRKF KPETGCUG KP JWOCP RQRWNCVKQP FGPUKV[ CPF GZRNQKVCVKQP QH NCTIGN[ PQP-TGPGYCDNG

TGUQWTEGU VJCV CTG HCT TGOQXGF HTQO VJGKT EQPUWOGTU. +V KU C EWNVWTG YKVJ NKVVNG NKMGNKJQQF HQT

CFQRVKQP QH VKOGN[ UGNH-KORQUGF EQPUVTCKPVU QP KVU OCPPGT QH TGUQWTEG GZRNQKVCVKQP VJCV EQWNF

NGCF VQ RQRWNCVKQP CPF EWNVWTCN UWUVCKPCDKNKV[.

9KNFGTPGUU, CU C EQPEGRV, KU CNUQ WPFGTIQKPI EJCPIG KP 9GUVGTP UQEKGV[. +P VJG HQWT FGECFGU

UKPEG VJG RCUUCIG QH VJG 9KNFGTPGUU #EV1781 KP VJG 7PKVGF 5VCVGU, VJGTG JCU DGGP C TCRKF ITQYVJ

KP YKNFGTPGUU XKUKVQTU KP CTGCU FGUKIPCVGF CU YKNFGTPGUU. 6JG YKNFGTPGUU GZRGTKGPEG, CU FGHKPGF

D[ VJG 9KNFGTPGUU #EV, UJQWNF RTQXKFG QRRQTVWPKVKGU HQT UQNKVWFG. 0QY, JQYGXGT, VJG

GZRGTKGPEG OWUV DG UJCTGF YKVJ CP KPETGCUKPI PWODGT QH WUGTU KP OQUV FGUKIPCVGF YKNFGTPGUU

CTGCU. # EQPUGSWGPEG KU VJCV VJG YKNFGTPGUU EJCTCEVGT QH VJGUG CTGCU KU DGKPI NQUV, DWV KV KU VJG

EQPEGRV VJCV KU DGKPI GTQFGF, YJGTGCU VJG NCPF TGOCKPU NCTIGN[ WPCNVGTGF. 6JG YKNFGTPGUU

EQPEGRV JCU EJCPIGF FWTKPI VJG JKUVQT[ QH 9GUVGTP EKXKNK\CVKQP CPF KV YQWNF DG PCKXG VQ CUUWOG

VJCV HWTVJGT GXQNWVKQP QH VJG EQPEGRV YKNN PQV QEEWT. *QYGXGT, VJG EQPEGRV TGOCKPU C 9GUVGTP

QPG CPF VJG EJCPIG VJCV KV KU WPFGTIQKPI KU FTKXGP D[ RTGUUWTGU KPETGCUKPI JWOCP RQRWNCVKQP

CPF WTDCPK\CVKQP.

&GUKIPCVKQP QH 'YKNFGTPGUU CTGCU' KP VJG JQOGNCPFU QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU D[ IQXGTPOGPVU QT

’0)1U KU CP GVJPQEGPVTKE CEV VJCV TGHNGEVU KIPQTCPEG QH, CPF KPUGPUKVKXKV[ VQ, VJG EWNVWTGU,

KPVGTGUVU, CPF EQPEGTPU QH NQECN RGQRNGU. #NVJQWIJ YKNFGTPGUU FGUKIPCVKQP OC[ RTQVGEV VJG HKUJ,

YKNFNKHG, CPF QVJGT TGUQWTEGU VJCV CTG GUUGPVKCN VQ VJG UWDUKUVGPEG GEQPQO[, VJKU DGPGHKV VQ

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU KU WUWCNN[ KPEKFGPVCN VQ VJG RTKOCT[ KPVGPV QH VJG FGUKIPCVKQP CPF TGHNGEVU C

9GUVGTP EWNVWTCN DKCU. 5KOKNCT TGUWNVU ECP DG CEJKGXGF, YKVJQWV KPXQMKPI QT TGHNGEVKPI EWNVWTCN

FQOKPCPEG, VJTQWIJ KPVGTEWNVWTCN PGIQVKCVKQP NGCFKPI VQ NCPF WUG ENCUUKHKECVKQPU FGUKIPGF VQ

OCKPVCKP VJG RTQFWEVKXKV[ QH VJG NCPF CPF YCVGTU HQT UWUVCKPGF JCTXGUV QH TGUQWTEGU D[

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU, YJKNG QHHGTKPI QRRQTVWPKVKGU HQT XKUKVQTU VQ GZRGTKGPEG VJG RTKUVKPG PCVWTG

VJCV WUWCNN[ EJCTCEVGTK\GU UWEJ GPXKTQPOGPVU.

1781 KP 1964 (75) 1964).




+V KU GPEQWTCIKPI VQ PQVG UWEJ C VTGPF KP %CPCFC1782 YJGTG UGXGTCN PGY RCTMU CPF QVJGT

RTQVGEVGF CTGCU KP VJG #TEVKE CTG VJG RTQFWEV QH LQKPV PGIQVKCVKQPU CPF GHHQTVU QH ETQUU-EWNVWTCN

ITQWRU. 8KUKVQTU HTQO VJG UQWVJ UJQWNF DG HWNN[ CYCTG YJGP XKUKVKPI VJG #TEVKE VJCV VJG[ CTG

WUWCNN[ IWGUVU KP VJG JQOGNCPFU QH EWNVWTGU QVJGT VJCP VJGKT QYP. )CKPKPI WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH

VJGUG EWNVWTGU QHHGTU VJG RQVGPVKCN VQ GPJCPEG TGYCTFU HTQO VJGKT XKUKV. %QPXGTUGN[, OQUV

9GUVGTPGTU, UKPEG VJG HKTUV CTEVKE GZRNQTGTU CPF YJCNGTU, JCXG GPVGTGF VJG #TEVKE CUUWOKPI QT

ENCKOKPI RQUUGUUKQP QH VJG NCPF CPF TGUQWTEGU HQT VJGOUGNXGU QT VJGKT QYP EQWPVTKGU, YKVJQWV

EQPUKFGTCVKQP HQT VJG GPFGOKE EWNVWTGU CPF RGQRNGU QH VJG #TEVKE. 6JG TGEGPV VTGPF D[ CTEVKE

EQWPVTKGU VQ TGEQIPK\G ENCKOU QH CTEVKE RGQRNGU VQ NCPFU CPF TGUQWTEGU KU CP GPEQWTCIKPI UKIP

VJCV VJG JKUVQTKECN RGTEGRVKQP JGNF D[ 9GUVGTPGTU QH VJG #TEVKE CPF KVU RGQRNGU KU DGKPI TGXKUGF.

+V KU QPN[ VJTQWIJ OWVWCN WPFGTUVCPFKPI CPF TGURGEV DGVYGGP EWNVWTGU VJCV VJGTG ECP DG C

OCTTKCIG QH KPVGTGUVU VQ CUUWTG VJG NQPI-VGTO RTQVGEVKQP QH PCVWTCN CTGCU. 9JGP YG HCKN VQ

WPFGTUVCPF RGQRNG HTQO FKXGTUG EWNVWTGU CPF VQ TGURGEV VJGKT FKHHGTGPEGU KV KPGXKVCDN[ NGCFU VQ

KPETGCUKPI RQNCTK\CVKQP CPF CNKGPCVKQP YJGP EQPVCEV DGVYGGP EWNVWTGU QEEWTU. 9KVPGUU VJG

QRRQUKVKQP, TGHGTTGF VQ GCTNKGT KP EJCRVGT 7 UGEVKQP 7.2.1, QXGT VJG JCTXGUV QH OCTKPG OCOOCNU

D[ CTEVKE RGQRNGU, CPF VJG UWDUGSWGPV DQ[EQVV QH UGCN UMKPU KP 9GUVGTP OCTMGVU1783.

6JG HWVWTG QHHGTU RTQOKUG HQT VJG RTQVGEVKQP QH PCVWTG KP KPFKIGPQWU JQOGNCPFU, DWV KV ECP DG

CEEQORNKUJGF YKVJ CUUWTCPEG QH NCUVKPI DGPGHKVU VQ CNN RGQRNGU QPN[ VJTQWIJ KPETGCUGF OWVWCN

WPFGTUVCPFKPI CPF EQOOWPKECVKQP. 9GUVGTPGTU OWUV NGCTP VQ HKPF 'YKNFGTPGUU ITCVKHKECVKQP'

YJGP XKUKVKPI JQOGNCPFU QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG YKVJQWV VJGKT URGEKHKE FGUKIPCVKQP CU

YKNFGTPGUU.

2QNKEKGU OWUV DG FGUKIPGF VQ UWRRQTV RTQVGEVKQP QH KPFKIGPQWU JQOGNCPFU CPF VJG

UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ CPF RTQFWEVKXKV[ QH VJG DKQNQIKECN U[UVGOU VJG[ GPEQORCUUGU. $WV VJGKT

RTQVGEVKQP UJQWNF DG PGIQVKCVGF YKVJKP VJG VGTOU CPF EQPFKVKQPU QH VJG KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG

TCVJGT VJCP D[ KORQUKPI EWNVWTCN EQPEGRVU VJCV CTG CNKGP VQ VJGKT EWNVWTGU.

1782 −NGKP 1994 1783 .KW :KCQICP 2001




2NCEG CVVCEJOGPV XCNWGU QT UGPUG QH RNCEG

5RGEKHKE SWCNKVKGU QH NCPFUECRG KPHWUG C UKVG YKVJ C UGPUG QH RNCEG HQT RGQRNG, YJKEJ CTG

RTGFKECVGF QP VJG TGNCVKQPU, RGTEGRVKQPU, CVVKVWFGU, XCNWGU, CPF YQTNF XKGY VJCV CHHGEVKXGN[ DQPF

RGQRNG CPF RNCEG. #PCN[UKU UWIIGUVU VJCV HQWT OCLQT EQORQPGPVU EQPVTKDWVG VQ C UGPUG QH RNCEG.

6JGUG GOQVKQPCN CPF URKTKVWCN DQPFU VQ VJG NCPF CTG VQRQP[OKE1784, FKUEWTUKXG, GZRGTKGPVKCN CPF

PWOKPQWU CPF VJGKT NQUU ECP TGUWNV KP JWOKNKCVKQP, FKUVTGUU, CNKGPCVKQP CPF TQQVNGUUPGUU1785.

#NVJQWIJ VJGTG FQ PQV CRRGCT VQ DG UGOCPVKECNN[ FKHHKEWNVKGU YKVJ UGPUG QH RNCEG VJGTG CTG

RCTCFKIOKE FKHHKEWNVKGU. #U RCTV QH OQFGTPKV['U UGNH-EQPUEKQWU GXCNWCVKQP QH RTQITGUU 'NQECN

RNCEG' CRRGCTU VQ JCXG DGEQOG VJG XGT[ GUUGPEG QH YJCV OQFGTPKUO KU PQV, UGRCTCVG, DQWPFGF

CPF KUQNCVGF. 9JCV KU GURGEKCNN[ UKIPKHKECPV KU VJG FGITGG VQ YJKEJ VJGUG CUUWORVKQPU CDQWV

RNCEG CPF KUQNCVKQP JCXG DGGP TGRTQFWEGF KP %JKPC'U CRRTQCEJ VQ GVJPKE ITQWRU. ’VJPKE ITQWRU

CTG UVWFKGF CU 'NKXKPI HQUUKNU' CPF CU GZCORNGU QH RTKOKVKXKUO CV VJG RGTKRJGTKGU QH OQFGTP *CP

UQEKGV[1786.

/CP[ QH VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO JCXG C UVTQPI UGPUG QH RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV VJCV KU OQTG

GXKFGPV COQPI VJG QNF VJCP VJG [QWPI. '2NCEG' KU IGPGTCNN[ NQECVGF KP VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN'

FQOCKP, CPF VJGTG KU GXKFGPEG VJCV UQOG NQECN RGQRNG CTG GPJCPEKPI VJGKT EWNVWTCN KFGPVKV[ CPF

RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV, KP VJG HCEG QH FQOKPCVKQP D[ VJG *CP %JKPGUG

6JG TGEGPV NKVGTCVWTG QP GPXKTQPOGPVCN RU[EJQNQI[ TGEQIPK\GU RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV CPF "GEQNQIKGU

QH VJG JGCTV"1787 KP VJG HQNNQYKPI EQPVGZVU:-

• 9JGTG PCVKQPCN QT ITQWR KFGPVKV[ KU DQWPF VQ VJG GPXKTQPOGPV, GKVJGT URGEKHKE HQTGUVU QT

NCPFUECRGU QT KFGCNK\GF QT KOCIKPGF1788 QPGU. 5QOG GZCORNGU KPENWFG 5NQXGPKC1789,

(KPNCPF1790 CPF UQOG YKNFGTPGUU ITQWRU1791.

1784 TGNCVGF VQ PCOKPI RNCEGU 1785 JVVR://YYY.GUNCTR.WKWE.GFW/NC/.#437-(95/TGRQTVU/[CTFU/OCKP.JVON CEEGUUGF 11VJ 0QXGODGT 2005. 1786 *CTTGNN 1993 1787 #PFGTUQP 1996, 5EJTQGFGT 1996C RCIGU 13-27 1788 )WRVC CPF (GTIWUQP 1997 1789 −WECP 1997 1790 /1##( 2001 1791 /CP\Q 2003

http://www.eslarp.uiuc.edu/la/LA437-F95/reports/yards/main.html




• #U RCTV QH C RQUV-OQFGTP VWTP VQ 'QVJGT' HQTGUV XCNWGU VJCV TGEQIPK\GU CVVCEJOGPV VQ

URGEKCN RNCEGU1792 QT UGPUG QH RNCEG1793 CPF OC[ DG NKPMGF VQ NQECN YKUFQO1794.

• 9JGTG RGQRNGU, VJGKT EWNVWTGU QT GPXKTQPOGPVU CTG VJTGCVGPGF QT VJGKT KFGPVKV[

FGVGTTKVQTKCNK\GF. 5QOG GZCORNGU KPENWFG VJG RGQRNGU QH 0QTVJ 5WVJGTNCPF1795, +UNG QH

*CTTKU1796 )GPPCTIGPVW 0CVKQPCN 2CTM1797, 6KDGV1798, +PFKC1799, CPF UQOG TGHWIGGU1800.

• +P TGURQPUG VQ TGUGCTEJ KP EQPUGTXCVKQP RU[EJQNQI[1801 CFFTGUUKPI RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV,

UCETGF URCEG1802 CPF PGY OCPCIGOGPV RJKNQUQRJKGU VJCV TGEQPPGEV UQEKGV[ YKVJ

PCVWTG1803.

+P VGTOU QH VJKU UVWF[, YG CTG GURGEKCNN[ KPVGTGUVGF KP RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV YJGTG PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU

CTG VJTGCVGPGF QT GZRTQRTKCVGF CPF KVU KORQTVCPEG KP TGNCVKQP VQ UCETGF URCEG.

6JG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG KPVGTXGPVKQPU CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN VTCPUHQTOCVKQP, VQ UC[

PQVJKPI QH NCPF QEEWRCVKQP, CHHGEV PQV QPN[ NQECN CVVKVWFGU DWV CNUQ NGXGNU QH RNCEG KFGPVKV[ CPF

RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV. 6JKU KU ECWUGF DGECWUG QH UVTQPI "VGTTKVQTKCN" KORNKECVKQPU YJGP

KPVGTXGPVKQPU CTG KORQUGF D[ "QWVUKFGTU" CPF C RGTEGKXGF NCEM QH NQECN "EQPVTQN" CPF

"FKUEQPVKPWKV["1804. .QECN RGQRNG TGURQPF KP C PWODGT QH FKHHGTGPV YC[U, UQOG YKNN OCPKHGUV

PGICVKXG CVVKVWFGU CPF QRRQUKVKQP VQYCTFU VJG CWVJQTKVKGU, GURGEKCNN[ KH VJGTG KU C RGTEGKXGF

RQNKVKECN VJTGCV VQ NQECN KFGPVKV[, YJKEJ OC[ NGCF VQ XKQNGPEG QT VJG DTGCM FQYP QH UQEKGV[1805.

1VJGTU, JQYGXGT, CTG CDNG VQ TGCEV, CU C EQRKPI UVTCVGI[, D[ KPETGCUKPI VJGKT NGXGN QH

KFGPVKHKECVKQP YKVJ VJGKT QYP ITQWR CPF D[ KPETGCUKPI ITQWR EQJGUKQP CPF RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV1806.

1792 5EJTQGFGT 1996C CPF D, 2002 1793 ,QTIGPUGP GV CN 2001 1794 (GNF CPF $CUUQ 1996 1795 /CEMGP\KG 2002 1796 /CEMGP\KG 1998 1797 KP +VCN[ ($QPCKWVQ GV CN 2002). 1798 $WHHGVTKNNG CPF &KGODGTIGT 2002, ’RUVGKP CPF 9GPDKP 1998, *WDGT 1999C, −CTOC[ 1994 1799 4QWVNGFIG 1993 1800 /CNMMK 1997 1801 $QVV, %CPVTKNN CPF /[GTU 2003 1802 /C\WOFCT CPF /C\WOFCT 1993 1803 &TKXGT GV CN 1996 1804 $QPCKWVQ GV CN 2002 RCIG 639, (TKGF 2000 RCIG 195 1805 %CODQPK 1991, 6WTPDWNN 1972 1806 $TGYGT CPF $TQYP 1998




+V KU KORQTVCPV VQ WPFGTUVCPF VJG FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP RNCEG CPF NQECVKQP. &GURKVG VJGKT OQDKNKV[,

OKITCVQT[ RGQRNGU QHVGP JCXG C UVTQPI UGPUG QH RNCEG. # 6KDGVCP PQOCF QT 4QOCPK ECOR KU C

RNCEG, YJKEJ KU TG-GUVCDNKUJGF KP OCP[ UGRCTCVG NQECVKQPU1807. 6JG RNCEGOGPV QH 6KDGVCP

VGPVU1808 KP C [WN1809 QT 4QOCPK ECTCXCPU1810 KP CP CVEJKP VCP

1811 ECP ETGCVG C UGPUG QH EQPUVCPV

RNCEG-QTKGPVCVKQP CV OWNVKRNG NQECVKQPU. +V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV 'RNCEG-DQPFKPI'1812 GOGTIGU

RTKOCTKN[ HTQO CP KPVGTCEVKQP QH EWNVWTCN CPF PCVWTCN UGVVKPI CPF OC[ HWPEVKQP 'VTCPURCVKCNN['1813

YKVJ NQ[CNV[ VQ V[RGU QH RNCEG QT 'RNCEG EQPITWKV['1814. 6JKU OC[ RTQXG KORQTVCPV VQ RNCPPGTU CPF

GPXKTQPOGPVCN OCPCIGTU, DGECWUG KV TCKUGU VJG RQUUKDKNKV[ QH EQPUEKQWUN[ DWKNFKPI WRQP CPF

UVTGPIVJGPKPI C EQOOWPKV['U UGPUG QH RNCEG KFGPVKV[, GXGP KP VJG HCEG QH OQDKNKV[1815.

#NVJQWIJ RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV CPF 'GEQNQIKGU QH VJG JGCTV' FQ PQV CRRGCT VQ DG TGEQIPK\GF KP

HQTGUVT[ RQNKE[ KP %JKPC VJG[ CTG DGIKPPKPI VQ ICKP EWTTGPE[ KP QEEKFGPVCN PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG

OCPCIGOGPV CPF RQNKE[1816. +V YQWNF CRRGCT1817 VJCV UEKGPVKHKE CPF URKTKVWCN EQPEGRVU EQWNF

KPVGTUGEV KP GORKTKECN TGUGCTEJ QP RNCEG-DCUGF OGCPKPIU LWUVKH[KPI VJGKT WUG KP GPXKTQPOGPVCN

RQNKEKGU. 4GUGCTEJGTU1818 UVWF[KPI RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV CPF C) UCETGF URCEG, D) NGKUWTG, E) EQIPKVKQP

CPF OCPCIGOGPV, F) URKTKV CPF G) URGEKCN RNCEGU FGVGTOKPGF VJCV GOQVKQPCN EQPPGEVGFPGUU VQ

RNCEG KU HQTIGF VJTQWIJ VJG ETGCVKQP QH UCETGF UGVVKPIU, CPF RTQXKFGF KPUKIJV KPVQ PGY

OCPCIGOGPV RJKNQUQRJKGU VJCV TGEQIPK\G URKTKVWCN XCNWGU. 6JG[ CUUGTV VJCV VJGUG FKOGPUKQPU QH

VJG RGTUQP JCXG DGEQOG UQ KORQTVCPV VJCV VJG[ ECP PQ NQPIGT DG QXGTNQQMGF; KPFGGF, VJG

1807 .CPIGT 1953 1808 /CPFGTUEJGKF 2000 1809 7UWCNN[ 3 QT 4 VGPVU CTG ITQWRGF VQIGVJGT KP C [WN. /GODGTU QH C [WN CTG GZVGPFGF HCOKNKGU, HTKGPFU, QT VJG TGOPCPVU QH DTKICFGU HTQO VJG GTC QH EQNNGEVKXK\CVKQP. 6JG VGPVU CTG NQECVGF 500-1000 O CRCTV. 6JKU CNNQYU EQOOWPKECVKQP DGVYGGP VJG JQWUGJQNFU D[ UJQWVKPI CPF RGTOKVU GPQWIJ URCEG HQT CPKOCNU VQ URGPF VJG PKIJV PGCT GCEJ VGPV. "/QUV GPECOROGPVU JCXG VJTGG QT HQWT VGPVU DWV C ECOR OC[ JCXG HTQO QPG VQ HKHVGGP. 2CUVWTCIG RTQJKDKVU NCTIGT PWODGTU HQT CP[ RGTKQF QH VKOG, CNVJQWIJ JWPFTGFU YKNN DG RKVEJGF KP C XCNNG[ CV VJG UJQTV HGUVKXCN UGCUQPU" (&WPECP 1964 RCIG 217).

1810 uÉSÉåï XCTFQ KU 4QOCPK (5CPUMTKV) HQT YCIQP QT ECTCXCP JVVR://UEC.NKD.NKX.CE.WM/EQNNGEVKQPU/I[RU[/YCIQPU.JVO

CEEGUUGF 15VJ #WIWUV 2005.

1811 AÎicÉlÉ iÉlÉ CVEJKP VCP KU 4QOCPK (5CPUMTKV) HQT ECORKPI RNCEG JVVR://NCTR.EQO/LCJCXTC/NCPIWCIG.JVON

CEEGUUGF 16VJ #WIWUV 2005. 1812 2TQUJCPUM[ 1978 2TQUJCPUM[ GV CN 1983 1813 (GNFOCP 1990 1814 *WNN 1992 1815 0QTVQP CPF *CPPQP 1999

1816 0QTVQP CPF *CPPQP 1997, 5EJTQGFGT 1996D, 9KNNKCOU CPF 5VGYCTV 1998 1817 $QVV, %CPVTKNN CPF /[GTU 2003 1818 &TKXGT GV CN.1996, /C\WOFCT CPF /C\WOFCT 1993

http://sca.lib.liv.ac.uk/collections/gypsy/wagons.htm

http://larp.com/jahavra/language.html




EQPXGTIGPEG QH FKUEKRNKPGU KP VJG UVWF[ QH RNCEG V[RKECNN[ TGEQIPK\GU VJG UQEKGVCN PGGF VQ

TGEQPPGEV YKVJ PCVWTG

6JGTG KU TGEQIPKVKQP VJCV VJG KPENWUKQP QH RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV KP HQTGUVT[ QT PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG

RQNKEKGU TGRTGUGPVU CP CDQWV-HCEG CPF KV YKNN VCMG VKOG KP QTFGT VQ GFWECVG CPF VQ TG-YQTM NCYU

CPF KPUVKVWVKQPU CPF DWKNF NQECN TGURQPUKDKNKV[. 6JKU, JQYGXGT CRRGCTU VQ DG VJG QPN[ TQWVG

VQYCTF C FGOQETCVKECNN[ UWRRQTVCDNG CRRTQCEJ1819 VQ UWUVCKPCDNG WUG QH TGUQWTEGU VJCV KU

RTGFKECVGF QP VJG PGGFU QH RGQRNG YJQ NKXG OQUV KPVKOCVGN[ YKVJ RNCEG CPF PCVWTCN TGUQWTEGU.

4GETGCVKQP

4GETGCVKQPCN XCNWGU CFFTGUU RNGCUWTG, NGKUWTG QT EWNVWTCN CEVKXKVKGU VJCV QEEWT KP, QT PGCT, QT

DGECWUG QH HQTGUVU. 6[RKECNN[, VJG[ KPENWFG YKNFNKHG XKGYKPI, JWPVKPI, CPINKPI, ECORKPI, HQTGUV

VTCXGN CPF GZRGTKGPEG, CFXGPVWTG TGETGCVKQP CPF EWNVWTCN CEVKXKVKGU CPF HGUVKXCNU.

#NVJQWIJ VJGTG YGTG PQ UGOCPVKE FKHHKEWNVKGU YKVJ VJG YQTF TGETGCVKQP VJGTG YGTG UQOG

RCTCFKIOKE QPGU KP VJCV TGETGCVKQP CU WUGF KP VJG 9GUV, HQT KVU QYP UCMG, JCU NKVVNG RNCEG COQPI

VJG RGQRNGU QH −JCO. 6JGTG KU TGEQIPKVKQP JQYGXGT VJCV VJGTG CTG TGETGCVKQPCN GNGOGPVU KP

NKXGNKJQQF, EWNVWTCN CPF TGNKIKQWU CEVKXKVKGU.

4GETGCVKQP KU TGEQIPK\GF CV .WIW .CMG (5GG UGEVKQP 6.5.3) YJGTG KV TGRTGUGPVGF 3.5 % QH VQVCN

GEQPQOKE XCNWG CPF TCPMGF 7VJ QWV QH 13 HQTGUV XCNWGU HQT /QUWQ YQOGP YJQ OGPVKQPGF C

TGNKIKQ-EWNVWTCN HGUVKXCN YJGP VJG[ FCPEGF KP VJG HQTGUV.

%JKPC JCU CODKVKQWU RNCPU HQT HQTGUV RCTMU CPF VQWTKUO CPF C OCLQT "5JCPIK-NC GEQNQIKECN

VQWTKUV \QPG" KP ’CUVGTP −JCO. 6JGUG RNCPU RTGUGPV OCLQT EJCNNGPIGU, YJKEJ YGTG FKUEWUUGF KP

EJCRVGT 7 UGEVKQP 7.6.1, CPF GXGT[ GHHQTV OWUV DG OCFG VQ OGGV VJG EJCNNGPIGU. %WNVWTCNN[ CPF

GEQPQOKECNN[ UWUVCKPCDNG TGETGCVKQPCN CPF VQWTKUO FGXGNQROGPV OWUV HKV VJG NQECN UQEKGV[ CPF

OCMG EWNVWTCN UGPUG. 6JG GVJPKE RGQRNG VJGOUGNXGU OWUV QYP VJG RTQEGUU QH NQECN TGETGCVKQPCN

1819 0QTVQP CPF *CPPQP 1999




CPF VQWTKUO FGXGNQROGPV, CPF VJG UVCVG, KP VWTP, OC[ DGPGHKV HTQO EWNVWTCN FKXGTUKV[ KP DQVJ C

UQEKQ-EWNVWTCN CPF CP GEQPQOKE UGPUG1820.

10.2.2 *WOCP &KOGPUKQP : 5QEKQ-GEQPQOKE &QOCKP

%QOOGTEKCN XCNWGU

%QOOGTEKCN HQTGUV XCNWGU TGHGTU VQ OCLQT HQTGUV RTQFWEVU VJCV CTG DQWIJV QT UQNF CPF CTG QHVGP

VJG QPN[ XCNWGU EQPUKFGTGF D[ GEQPQOKUVU.

6JGTG KU UQOG EQPHWUKQP KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG YJGTG GEQPQOKE XCNWGU CTG GSWCVGF YKVJ EQOOGTEKCN

XCNWGU. ’EQPQOKE XCNWG ECP TGHGT VQ HQTGUV RTQFWEVU VJCV CTG ICVJGTGF HTQO VJG HQTGUV DWV FQ PQV

GPVGT VJG OCTMGV GEQPQO[ CPF CTG PQV DQWIJV QT UQNF.

+PVGTGUVKPIN[ COQPI VJQUG UWTXG[GF CV .WIW .CMG EQOOGTEKCN XCNWG1821 QPN[ TGRTGUGPVGF 6%

QH '6QVCN ’EQPQOKE 8CNWG'1822 CPF VJGUG HKPFKPIU TGUQPCVG YKVJ C UVWF[ KP #NCUMC1823 YJGTG

EQOOGTEKCN XCNWG CNUQ TCPMGF 8VJ QWV QH 13 HQTGUV XCNWGU.

(QTGUVT[ KPXGUVOGPV CPF %QUV-$GPGHKV CPCN[UKU JCU VTCFKVKQPCNN[ DGGP DCUGF QP C XGT[ NKOKVGF

XKGY QH VJG EQOOGTEKCN XCNWG QH HQTGUVU. 7PVKN TGEGPVN[, HQTGUVU YGTG UGGP CU QPN[ JCXKPI

GEQPQOKE KORQTVCPEG KP UQ HCT CU VJG[ EQWNF UWRRQTV EQOOGTEKCN VKODGT QT YQQF GZVTCEVKQP.

%CNEWNCVKQPU QH VJG EQPVTKDWVKQP QH HQTGUV IQQFU CPF UGTXKEGU VQ JQWUGJQNF-NGXGN RTQFWEVKQP,

RTQLGEV RTQHKVCDKNKV[, UGEVQTCN QWVRWV QT PCVKQPCN GEQPQOKE KPFKECVQTU YGTG DCUGF RTKOCTKN[ QP

VJKU. 2GTJCRU WPUWTRTKUKPIN[, GEQPQOKE RQNKE[ KPUVTWOGPVU CPF CPCN[UKU QH HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV

QRVKQPU UJQYGF C ENGCT VGPFGPE[ VQ HCXQWT EQOOGTEKCN GZVTCEVKQP, ENGCTCPEG HQT CITKEWNVWTG QT

OQFKHKECVKQP HQT QVJGT UGGOKPIN[ RTQHKVCDNG 'FGXGNQROGPV' QRVKQPU. 6JGTG UGGOGF VQ DG HGY

GEQPQOKE DGPGHKVU VQ DG ICKPGF HTQO HQTGUV EQPUGTXCVKQP QT UWUVCKPCDNG OCPCIGOGPV, CPF HGY

GEQPQOKE EQUVU CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ HQTGUV FGITCFCVKQP CPF NQUU. ;GV HQTGUVU V[RKECNN[ [KGNF

GEQPQOKE DGPGHKVU HCT KP GZEGUU QH EQOOGTEKCN VKODGT CPF YQQF RTQFWEVU: VJG[ CNUQ RTQXKFG

1820 5YCKP 1989 1821 1HVGP VJG QPN[ XCNWG TGEQIPK\GF D[ GEQPQOKUVU. 1822 6JG UWO QH WUG CPF PQP-WUG XCNWGU YKVJ FWG EQPUKFGTCVKQP QH CP[ VTCFG-QHHU QT OWVWCNN[ GZENWUKXG WUGU QT HWPEVKQPU QH VJG TGUQWTEG/JCDKVCV KP SWGUVKQP. 5QWTEG: )NQDCN $KQFKXGTUKV[ #UUGUUOGPV )$#. JVVR://GWTQRC.GW.KPV/EQOO/TGUGCTEJ/DKQUQEKGV[/NKDTCT[/INQUUCT[NKUVAGP.EHO!+PKV=6 CEEGUUGF 15VJ ,WN 205 1823 $TQYP CPF 4GGF 2000

http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/biosociety/library/glossarylist_en.cfm?Init=T




UWDUKUVGPEG IQQFU CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN UGTXKEGU, YJKEJ QHVGP [KGNF HCT JKIJGT GEQPQOKE XCNWGU.

6TCFKVKQPCNN[, GEQPQOKUVU JCXG HQWPF VJGUG PQP-OCTMGV DGPGHKVU XGT[ JCTF VQ XCNWG QT VQ

GZRTGUU KP OQPGVCT[ VGTOU. #U C TGUWNV, VJG[ JCXG VGPFGF VQ DG QOKVVGF HTQO FGEKUKQP-OCMKPI.

*QYGXGT, CU GEQPQOKE XCNWCVKQP VGEJPKSWGU JCXG CFXCPEGF CPF CU JWOCP PGGFU CPF FGOCPFU

HTQO HQTGUVU JCXG EJCPIGF, UQ VJGTG JCU DGGP CP KPETGCUKPI TGEQIPKVKQP QH VJG KORQTVCPEG QH

UWEJ XCNWGU, VQ EQOOGTEKCN RTQHKVU CPF VTCFG, VQ PCVKQPCN-NGXGN GEQPQOKE YGNHCTG, CPF VQ

JQWUGJQNF RTQFWEVKQP CPF EQPUWORVKQP. #V VJG UCOG VKOG KV JCU DGEQOG ENGCT VJCV VJGTG KU C

PGGF VQ DG CDNG VQ GZRTGUU VJGUG YKFGT HQTGUV XCNWGU KP SWCPVKVCVKXG GEQPQOKE VGTOU KH VJG HWNN

TCPIG QH UQEKCN, GEQPQOKE CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN VTCFG-QHHU KORNKGF D[ CNVGTPCVKXG HQTGUV NCPF WUG

CPF OCPCIGOGPV QRVKQPU CTG VQ DG CEEWTCVGN[ EQORCTGF. 5NQYN[, VJKU FGHKPKVKQP QH HQTGUV

GEQPQOKE XCNWG JCU EJCPIGF.

6JG EQPEGRV QH VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG (6’8) YCU KPVTQFWEGF C FGECFG QT UQ CIQ1824, CPF JCU

PQY DGEQOG QPG QH VJG OQUV YKFGN[ WUGF HTCOGYQTMU HQT KFGPVKH[KPI CPF ECVGIQTK\KPI HQTGUV

DGPGHKVU. +PUVGCF QH HQEWUKPI QPN[ QP FKTGEV EQOOGTEKCN XCNWGU, VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG CNUQ

GPEQORCUUGU VJG UWDUKUVGPEG CPF PQP-OCTMGV XCNWGU, GEQNQIKECN HWPEVKQPU CPF PQP-WUG

DGPGHKVU CUUQEKCVGF YKVJ HQTGUVU. .QQMKPI CV VJG VQVCN GEQPQOKE XCNWG QH C HQTGUV GUUGPVKCNN[

KPXQNXGU EQPUKFGTKPI KVU HWNN TCPIG QH EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU CU CP KPVGITCVGF U[UVGO, KVU TGUQWTEG UVQEMU

QT CUUGVU, HNQYU QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN UGTXKEGU, CPF VJG CVVTKDWVGU QH VJG GEQU[UVGO CU C YJQNG.

+P URKVG QH VJKU CRRTQCEJ OCP[ 6’8 HTCOGYQTMU GZENWFG KPVTKPUKE XCNWG CPF VJG HGY

GZEGRVKQPU1825 KPENWFG KV CU C PQP WUG XCNWG.

+P URKVG QH VJG EQPUKFGTCDNG OQXGU HQTYCTF VJCV JCXG DGGP OCFG KP XCNWKPI HQTGUV DGPGHKVU,

VJGTG JCU DGGP NKVVNG RTQITGUU KP CRRN[KPI VJG TGUWNVU QH VJGUG XCNWCVKQP UVWFKGU VQ RQNKE[,

RNCPPKPI CPF OCPCIGOGPV. +P HCT VQQ OCP[ ECUGU, HQTGUV XCNWCVKQP TGOCKPU C RWTGN[ CECFGOKE

GZGTEKUG. ;GV, JQYGXGT JKIJ VJG XCNWG QH HQTGUV GPXKTQPOGPVCN DGPGHKVU KU FGOQPUVTCVGF VQ DG KP

VJGQT[, VJKU JCU NKVVNG OGCPKPI WPNGUU KV CEVWCNN[ VTCPUNCVGU KPVQ TGCN TGVWTPU, TGYCTFU CPF RTQHKVU

HQT VJG ITQWRU YJQ CTG TGURQPUKDNG HQT UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV. # XGT[ XCNKF ETKVKSWG QH

GPXKTQPOGPVCN XCNWCVKQP, CU KV JCU DGGP RTCEVKUGF VQ FCVG, KU VJCV KV JCU UKORN[ FQPG VQQ NKVVNG,

1824 2GCTEG 1990 1825 JVVR://YYY.FGJ.IQX.CW/REGRF/GEQPQOKEU/GUVKOCVKPI/GUVKO2.JVON CEEGUUGF 18VJ 1EVQDGT 2005

http://www.deh.gov.au/pcepd/economics/estimating/estim2.html




CPF OC[ UQQP DG VQQ NCVG, VQ JCNV VJG FGUVTWEVKQP CPF FGITCFCVKQP QH HQTGUV GEQU[UVGOU. +V KU

ENGCT VJCV QXGTEQOKPI KPHQTOCVKQP ICRU CDQWV VJG XCNWG QH HQTGUV GEQU[UVGOU KU QPN[ C HKTUV UVGR

KP C OWEJ NQPIGT RTQEGUU. $GECWUG, UQ HCT, GEQPQOKUVU JCXG NCTIGN[ HCKNGF VQ TKUG VQ VJKU NCTIGT

EJCNNGPIG, VJGTG KU C TKUM VJCV CNN QH VJG XCNKCPV GHHQTVU VQ SWCPVKH[ HQTGUV XCNWGU YKNN RTQXG VQ DG

HWVKNG. (QTGUV XCNWCVKQP, KP VJG HWVWTG, YKNN PGGF VQ FTCUVKECNN[ EJCPIG KVU UEQRG CPF CURKTCVKQPU,

KV JCU VQ DGEQOG C FKUEKRNKPG VJCV OQXGU DG[QPF OGTGN[ CKOKPI VQ UVKOWNCVG CECFGOKE FGDCVG

CPF RTQXKFG JGTQKE CTIWOGPVU HQT VJG KORQTVCPEG QH HCUV-FKUCRRGCTKPI HQTGUV GEQU[UVGOU.

7NVKOCVGN[, WPNGUU VJG TGUWNVU QH XCNWCVKQP CTG IGCTGF VQYCTFU EJCPIKPI VJG GEQPQOKE

VTCFG-QHHU VJCV CTG KPXQNXGF KP UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV KP VJG TGCN YQTNF CPF ECRVWTKPI

HQTGUV DGPGHKVU CU TGCN XCNWGU HQT VJG RGQRNG YJQ KPHNWGPEG HQTGUV UVCVWU, VJGTG KU C TGCN FCPIGT

VJCV, CU YG UVTWIING VQ XCNWG HQTGUVU OQTG CEEWTCVGN[ CPF OQTG EQORTGJGPUKXGN[, VJG UWDLGEV QH

VJKU XCNWCVKQP, CPF VJG UQWTEG QH OWEJ QH VJG YQTNF'U GEQPQOKE NKHG, YKNN FKUCRRGCT

CNVQIGVJGT1826.

+PFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP

+PFWUVTKCN HQTGUVT[ XCNWGU CFFTGUU VJG ITQYKPI QH EQOOGTEKCN VTGG URGEKGU RTKOCTKN[ VQ UWRRN[

KPFWUVT[. 6JGTG OC[ CNUQ DG UQEKCN, GEQNQIKECN QT GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPUKFGTCVKQPU DWV VJGUG VGPF

VQ DG UGEQPFCT[.

6JGTG CTG PQ UGOCPVKE FKHHKEWNVKGU QXGT KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVT[ DWV VJGTG ECP RCTCFKIOKE FKHHKEWNVKGU

QXGT VJG KPVGTRTGVCVKQP QH UGEQPFCT[ EQPUKFGTCVKQPU.

#OQPI VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO, 'KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVT[' KU NQECVGF KP VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE'

FQOCKP CPF KFGPVKHKGF ENQUGN[ YKVJ 'UQEKCNKUO'. +V KU PQV ENQUG VQ 'EQPUGTXCVKQP' QT VQ 'DNGUUKPI',

'[WN-NJC' QT '6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO'.

)NQDCNN[ CCRRTQZKOCVGN[ 4.5 OKNNKQP JGEVCTGU QH PGY KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVT[ RNCPVCVKQPU CTG DGKPI

GUVCDNKUJGF GCEJ [GCT CPF %JKPC KU C MG[ RNC[GT1827 KP VGTOU QH VTQRKECN, UWDVTQRKECN CPF

1826 ’OGTVQP 2003 1827 1VJGT RNC[GTU CTG $TC\KN, +PFQPGUKC, 5QWVJ #HTKEC, 6JCKNCPF, 8KGVPCO, /CNC[UKC, 8GPG\WGNC, 5YC\KNCPF, %JKNG, 2QTVWICN, 5RCKP, #TIGPVKPC, 7TWIWC[, CPF #WUVTCNKC.




VGORGTCVG RNCPVCVKQPU. +V RNCPU VQ RNCPV 13.33 OKNNKQP JGEVCTGU QH RNCPVCVKQPU DGVYGGP 2001 CPF

2015 YJKEJ KP EQOOQP YKVJ OCP[ QVJGT 'HCUV YQQF' QT 'HCUV HKDGT' RTQITCOU KU JGCXKN[

UWDUKFK\GF1828.

6JG OCLQTKV[ QH UWEJ RNCPVCVKQPU INQDCNN[ CTG GXKFGPVN[ EQPVTQXGTUKCN UQEKCNN[, GEQPQOKECNN[,

GEQNQIKECNN[ CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCNN[. 4GEGPVN[ C PGY TGRQTV1829 QP "HCUV-YQQF" CVVGORVU VQ UQTV

QWV HCEV HTQO HKEVKQP. +V EJCNNGPIGU VJG ENCKO VJCV HCUV YQQF RNCPVCVKQPU, D[ RTQXKFKPI VKODGT

CPF RWNRYQQF, VCMG RTGUUWTG QHH PCVWTCN HQTGUVU. (WTVJGTOQTG, VJG UVWF[ TGXGCNU VJCV VJG

GUVCDNKUJOGPV QH HCUV YQQF RNCPVCVKQPU VQ UWRRN[ VJG YQTNF'U KPETGCUKPI FGOCPF HQT RCRGT CPF

RWNRYQQF RTQFWEVU KU QHVGP UWRRQTVGF D[ UKIPKHKECPV KPEGPVKXGU CPF UWDUKFKGU, YJKEJ ETGCVG

GEQPQOKE FKUVQTVKQPU, UWEJ CU OCMKPI RNCPVCVKQPU XKCDNG KP UKVWCVKQPU YJGTG QVJGT NCPF WUG

OKIJV OCMG DGVVGT GEQPQOKE CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN UGPUG. *QYGXGT, KV CNUQ UJQYU VJCV, GXGP

VJQWIJ KP UQOG EQWPVTKGU HCUV YQQF RNCPVCVKQPU CTG DGKPI GUVCDNKUJGF CV VJG GZRGPUG QH PCVWTCN

HQTGUVU, VJG[ FQ PQV CNYC[U FGUVTQ[ PCVKXG HQTGUVU CPF ECP EQPVTKDWVG VQ DKQFKXGTUKV[

EQPUGTXCVKQP, GURGEKCNN[ YJGP VJG[ CTG GUVCDNKUJGF QP CNTGCF[ FGITCFGF NCPF.

# UQEKCN CWFKV QH HCUV YQQF RNCPVCVKQPU UWIIGUVU VJG[ QHVGP DTKPI HCT HGYGT DGPGHKVU KP VGTOU QH

GORNQ[OGPV QT UQEKCN DGPGHKV VJCP KU IGPGTCNN[ ENCKOGF D[ EQORCPKGU YKVJKP VJG KPFWUVT[. +P

OCP[ RCTVU QH VJG 'OCLQTKV[ YQTNF', RNCPVCVKQPU JCXG CEVWCNN[ URCTMGF QHH UGTKQWU EQPHNKEVU YKVJ

NQECN RGQRNG, GURGEKCNN[ YJGTG VJG[ JCXG FGRTKXGF RGQRNG QH VJG NCPF, UWEJ CU ITC\KPI NCPF

TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 1.5 CPF 7.6.3 QP YJKEJ VJGKT NKXGNKJQQFU YGTG DCUGF1830. 2CTV QH VJG

TCVKQPCNG HQT RTQOQVKPI KPFWUVTKCN VKODGT RTQFWEVKQP KU VJCV VJG UGEVQT EQPVTKDWVGU VQ RQXGTV[

CNNGXKCVKQP1831, DWV VJKU TCVKQPCNG PGGFU VQ DG EJCNNGPIGF. # 1991 1ZHCO TGRQTV EQPENWFGF VJCV

QRGPKPI WR #HTKEC'U HQTGUVU VQ GZRNQKVCVKQP YQWNF "ECWUG CP KPETGCUG KP RQXGTV[ TCVJGT VJCP KVU

TGUQNWVKQP", YJKNUV C 1990 TGRQTV HQT VJG ’WTQRGCP %QOOWPKV[ UVCVGF VJCV "HQTGUVT[

FGXGNQROGPV CPF FGHQTGUVCVKQP IGPGTCNN[ IQ JCPF KP JCPF YKVJ VJG TGFKUVTKDWVKQP QH YGCNVJ

HTQO VJG RQQTGUV � VQ C PCVKQPCN GNKVG CPF HQTGKIP EQORCPKGU CPF YKFGP VJG ICR DGVYGGP VJG

1828 #(2# 2004 1829 %QUUCNVGT CPF 2[G-5OKVJ 2003 RCIG 1 1830 %QUUCNVGT CPF 2[G-5OKVJ 2003 1831 (QTGUV /QPKVQT 2001




TKEJ CPF VJG RQQT KP VTQRKECN EQWPVTKGU"1832. +P (GDTWCT[ 2000, C YQTMUJQR QTICPKUGF D[ VJG

&GRCTVOGPV HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN &GXGNQROGPV (&(+&) HQWPF VJCV KPFWUVTKCN VKODGT RTQFWEVKQP KP

%COGTQQP VGPFGF VQ DGPGHKV C UOCNN OKPQTKV[ QH QHVGP-HQTGKIP KPXGUVQTU, CPF KVU EQPVTKDWVKQP VQ

RQXGTV[ CNNGXKCVKQP YCU OKPKOCN1833. 6JG YQTMUJQR OCFG C UGTKGU QH TGEQOOGPFCVKQPU YJKEJ

YQWNF PGGF VQ DG KORNGOGPVGF DGHQTG NQECN FGXGNQROGPV EQWNF DG GSWKVCDN[ CEJKGXGF

KPENWFKPI: ITGCVGT VTCPURCTGPE[ KP VJG WUG QH VJG KPEQOG IGPGTCVGF D[ HQTGUV TGUQWTEGU; GSWKV[

KP VJG TGFKUVTKDWVKQP QH KPEQOG; KPUVKVWVKQPCN FGEGPVTCNKUCVKQP; CPF ETGCVKPI HCXQWTCDNG

EQPFKVKQPU HQT NQECN RGQRNG VQ JGNR CNNGXKCVG RQXGTV[ VJGOUGNXGU. 6KODGT KU C XCNWCDNG

EQOOQFKV[, HGVEJKPI JKIJ RTKEGU QP KPVGTPCVKQPCN OCTMGVU. +P 2004, VJG ’7-25 ITQWR QH

EQWPVTKGU KORQTVGF HTQO QWVUKFG VJG ’7 63.2 OKNNKQP O 3 QH RTKOCT[ YQQF RTQFWEVU (KPENWFKPI

NQIU, UCYP NWODGT, XGPGGT CPF RN[YQQF) YKVJ C VQVCN XCNWG QH 9 DKNNKQP GWTQU. 1H VJGUG, 4.67

OKNNKQP O 3 (7%) YKVJ C XCNWG QH 1.97 DKNNKQP GWTQU (22%) EQORTKUGF VTQRKECN URGEKGU. 1H

VTQRKECN URGEKGU KORQTVGF KP 2004, 2.74 OKNNKQP O 3 (59%) YKVJ C XCNWG QH 1.1 DKNNKQP GWTQ

(56%) FGTKXGF HTQO 51834 %GPVTCN #HTKECP EQWPVTKGU1835. ;GV VJG RTQFWEKPI EQWPVTKGU UVTWIING

VQ RTQXKFG GXGP DCUKE UGTXKEGU VQ VJG OCLQTKV[ QH VJGKT RQRWNCVKQPU. #NVJQWIJ URGEKHKE UQEKCN

FGXGNQROGPV RTQLGEVU OC[ DG QWVNKPGF KP VJG NQIIKPI CITGGOGPV DGVYGGP VJG IQXGTPOGPV CPF

EQORCPKGU, VJGUG RTQLGEVU CTG UQOGVKOGU WPFGTVCMGP KP NKGW QH VCZ RC[OGPVU QT WPFGT EQPVTCEV

VQ VJG IQXGTPOGPV CPF VJWU CTG WPFGTVCMGP CV VJG IQXGTPOGPV'U, PQV VJG EQORCP['U, GZRGPUG.

.QIIKPI EQORCPKGU JCXG PQV CNYC[U OGV VJGKT HQTOCN QT KPHQTOCN CITGGOGPVU YKVJ TGICTF VQ

UQEKCN RTQXKUKQP1836. +P UQOG KPUVCPEGU, VCZGU JCXG DGGP RCKF D[ EQORCPKGU HQT NQECN

KPHTCUVTWEVWTG FGXGNQROGPVU YJKEJ JCXG PQV OCVGTKCNKUGF QT YJKEJ CTG UQ RQQTN[ GSWKRRGF QT

UVCHHGF VJCV VJG[ CTG WPCDNG VQ RTQXKFG DCUKE UGTXKEGU1837. .QECN EQOOWPKVKGU VJGOUGNXGU UGG

LWUV C VKP[ HTCEVKQP, KH CP[, QH VJG OQPG[ IGPGTCVGF D[ VJG KPVGTPCVKQPCN VTCFG KP VKODGT. 5QOG

GORNQ[OGPV QRRQTVWPKVKGU CTKUG DWV PQV PGEGUUCTKN[ HQT RGQRNG NKXKPI NQECNN[ CPF GORNQ[OGPV

KU QHVGP UJQTV-VGTO CPF TGOWPGTCVKQP KU IGPGTCNN[ NQY. (CEKNKVKGU HQT VJG YQTMHQTEG CTG QHVGP

RTQXKFGF DWV VJG SWCNKV[ QH RTQXKUKQP ECP DG XGT[ RQQT CPF QVJGT RGQRNG JCXG XCT[KPI TKIJVU QH

CEEGUU VQ VJGUG HCEKNKVKGU. 1P VJG QVJGT JCPF, VJG CTTKXCN QH NCTIG-UECNG HQTGUVT[ QRGTCVKQPU

1832 %KVGF KP 9KVVG 1992 RCIGU 59 CPF 62 1833 *CMK\WOYCOK CPF /KNQN GFU. 2000 1834 %COGTQQP, )CDQP, +XQT[ %QCUV, %QPIQ-$TC\\CXKNNG CPF )JCPC. 1835 1NKXGT GV CN WPFCVGF 1836 $TQYP CPF ’MQMQ 2001 1837 $TQYP CPF ’MQMQ 2001




FKUTWRVU VJG GZKUVKPI NQECN NKXGNKJQQF DCUG CPF CEEGUU VQ HQTGUV TGUQWTEGU. 06(2U DGEQOG

UECTEG, TGUWNVKPI KP C FKTGEV NQUU QH KPEQOG HQT OCP[ NQECN RGQRNGU; YQOGP CPF VJG GNFGTN[ CTG

RCTVKEWNCTN[ DCFN[ CHHGEVGF, CU VJG[ CTG QHVGP VJG QPGU VQ EQNNGEV CPF VTCFG KP 06(2U, RTQXKFKPI

XCNWCDNG HQQF CPF ECUJ HQT HCOKNKGU. 6JG EJCPIKPI TQNGU CPF TGNCVKQPUJKRU YJKEJ FGXGNQR

YKVJKP CPF DGVYGGP EQOOWPKVKGU IGPGTCVGU EQPHNKEV CPF QHVGP TGUWNVU KP VJG OCTIKPCNKUCVKQP QH

EGTVCKP EQOOWPKVKGU, CPF EQOOWPKV[ OGODGTU, UWEJ CU YQOGP CPF VJG GNFGTN[. 5QOG QH VJG

OQUV XCNWCDNG VTGGU KP VGTOU QH VKODGT JCXG DGGP JKIJN[ XCNWGF NQECNN[ HQT VJGKT OCP[ WUGU. 6JG

QXGT-GZRNQKVCVKQP QH VJGUG URGEKGU ECP UGTKQWUN[ FKUTWRV NQECN NKXGNKJQQFU CPF NGCF VQ C PGV NQUU

QH ECUJ KPEQOG HQT OCP[1838.

’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUVU JCXG UQOGVKOGU GZCIIGTCVGF VJG OCNKIP KORCEV QH HCUV-YQQF RNCPVCVKQPU,

DWV VJGTG KU PQ FQWDV VJCV HCUV-YQQF RNCPVCVKQPU JCXG ECWUGF GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UQEKCN

RTQDNGOU KP UQOG UKVWCVKQPU. 5WRRQTVGTU QH VJG KPFWUVT[ QHVGP WPFGTGUVKOCVG VJG FCOCIG FQPG

D[ HCUV-YQQF HQTGUVT[, DWV VJKU KU PQV VQ UC[ VJCV HCUV-YQQF HQTGUVT[ JCU PQ DGPGHKVU. 6JG VTWVJ KU

VJCV KP UQOG UKVWCVKQPU HCUV-YQQF HQTGUVT[ KU WPFGUKTCDNG KP QVJGT UKVWCVKQPU KV ECP [KGNF DGPGHKVU

PQV LWUV HQT VJG GEQPQO[, DWV CNUQ HQT VJG GPXKTQPOGPV CPF NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU1839. 9JGP

GEQPQOKE CUUGUUOGPVU CTG OCFG QH HWVWTG RTQLGEVU, ITGCVGT GORJCUKU UJQWNF DG IKXGP VQ VJG

GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UQEKCN EQUVU QH HCUV-YQQF HQTGUVT[. +H VJKU YGTG VQ JCRRGP, VJGP VJG OQUV

FCOCIKPI UEJGOGU YQWNF PGXGT IGV QHH VJG FTCYKPI DQCTF1840.

6JGTG CTG ECUGU YJGTG HCUV-YQQF RNCPVCVKQPU JCXG TGRNCEGF JCDKVCVU TKEJ KP DKQFKXGTUKV[,

CNVJQWIJ VJG ENCKO OCFG D[ UQOG GPXKTQPOGPVCN ITQWRU VJCV RNCPVCVKQP EQORCPKGU FGNKDGTCVGN[

VCTIGV PCVWTCN HQTGUVU KU GZCIIGTCVGF. $KQFKXGTUKV[ KU WPFGT VJTGCV HTQO C YJQNG TCPIG QH

CEVKXKVKGU, CPF VJGTG UJQWNF DG C RTQJKDKVKQP CICKPUV VJG EQPXGTUKQP QH URGEKGU-TKEJ HQTGUVU KPVQ

CP[ HQTO QH OQPQEWNVWTG, KPENWFKPI HCUV-YQQF RNCPVCVKQPU. +P EGTVCKP UKVWCVKQPU, RNCPVCVKQPU

OC[ JGNR VQ GPTKEJ DKQFKXGTUKV[. 6JKU OC[ DG VJG ECUG YJGP VJG[ CTG GUVCDNKUJGF QP FGTGNKEV QT

CDCPFQPGF CITKEWNVWTCN NCPF. /CP[ HQTGUVGTU ENCKO VJCV KPFWUVTKCN RNCPVCVKQPU VCMG RTGUUWTG QHH

PCVWTCN HQTGUVU CPF YQTT[KPIN[, VJG 9QTNF $CPM EQPVKPWGU VQ CFJGTG VQ VJG HNCYGF

1838 $TQYP CPF ’MQMQ 2001 1839 %QUUCNVGT CPF 2[G-5OKVJ 2003 1840 %QUUCNVGT CPF 2[G-5OKVJ 2003




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<GCNCPF1843 CPF 5TK .CPMC, VJGTG KU NKVVNG GXKFGPEG VQ UWIIGUV VJCV HCUV-YQQF RNCPVCVKQPU JCXG

VCMGP RTGUUWTG QHH PCVWTCN HQTGUVU GNUGYJGTG1844.

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KPJGTGPVN[ IQQF PQT KPJGTGPVN[ DCF. +V KU C PGWVTCN VGEJPQNQI[ YJKEJ, YJGP RQQTN[ RNCPPGF CPF

GZGEWVGF, ECP ECWUG ITCXG RTQDNGOU; CPF YJKEJ, YJGP YGNN RNCPPGF CPF GZGEWVGF, ECP FGNKXGT

PQV LWUV NCTIG SWCPVKVKGU QH YQQF, DWV C TCPIG QH GPXKTQPOGPV CPF UQEKCN DGPGHKVU1845.

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5QEKCNKUV XCNWGU RTKOCTKN[ CFFTGUU GEQPQOKE U[UVGOU DCUGF QP EQQRGTCVKQP TCVJGT VJCP

EQORGVKVKQP CPF WVKNK\G EGPVTCNK\GF RNCPPKPI CPF FKUVTKDWVKQP.

6JG RGQRNGU QH −JCO IGPGTCNN[ NQECVG 'UQEKCNKUO' KP VJG 'UQEKQ-GEQPQOKE' FQOCKP CPF KV KU SWKVG

FKUVCPV HTQO VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN', 'GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG UGTXKEGU', CPF 'DKQ-RJ[UKECN'

FQOCKP. &WG VQ KVU FKUVCPEG HTQO VJG 'RU[EJQ-EWNVWTCN' FQOCKP KV NCEMU C OQTCN DCUKU HQT

EQPUGTXCVKQP QT C RNCVHQTO HQT CFXQECE[.

+P HCEV, XGT[ HGY VTCLGEVQTKGU QH UQEKCNKUO QHHGT CP[ OQTCN DCUKU HQT EQPUGTXCVKQP, YKVJ VJG

RQUUKDNG GZEGRVKQP QH ' &JCOOKE UQEKCNKUO', TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 7.2 CPF 7.7, YJKEJ OQTCNN[

FTCYU QP TGNKIKQP, QT GEQUQEKCNKUO1846. ’EQUQEKCNKUVU DGNKGXG VJCV FGOQETCVKE UQEKCNKUO KU C

PGEGUUCT[ EQPFKVKQP HQT GEQNQIKECN RTQVGEVKQP, VJQWIJ PQV C UWHHKEKGPV QPG. 6JG[ RQKPV VQ VJG

GEQNQIKECN UWEEGUUGU QH FGOQETCVKE UQEKCNKUV IQXGTPOGPVU QH 0QTVJGTP ’WTQRG, YJGTG YQTMGTU'

RCTVKGU CPF WPKQPU YGTG RQYGTHWN GPQWIJ VQ GUVCDNKUJ RQNKEKGU QRRQUGF D[ EQTRQTCVKQPU.

1841 +7%0 CPF 99( 2000 RCIG 10 1842 JCXKPI QT OCTMGF D[ C UVTQPI VGPFGPE[ GURGEKCNN[ C EQPVTQXGTUKCN QPG JVVR://YYY.YQTFTGHGTGPEG.EQO/FGHKPKVKQP/VGPFGPVKQWU CEEGUUGF 10VJ #WI 2005. 1843 0<(+% 1999 1844 %QUUCNVGT CPF 2[G-5OKVJ 2003 1845 %QUUCNVGT CPF 2[G-5OKVJ 2003 1846 ’EMGTUNG[ 1992

http://www.wordreference.com/definition/tendentious




’EQUQEKCNKUVU EQPVTCUV VJGUG UQEKCNKUV UWEEGUUGU VQ VJG FKUCUVGTU QH %QOOWPKUO, YJKEJ

EQORNGVGN[ HQTDCF QRRQUKVKQP VQ VJG DWTGCWETCVU' KPFWUVTKCN RNCPU, CPF VQ VJG OCTIKPCN

UWEEGUUGU QH FGOQETCVKE ECRKVCNKUO, YJKEJ CNNQYGF FGOQETCVKE QRRQUKVKQP VQ VJG KPFWUVTKCN

U[UVGO, DWV NKOKVGF VJG RGTOKUUKDNG KPVGTHGTGPEG YKVJ VJG RTGTQICVKXGU QH ECRKVCN. *QYGXGT,

GEQUQEKCNKUO JCU UGNH-EQPUEKQWUN[ FGENKPGF VQ UVGR CETQUU VJG CPVJTQRQEGPVTKE FKXKFG CPF

GODTCEG CP GEQEGPVTKE RGTURGEVKXG. +PUVGCF, OQUV GEQUQEKCNKUVU JCXG TGLGEVGF VJG PGGF HQT C

"PGY GEQNQIKECN RCTCFKIO"1847 CPF JCXG CTIWGF VJCV UQEKCNKUV VJQWIJV RTQXKFGU C UWHHKEKGPV

TGRQUKVQT[ QH XCNWGU HQT GEQNQIKECN CPF UQEKCN TGEQPUVTWEVKQP.

*WPVKPI HQT HQTGKIP GZEJCPIG

*WPVKPI XCNWGU CTG RTGFKECVGF RTKOCTKN[ QP TGETGCVKQP CEVKXKVKGU QT NKXGNKJQQF UVTCVGIKGU CPF

KPENWFG UWEJ EQPEGRVU CU VJG HCKT EJCUG, GEQ-URKTKVWCN TGEKRTQECVKQP CPF DNGUUKPI.

6JGTG CTG HGY UGOCPVKE FKHHGTGPEGU DWV C PWODGT QH RCTCFKIOKE QPGU. (QT KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG

JWPVKPI KU RCTV QH C NKXGNKJQQF UVTCVGI[ CPF JCU DQVJ EWNVWTCN CPF TGNKIKQWU GNGOGPVU. (QT

YGUVGTPGTU JWPVKPI KU WUWCNN[ C TGETGCVKQPCN CPF EWNVWTCN CEVKXKV[ CPF OC[ JCXG URKTKVWCN

GNGOGPVU. (QT VJG DKQEGPVTKE GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUV CNN JWPVKPI, YJCV GXGT KVU QDLGEVKXG, KU KOCIKPGF

CU C DCTDCTKE RTCEVKEG

5QOG JQPGUV TGURQPFGPVU KP ’CUVGTP −JCO KP EQOOQP YKVJ OQUV "RTG-OQFGTP"1848 RGQRNGU

CRRGCT VQ CEVKXGN[ GZRNQKV VJG PCVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPV, KP URKVG QH VJGKT DGNKGHU, CPF VJKU CRRGCTU VQ

KPENWFG JWPVKPI1849. 6JG[ CTG PQV QPN[ EQPUEKQWU QH VJG EQPUVCPV UETWVKP[ QH VGTTKVQTKCN FKXKPKVKGU

([WN-NJC) YJGP VJG[ IQ JWPVKPI1850, DWV GPICIG KP HQNM-TGNKIKQWU TKVWCNU CPF RNCEG FGOCPFU QP

VJGKT IQFU HQT RTQVGEVKQP, CPF UWEEGUU KP JWPVKPI.

6JG $WFFJKUV ETGGF, FGXGNQRGF KP C ITCKP-JCTXGUVKPI, HTWKV-ICVJGTKPI EWNVWTG D[ VJQUG YJQ

YQTG EQVVQP, JCU NKVVNG RNCEG HQT VJG MKNNKPI QH CPKOCNU HQT ENQVJKPI QT HQQF. 6KDGVCPU JQYGXGT

PGGFU OGCV, [CM JCKT CPF UJGGRUMKPU VQ UWTXKXG. 6JG NKVGTCVWTG KU WPENGCT KH VJKU ECNEWNCVGF

1847 %CVVQP CPF &WPNCR 1980 RCIG 15 1848 )KDUQP 1997 1849 *WDGT 1991 1850 0QOCFU IQ JWPVKPI OQTG HTGSWGPVN[ VJCP QVJGT 6KDGVCPU.




VCMKPI QH NKHG TGRTGUGPVU C EQPVTCFKEVKQP CPF CP[ "HNQY QH RU[EJKE RCTVKEKRCVKQP" CU C TGUWNV QH

IWKNV GNWFGU FGHKPKVKQP1851. #NVJQWIJ $WFFJKUV RTGUETKRVKQPU QHHGT QPN[ NKOKVGF RTQVGEVKQP HQT

YKNFNKHG, VJG[ FQ TGUWNV KP 'UCHG JCXGPU' YJGTG YKNFNKHG KU RTQVGEVGF CPF VJKU RTQVGEVKQP OC[ DG

HCT OQTG GHHGEVKXG VJCP PCVKQPCN QT KPVGTPCVKQPCN NCY. 9KVJKP DQVJ 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO CPF

CPKOKUO/UJCOCPKUO1852 VJGTG CTG UCETGF NCPFUECRGU CPF CPKOCNU FGFKECVGF VQ NQECN $WFFJKUV

QT VGTTKVQTKCN FKXKPKVKGU VJCV GPUWTG RTQVGEVKQP1853 . +V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV YKVJKP VJG HKZGF

DQWPFCTKGU QH VJG IQF'U FQOCKP OQUV 6KDGVCPU TGURGEV VJG RTQJKDKVKQPU, DWV QWVUKFG VJG[ JWPV

CPF EWNVKXCVG. (QT VJG DKQEGPVTKE GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUV, JQYGXGT, CNN JWPVKPI KU KOCIKPGF CU C

DCTDCTKE RTCEVKEG CPF VJG[ GUUGPVKCNK\G CNN YJQ JWPV CU DGKPI VJG UCOG CPF TGEQPUVTWEV C

QPG-YQTNF EWNVWTG QH MKNNKPI YJKEJ GTCUGU CP[ FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP UWDUKUVGPEG, TGNKIKQP,

EQOOGTEG CPF URQTV1854. 6JG %JKPGUG IQXGTPOGPV CTG RNCPPKPI VQ KPVTQFWEG EQPVTQNNGF

JWPVKPI1855 KP RCTVU QH VJG ’CUVGTP −JCO TGIKQP, OQUVN[ HQT HQTGKIP GZEJCPIG CPF QPG CKO QH

VJKU UVWF[ KU VQ CUEGTVCKP VJG RQVGPVKCN KORCEV QH JWPVKPI KP VGTOU QH NQECN RGTEGRVKQP. +V YQWNF

CRRGCT VJCV VJGTG OKIJV DG UQOG EQPFKVKQPU WPFGT YJKEJ VJG NQECN RGQRNG OKIJV CNNQY JWPVKPI,

RTQXKFKPI VJG IQXGTPOGPV FKUEWUU KP FGVCKN CURGEVU UWEJ CU URGEKGU, NQECVKQPU, VKOGU CPF

GEQ-URKTKVWCN RTQRKVKCVKQP1856.

10.2.3 0CVWTCN &KOGPUKQP : ’PXKTQPOGPVCN CPF 5WDUKUVGPEG &QOCKP

.KHG UWRRQTV

.KHG UWRRQTV TGHGTU VQ VJG TQNG QH VJG HQTGUV KP VGTOU QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN CPF J[FTQNQIKECN

RTQVGEVKQP.

+V YCU KPKVKCNN[ CUUWOGF VJCV VJG TQNG QH HQTGUVU KP NKHG UWRRQTV YCU KPFGRGPFGPV QH JWOCP

CIGPE[ DWV KV DGECOG ENGCT VJCV HTQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH VJQUG UWTXG[GF VJG[ UGG GXGT[ NKXKPI

CPF PQP-NKXKPI VJKPI KP VJG YQTNF CU DGKPI KPVGTTGNCVGF CPF KPVGTFGRGPFGPV CPF VJG[ V[RKECNN[

1851 %TQQM CPF 1UOCUVQP 1994, ’MXCNN 1968 RCIG 82 1852 #EEQTFKPI VQ $NQPFGCW (RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 2003 YGDNQI) VJG VGTO UJCOCP KU PQV HKVVKPI KP VJG 6KDGVCP EQPVGZV, GXGP CNVJQWIJ OCP[ CPVJTQRQNQIKUVU GORNQ[ KV. 1853 $NGKUEJ CPF 9QPI 1990, *WDGT 1991, −CTOC 2001 1854 −KVQUUC 2000

1855 2UGWFQKU PC[CWT KU .CVKP HQT DNWG UJGGR CPF #,8-0k

IPC DC KU 6KDGVCP CPF %GTXWU CNDKTQUVTKU KU .CVKP HQT

YJKVG NKRRGF FGGT CPF < Ÿ-+1:k

UJC =YC-\WT? FCOCT KU 6KDGVCP..

1856 (QT RGTUQPCN MCTOC CPF VQ CRRGCUG NQECN FKXKPKVKGU.




GODGF PCVWTG KP UQEKGV[. 6JKU XKGY KU KP UVCTM EQPVTCUV VQ VJG .QEMGCP XKGY QH PCVWTG HQWPF KP

VJG YGUVGTP YQTNF.

+PETGCUKPI PWODGTU QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG, KP EQOOQP YKVJ TGURQPFGPVU HTQO ’CUVGTP −JCO,

CRRGCT VQ TGEQIPK\G UQOG UQTV QH NKPM1857 DGVYGGP FGHQTGUVCVKQP, GTQUKQP CPF ENKOCVG EJCPIG

DWV GZRGTV QRKPKQP1858, UGGOKPIN[ DCUGF QP "FGIGPGTCVG UEKGPEG"1859 JCU FKUOKUUGF NKPMU YKVJ

FGHQTGUVCVKQP CPF HNQQFKPI CU "HQNMNQTG"1860. 9JKNG VJG CWVJQT TGEQIPK\GU VJCV OCP[ HCEVQTU1861

ECWUG HNQQFKPI QP VJG DCUKU QH KPFKIGPQWU EQUOQNQI[, GRKUVGOQNQI[ CPF RU[EJQNQI[ VJGTG KU C

UVTQPIN[ JGNF DGNKGH VJCV FGHQTGUVCVKQP JCU PQV QPN[ TGUWNVGF KP HNQQFKPI, DWV KORKPIGF QP

DKQFKXGTUKV[ CPF NQECN YGNN-DGKPI1862. 9G JCXG TGHGTTGF VQ %JKRMQ KP EJCRVGTU 1, 3, 5 CPF 7 DWV

HQT VJGO VJG 1970 HNQQF KP VJG #NCMCPCPFC XCNNG[1863 , VJG OQUV FGXCUVCVKPI KP NKXKPI OGOQT[,

OCTMGF C RGTEGRVWCN VWTPKPI-RQKPV YJGP "HQNM UGPUG YCU VJG QPN[ DQF[ VJCV UWTXG[GF VJG ITKO

UEGPG CPF FTGY EQPENWUKQPU. 6JG ECWUCN TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP KPETGCUKPI GTQUKXKV[ CPF HNQQFU

QP VJG QPG JCPF CPF OCUU UECNG HGNNKPI QH VTGGU QP VJG QVJGT, YCU TGEQIPK\GF"1864. #U + YTKVG VJKU

PGYU JCU LWUV EQOG KP XKC 4551865 QH 1200 VQWTKUVU VTCRRGF D[ HNQQFU CPF OWF UNKFGU KP VJG

*CKNWQIQW )NCEKGT 2CTM KP ’CUVGTP −JCO ECWUGF D[ VQTTGPVKCN TCKP "EQORQWPFGF D[

FGHQTGUVCVKQP"1866. #NVJQWIJ VJG %JKPGUG JCXG DGGP CYCTG QH NKPMU DGVYGGP FGHQTGUVCVKQP CPF

HNQQFU UKPEG VJG GCTN[ 1980U KV VQQM VJG HNQQFU QH 1998 VQ ECWUG C OCLQT TGURQPUG, YJKEJ

TGUWNVGF KP C NQIIKPI DCP CPF C DKNNKQP RQWPF TGHQTGUVCVKQP RTQITCOOG. #EEQTFKPI VQ <JWCPI

)WQVCK1867 QH VJG 5VCVG ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQVGEVKQP #IGPE[ HQT GXGT[ 70,000 JGEVCTGU QH HQTGUV

EWV FQYP, UVQTCIG HQT C OKNNKQP EWDKE OGVTGU QH YCVGT KU NQUV. %QPEGTPU JCXG CNUQ DGGP

1857 JVVR://YYY.WOKEJ.GFW/‘IU265/UQEKGV[/FGHQTGUVCVKQP.JVO CEEGUUGF 12VJ CWIWUV 2005 JVVR://YYY.INQDCNKUUWGU.QTI/’PX+UUWGU/)NQDCN9CTOKPI/(QTGUVU.CUR CEEGUUGF 12VJ CWIWUV 2005

1858 %JQOKV\ CPF −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

http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/society/deforestation.htm

http://www.globalissues.org/EnvIssues/GlobalWarming/Forests.asp

http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/story/0,,305625,00.html

http://www.multimap.com/map/browse.cgi?lat=30.3417&lon=78.5318&scale=2000000

http://www.newsmonster.org/glossary.html

http://www.redorbit.com/news/international/205597/china_mudslide_traps_1200_tourists_in_valley/




GZRTGUUGF KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG1868 CPF KP EJCRVGT 8 UGEVKQP 8.1.6 CPF 8.1.7 CDQWV FGHQTGUVCVKQP KP

VJG TGIKQP CPF KVU KORCEV QP ENKOCVG EJCPIG CPF VJG 'UQWVJGTP LGV UVTGCOU', CNVJQWIJ VJGUG YGTG

PQV TGHGTTGF VQ D[ CP[ QH VJG TGURQPFGPVU KP CP[ UWTXG[.

(QTGUV RTQFWEVU

(QTGUV RTQFWEVU CFFTGUU CNN VJG IQQFU CPF UGTXKEGU RTQXKFGF D[ VJG HQTGUV QVJGT VJCP VJQUG OCFG

CXCKNCDNG HQT NCTIG-UECNG EQOOGTEKCN GZRNQKVCVKQP.

6JG QPN[ EQPHWUKQP YKVJ VJKU XCNWG KU ECWUGF DGECWUG UQOG HQTGUV RTQFWEVU (NKMG HKTGYQQF,

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'(QTGUV RTQFWEVU' RNC[ CP KORQTVCPV TQNG KP VJG NKXGNKJQQF UVTCVGIKGU QH VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUVGTP

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(QTGUV RTQFWEVU CTG ETWEKCN KP VJG UWDUKUVGPEG GEQPQOKGU QH OCP[ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU. 6JGKT

XCNWG JCU WPVKN XGT[ TGEGPVN[1870 DGGP GKVJGT KIPQTGF D[ GEQPQOKUVU CPF FGXGNQRGTU QT KPENWFGF

WPFGT VJG CGIKU QH "EWNVWTCNN[ RGTEGKXGF RQXGTV[", CPF VJGTGHQTG C RTGVGZV HQT GEQPQOKE

FGXGNQROGPV1871. 6JKU KU KP URKVG QH VJG HCEV VJCV 80 RGTEGPV QH VJG RQRWNCVKQP QH VJG 'OCLQTKV[

YQTNF' FGRGPF QP HQTGUV RTQFWEVU HQT VJGKT RTKOCT[ JGCNVJ CPF PWVTKVKQPCN PGGFU. 5GXGTCN OKNNKQP

VTKDCN RGQRNG CNN QXGT VJG YQTNF FGRGPF QP VJGUG RTQFWEVU HQT OGGVKPI VJGKT UWDUKUVGPEG

EQPUWORVKQP CPF KPEQOG PGGFU CPF KP OCP[ EQWPVTKGU 'OKPQT HQTGUV RTQFWEVU' CTG C OCLQT

GZRQTV.

1868 4GKVGT 1981 1869 CDQWV 450 HCOKNKGU JVVR://YYY.PCVKQPCNRCTMU.IQX.WM/KPFGZ/PHAEQTG/PHANKXKPI.JVO CEEGUUGF 1UV 0QXGODGT 2005. 1870 ’OGTVQP 1997 1871 5JKXC 1989 RCIG 10

http://www.nationalparks.gov.uk/index/nf_core/nf_living.htm




1PG QH VJG HWPFCOGPVCN TQNGU QH HQTGUV RQNKE[, KP TGNCVKQP VQ EQOOGTEKCN CPF UWDUKUVGPEG

HQTGUVT[, JCU DGGP, CPF OWUV DG, VQ CFLWFKECVG DGVYGGP VJGO KP RCTVKEWNCT EKTEWOUVCPEGU1872.

%QPHNKEVU KP VJKU CTGPC, CPF VJGKT TGUQNWVKQP, CTG UVTQPIN[ KPFKECVKXG QH VJG YC[U KP YJKEJ

RCTVKEWNCT EQWPVTKGU TGICTF VJGKT TWTCN RQRWNCEG CPF VJG GORJCUKU VJG[ RNCEG WRQP VTGG EQXGT.

#TIWOGPVU CU VQ YJGVJGT C HKPKVG HQTGUV TGUQWTEG UJQWNF DG WUGF OCKPN[ HQT VJG DGPGHKV QH TWTCN

RGQRNG NKXKPI PGCTD[, QT OCKPN[ HQT EQOOGTEKCN RWTRQUGU, QH EQWTUG QPN[ CTKUG YJGP HQTGUV

EQXGT JCU DGEQOG VQQ NQY VQ UCVKUH[ DQVJ GPFU.

’XGP KP +PFQPGUKC, HQT GZCORNG, YJGTG HQTGUV EQXGT KU UVKNN OCP[ VKOGU VJCV QH OQUV QVJGT

EQWPVTKGU, CPF YJGTG KV KU UVKNN RQUUKDNG VQ CNNQECVG NCPF HQT RGTOCPGPV RTQFWEVKQP HQTGUVT[, VJG

IQXGTPOGPV KU UVKNN DGKPI CFXKUGF VQ CXQKF PGY NCTIG-UECNG HQTGUV KPFWUVTKGU1873. 1PEG NQECN

CTGCU QH HQTGUV FQ DGIKP VQ DG KP UJQTV UWRRN[, VJG RTKQTKV[, HTQO DQVJ VJG OQTCN CPF VJG RTCEVKECN

RQKPV QH XKGY, OWUV DG VQ UCVKUH[ UWDUKUVGPEG DKQOCUU PGGFU. /QTCNN[, DGECWUG TWTCN RGQRNG'U

UWDUKUVGPEG PGGFU CTG KP IGPGTCN C ITGCV FGCN OQTG OQFGUV VJCP VJQUG QH VQYP FYGNNGTU CPF

RTCEVKECNN[ DGECWUG VJQUG UVTWIINKPI VQ NKXG YKNN, KH PGGF DG, IQ VQ CP[ NGPIVJU VQ FQ UQ. 6JG RQQT

CTG UVWEM YJGTG VJG[ CTG KP OQUV ECUGU, YJKNG KPFWUVTKGU QP VJG QVJGT JCPF CTG EQPUVCPVN[

UWDUVKVWVKPI QPG TGUQWTEG HQT CPQVJGT, QPG CTGC HQT CPQVJGT. +P +PFKC, JQYGXGT, KPFWUVT[ JCU

DGGP JGNRGF OQUV CPF VJG UWDUKUVGPEG WUGT NGCUV. 6JG EQUVN[ VCUM QH TGHQTGUVKPI FGITCFGF NCPF,

YJKEJ QWIJV VQ JCXG DGGP VJCV QH VJG KPFWUVTKCN UGEVQT, YCU FGCNV VQ XKNNCIGTU YKVJ KOOGFKCVG

DKQOCUU PGGFU, YJKNG KPFWUVT[ YCU PQV QPN[ IKXGP CEEGUU VQ UVCPFKPI RTQFWEVKXG HQTGUV, DWV KP

OCP[ ECUGU IKXGP GPQTOQWU UWDUKFKGU CU YGNN1874. #P CTIWOGPV CFFWEGF CV VKOGU HQT TGUVTKEVKPI

UWDUKUVGPEG WUG QH HQTGUVU UWIIGUVU VJCV KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG WUG HQTGUVU 'DCFN[' CPF OWUV DG

TGUVTCKPGF UQ VJCV KV ECP DG RTQVGEVGF. '$CFN[' KU QH EQWTUG C XCNWG-NCFGP VGTO CPF VJGTG KU RNGPV[

QH GXKFGPEG VJCV UWDUKUVGPEG CPF EQOOGTEKCN WUG OC[ DG IQQF QT DCF FGRGPFGPV WRQP EQPVGZV.

1HVGP, VJG EJCTIG VJCV VJG HQTGUV KU DGKPI WUGF DCFN[ EQOGU HTQO VJQUG YJQUG FGUKTG HQT

EQOOGTEKCN WUG KU HTWUVTCVGF D[ UWDUKUVGPEG RTCEVKEGU YJKEJ EQORGVG YKVJ KV.

# LWUV HQTGUV RQNKE[ OWUV HCEG WR VQ TWTCN PGGFU, CPF VJG UJQTV VKOG JQTK\QPU QH VJG RQQT TCVJGT

VJCP EQPEGTPKPI KVUGNH VQQ PCTTQYN[ QPN[ YKVJ EQOOGTEKCN RTQFWEVKQP. +PUVGCF, QPN[ VQQ QHVGP

YG UGG C OQXG CYC[ HTQO C "PCVWTG VJCV JCU VTCFKVKQPCNN[ EQOG VQ UWRRQTV JQWUGJQNF CPF

1872 5JGRJGTF 1986 1873 ’XCPU 1986 RCIG 23-25

1874 −WNMCTPK 1983 RCIG 98, 5JKXC CPF $CPF[QRCFJ[C[ 1986 RCIG 84




EQOOWPKV[ PGGFU", CPF VQYCTFU "C PCVWTG VJCV KU IGCTGF VQ OGGV WTDCP CPF KPFWUVTKCN PGGFU, C

PCVWTG VJCV KU GUUGPVKCNN[ ECUJ-IGPGTCVKPI"1875. 9JGP VJG HQTGUV ECP PQ NQPIGT UCVKUH[ CNN ENCKOU

WRQP KV, CNN YQWNF-DG WUGTU JCXG VQ RNCPV C RTQRQTVKQP QH VJG VTGGU VJG[ PGGF, QT IQ GNUGYJGTG.

5ECPV[ VTGG-EQXGT QWIJV VQ DTKPI KP VJG IQXGTPOGPVCN DQF[ EJCTIGF YKVJ GPXKTQPOGPVCN

EQPEGTPU, CPF KP OCP[ ECUGU EQOOGTEKCN CEVKXKVKGU UJQWNF DG OWEJ EWTVCKNGF QT UJQWNF EGCUG.

8GT[ QHVGP, VJQWIJ, RQNKVKECN RTGUUWTGU YKNN RTQFWEG C LWFIGOGPV YJKEJ ITCPVU EQOOGTEG

EQPVKPWGF WUG CPF CVVGORVU (PGEGUUCTKN[ WPUWEEGUUHWNN[) VQ DCP UWDUKUVGPEG WUGTU.

6JG OQTG EQWTCIGQWU RCVJ, JQYGXGT, KU VQ GODCTM WRQP VTGG-RNCPVKPI RTQITCOOGU YKVJ VJG

VYQ ECVGIQTKGU QH ITQYGTU YJQ JCXG EQPUKUVGPVN[ RTQXGF OQUV UWEEGUUHWN, PCOGN[ KPFKXKFWCN

HCTOGTU CPF EQOOGTEKCN EQPEGTPU. 0GKVJGT UVCVG RNCPVCVKQPU PQT EQOOWPKV[ YQQFNQVU CTG CU

GHHKEKGPV KP VJKU TGURGEV1876. %QOOGTEKCN EQPEGTPU ECP CHHQTF VQ YCKV HQT VTGGU VQ ITQY. +V KU

XKNNCIGTU YJQ OC[ PGGF KPEGPVKXGU UWEJ CU ECUJ, HQQF-HQT-YQTM, QT UVTQPIGT NCPF-TKIJVU VQ

QHHUGV VJG JCPFKECRU QH HKPKVG CXCKNCDKNKV[ QH HCOKN[ NCDQWT, VJG UNQY ITQYVJ QH VTGGU CPF VJG

URCEG VJG[ VCMG WR QP UOCNN CITKEWNVWTCN RNQVU. +P CNN VJGUG UKVWCVKQPU, KH UWDUKUVGPEG PGGFU ECP

DG VCMGP CU UGTKQWUN[ CU EQOOGTEKCN CEVKXKVKGU D[ VJQUG YJQ HQTOWNCVG CPF KORNGOGPV HQTGUV

RQNKE[, OCP[ GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQDNGOU DGEQOG OQTG VTCEVCDNG.

+P VJG NCUV VJTGG UGEVKQPU, YG JCXG CFFTGUUGF HQTGUV XCNWGU KP C ETQUU-EWNVWTCN EQPVGZV CPF

KFGPVKHKGF RCTCFKIOKE, UGOCPVKE, GRKUVGOQNQIKECN CPF RU[EJQNQIKECN FKHHKEWNVKGU VJCV ECP

UGGOKPIN[ DG QXGTEQOG YKVJ U[PGTIKUVKE DTKFIKPI. 6JGUG FKHHKEWNVKGU CRRGCT VQ DG GZCEGTDCVGF

NQECNN[ CPF INQDCNN[ D[ C NCEM QH EQOOKVOGPV VQ QT WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH IGPFGT CPF GVJPKEKV[

OCKPUVTGCOKPI KP HQTGUV RNCPPKPI YJKEJ YKNN DG FKUEWUUGF KP VJG PGZV UGEVKQPU.

1875 #ICTYCN 1984 RCIG 10-11 1876 ,QUJK 1983 RCIG 39




10.2.4 (QTGUV 8CNWGU D[ ’VJPQ-NKPIWKUVKE )TQWR

+V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV IGPGVKE RCVVGTPU UJCTG UQOG UKOKNCTKVKGU YKVJ EWNVWTG CPF NKPIWKUVKEU

DGECWUG VJG OGEJCPKUOU HQT VTCPUOKUUKQP CTG, KP RCTV, UKOKNCT1877. +V KU PQV WPEQOOQP HQT UJCTR

IGPGVKE EJCPIG VQ EQKPEKFG YKVJ NKPIWKUVKE DQWPFCTKGU. 5JCTR DQWPFCTKGU ECP DG FWG VQ OCVKPI

DCTTKGTU, VQRQITCRJ[, EWNVWTCN CPF RCUV OKITCVKQP KPENWFKPI KPVTWUKQP CPF CDWVOGPV1878

6JG −JCODC 6KDGVCPU UGGOKPIN[ QTKIKPCVG HTQO 2 IGPG RQQNU1879, C %GPVTCN #UKCP RQQN

EJCTCEVGTKUGF D[ ;#2+1880 EJTQOQUQOGU CPF CP ’CUV #UKCP RQQN EJCTCEVGTKUGF D[ VJG

/122%1881 JCRNQV[RGU1882. +V KU DGNKGXGF VJCV VJG HQTGDGCTU QH VJG 6KDGVCPU HTQO ’CUV #UKC

OKITCVGF PQTVJ, KP RTGJKUVQTKE VKOGU (5GG /CR 10-1), VQ VJG ;GNNQY 4KXGT CPF RCUUGF CDQWV 124

MO1883 VQ VJG GCUV QH VJG TGUGCTEJ CTGC. .CVGT $CTKE1884 RGQRNGU CPF 6KDGVCPU, YKVJ VJG ;#2+

EJTQOQUQOGU, OQXGF UQWVJ VQ VJG *KOCNC[C CPF 0QTVJ ;WPPCP1885 RCUUKPI VJTQWIJ EGPVTCN

−JCO CPF ENQUG VQ VJG ;CPIV\G 4KXGT1886.

6JGTG KU UQOG GXKFGPEG1887 VJCV VJG 3KCPI RGQRNG DGNQPI VQ VJG UCOG DNQQFNKPG CU VJG CPEKGPV

:KC1888 %JKPGUG, HTQO *GPCP 2TQXKPEG1889, CPF VJCV VJGKT OQNGEWNCT UGSWGPEGU1890 CTG

IGQITCRJKECNN[ FKUEQTFCPV YKVJ VJG 6KDGVCPU1891.

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夏 ZKC 21UV -16VJ EGPVWT[ $% JVVR://YYY.OPUW.GFW/GOWUGWO/RTGJKUVQT[/EJKPC/KOCIGU/ZKCOCR.IKH CEEGUUGF 12VJ #WIWUV 2005. 1889 JVVR://YYY-EJCQU.WOF.GFW/JKUVQT[/CPEKGPV1.JVON CEEGUUGF 28VJ ,WN[ 2005 1890 $CKNG[ GV CN 2004 1891 5GG (KIWTG 8-1 HQT C IGPGVKE RTQHKNG QH VJG −JCODC 6KDGVCPU CPF VJG *GPCP *CP.

http://www.bloodbook.com/glossary.html#H

http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/images/xiamap.gif

http://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/ancient1.html




/CR 10-1 QH OKITCVKQP TQWVGU QH 5KPQ-6KDGVCP RQRWNCVKQPU ($KPI 5W GV CN 2000)

6JGTG CTG FCPIGTU, JQYGXGT QH CUUWOKPI VJCV VJGTG KU CNYC[U C EQTTGNCVKQP DGVYGGP IGPGVKE CPF

NKPIWKUVKE CHHKNKCVKQP. +V OQUVN[ QEEWTU CHVGT NCTIG-UECNG FGOKE FKHHWUKQPU1892 HQNNQYGF D[

TGNCVKXG UGFGPVKUO. 6JKU CRRGCTU VQ DG VJG ECUG YKVJ 6KDGVCP CPF VJG QVJGT 5KPQ-6KDGVCP CPF

#NVCKE RTQVQ-NCPIWCIGU, YJGTG VJGTG KU C UKIPKHKECPV EQTTGNCVKQP1893 DGVYGGP NKPIWKUVKEU,

IGPGVKEU1894, CPF IGQITCRJKECN FKUVCPEG1895.

#NVJQWIJ VJG KORQTVCPEG QH GVJPKEKV[ JCU DGGP KFGPVKHKGF KP VJKU UVWF[ KP UGEVKQP 8.2.5 CPF

9.3.3 , VJG RGTEGRVWCN FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP GVJPKE ITQWRU, KP UGEVKQP 8.2.4 CPF 8.2.5 CPF VJGKT

TGURGEVKXG 'GRKUVGOQNQIKGU QH PCVWTG' KP UGEVKQP 8.2.7 KVU GTQUKQP KU QPG QH VJG NGCUV FKUEWUUGF

EQPUGSWGPEGU QH OQFGTPK\CVKQP CPF INQDCNK\CVKQP1896. 6JGTG UJQWNF DG EQPEGTP DGECWUG KV KU

1892 #P CTEJCGQNQIKECN VGTO VJCV TGHGTU VQ RQRWNCVKQP FKHHWUKQP KPVQ CPF CETQUU CP CTGC RTGXKQWUN[ WPKPJCDKVGF D[ VJCV ITQWR, RQUUKDN[ FKURNCEKPI, TGRNCEKPI, QT KPVGTOKZKPI YKVJ C RTG-GZKUVKPI RQRWNCVKQP (G.I. CU JCU DGGP UWIIGUVGF HQT VJG URTGCF QH CITKEWNVWTG CETQUU 0GQNKVJKE ’WTQRG, CPF YJCV QEEWTTGF YKVJ VJG ’WTQRGCP EQNQPK\CVKQP QH VJG #OGTKECU). JVVR://GP.YKMKRGFKC.QTI/YKMK/&GOKEAFKHHWUKQP CEEGUUGF 1UV ,WN[ 2005.

1893 0GVVNG CPF *CTTKUU 2003 1894 T2 = 0.36 FH =135 R<0.001 1895 T2 = 0.30 FH =135 R<0.001 1896 5JKXC 1993

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demic_diffusion




NKPMGF VQ UQEKCN EQJGUKQP CPF XCNWG U[UVGOU VJCV HCEKNKVCVG GHHGEVKXG OCPCIGOGPV QH PCVWTCN

TGUQWTEGU. /QTGQXGT, VJGTG KU C UVTQPI EQTTGNCVKQP DGVYGGP GVJPKE FKXGTUKV[ CPF VJG

EQPUGTXCVKQP QH DKQFKXGTUKV[. #NVJQWIJ VJG 701897, VJG 9QTNF $CPM CPF #&$1898 DGICP VQ

EQPUKFGT GVJPKEKV[ KUUWGU CPF EWNVWTCN RTQVGEVKQP KP VJG 1980U FGXGNQROGPV CIGPEKGU JCXG QPN[

OQWVJGF TJGVQTKECN UWRRQTV DWV JCXG EQPVKPWGF VQ RTKXKNGIG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH DKQNQIKECN

TGUQWTEGU QXGT VJG RTGUGTXCVKQP QH GVJPKE EWNVWTGU1899. #U QH 2003, QPN[ 8 OWNVKNCVGTCN/ DKNCVGTCN

CIGPEKGU QWV QH 27 JCF C RQNKE[ QP KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG QT GVJPKE OKPQTKVKGU, 10 JCF QRGTCVKQPCN

IWKFCPEG CPF QPN[ 3 JCF HQTOCN CEEQWPVCDKNKV[ OGEJCPKUOU1900. #NVJQWIJ &(+&1901 KU

KPXQNXGF KP RTQLGEVU VJCV KPENWFG GVJPKE ITQWRU, CPF GPEQWTCIGU 'GVJPKEKV[ OCKPUVTGCOKPI' KP

UQOG QH KVU RTQLGEVU KV YCU WPCDNG VQ RTQXKFG OG1902 YKVJ C FGHKPKVKQP QH 'GVJPKEKV[', QT

'OCKPUVTGCOKPI' CPF KVU IWKFGNKPGU1903 CTG QDXKQWUN[ QWV QH FCVG, "QWV QH UVGR YKVJ KPVGTPCVKQPCN

RQNKEKGU"1904 CPF "QPN[ CURKTCVKQPCN"1905.

/CP[ IQXGTPOGPVU CPF FGXGNQROGPV CIGPEKGU, TGOCKP WPEQOHQTVCDNG YKVJ GVJPKE FKXGTUKV[

DGECWUG KV C EQPVGUVGF FQOCKP VJCV EJCNNGPIGU VJG JQOQIGPKUCVKQP QH 'PCVKQPCN EWNVWTG' CPF

GEQPQOKEU. 6JKU JCU RTGUGPVGF FKNGOOCU HQT FGXGNQROGPV CIGPEKGU. #UKCP &GXGNQROGPV $CPM

(#&$), HQT GZCORNG KPUKUVGF KVU RTQITCOOGU KP 8KGV 0CCO UJQWNF VCTIGV GVJPKE ITQWRU QP VJG

DCUKU QH XGTPCEWNCT KFGPVKHKECVKQP DWV KP %JKPC VJG[ CEEGRVGF QHHKEKCN KFGPVKHKECVKQP CNVJQWIJ

VJKU CRRGCTU VQ DG CV QFFU YKVJ VJGKT RQNKE[ QH RTGXGPVKPI CUUKOKNCVKQP CPF RTQVGEVKPI

EWNVWTGU1906

5KPEG 1996 VJG 9QTNF $CPM JCU CVVGORVGF VQ KPENWFG KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG KP KVU RQXGTV[

TGFWEVKQP UVTCVGI[1907 WPFGT VJG TWDTKE QH "GVJPQFGXGNQROGPV"1908. %TKVKEU CTIWG VJCV VJKU

CRRTQCEJ ECWUGU FKXKUKQPU KP PCVKQPCN CPF NQECN KPFKIGPQWU OQXGOGPVU KV HCKNU VQ CFFTGUU VJG

1897 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU (70). 1898 #UKCP &GXGNQROGPV $CPM (#&$). 1899 $NGPEJ 2001 1900 )TKHHKVJU 2003 1901 &GRCTVOGPV HQT KPVGTPCVKQPCN FGXGNQROGPV (&(+&). 1902 #PQP RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQPO 21/7/04 1903 1XGTUGCFU &GXGNQROGPV #FOKPKUVTCVKQP (1&#) 1995C 1904 )TKHHKVJU 2003 RCIG 99 1905 )TKHHKVJU RGTUQPCN EQOOWPKECVKQP 23/7/04 1906 #&$ 2003 1907 2CTVTKFIG GV CN 1996 1908 )TKHHKVJU 2003 RCIG 41




WPFGTN[KPI UVTWEVWTCN ECWUGU QH KPFKIGPQWU RQXGTV[ CPF UQ HCT JCU PQV DGGP XGT[ GHHGEVKXG KP

CFFTGUUKPI VJG RQNKE[ CPF RTCEVKECN RTQDNGOU VJCV WPFGTOKPG KPFKIGPQWU NCPF CPF TGUQWTEG

UGEWTKV[1909. +P URKVG QH VJGUG HCKNKPIU CPF NCTIGN[ DGECWUG QH RTGUUWTG HTQO KPFKIGPQWU ITQWRU

DGUV RTCEVKEGU CTG DGIKPPKPI VQ GOGTIG. &GXGNQROGPV UVCPFCTFU QP KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CTG

GXQNXKPI KP C PWODGT QH URGEKHKE FGXGNQROGPV UGEVQTU1910. 6JG 9QTNF %QOOKUUKQP QP &COU

(9%&)1911 JCU FGXGNQRGF RTQITGUUKXG DGUV RTCEVKEG IWKFGNKPGU HQT KPHTCUVTWEVWTG RTQLGEVU

YJKEJ KPEQTRQTCVG C TKIJVU CPF TKUMU CRRTQCEJ VJCV JCU DGGP YKFGN[ RTCKUGF D[ KPFKIGPQWU

RGQRNGU CU YGNN CU GPXKTQPOGPVCN, JWOCP TKIJVU CPF FGXGNQROGPV 0)1U. #NVJQWIJ VJG 9QTNF

$CPM JCU OQWVJGF VJG TJGVQTKE QH GVJPQFGXGNQROGPV, KV CRRGCTU VQ JCXG HCKNGF VQ CFQRV VJG

RTCZKU. $GUV RTCEVKEGU KP GVJPQFGXGNQROGPV CTG RTGOKUGF QP TCEKCN & MPQYNGFIG GSWKV[, GVJPKE

KPENWUKQP, U[PGTI[ DGVYGGP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CPF VJG FGEQPUVTWEVKQP QH QWVOQFGF XKGYU QH

GVJPKE OQWPVCKP RGQRNGU QPN[ CU VJG RTQDNGO.

%QPEGRVWCNN[ GVJPQFGXGNQROGPV TGHGTU VQ VJG RCTVKEKRCVKQP QH KPFKIGPQWU ITQWRU KP VJG

HQTOCVKQP CPF KORNGOGPVCVKQP QH FGXGNQROGPV RTQLGEVU KP CEEQTFCPEG YKVJ VJGKT QYP PGGFU

CPF CURKTCVKQPU. 5WEJ RTQLGEVU CTG FGUKIPGF D[ TCVJGT VJCP HQT VJG RGQRNG EQPEGTPGF, YJKEJ

KORNKGU VJG TGXCNWCVKQP QH VJGKT QYP EWNVWTG CU VJG DCUKU WRQP YJKEJ HWVWTG FGXGNQROGPV KU VQ

DG EQPUVTWEVGF. ’VJPQFGXGNQROGPV KU VJWU QRRQUGF VQ GVJPQEKFCN FGXGNQROGPV RTQLGEVU

KORQUGF WRQP NQECN EQOOWPKVKGU D[ FQOKPCPV PCVKQPCN GNKVGU1912.

6JG CWVJQT UWIIGUVGF1913 KP C &(+& HWPFGF RTQLGEV KP ;WPPCP VJCV YJGTG GVJPKE VTCFKVKQPU GZKUV

TCVJGT VJCP KPVTQFWEKPI CNKGP RCTCFKIOU QH 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV, EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF

LWTKURTWFGPEG GVJPKEKV[ UVTCVGI[ UJQWNF DG RTGFKECVGF QP

• +PFKIGPQWU GVJPKE MPQYNGFIG CPF EWUVQOCT[ TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV

• 5JCOCPKE TQNGU KP GPXKTQPOGPVCN GFWECVKQP CPF OGFKCVKQP

• 6JG TGEQPHKIWTCVKQP QH PCVWTG TGUGTXGU CPF EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVU DCUGF QP KPFKIGPQWU GVJPKE

ECVGIQTKGU QH UCETGF CPF PQP-UCETGF, 'DWHHGT' CPF 'GZRGTKOGPVCN'.

1909 #UUKGU GV CN 2001, /CECU 2001 1910 *CNKHCZ +PKVKCVKXG 2002, 9GPDCP-5OKVJ 2001 1911 9%& 2000 1912 5G[OQWT-5OKVJ 1986 1913 5VWFNG[ 2004I




• ’VJPKE OGEJCPKUOU HQT OCKPVCKPKPI TGNCVKQPCN VQRQEQUOKE JCTOQP[ (TCVJGT VJCP CNKGP TWNGU

DCUGF QP LWTKURTWFGPEG)

• 6JG EWNVWTCN UVTGPIVJGPKPI QH GVJPKE URGEKCNKUVU YJGTG VJG[ CTG DGEQOKPI GZVKPEV

• %QOOWPKV[ 2NCPVCVKQPU DCUGF QP DGUV GVJPQHQTGUVT[ RTCEVKEG YJGTG NCPF KU CXCKNCDNG

• &KUEWUUKQP YKVJ GVJPKE ITQWRU YJCV OGFKCVKQP KU TGSWKTGF HQT C URGEKHKE KPVGTXGPVKQP VQ VCMG

RNCEG, GURGEKCNN[ KH KV XKQNCVGU UCETGF URCEG/NCPFUECRG1914

• /GVJQFU QH CEEQWPVKPI VJCV CFFTGUU HQTGUV-TGNCVGF XCNWGU D[ GVJPKE ITQWR

• 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV VTCKPKPI GODGFFGF YKVJKP GZKUVKPI VTCFKVKQPU CPF NQECN

KPUVKVWVKQPU TCVJGT VJCP CNKGP 'UEKGPVKHKE' OCPCIGOGPV OQFGNU. 6JKU YKNN DG EJGCRGT

CPF VJGTG KU NGUU FCPIGT QH CNKGPCVKQP RGQRNG HTQO JKUVQTKE VTCFKVKQPU CPF

NKHGUV[NG1915.

*CXKPI TGEQIPK\GF KP VJKU UGEVKQP VJG KORQTVCPEG QH HQTGUV XCNWGU VQ GVJPKE RGQRNG YG ECPPQV

HCKN VQ TGEQIPK\G VJG KORQTVCPEG QH IGPFGTGF MPQYNGFIG CPF NKPGCIG YJKEJ KU GURGEKCNN[

KORQTVCPV KP OCVTKNKPGCN UQEKGVKGU UWEJ CU VJQUG UVWFKGF.

10.2.5 (QTGUV 8CNWGU D[ )GPFGT

#NVJQWIJ VJGTG KU NKVVNG GXKFGPEG QP VJG DCUKU QH /&5 QH OCLQT FKHHGTGPEG KP JQY OGP CPF

YQOGP CTG RGTEGKXGF, QT FKHHGTGPEGU KP GPXKTQPOGPVCN UGPUKVKX[ QT QH IGPFGT UVGTGQV[RKPI VJGTG

CTG GXKFGPVN[ IGPFGT FKHHGTGPEGU QP VJG DCUKU QH EQPVKPIGPV TCPMKPI QH HQTGUV XCNWGU1916 CPF KP

VGTOU QH HQTGUV TGNCVKQPU, RTQFWEVKXG CPF TGRTQFWEVKXG TQNGU1917, CEEGUU CPF EQPVTQN QXGT

TGUQWTEGU, MPQYNGFIG DCUGU1918 CPF FGEKUKQP-OCMKPI1919.

+P OCVTKNKPGCN UQEKGVKGU YQOGP JCXG CP GURGEKCNN[ GHHGEVKXG, FKTGEV RQYGT KP OCKPVCKPKPI VJG

NKPGCIG CPF VJGTGHQTG QYPKPI EJKNFTGP. 6JG[ WUWCNN[ JCXG TKIJVU QXGT CPEGUVTCN RTQRGTV[ CPF

EQPVTQN CPF MPQYNGFIG QH TKVWCNKUVKE CEVKXKV[, YJKEJ OC[ KPENWFG DGKPI VJG URKTKVWCN JGCFU QH

VJG EQOOWPKV[. 6JGTG CTG PQ MPQYP GZCORNGU QH VJG NCVVGT MPQYP VQ VJG CWVJQT COQPI VJG

1914 6JKU YCU PGEGUUCT[ HQT VTGG HGNNKPI (NCTIG EGFCT VTGGU), VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH UOQMGNGUU UVQXGU CPF EJGEM-FCOU KP 09 0GRCN (5VWFNG[ 1992). 1915 0QTDGTI-*QFIG 1992 1916 5VWFNG[ GV CN 2005 1917 JVVR://YYY.KWEP.QTI/EQPITGUU/YQOGP/(QTGUVT[.RFH. CEEGUUGF 18VJ #WIWUV 2005 1918 JVVR://YYY.HCQ.QTI/)GPFGT/GP/HQTG-G.JVO CEEGUUGF 18VJ #WIWUV 2005 1919 JVVR://YYY.KWEP.QTI/EQPITGUU/YQOGP/(QTGUVT[.RFH. CEEGUUGF 18VJ #WIWUV 2005

http://www.iucn.org/congress/women/Forestry.pdf

http://www.fao.org/Gender/en/fore-e.htm

http://www.iucn.org/congress/women/Forestry.pdf




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UQOG 2WOK1922 CPF JKUVQTKECNN[ VJG 0CZK1923) CNVJQWIJ VJG[ GZKUV HWTVJGT CHKGNF1924.

$[ EQORCTKUQP OQUV RCVTKNKPGCN UQEKGVKGU (OQUV *CP %JKPGUG CPF OQUV 6KDGVCP), YQOGP'U

OCLQT TGURQPUKDKNKV[ KP TGRTQFWEVKQP CPF/QT KPEQOG- GCTPKPI FQGU PQV PGEGUUCTKN[ NGCF VQ UQEKCN

GORQYGTOGPV QT IGPFGT GSWCNKV[ YKVJKP VJG JQWUGJQNF. *QYGXGT, VJG RTGUGPEG QH TKIJVU VQ

HQTGUV CPF YQOGP'U TKIJVU VQ CEEGUU HQTGUV TGUQWTEGU ECP OKVKICVG, VQ UQOG GZVGPV, VJKU

KPGSWCNKV[ KP IGPFGT TGNCVKQPU. +P UQOG HQTGUV-DCUGF RCVTKNKPGCN EQOOWPKVKGU1925, KP +PFKC,

DGECWUG QH VJGKT KPXQNXGOGPV KP ICVJGTKPI HTQO HQTGUVU CPF VJGKT OCTIKPCN FGRGPFGPEG QP

CITKEWNVWTCN RTQFWEG, YQOGP CTG GEQPQOKECNN[ OQTG KPFGRGPFGPV CPF JCXG C JKIJGT UVCVWU VJCP

KP VJG TGUV QH +PFKC. +P C OQTG OCNG-FQOKPCVGF *CP/0CZK XKNNCIG1926 YQOGP JCXG PQ TKIJV VQ

HQTGUVU, NCPF QT VTGGU, CNN QH YJKEJ CTG KPJGTKVGF HTQO HCVJGT VQ UQP, CPF HQTGUV FKUVTKDWVKQP KU

ECTTKGF QWV QP VJG DCUKU QH VJG OCNG JGCF QH JQWUGJQNF. # YQOCP, CHVGT OCTTKCIG, CESWKTGU

CEEGUU VQ JGT JWUDCPF'U HQTGUV. (WTVJGTOQTG, YQOGP CTG PQV CNNQYGF VQ ENKOD VTGGU QT VQ EWV

VTWPMU GXGP KH VJGUG CTG PGGFGF HQT JQWUG EQPUVTWEVKQP. 5RKTKVU TGUKFG KP VTGGU CPF C

OGPUVTWCVKPI YQOCP OKIJV RQNNWVG VJG VTGG CPF VJWU DTKPI FQYP VJG YTCVJ QH VJG HQTGUV URKTKV.

/CNG FQOKPCVKQP KP VJG *CP RQNKVKECN U[UVGO KPVTQFWEGF C PGY RGTEGRVKQP VJCV KV KU OGP YJQ

EQPVTQN DQVJ UQEKCN MPQYNGFIG CPF HCOKN[ TGUQWTEGU. *QYGXGT, KP VTCFKVKQPCN /QUWQ UQEKGV[,

6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO YCU VJG UKPING OQUV RQYGTHWN EJCNNGPIGT VQ VJG /QUWQ OCVTKNKPGCN KFGQNQI[

CPF IGPFGT EQPUVTWEVU. 9JKNG VJG *CP %JKPGUG DWTGCWETCE[ VTKGF VQ 'EKXKNK\G' VJG /QUWQ NCTIGN[

VJTQWIJ CFOKPKUVTCVKXG OGCUWTGU CPF YKVJQWV OWEJ UWEEGUU UQ HCT, 6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO VQQM C

OWEJ OQTG UWDVNG CRRTQCEJ CPF VTCPUHQTOGF VJG /QUWQ EQPEGRVKQP CDQWV OCNGPGUU CPF

HGOCNGPGUU1927.

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−JCUK KP +PFKC (0QPIDTK 2000C) CPF VJG $QDQNK\CP QH VJG 4WPIWU KP 5CDCJ, /CNC[UKC (2QTQFQPI 2000). 1925 $QUW /WNNKEM 2000, 5KPIJ 1999 1926 ’P\QPI XKNNCIG KU C OKZGF 0CZK CPF *CP XKNNCIG, CPF KU 8 MOU HTQO VJG VQYP QH .KLKCPI. 1927 5JKJ, 1993

http://www.answers.com/topic/qiang-1

http://www.cic.sfu.ca/lijiang/Project.html




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UJCOCPU RQUUGUUKPI VTCFKVKQPCN MPQYNGFIG COQPI VJG 6COCPIU1928 JCU DGGP UJCTRN[ TGFWEGF

QXGT VJG RCUV HGY FGECFGU. 6JGTG YGTG VJTGG OCLQT TGCUQPU HQT VJG FGETGCUG: YQOGP YJQ

RQUUGUUGF UWEJ MPQYNGFIG YGTG VTGCVGF CU RQVGPVKCNN[ GPICIGF KP YKVEJETCHV; YQOGP'U FKIPKV[

YCU TGFWEGF YKVJKP VJG HCOKN[; CPF VJG DWTFGP QH JQWUGJQNF FWVKGU YCU KPETGCUGF. +P UQOG

ECUGU, VJG HCOKN[ YQWNF TGUVTCKP VJG YQOCP HTQO YQTMKPI CU C UJCOCP, FWG VQ HGCT QH UQEKCN

QUVTCEKUO1929.

$GHQTG VJG CFXGPV QH UVCVG RTGUUWTG QP OCVTKNKPGCN UQEKGVKGU, IGPFGT TGNCVKQPU YGTG TGNCVKXGN[

GSWCN. $CUGF QP YQOGP'U TQNG KP RTQFWEVKQP, VJGKT URGEKCN MPQYNGFIG QH HQTGUVU, CPF VJGKT RNCEG

KP VJG EWNVWTCN CPF TGNKIKQWU NKHG QH OCVTKNKPGCN EQOOWPKVKGU, YQOGP GPLQ[GF EQPUKFGTCDNG

URCEG YKVJKP VJG JQWUGJQNF CPF VJG EQOOWPKV[ VQ OCMG FGEKUKQPU CDQWV TGUQWTEG WUG.

7PHQTVWPCVGN[, OCKPVCKPKPI VJKU RQUKVKQP QH RQYGT JCU DGGP FKHHKEWNV, RCTVKEWNCTN[ KP VJG HCEG QH

RTGUUWTGU HTQO VJG UVCVG KP HCXQWT QH EGPVTCNK\KPI ITGCVGT RCVTKCTEJ[.

5VCVG-URQPUQTGF EQNQPK\CVKQP D[ VJG FQOKPCPV TGNKIKQ-EWNVWTCN TGIKOGU NKMG *KPFWKUO,

6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO CPF %QPHWEKCPKUO CTG PQVGF CU JCXKPI JCF C FGUVTWEVKXG GHHGEV QP

KPFKIGPQWU IGPFGT TGNCVKQPU. 6JG[ FKUQTFGTGF VJG RQUKVKQP QH YQOGP CU VJCV QH UWDQTFKPCVG VQ

OGP CPF TGKPHQTEGF VJGKT GZENWUKQP HTQO RQNKVKECN CPF URKTKVWCN NKHG CPF EQOOWPKV[ FGEKUKQP-

OCMKPI.

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KPJGTKVCPEG; OCTTKCIG HQT NQXG YCU FKUEQWTCIGF CPF TGRNCEGF D[ CTTCPIGF OCTTKCIG; CPF VJG

%QPHWEKCP XCNWGU QH C YQOCP DGKPI UWDQTFKPCVG VQ JGT HCVJGT, JWUDCPF CPF UQP YGTG RTQOQVGF.

#U C TGUWNV, COQPI VJG 0CZK RCVTKCTEJ[ UWTRCUUGF OCVTKCTEJ[ CPF VJG EQPUEKQWU/ WPEQPUEKQWU

HQTOU QH UJW, C RTGFQOKPCPVN[ HGOKPKPG PCVWTG IQFFGUU YKVJ UQOG OCUEWNKPG EJCTCEVGTKUVKEU

DGICP VQ DG TGRNCEGF D[ VJCV QH C OCUEWNKPG GNGOGPVCN EJCTCEVGT1930. 6JG GHHGEV QH VJGUG

1928 K-+1#k

TVC FOCI (6COCPI) OGCPU 'JQTUG UQNFKGT' KP 6KDGVCP, YJKEJ UWIIGUV VJCV VJGKT CPEGUVQTU ECOG HTQO

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6n

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamang




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0QV UWTRTKUKPIN[, VJGTG KU CP GNGOGPV QH NQECN OCNG UWRRQTV KP VJKU EQNQPK\CVKQP, HQT VJG OGP

UGGOGF VQ JCXG CESWKTGF RQYGT CPF TGRTGUGPVCVKQP KP VJG FQOKPCPV UQEKGV['U KOCIG QH

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG. 9QOGP'U CTIWOGPV VJCV VJGKT VTCFKVKQPCN TQNGU KPENWFGF HWNN RCTVKEKRCVKQP QH

YQOGP KP OCP[ CURGEVU QH URKTKVWCN CPF RQNKVKECN FGEKUKQP- OCMKPI JCU DGGP KIPQTGF PQV QPN[

D[ VJG CNKGP CWVJQTKVKGU, DWV D[ VJGKT HCVJGTU, JWUDCPFU CPF DTQVJGTU CU YGNN.

(QT VJG KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU QH VJG TGIKQP, VJG OCLQT CIGPE[ QH EJCPIG KP VJGKT EWNVWTCN U[UVGO

CPF IGPFGT TGNCVKQPU YCU TGNKIKQWU QT UGEWNCT GFWECVKQP. 6JGUG OGCUWTGU YGTG FGUKIPGF VQ FGP[

YQOGP VJG QRRQTVWPKV[ VQ RCTVKEKRCVG CU HWNN OGODGTU QH VJG EQOOWPKV[. 6JG GHHGEV QH UWEJ

OQFGTP UEJQQNKPI YCU VQ UKNGPEG CPF UWRRTGUU VJG VTCFKVKQPCNN[ CEMPQYNGFIGF YQOGP

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VJG PCOG QH YGUVGTP/OQFGTP MPQYNGFIG, FGXGNQROGPV CPF C 'EKXKNK\GF EWNVWTG,' OCNG RQYGT

GOGTIGF CPF C JKGTCTEJ[ QH IGPFGT TGNCVKQPU.

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TGNKIKQWU TKVWCNU YKVJ UVTQPI VKGU VQ VJG HQTGUV. 9JKNG YQOGP EGTVCKPN[ EQPVKPWGF VQ WUG HQTGUVU

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HQTGUVU YGTG EJCPIGF KPVQ OQPQETQRU VJCV RTQXKFGF HGY QH VJG TGUQWTEGU VJCV YQOGP

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0QV YKVJUVCPFKPI VJG CDQXG, DGECWUG QH IGPFGT OCKPUVTGCOKPI CPF IGPFGT UGPUKVK\KPI GHHQTVU,

UQOG EJCPIGU JCXG QEEWTTGF KP VTCFKVKQPCN KPUVKVWVKQPU KP 5QWVJ CPF 5QWVJ ’CUV #UKC. # OQTG

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OCPCIGF D[ VJG YQOCP CPF OCP QH VJG JQWUGJQNF1931.

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CPF FTKXG VJG GSWKVCDNG FKUVTKDWVKQP QH DGPGHKVU.

• +PETGCUG HQQF UGEWTKV[, GORNQ[OGPV QRRQTVWPKVKGU, JQWUGJQNF KPEQOG CPF JGCNVJ QH

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• #XQKF RQVGPVKCN EQPHNKEVU COQPI EQORGVKPI WUGU QH HQTGUVU CPF VJGKT D[-RTQFWEVU CPF VQ

GPUWTG VJCV YQOGP'U CPF OGP'U VTCFKVKQPCN CPF KPFKIGPQWU TKIJVU VQ HQTGUV WUG CTG PQV

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NCPF RTGRCTCVKQP, RNCPVKPI, YGGFKPI, CPF OCKPVGPCPEG.

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ECRCEKV[ VQ HQTCIG KP VJG TCKPHQTGUV CPF OCPCIG VJG PQP-FQOGUVKECVGF TGUQWTEGU WUGF VQ JWPV,

ICVJGT CPF HKUJ; VJGKT VTCKPKPI VQ JQNF CWVJQTKV[ KP RCVTKNKPGCN CPF RCVTKNQECN EJKGHN[ RQUKVKQPU;

1932 YYY.KWEP.QTI/EQPITGUU/YQOGP/(QTGUVT[.RFH CEEGUUGF 18VJ #WIWUV 2005 1933 6JG FKUVKPEVKXG GZRTGUUKQP QH VJG EQIPKVKXG QT KPVGNNGEVWCN EJCTCEVGT QH C EWNVWTG QT C UQEKCN ITQWR JVVR://YYY.VJGHTGGFKEVKQPCT[.EQO/GKFQU CEEGUUGF 15VJ 5GRV 2005. 1934 *WIJ-,QPGU 1979, 4GKEJGN 1999

1935 #VTCP 1990, .GXK-5VTCWUU 1962, 4GKEJGN-&QNOCVQHH 1996 1936 *WIJ-,QPGU 1979, 5VTCVJGTP 1995

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/eidos




VJGKT FKURQUKVKQP HQT UJCOCPKE CEVKXKVKGU, CPF VJGKT CDKNKV[ VQ OCPCIG CNVGTGF UVCVGU QH

EQPUEKQWUPGUU, CTG CEJKGXGF VJTQWIJ C URGEKCNK\GF OCNG MPQYNGFIG ECNNGF '6TCXGNKPI KP

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+P URKVG QH CNN VJG GXKFGPEG, GVJPQDQVCPKECN TGUGCTEJ JCU QHVGP KPVTQFWEGF C FQWDNG DKCU: QP VJG

QPG JCPF, KV JCU TGNKGF QP C NKOKVGF UCORNG QH RTGFQOKPCPVN[ OCNG KPHQTOCPVU CPF, QP VJG QVJGT;

KV JCU UVTWEVWTCNN[ PGINGEVGF 'YQOGP'U MPQYNGFIG'. +V KU PQV UWTRTKUKPI, VJGP, VJCV VJKU DKCU KU

DGKPI NCTIGN[ TGRTQFWEGF D[ VJQUG EQPEGTPGF YKVJ DKQFKXGTUKV[ EQPUGTXCVKQP.

6JG %QPXGPVKQP QP $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[ OCMGU RTQXKUKQP HQT VJG "HCKT CPF GSWKVCDNG UJCTKPI QH

VJG DGPGHKVU"1937 HTQO VJG WUG QH DKQNQIKECN FKXGTUKV[. 6JKU ECPPQV DG CFFTGUUGF CV CNN YKVJQWV

EQPUKFGTKPI VJG KORQTVCPEG QH YQOGP, IGPFGTGF MPQYNGFIG CPF IGPFGT TGNCVKQPU KP

DKQFKXGTUKV[ OCPCIGOGPV CV NQECN NGXGN, CPF VJG RTGUGPEG QH IGPFGT KPGSWCNKVKGU, IGPFGT

UVGTGQV[RGU1938 CPF IGPFGT DKCU1939 KP NQECN, TGIKQPCN, PCVKQPCN, CPF KPVGTPCVKQPCN U[UVGOU VJCV

FGXGNQR PQTOU CPF TGIWNCVKQPU CTQWPF DKQFKXGTUKV[ EQPUGTXCVKQP. 6JGTG KU PGCTN[ C VQVCN HCKNWTG

VQ CEMPQYNGFIG VJG KORQTVCPEG QH YQOGP QT IGPFGT TGNCVKQPU KP VJG NKVGTCVWTG CPF KP RQNKE[

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PCVKQPCN NGXGNU YJGTG VJGUG VJKPIU OCVVGT OQUV, YQOGP'U EQPVTKDWVKQPU CPF VJGKT YGNHCTG, PGGFU

CPF TKIJVU YKNN CNUQ DG QXGTNQQMGF.

/CP[ QH VJG INQDCN VTGPFU VJTGCVGPKPI DKQFKXGTUKV[ CNUQ VJTGCVGP IGPFGT GSWCNKV[. )GPFGT

GSWCNKV[ CFXQECVGU JCXG CTIWGF VJCV VJG FQOKPCPV FGXGNQROGPV OQFGN OWUV DG EJCPIGF UQ KV

DQVJ RTGUGTXGU VJG GPXKTQPOGPV CPF CEJKGXGU IGPFGT GSWCNKV[. 6JG[ RQKPV QWV VJCV VJG EWTTGPV

GEQPQOKE U[UVGO HCKNU VQ XCNWG DQVJ GPXKTQPOGPVCN UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ CPF YQOGP'U WPRCKF NCDQWT.

6JKU TGNCVKQPUJKR YCU HWTVJGT CEMPQYNGFIGF KP VJG 2NCVHQTO HQT #EVKQP1940: "IQXGTPOGPVU JCXG

GZRTGUUGF VJGKT EQOOKVOGPV VQ ETGCVKPI C PGY FGXGNQROGPV RCTCFKIO VJCV KPVGITCVGU

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IGPGTCVKQPU"1941.

1937 )TWDD GV CN 1993 RCIG 76, −GCVKPI 1993 RCIG 26

1938 $TCII 1996, JVVR://YYY.YTO.QTI.W[/DWNNGVKP/49/+PFKC.JVON CEEGUUGF 10VJ #WIWUV 2005 1939 *QYCTF 2001 1940 JVVR://YYY.WP.QTI/YQOGPYCVEJ/FCY/DGKLKPI/RNCVHQTO/KPFGZ.JVON CEEGUUGF 18VJ #WIWUV 2005 1941 JVVR://YYY.WP.QTI/YQOGPYCVEJ/FCY/DGKLKPI/RNCVHQTO/GPXKTQP.JVO RCTC 249 CEEGUUGF 17VJ #WIWUV 2005

http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/49/India.html

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/index.html

http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/environ.htm




9G DGICP VJKU EJCRVGT D[ KNNWUVTCVKPI UQOG QH VJG FKHHKEWNVKGU QH CFQRVKPI C HQTGUV XCNWGU

CRRTQCEJ VQ HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR OQTG DTQCFN[ CPF ETQUU-EWNVWTCNN[ CPF JKIJNKIJVGF VJG

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VJG PGZV EJCRVGT.


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KORQTVCPEG QH VTGGU CPF HQTGUVU KV YCU GXKFGPV VJCV:

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FKOGPUKQPU (JWOCP CPF PCVWTCN).

• 6JGTG CTG WR VQ 12 'HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU', QT 12 'EQPUVGNNCVKQPU QH EQPEGRVU,

XCNWGU, FQOCKPU, DGNKGHU, RGTEGRVKQPU, OGVJQFQNQIKECN CUUWORVKQPU CDQWV

VTGGU CPF HQTGUVU CPF HQTGUVT[ UVGYCTFUJKR RTCEVKEGU UJCTGF ' KP ’CUVGTP −JCO.

• 6JGTG CTG GVJPQ-NKPIWKUVKE FKHHGTGPEGU KP HQTGUV XCNWGU DWV VJGTG KU NKVVNG RGTEGRVWCN

FKHHGTGPEG DCUGF QP IGPFGT QT GPXKTQPOGPVCN UGPUKVKXKV[. 6JGTG CTG JQYGXGT, IGPFGT




FKHHGTGPEGU DCUGF QP HQTGUV XCNWG TCPMKPI CPF NKVGTCVWTG GXKFGPEG HQT FKHHGTGPEGU KP

HQTGUV TGNCVKQPU DCUGF QP NKPGCIG1942 TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 10.2.3. $CUGF QP YQOGP'U

TQNG KP RTQFWEVKQP, VJGKT URGEKCN MPQYNGFIG QH HQTGUVU, CPF VJGKT RNCEG KP VJG EWNVWTCN CPF

TGNKIKQWU NKHG QH OCVTKNKPGCN EQOOWPKVKGU, YQOGP GPLQ[GF EQPUKFGTCDNG URCEG YKVJKP

VJG JQWUGJQNF CPF VJG EQOOWPKV[ VQ OCMG FGEKUKQPU CDQWV TGUQWTEG WUG. 7PHQTVWPCVGN[,

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KP HCXQWT QH EGPVTCNK\KPI ITGCVGT RCVTKCTEJ[1943.

• 6JGTG CTG RGTEGRVWCN FKHHGTGPEGU DGVYGGP CIG ITQWRU YKVJ [QWPI RGQRNG CRRGCTKPI VQ

DG CNKGPCVGF HTQO RNCEG CPF EWNVWTG. #NVJQWIJ [QWPI RGQRNG JCXG HQTGUV XCNWGU VJG[

QRGTCVG HTQO C FKHHGTGPV HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIO VJCP QNF RGQRNG. +V YCU PQV RQUUKDNG VQ

FGVGTOKPG KH VJG 'CIGPEKGU QH CNKGPCVKQP' YGTG GFWECVKQPCN, RQNKVKECN QT EWNVWTCN.

• 6JGTG CTG OCTMGF RGTEGRVWCN FKHHGTGPEGU KP HQTGUV XCNWGU DGVYGGP UQOG CTGCU,

UWIIGUVKPI EQPVTCUVKPI RGTEGRVKQPU QH NQECN EWNVWTG, GPXKTQPOGPV, GZVGTPCN

KPVGTXGPVKQPU CPF RQUUKDN[ HQTGUV TGNCVKQPU.

• +V YQWNF CRRGCT VJCV VJG −JCODC URGCMGTU QH VJG ;CLKCPI XCNNG[ JCXG OQTG KP EQOOQP,

KP VGTOU QH HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU, YKVJ VJGKT 3KCPIKE URGCMKPI PGKIJDQWT, VJCP VJG

−JCODC URGCMGTU KP VJG ;CPIV\G XCNNG[.

$CUGF QP C IGQURCVKCN VGEJPKSWG MPQYP CU MTKIKPI YJKEJ KPVGTRQNCVGU HQTGUV XCNWGU CETQUU

WPUCORNGF CTGCU QH ’CUVGTP −JCO HTQO 86 UCORNG UKVGU KV YCU GXKFGPV VJCV:

• 6JGTG CTG 5 IGQURCVKCN RCTCFKIOU YJKEJ EQTTGURQPF YKVJ YCVGT ECVEJOGPVU, FKCNGEV

ITQWRU CPF C EQODKPCVKQP QH VJG VYQ.

• #NN 12 RCTCFKIOU KFGPVKHKGF KP EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI GZKUV IGQURCVKCNN[ DWV FWG VQ VJG

UOCNN FCVC UGV KV YCU FKHHKEWNV VQ OCR VJGKT GZVGPVU.

1942 # ITQWR YJQUG OGODGTU CTG FGUEGPFGF VJTQWIJ OCNGU HTQO C EQOOQP OCNG CPEGUVQT (RCVTKNKPGCIG) QT VJTQWIJ HGOCNGU HTQO C EQOOQP HGOCNG CPEGUVQT (OCVTKNKPGCIG) JVVR://YYY.EQWPVT[-FCVC.EQO/HTF/EU/\CKTG/\TAINQU.JVON CEEGUUGF 7VJ 5GRV 2005. 1943 −GNMCT GV CN 2003

http://www.country-data.com/frd/cs/zaire/zr_glos.html




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YKPFTQUG EQTTGNQITCOU, DGCTKPI EQTTGNQITCOU CPF CPIWNCT EQTTGNQITCOU YJKEJ FGOQPUVTCVG

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• 6JGTG CTG HQWT OGCUWTGU YJKEJ UWIIGUV UKIPKHKECPV FKTGEVKQPCN VTGPFU QT ENKPGU QH HQTGUV

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RCVVGTPU QH VJG −JCODC RGQRNG CPF VQRQITCRJKE KPHNWGPEGU

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• (QTGUV XCNWGU JCXG DGGP KPHNWGPEGF EWNVWTCNN[ (FKCNGEV CPF FKUVCPEG HTQO RTQXKPEKCN

ECRKVCNU) CPF DKQRJ[UKECNN[ (HQTGUV EQXGT CPF YCVGTUJGFU).

• 6JGTG KU C UVTQPI EQTTGNCVKQP DGVYGGP HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF GVJPQNKPIWKUVKEU YJKEJ

RQVGPVKCNN[ RTQXKFGU HQTGUV RNCPPGTU YKVJ C OGCPU QH KFGPVKH[KPI ITQWRU QH RGQRNG, KH

VJG[ CTG FKUETGVG, YJQ OC[ UJCTG EQOOQP HQTGUV XCNWGU.

6JGUG HKPFKPIU CTG UKIPKHKECPV DGECWUG QH VJGKT EQPVTKDWVKQP VQ QWT WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH KPFKIGPQWU

MPQYNGFIG CPF TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR.

(QT VJG HQTOGT VJG[ RTQXKFG GXKFGPEG: QH C EQTG UGV QH HQTGUV XCNWGU; VJCV EQPUVGNNCVKQPU QH HQTGUV

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RCTCFKIOU D[ CIG, IGPFGT, GVJPKEKV[, CPF NQECVKQP; QH FKTGEVKQPCN CPF ENKPCN VTGPFU KP HQTGUV

XCNWGU; VJCV HQTGUV XCNWGU ECP DG KPHNWGPEGF EWNVWTCNN[ CPF DKQRJ[UKECNN[.

1944 1P VJG DCUKU QH /QTCP'U + QT )GCT['U E CPF 10 NCI FKUVCPEGU DGVYGGP 0-634 MO 1945 QT CP C\KOWVJ QH 80 FGITGGU




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PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP; GXKFGPEG QH UQEKCN HGPEKPI; NQECN GRKUVGOQNQIKGU CPF RU[EJQNQIKGU QH

PCVWTG; NQECN 'EQTG' CTGCU QH PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF EWUVQO VGORNCVGU CNNQYKPI NQECN HQTGUV

FGRCTVOGPVU VQ RNCP UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUVT[ KPKVKCVKXGU RTGFKECVGF QP NQECN XCNWGU

11.2 (14’56 8#.7’ ’.+%+6#6+10

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VJG CRRTQCEJGU CFQRVGF.

11.2.1 ’NKEKVCVKQP

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1946 JVVR://YYY.LXFU.PN/RPU/RPU.JVO CEEGUUGF 15VJ 1EVQDGT 2005

http://www.jvds.nl/pns/pns.htm




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UQOG UVGRU JCXG DGGP OCFG YKVJ VJG CFQRVKQP QH HQTGUV XCNWGU, CFCRVKXG OCPCIGOGPV CPF

U[PGTIKUVKE DTKFIKPI KP HQTGUVT[ CPF PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG RNCPPKPI. 6JGTG KU GXKFGPEG1947 VJCV NQECN

GZRTGUUKQPU QH KPVTKPUKE, NGCTPKPI, UCETGF, EWNVWTCN, EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV XCNWG

JCXG DGGP KPENWFGF KP HQTGUV RNCPPKPI KP VJG 75#, #WUVTCNKC CPF %CPCFC, VJCV CFCRVKXG

OCPCIGOGPV JCU DGGP CFQRVGF KP VJG 75#1948, CPF CVVGORVU CTG DGKPI OCFG CV U[PGTIKUVKE

1947 4KDG CPF /CVVGUQP 2002, $TQYP CPF 4GGF 2000, %TQYHQQV 1990, 0QTVQP CPF *CPPQP 1999 1948 5VCPMG[ GV CN 2003




DTKFIKPI KP *CYCKK1949, ’EWCFQT1950 CPF 0GY <GCNCPF1951. #V VJKU VKOG JQYGXGT KV KU UVKNN VQQ

GCTN[ VQ FTCY EQPENWUKQPU CDQWV VJG EQPUGSWGPEGU QH VJGKT CFQRVKQP.

6JG FKHHKEWNVKGU CTKUG KH VJGTG KU PQV VJG RQNKVKECN YKNN VQ DWKNF QP NQECN HQTGUV XCNWGU, VJGTG CTG

KFGQNQIKECN EQPUVTCKPVU, QT VJG KPUVKVWVKQPCN RCTCFKIOU QH HQTGUVT[ CPF PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG

FGRCTVOGPVU FQ PQV KPENWFG C F[PCOKE GSWKXCNGPV HQT NQECN HQTGUV XCNWGU. 6JKU WPHQTVWPCVGN[

CRRGCTU VQ DG VJG ECUG KP %JKPC CPF VJG EQPUGSWGPEGU QH VJKU CTG FKUEWUUGF KP VJG PGZV UGEVKQP.

11.3.2 #FQRVKQP KP %JKPC CPF −JCO

9JCVGXGT VJG RQVGPVKCN QH VJG HKPFKPIU VJGTG CTG FCPIGTU VJCV VJKU UVWF[ YKNN JCXG XGT[ NKVVNG

UKIPKHKECPEG HQT HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR KP %JKPC QT ’CUVGTP −JCO WPNGUU VJGTG KU C RCTCFKIO UJKHV

KP VJG 5VCVG %QWPEKN CPF HQTGUVT[ RNCPPKPI CPF KORNGOGPVCVKQP KU FGXQNXGF VQ NQECN NGXGNU.

7PVKN XGT[ TGEGPVN[ %JKPC'U HQTGUVT[ FGRCTVOGPV CV PCVKQPCN CPF NQECN NGXGN JCU KIPQTGF NQECN

HQTGUV XCNWGU GURGEKCNN[ COQPI OKPQTKV[ PCVKQPCNKVKGU FWG VQ VJG KPJGTGPV KFGQNQIKECN

EQPVTCFKEVKQPU QH VTCFKVKQPCN XCNWGU CPF 'UQEKCN GPIKPGGTKPI'1952. 6JG ECFTGU V[RKECNN[ KIPQTG

NKPIWKUVKE GEQNQIKGU CPF NQECN GRKUVGOQNQIKGU QH PCVWTG CPF KPUKUV VJCV CNN KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU

TGSWKTG HQTOCN GPXKTQPOGPVCN GFWECVKQP. %JKPC EQPVKPWGU VQ RTGFKECVG HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV QP

C VQR-FQYP UEKGPVKHKE CRRTQCEJ CPF VJG PGY HQTGUV RQNKEKGU RTQXKFG GPXKTQPOGPVCN UWRRQTV CV

VJG GZRGPUG QH VJG NQECN RGQRNG.

5QEKCNKUO CU YG FKUEQXGTGF KP UGEVKQP 8.2.4 CPF 10.2 JCU PGXGT FKTGEVN[ EQPEGTPGF KVUGNH YKVJ

GPXKTQPOGPVCN KUUWGU, ECPPQV RTGVGPF VQ JCXG VJG CPUYGT VQ VJG GCTVJ'U GEQNQIKECN RTQDNGOU CPF

ECP GSWCNN[ DG WUGF VQ GZRNQKV PCVWTG CU EQPUGTXG KV. 0GKVJGT FQGU KV RTQXKFG CP CFGSWCVG

RNCVHQTO VQ DTKFIG DGVYGGP VJG HQTGUV XCNWGU QH VJG UVCVG CPF NQECN RGQRNG. 9G CTG UVKNN YCKVKPI

HQT VJG 'FCYP QH RQUV-OQFGTP HQTGUVT['1953, TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 5.8 KP %JKPC, YJKEJ KU OQUVN[

NKOKVGF VQ EWNVWTG CPF RQNKVKEU1954.

1949 −CJCMCNCW 2004 1950 $GEMGT CPF )JKOKTG 2003 1951 5KOQP 2002 1952 *QYCTF 1994 1953 6TQWXCNKU 2000 1954 JVVR://YYY.CCUKCPUV.QTI/CDUVU/1998CDUV/EJKPC/E19.JVO CEEGUUGF 20VJ 0QX 2005

http://www.aasianst.org/absts/1998abst/china/c19.htm




9KVJKP VJG NCUV VGP [GCTU VJG KORQTVCPEG QH KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF GVJPQ-DQVCP[ JCU DGGP

TGEQIPK\GF DWV VJG TGUGCTEJ HKPFKPIU JCXG PQV DGGP VTCPUHGTTGF VQ VJG HQTGUVT[ QT PCVWTG

EQPUGTXCVKQP FGRCTVOGPVU HQT RQNKE[ QT RNCPPKPI RWTRQUGU. 6JGTG CTG UGOKPCN UKIPU QH

IQXGTPOGPV UWRRQTV HQT KPFKIGPQWU EWNVWTGU KP %JKPC GXGP VJQWIJ VJG KPVGTGUV KU OQUVN[ HQT

VQWTKUO1955. 6JGTG KU UQOG TGEQIPKVKQP KP %JKPC VJCV COQPI VJG OCP[ VJKPIU YG ECP NGCTP HTQO

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU KU C U[UVGOKE XKGY QH VJG YQTNF QH YJKEJ YG CTG RCTV. (GY *CP %JKPGUG VQ

FCVG JCXG UWIIGUVGF VJG DGUV OGVJQFU VQ OQXG CYC[ HTQO GZRGTV-DCUGF HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV VQ

RCTVKEKRCVQT[ UVGYCTFUJKR DCUGF QP NQECN HQTGUV XCNWGU QT JQY DGUV VQ EQPUGTXG HQTGUVU,

YCVGTUJGFU CPF DKQFKXGTUKV[ VJTQWIJ VJG GPNKIJVGPGF UGNH-KPVGTGUV QH IQXGTPOGPV CPF NQECN

RGQRNGU. /QUV RCTVKEKRCVQT[ UVGYCTFUJKR CRRTQCEJGU KP %JKPC VQ FCVG JCXG DGGP HWPFGF D[

DK-NCVGTCN CKF QT 0)1U CPF CP KPETGCUKPI PWODGT QH ECFTGU JCXG DGGP VTCKPGF. 6JG FKHHKEWNV[

JCU DGGP VJCV CU UQQP CU VJG HQTGKIP HWPFKPI EGCUGU VJG HQTGUV FGRCTVOGPV TGVWTPU VQ C UEKGPVKHKE

HQTGUVT[ CRRTQCEJ. 6JGTG KU GXKFGPEG JQYGXGT KP VJG NQYGT GEJGNQPU QH IQXGTPOGPV CPF KP

%JKPGUG 0)1U QH C RCTCFKIO UJKHV CPF KV KU JQRGF VJCV GXGPVWCNN[ VJKPIU YKNN TGCEJ C ETKVKECN

OCUU VJCV CFFTGUUGU VJG XCNWGU QH VJG NQECN RGQRNG CU YGNN CU VJG FKEVCVGU QH VJG UVCVG. 6JKU

UKVWCVKQP KU PQV WPKSWG VQ %JKPC DWV KV KU CP CTGC VJCV TGSWKTGU WTIGPV KPXGUVKICVKQP, CFXQECE[

CPF CEVKQP HQT VJKU UVWF[ VQ JCXG CP[ UKIPKHKECPEG.

6JWU HCT, KP VJKU EJCRVGT, + JCXG NCTIGN[ HQEWUUGF QP −JCO DWV KP VJG HQNNQYKPI UGEVKQPU, + RNCP

VQ TGHNGEV WRQP VJG DTQCFGT EQPVTKDWVKQP QH VJG UVWF[ VQ MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CPF FKUEQWTUGU,

KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG, UWUVCKPCDNG TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR, CPF KPVGTPCVKQPCN HQTGUVT[ RQNKE[.

11.4 −019.’&)’ 5;56’/5 #0& &+5%1745’5

11.4.1 9GUVGTP −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU

+ DGICP VJKU UVWF[ D[ GZRNQTKPI VJG KPVGTHCEG DGVYGGP OCKPUVTGCO FGXGNQROGPV CPF

GPXKTQPOGPVCN VTCLGEVQTKGU CPF VJG XCNWGU CPF EWUVQOCT[ HQTGUV RTCEVKEGU QH KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU

CPF EQPENWFKPI VJCV VJG[ YGTG RTGFKECVGF QP EQPVTCUVKPI XKUKQPU QH TGUQWTEG EQPUGTXCVKQP1956.

1955 :W GV CN 2004 1956 $CPWTK CPF /CTINKP 1993




9KVJ XGT[ HGY GZEGRVKQPU OCKPUVTGCO VTCLGEVQTKGU QH FGXGNQROGPV CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUO CTG

HCVCNN[ HNCYGF, KP VGTOU QH VJGKT QYP QDLGEVKXGU CPF GKVJGT FQ PQV EQPUVKVWVG RCTCFKIOU1957 QT

EQPVKPWG VQ DG UCVWTCVGF YKVJ VJG EWNVWTCNN[ EQPUVTWEVGF O[VJU QH GVJPQEGPVTKE YGUVGTP

JGIGOQP[1958.

(QTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU KPENWFKPI PGQ-RQRWNKUV QPGU HCKN VQ TGUQPCVG YKVJ KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG

U[UVGOU DGECWUG VJG[ QRGTCVG YKVJKP VJG UCOG FKUEWTUKXG VGTTCKP CU 'UEKGPVKHKE' HQTGUVT[

FKUEWUUGF KP UGEVKQP 5.2. 6JG QPN[ GZEGRVKQP CRRGCTU VQ C RQUV-OQFGTP CRRTQCEJ DCUGF QP

GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU.

11.4.2 %JKPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU

*KUVQTKECNN[ %JKPC JCU C XGT[ RQQT GPXKTQPOGPVCN TGEQTF CNVJQWIJ RCTCFQZKECNN[ VJGTG JCU DGGP

INQDCN KPVGTGUV KP &CQKUO CPF HGPIUJWK CU GZGORNCTU QH UWUVCKPCDNG TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV,

TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQPU 7.2.1 CPF 7.2.2. 6JGTG KU, JQYGXGT, PQ GXKFGPEG QH GZRNKEKV PCVWTG

EQPUGTXCVKQP, KP GKVJGT, YJKEJ KU CRRCTGPV QPN[ KP UQOG UCETGF NCPFUECRG RCTCFKIOU QH UQOG

*CP CPF 6KDGVCP RGQRNGU CU EQPHKTOGF D[ VJG HKPFKPIU KP EJCRVGTU 9 CPF 10.

6JGTG CTG GSWCN FCPIGTU QH FTCYKPI EQPENWUKQPU CDQWV PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP KP %JKPC HTQO CTV

CPF NKVGTCVWTG. #NVJQWIJ VJGTG KU CP GZVGPUKXG NKVGTCVWTG UWRRQTVKPI PCVWTG1959, PCVWTCN

RJKNQUQRJ[ JCU PQV RTGXGPVGF FGHQTGUVCVKQP CPF FGUVTWEVKQP. 5KOKNCTN[, YJKNG QHHKEKCN 6KDGVCP

FKUEQWTUGU QH RGCEG, JCTOQP[ CPF 'ITGGP GVJKEU' CTG PQV CNN VJG[ CRRGCT1960 UQOG XGTPCEWNCT

FKUEQWTUGU FQ UWRRQTV PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP.

6JG OGTKVU QH %JKPGUG CPF 6KDGVCP YQTNFXKGYU CPF RCTCFKIOU, CU GZRNQTGF KP VJKU UVWF[, PGGF

VQ DG EQPUKFGTGF QP C ECUG-D[-ECUG DCUKU, QP VJG TQCF VQ DKQ-EWNVWTCN UWUVCKPCDKNKV[

1957 %JCODGTU 1993 1958 /KNNGT 2001 1959 −KPUNG[ 1995 1960 *WDGT 1995




#NVJQWIJ %JKPC TGEQIPK\GU VJG KORQTVCPEG QH OWNVKEWNVWTCNKUO1961 CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG,

KP NQECN FGXGNQROGPV KV KPUKUVU QP UWDLGEVKPI KVU KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG VQ C UQEKCN GPIKPGGTKPI1962

ECORCKIP. +V KU QPVQNQIKECNN[ DNKPF VQ VJG KPFKIGPQWU TGCNKVKGU, TGHGTTGF VQ KP VJKU UVWF[, QH

CPVJTQRQIGPKE NCPFUECRGU, NKPIWKUVKE GEQNQIKGU, CPF NQECN GRKUVGOQNQIKGU QH PCVWTG.

11.5 +0&+)’0175 −019.’&)’ #0& 0#674#. 4’5174%’5

11.5.1 +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG FKUEQWTUG

+P URKVG QH VJG VJTGCVU RQUGF VQ KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF VJG FCPIGTU QH TQOCPVKEKUO VJGTG CTG

CURGEVU, EQPHKTOGF D[ VJKU UVWF[, VJCV CTG WPKSWG CPF IGTOCPG VQ DKQ-EWNVWTCN UWUVCKPCDKNKV[.

#NVJQWIJ +− KU DGKPI KPETGCUKPIN[ EQ-QRVGF KPVQ OCKPUVTGCO FGXGNQROGPV TJGVQTKE CVVGORVU CTG

QHVGP OCFG GKVJGT VQ KPVGITCVG QT KPEQTRQTCVG1963 KV KPVQ 'UWRGTKQT' HQTOCN U[UVGOU QH MPQYNGFIG

QT VQ KPUKUV QP C FKEJQVQO[1964 DGVYGGP YGUVGTP CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG. 6JGTG KU JQYGXGT,

PQ DCUKU HQT KPVGITCVKQP CPF U[PGTIKUVKE DTKFIKPI1965 DGVYGGP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU KU GXKFGPVN[

OQTG UWUVCKPCDNG HQT MPQYNGFIG U[UVGO UWUVCKPCDKNKV[.

11.5.2 +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF PCVWTCN TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR

9G TGEQIPK\GF KP UGEVKQP 4.5.2 VJG XCNWG QH KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG HQT PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP CPF

TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR CPF VJG FCPIGTU QH QXGT-TQOCPVKEK\KPI KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU' YKUFQO CPF

KPVTKPUKE JCTOQP[ DWV GSWCNN[ QH WPFGTGUVKOCVKPI VJGKT EQTG XCNWGU CPF NQECN MPQYNGFIG CPF

VJGKT XKVCN TQNG KP VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP QH DKQFKXGTUKV[1966.

+V KU PGEGUUCT[ VQ EQPUKFGT GCEJ KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG ITQWR QP C ECUG-D[-ECUG DCUKU, TGEQIPK\KPI

UQOG RCTCFKIOU QH EQPUGTXCVKQP; UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN GPJCPEGOGPV CPF UQOG QH

GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGUVTWEVKQP.

1961 $WNCI 1999 1962 *QYCTF 1994 1963 .CYTGPEG 2000 1964 #ITCYCN 1995D 1965 JVVR://KWHTQ-CTEJKXG.DQMW.CE.CV/KWHTQ/VCUMHQTEG/JRVHVHM.JVO CEEGUUGF 28VJ 0QX 2005 1966 2QUG[ CPF &WVHKGNF 1997

http://iufro-archive.boku.ac.at/iufro/taskforce/hptftfk.htm




11.5.3 +ORNKECVKQPU HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN (QTGUVT[

9G TGEQIPK\GF VJCV VJG HQTGUV XCNWGU CRRTQCEJ KU DGKPI CFQRVGF INQDCNN[ CU C OGCPU QH

RTGFKECVKPI UVGYCTFUJKR QP KPFKIGPQWU CPF NQECN MPQYNGFIG DWV PQ WPKXGTUCN V[RQNQI[ QH HQTGUV

XCNWGU QT FGHKPKVKQPU GZKUVU. (QT C ETQUU-EWNVWTCN HQTGUV CRRTQCEJ VQ YQTM VJGTG CTG C PWODGT QH

EQPENWUKQPU YG ECP FTCY HTQO VJKU UVWF[ HQT KPVGTPCVKQPCN HQTGUVT[:

• HQTGUV XCNWCVKQP OWUV DG IGCTGF VQYCTFU EJCPIKPI VJG GEQPQOKE VTCFG-QHHU VJCV CTG

KPXQNXGF KP UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV KP VJG TGCN YQTNF CPF ECRVWTKPI HQTGUV

DGPGHKVU CU TGCN XCNWGU HQT NQECN RGQRNG1967.

• YJKNG KPUVKVWVKQPU CPF XGUVGF KPVGTGUVU EQPVKPWG VQ KIPQTG 'HQNM UGPUG' KP VGTOU QH VJG TQNG

QH HQTGUVU KP GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGEVKQP1968, VJG[ YKNN PQV QPN[ CNKGPCVG VJGOUGNXGU HTQO

VJGKT KPFKIGPQWU ENKGPVU DWV CNUQ GZCEGTDCVG PCVWTCN FKUCUVGTU.

• KPFKIGPQWU OQFGU QH MPQYKPI CDQWV CPF HTQO HQTGUVU UJQWNF PQV DG KIPQTGF,

FKEJQVQOK\GF1969 QT KPVGITCVGF KPVQ YGUVGTP GRKUVGOQNQIKGU DWV DG EQPUKFGTGF GSWKVCDN[

DCUGF QP U[PGTIKUVKE DTKFIKPI.

• HQT PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP VQ UWEEGGF KV PGGFU VQ DG TGFGHKPGF CPF TGEQPUVTWEVGF HTQO VJG

RGTURGEVKXG QH VJG OWNVKRNG EWNVWTCN CPF GEQNQIKECN RTCEVKEGU VJCV EQPVKPWG VQ GZKUV

COQPI OCP[ EQOOWPKVKGU1970.

• PQV YKVJUVCPFKPI VJG EQORNGZKVKGU KPXQNXGF TCVJGT VJCP VT[KPI VQ 'CFQRV', 'KPEQTRQTCVG' QT

'OQFGN'1971 UCETGF HQTGUV CU C VGORNCVG HQT EQPUGTXCVKQP VJGTG KU C PGGF VQ DTKFIG QT HKPF

U[PGTI[ DGVYGGP GNGOGPVU QH OWNVKRNG UCETGF RCTCFKIOU QH EQPUGTXCVKQP.

• HKGNF OGVJQFU, UWEJ CU HQTGUV XCNWG TCPMKPI1972, GZKUV YJKEJ RTQXKFG HQTGUVGTU, KH PQV

GEQPQOKUVU, YKVJ C OGCPU QH SWCPVKH[KPI KPVTKPUKE XCNWG, CV NGCUV HTQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG

QH VJG NQECN RGQRNG.

• GORJCUKU UJQWNF DG IKXGP VQ OCKPVCKPKPI XKCDNG RQRWNCVKQPU QH VTGG URGEKGU CPF HQTGUV

EQXGT V[RGU CV TKUM, VJGTGD[ GPUWTKPI VJG RTQVGEVKQP QH HQTGUV-CUUQEKCVGF CPF FGRGPFGPV

YKNFNKHG CPF RGQRNG KPVGTIGPGTCVKQPCNN[ CPF GSWKVCDN[1973.

1967 ’OGTVQP 2003 1968 2GCTEG 1999 1969 #ITCYCN 1995D 1970 )TWDD GV CN 1995 1971 .CKTF 1997-2005 1972 JVVR://YYY.HCQ.QTI/FQEWOGPVU/UJQYAEFT.CUR!WTNAHKNG=/&1%4’2/003/:6694’/:6694’06.JVO CEEGUUGF 28VJ 0QX 2005 1973 $WEM GV CN 2003

http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/003/X6694E/X6694E06.htm




• KH UWDUKUVGPEG PGGFU CTG VCMGP CU UGTKQWUN[ CU EQOOGTEKCN CEVKXKVKGU D[ VJQUG YJQ

HQTOWNCVG CPF KORNGOGPV HQTGUV RQNKE[, OCP[ GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQDNGOU YKNN DGEQOG

OQTG VTCEVCDNG1974.

• VJG U[ODQNKE CPF GOQVKQPCN EQPPGEVKQPU DGVYGGP RGQRNG CPF VJG NCPF CTG CU TGCN CPF CU

KORQTVCPV CU VJG GEQNQIKECN TGNCVKQPUJKRU DGVYGGP URGEKGU QH RNCPVU CPF CPKOCNU.

6JGTGHQTG, YG PGGF VQ NQQM HQT YC[U VQ DTKFIG QWT UEKGPVKHKE WPFGTUVCPFKPI QH VJG YQTNF

YKVJ VJG KPFKIGPQWU YC[U QH GZRGTKGPEKPI PCVWTG1975.

• YGUVGTPGTU OWUV NGCTP VQ HKPF 'YKNFGTPGUU ITCVKHKECVKQP' YJGP XKUKVKPI JQOGNCPFU QH

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG YKVJQWV VJGKT URGEKHKE FGUKIPCVKQP CU YKNFGTPGUU1976.

• C FGOQETCVKECNN[ UWRRQTVCDNG CRRTQCEJ VQ UWUVCKPCDNG WUG QH TGUQWTEGU OWUV DG

RTGFKECVGF QP VJG PGGFU QH RGQRNG YJQ NKXG OQUV KPVKOCVGN[ YKVJ RNCEG CPF PCVWTCN

TGUQWTEGU1977.

• YJGP KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVT[ KU YGNN RNCPPGF CPF GZGEWVGF, KV ECP FGNKXGT PQV LWUV NCTIG

SWCPVKVKGU QH YQQF, DWV C TCPIG QH GPXKTQPOGPV CPF UQEKCN DGPGHKVU1978.

• XGT[ HGY VTCLGEVQTKGU QH UQEKCNKUO QHHGT CP[ OQTCN DCUKU HQT EQPUGTXCVKQP, YKVJ VJG

RQUUKDNG GZEGRVKQP QH ' &JCOOKE UQEKCNKUO', TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQPU 7.2 CPF 7.7, YJKEJ

OQTCNN[ FTCYU QP TGNKIKQP, QT GEQUQEKCNKUO1979 YJKEJ TGLGEVU VJG PGGF HQT C "PGY

GEQNQIKECN RCTCFKIO"1980.

• UWDUKUVGPEG QT EQPVTQNNGF JWPVKPI HQT HQTGKIP GZEJCPIG UJQWNF DG RTQRGTN[ RNCPPGF

QWVUKFG VJG HKZGF DQWPFCTKGU QH VJG IQF'U FQOCKP CPF PGIQVKCVGF DGVYGGP JWOCP

UQEKGV[ CPF VJG NCTIGT UQEKGV[ QH DGKPIU, CPF VJG QHHKEGU1981 QH CP KPVGTOGFKCT[1982 WUGF

VQ GPUWTG DCNCPEG CPF TGEKRTQEKV[1983.

1974 ,QUJK 1983 1975 %CNFGEQVV 1993 1976 .WK :KCQICP 2001 1977 0QTVQP CPF *CPPQP 1999 1978 %QUUCNVGT CPF 2[G-5OKVJ 2003 1979 ’EMGTUNG[ 1992 1980 %CVVQP CPF &WPNCR 1980 1981 RGTOKUUKQP UGGMKPI, TKVWCNU, RTQRKVKCVKQP. 1982 G.I. UJCOCP. 1983 %CUVTQ 1991, &QXG 1993D, 4GKEJGN 1992




• GVJPQ-FGXGNQROGPV UJQWNF DG FGUKIPGF D[, TCVJGT VJCP HQT GVJPKE RGQRNG, YJKEJ

KORNKGU VJG TGXCNWCVKQP QH VJGKT QYP EWNVWTG CU VJG DCUKU WRQP YJKEJ HWVWTG

FGXGNQROGPV KU VQ DG EQPUVTWEVGF1984.

• KP QTFGT VQ CFFTGUU IGPFGT KUUWGU HQTGUVT[ OQFGNU OWUV DG EJCPIGF DQVJ VQ RTGUGTXG VJG

GPXKTQPOGPV CPF CEJKGXG IGPFGT GSWCNKV[1985.

11.5.4 5[PGTIKUVKE $TKFIKPI

+P VJG RTGXKQWU UGEVKQP, YG KFGPVKHKGF UVGRU VJCV YGTG TGSWKTGF HQT KPVGTPCVKQPCN HQTGUVGTU VQ

CFQRV C ETQUU-EWNVWTCN HQTGUV XCNWGU CRRTQCEJ, DWV VJKU UVWF[ JCU KFGPVKHKGF VJG PGEGUUKV[ QH

U[PGTIKUVKE DTKFIKPI HQT VJKU CRRTQCEJ VQ YQTM.

5[PGTIKUVKE DTKFIKPI (QH MPQYNGFIG, GRKUVGOQNQIKGU CPF RGTEGRVKQPU) QHHGTU C OGCPU QH

UGNGEVKPI CRRQUKVG GNGOGPVU HTQO OWNVKRNG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU KP QTFGT VQ CEJKGXG UWUVCKPCDNG

TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR KP CP[ IKXGP NQECN GPXKTQPOGPV. $TKFIKPI JQYGXGT TGOCKPU C RTQDNGO KH

QHHKEKCN FKUEQWTUGU1986 TGLGEV KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF OQFGU QH MPQYKPI, RGTEGRVKQP CPF

EQUOQNQI[. %QCNGUEKPI WPFGT VJG TWDTKE QH RQUV-OQFGTPKUO, JQYGXGT, YG FQ HKPF C PWODGT QH

EQORNKOGPVCT[ VTCLGEVQTKGU, YJKEJ UGGOKPIN[ RTQXKFG URCEG HQT MPQYNGFIG GSWKV[ CPF DTKFIKPI.

6JGUG VTCLGEVQTKGU KPENWFG J[RGTVGZV VJGQT[, RCTCFKIO VJGQT[, CDFWEVKXG NQIKE, CFCRVKXG

OCPCIGOGPV, GEQURKTKVWCN RCTCFKIOU, CPF RQUV-OQFGTP HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIOU.

*[RGTVGZV VJGQT[ CUUWOGU KPHQTOCVKQP/MPQYNGFIG KU QTICPK\GF CPF RTQEGUUGF KP UKOKNCT YC[U

CU QWT OKPFU. #U YG NGCTP/GZRNQTG C VQRKE, YG HQTO C EQIPKVKXG YGD CUUQEKCVKPI PGY

KPHQTOCVKQP VQ GZKUVKPI KPHQTOCVKQP HQTOKPI EQORNGZ KPVGTTGNCVKQPUJKRU1987. *[RGTVGZV VJGQT[

"FQGU PQV RGTOKV C V[TCPPKECN, WPKXQECN XQKEG"1988 CPF KV CNNQYU WU VQ "CDCPFQP EQPEGRVWCN

U[UVGOU HQWPFGF WRQP KFGCU QH EGPVTG, OCTIKP, JKGTCTEJ[ CPF NKPGCTKV[ CPF TGRNCEG VJGO YKVJ

QPGU QH OWNVKNKPGCTKV[, PQFGU, NKPMU, CPF PGVYQTMU"1989.

1984 5G[OQWT-5OKVJ 1986 1985 *QYCTF 2001 1986 QH FGXGNQROGPV, GPXKTQPOGPV, PCVWTG, OKPQTKV[ CPF HQTGUVT[. 1987 JVVR://JCICT.WR.CE.\C/ECVVU/NGCTPGT/NGQPD/TDQ/J[RGTVGZV.JVO CEEGUUGF 6VJ 5GRV 2005 1988 .CPFQY 1993 RCIGU 4, 8 CPF 11 1989 .CPFQY 1993 RCIG 2

http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/leonb/rbo/hypertext.htm




2CTCFKIO VJGQT[ QHHGTU VJG RQUUKDKNKV[ QH UGNGEVKPI HTQO "CP[ PWODGT QH EQ-GZKUVKPI

RCTCFKIOU"1990 CPF IKXGU "XCNWG VQ VJG GZRGTKGPVKCN CPF VJG NGCTPKPI GPICIGF KP CU RCTV QH

GXGT[FC[ NKHG" DCUGF QP "OWNVKRNG 'TGCNKVKGU' VQ DG EQPUVTWEVGF VJTQWIJ CP CNTGCF[ KPVGTRTGVGF

GZRGTKGPEG"1991.

#FCRVKXG OCPCIGOGPV, RTGFKECVGF QP CDFWEVKXG1992, U[PVJGVKE CPF TGNCVKQPCN CRRTQCEJGU QHHGTU

VJG RTQURGEV QH GODTCEKPI UWTRTKUG, CPF QH TGFGHKPKPI TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV, JWOCP

KPUVKVWVKQPU, VGEJPKSWGU CPF XCNWGU DCUGF QP VJG RCVVGTPU QH VJG NCTIGT U[UVGO QH YJKEJ VJG[ CTG

RCTV. +V KU, JQYGXGT, UVKNN KP KVU KPHCPE[ CPF GZCORNGU QH UWEEGUUHWN KORNGOGPVCVKQP CTG TCTG.

#VVGORVU JQYGXGT CTG DGKPI OCFG VQ KORNGOGPV KV KP VJG 2CEKHKE 0QTVJ 9GUV QH 75# DWV VJGTG

CTG GXKFGPVN[ UQOG DCTTKGTU1993 UVCPFKPI DGVYGGP VJG EQPEGRV'U RQVGPVKCN CPF QP-VJG-ITQWPF

KORNGOGPVCVKQP. #UUWOKPI VJCV VJG DCTTKGTU CTG QXGTEQOG CFCRVKXG OCPCIGOGPV KU PQV

FKUUKOKNCT VQ KPFKIGPQWU TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV, YJKEJ RTQEGGFU, KP CP CFCRVKXG HCUJKQP D[

OWVWCN HGGFDCEM OGEJCPKUOU CPF EQ-GXQNWVKQP.

+PFKIGPQWU TGUQWTEG OCPCIGOGPV U[UVGOU RCTCNNGN CFCRVKXG OCPCIGOGPV KP VJGKT TGNKCPEG QP

NGCTPKPI-D[-FQKPI CPF VJG WUG QH HGGFDCEM HTQO VJG GPXKTQPOGPV VQ RTQXKFG EQTTGEVKQPU HQT

OCPCIGOGPV RTCEVKEG. 6JG[ FKHHGT HTQO HQTOCN U[UVGOU IGPGTCNN[ D[ VJG CDUGPEG QH VGUVCDNG

J[RQVJGUGU CPF IGPGTCNK\CVKQP VJGQTKGU CPF D[ VJG KPVGITCVKQP QH OQTCN CPF TGNKIKQWU DGNKGH

U[UVGOU YKVJ OCPCIGOGPV1994.

5QOG YGUVGTPGTU CPF GEQHGOKPKUVU1995, UQOGYJCV VGPFGPVKQWUN[1996, CTG ENCKOKPI VQ JCXG

TGFKUEQXGTGF URKTKVWCNKV[ EQPPGEVGF VQ VJG GCTVJ. 6JG[ CTG WUKPI RQUV-OQFGTP UEKGPEG VQ DQNUVGT

TGNKIKQWU ENCKOU FKTGEVGF VQYCTFU RGTUQPCN CPF/QT GEQNQIKECN YGNN-DGKPI1997. 6JGUG XKGYU CTG

HKPFKPI GZRTGUUKQP KP "GEQURKTKVWCN RCTCFKIOU"1998 QT "TGNKIKQWU GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUV

1990 ;QWPI 1994 JVVR://ETKVETKO.QTI/TGFHGCVJGT/EJCQU/004RCTCFKIO.JVON CEEGUUGF 18VJ ,WN[ 2005 1991 7UJGT CPF ’FYCTFU 1994 RCIG 199 1992 $CVGUQP 1972D 1993 5GG 5VCPMG[ GV CN 2003 1994 )CFIKN GV CN 1993 1995 ’EQHGOKPKUO KU DCUGF QP VJG PQVKQP VJCV YQOGP CTG GURGEKCNN[ 'ENQUG VQ PCVWTG' KP C URKTKVWCN QT EQPEGRVWCN UGPUG (5JKXC 1988). 1996 .GCEJ 2003 1997 /GTEJCPV 1989, JVVR://YYY.EEUT.EC/EUUT/#TEJKXGU/97RTQI.JVON#’#610 CEEGUUGF 9VJ 5GRV 2005 1998 −KPUNG[1995 RCIG 1

http://critcrim.org/redfeather/chaos/004paradigm.html

http://www.ccsr.ca/cssr/Archives/97prog.html#EATON




RCTCFKIOU"1999 QT CP "CNNKCPEG QH ...TGNKIKQP CPF GEQNQI["2000. 6JGUG VTCLGEVQTKGU XKGY JWOCP

DGKPIU CU ETGCVWTGU QH VJG GCTVJ, GODGFFGF KP VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF, QDNKIGF VQ KPVGTTGNCVG YKVJ C

NCTIGT YJQNG KP YC[U VJCV YKNN PQV JCTO VJG NCTIGT GEQU[UVGO. *WOCP FGUVKP[ KP VJKU XKGY

KPXQNXGU RTQOQVKPI JCTOQP[ YKVJ VJG PCVWTCN YQTNF, RWTUWKPI TCRRQTV YKVJ PQPJWOCP URGEKGU

CPF VJG NCPF, CPF EWTDKPI VJG JWOCP KPUVKPEVU VJCV GPEQWTCIG FQOKPCVKQP CPF EQPVTQN QH PCVWTG

HQT UGNHKUJ GPFU. +V KU KPETGCUKPIN[ ENGCT VJCV, HQT UQOG RGQRNG VQFC[ KP VJG 9GUV GEQNQIKECN

EQPEGTPU JCXG VCMGP QP TGNKIKQWU OGCPKPI CPF KPVGPUKV[, KPFGGF, VJCV GEQNQI[ JCU DGEQOG C

TGNKIKQP HQT UQOG. $QVJ YKVJKP CPF QWVUKFG VTCFKVKQPCN TGNKIKQWU KPUVKVWVKQPU, KUUWGU EQPEGTPKPI

VJG GPXKTQPOGPV JCXG CESWKTGF WNVKOCVG OGCPKPI HQT OCP[ RGQRNG.

6JG RQUV-OQFGTP HQTGUVT[ RCTCFKIO2001 GXKFGPVN[ JCU INQDCN CRRNKECVKQP WPFGT VJG TWDTKE QH

'RNWTCNKUO CPF UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUVT['2002 CPF ECP DG CFQRVGF PQV QPN[ HQT KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUV XCNWGU

DWV EJCPIGU KP XCNWGU KP 'FGXGNQRGF' UQEKGVKGU. +V RTQXKFGU CP GOGTIKPI RCTCFKIO VJCV CNNQYU

HQTGUVGTU VQ OQXG DG[QPF VJG PCTTQY EQPHKPGU QH 'WVKNKVCTKCP HQTGUVT['2003. 6JKU RCTCFKIO KU

RTGFKECVGF QP: WVKNKVCTKCP CPF PQP-WVKNKVCTKCP XCNWGU, YJQNG U[UVGOU VJCV CTG PQP-FGVGTOKPKUVKE,

UEKGPVKHKE WPEGTVCKPV[ ETGCVKPI URCEG HQT QVJGT UQWTEGU QH MPQYNGFIG, CFCRVKXG OCPCIGOGPV

OQFGNU, VJG TGEQIPKVKQP QH KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG VJTQWIJ DQVVQO-WR CRRTQCEJGU, CPF NQECN

RGQRNG CU CEVKXG RCTVKEKRCPVU KP VJG U[UVGO2004.

6JGUG HKXG EQORNGOGPVCT[ VTCLGEVQTKGU, YJKEJ + UWRRQTV CPF EQPUKFGT QH XCNWG HQT VJG RGQRNGU

QH −JCO, CNNQY RNCPPGTU VQ VTCPUEGPF VJG NKOKVCVKQPU QH CP[ UKPING MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CPF

FGXGNQR UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUVT[ CPF DKQFKXGTUKV[ OQFGNU RTGFKECVGF QP U[PGTIKUVKE DTKFIKPI

DGVYGGP CRRQUKVG GNGOGPVU VCMGP HTQO OWNVKRNG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU2005 CPF RTQEGGF KP CP

CFCRVKXG HCUJKQP D[ OWVWCN HGGFDCEM OGEJCPKUOU CPF EQ-GXQNWVKQP.

1999 2GFGTUGP 1995 RCIG 258 2000 6WEMGT CPF )TKO 2001 2001 5EJGNJCU 2003 2002 (#1 1997 2003 5JKPFNGT $ GV CN 1999, 9KNNKCOU & 2002 2004 5EJGNJCU 2003 2005 CPF VJG GRKUVGOQNQIKECN/RGTEGRVWCN OQFGU VJCV KPHQTO VJGO.




11.6 (+0#. &+5%755+10

9G YKNN EQPENWFG VJKU VJGUKU YKVJ C HKPCN FKUEWUUKQP CDQWV HWVWTG TGUGCTEJ FKTGEVKQPU CPF VJG

QXGTCNN EQPENWUKQPU.

11.6.1 (WVWTG 4GUGCTEJ &KTGEVKQPU

/QTG TGUGCTEJ KU TGSWKTGF EQORCTKPI VJG FGITGG QH EQPUGTXCVKQP EQPUEKQWUPGUU, CPF GVJKECN

CVVKVWFGU, DGVYGGP UCETGF UKVGU CPF PQP-UCETGF UKVGU CPF VJG TGNGXCPEG, KH CP[, QH VJG HQWT

KPFKIGPQWU GPXKTQPOGPVCN RCTCFKIOU UWIIGUVGF D[ 7OGPU2006.

(WTVJGT TGUGCTEJ CPF FGXGNQROGPV UWRRQTV KU PGGFGF VQ RTQXKFG RQNKE[-TGNGXCPV KPHQTOCVKQP QP

HQTGUV UVTWEVWTG, EQORQUKVKQP, CPF GEQNQIKECN RTQEGUUGU CU CHHGEVGF D[ FKHHGTGPV OCPCIGOGPV

RTCEVKEGU VQ GPUWTG VJG NQPI-VGTO (KPVGTIGPGTCVKQPCN) RQVGPVKCN QH HQTGUVU VQ RTQXKFG VJG FKXGTUG

CTTC[ QH IQQFU CPF UGTXKEGU TGSWKTGF D[ UQEKGV[2007.

(WTVJGT TGUGCTEJ KU TGSWKTGF VQ GZRNQTG VJG FKHHGTGPEGU KP HQTGUV XCNWGU DGVYGGP ;CLKCPI CPF

<JQPIFKCP %QWPV[ YJGTG KV CRRGCTU VJCV VJG RGQRNG HGGN CNKGPCVGF HTQO VJGKT EWNVWTG CPF

GPXKTQPOGPV CPF VJCV KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP JCU PQV DGGP YGNN TGEGKXGF.

6JG FQOCKP PCOGU CPF FKOGPUKQPU WUGF HQT EQIPKVKXG OCRRKPI YGTG UGNGEVGF D[ VJG CWVJQT

CPF OQTG HKGNF TGUGCTEJ KU TGSWKTGF KP QTFGT VQ GUVCDNKUJ KH VJG PCOGU KFGPVKHKGF D[ VJG CWVJQT

CTG UKOKNCT VQ VJQUG WUGF D[ VJG RGQRNGU QH −JCO. 6JKU CNUQ CRRNKGU VQ FKOGPUKQP 3 CPF 4,

YJKEJ YGTG PQV KFGPVKHKGF D[ VJG CWVJQT, DWV YGTG TGSWKTGF KP QTFGT VQ CPCN[\G 'JWPVKPI'. 6JG

HQTOGT EQWNF DG CEJKGXGF D[ RKNG UQTVKPI VGEJPKSWGU2008.

+V YCU QPN[ NCVVGTN[ FKUEQXGTGF VJCV VJG 6KDGVCPU YJQ NKXG KP <JQPIFKCP CTG OCVTKNKPGCN CPF VJG

0CZK WUGF VQ DG. (WTVJGT TGUGCTEJ KU TGSWKTGF EQORCTKPI IGPFGT TGNCVKQPU YKVJ VJG HQTGUV KP

OCVTKNKPGCN CPF RCVTKNKPGCN UQEKGVKGU CPF VJG KORCEV QH IGPFGT TGNCVKQPU YJGP NKPGCIG EJCPIGU

(CU YKVJ VJG 0CZK).

2006 # IKXKPI GPXKTQPOGPV, C TGEKRTQECVKPI GPXKTQPOGPV, C FKURQUCDNG GPXKTQPOGPV CPF C RTQJKDKVKPI GPXKTQPOGPV UWIIGUVGF D[ 7OCPU (1992). 2007 $WEM GV CN 2003 2008 $QTICVVK 1988 CPF 1990




+H VJG 5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEKCN IQXGTPOGPV FQGU KPVTQFWEG JWPVKPI QH DNWG UJGGR CPF YJKVG NKRRGF

FGGT, IKXGP VJCV DNWG UJGGR EQPUVKVWVGU VJG OCKP HQQF UQWTEG QH VJG GPFCPIGTGF UPQY

NGQRCTF2009 UQOG UQTV QH UVCVWU UVWF[ CRRGCTU VQ DG TGSWKTGF, VQ CUEGTVCKP EWNN UK\G.

11.6.2 1XGTCNN %QPENWUKQPU

6JG RTKOCT[ CKO QH VJKU UVWF[ YCU VQ GZRNQTG VJG KPVGTHCEG DGVYGGP MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU CPF




EQUOQXKUKQP QT YGNN-DGKPI.

+P RWTUWCPEG QH VJG RTKOCT[ CKO QH VJG UVWF[ VJG TGUGCTEJ EQPVTKDWVGU VQ VJG DTQCF VJGQTK\CVKQP

QH MPQYNGFIG CPF VJG KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG FGDCVG D[: GZRNQTKPI VJG EQPVTKDWVKQP QH

KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG CPF HQTGUV XCNWGU VQ UWUVCKPCDNG TGUQWTEG UVGYCTFUJKR CPF HQTGUVT[

QWVEQOGU; UWIIGUVKPI ETQUU-EWNVWTCN VQQNU CPF OGVJQFU HQT KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG GNKEKVCVKQP

CPF CPCN[UKU; UWIIGUVKPI OGVJQFU QH DTKFIKPI DGVYGGP OWNVKRNG MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU; CPF

UWIIGUVKPI QWVEQOGU KP %JKPC CPF ’CUVGTP −JCO.

6JG OGVJQFQNQI[ EJQUGP HQT OGGVKPI VJG CKOU QWVNKPGF CDQXG KU OWNVK-HCEGVGF KP VJCV KV JCU

DQVJ SWCNKVCVKXG CPF SWCPVKVCVKXG EQORQPGPVU CPF FTCYU WRQP JKUVQTKECN CU YGNN CU

EQPVGORQTCT[ OCVGTKCNU. 6JG SWCPVKVCVKXG TGUGCTEJ YCU RTGFKECVGF QP QRGP-GPFGF KPVGTXKGYU,

VGZV CPCN[UKU, TCPMKPI, OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN UECNKPI, IGQUVCVKUVKECN CPF DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU, CPF

UWRRQTVKXG VGEJPQNQIKGU YJKEJ CTG TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 6. 6JG UVWF[ YCU CNUQ GCTVJGF KP VJG

CWVJQT'U MPQYNGFIG QH VJG TGIKQP ICKPGF HTQO; EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[ KP 0GRCN (1984-1991),

EQPUWNVCPE[ KP %JKPC (1993 -2005), UGEQPFCT[ FCVC2010 UQWTEGU, MG[ KPHQTOCPVU CPF EWNVWTCN

URGEKCNKUVU (K.G. UJCOCPU). 6JG CWVJQT'U NQECN MPQYNGFIG GURGEKCNN[ HTQO VJG EQPVGZVWCN UVWFKGU

KU RCTVKEWNCTN[ KORQTVCPV DGECWUG KV UWRRNGOGPVU CPF EQPVGZVWCNKUGU VJG HKGNF TGUGCTEJ CPF HKNNU

KP UQOG QH VJG ICRU.

2009 7PEKC WPEKC KU VJG .CVKP HQT UPQY NGQRCTF CPF #7m#k

I\KI KU VJG 6KDGVCP.

2010 IQXGTPOGPV FQEWOGPVU, RTGUU ENKRRKPIU, PGYU NGVVGTU, 455 HGGFU, CNGTVU, QHHKEKCN UVCVKUVKEU.




6JG UVWF[ RTQFWEGF C PWODGT QH KPVGNNGEVWCN, UEJQNCTN[ CPF UEKGPVKHKE HKPFKPIU RTQXKFKPI

GXKFGPEG COQPI VJG RGQRNGU QH −JCO QH: NQECN EQPUGTXCVKQP GVJKEU; NQECN RCTCFKIOU QH GZRNKEKV

PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP; GXKFGPEG QH UQEKCN HGPEKPI; NQECN GRKUVGOQNQIKGU CPF RU[EJQNQIKGU QH

PCVWTG; NQECN 'EQTG' CTGCU QH PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP; CPF WPKSWG HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU.

6JG DTQCFGT KORNKECVKQPU VJCV ECP DG FTCYP CTG; VJCV EQPUVGNNCVKQPU QH HQTGUV XCNWGU CTG

RGTEGRVWCNN[ LWZVCRQUGF D[ EQIPKVKXG FQOCKP CPF FKOGPUKQP; QH WPKSWG HQTGUV XCNWG RCTCFKIOU

D[ CIG, IGPFGT, GVJPKEKV[, CPF NQECVKQP; QH FKTGEVKQPCN CPF ENKPCN VTGPFU KP HQTGUV XCNWGU; CPF VJCV

HQTGUV XCNWGU ECP DG KPHNWGPEGF EWNVWTCNN[ CPF DKQRJ[UKECNN[.

6JKU UVWF[ KU KORQTVCPV HQT VJG RGQRNGU QH −JCO DGECWUG KV RTQXKFGU VGORNCVGU HQT TGUQWTEG

UVGYCTFUJKR RTGFKECVGF QP NQECN HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF RCTCFKIOU. )KXGP VJG RNCEG CHHQTFGF VQ

UEKGPEG KP %JKPC CPF VJG SWCPVKVCVKXG OGVJQFQNQI[ CFQRVGF JQRGHWNN[ VJKU UVWF[ YKNN JGNR VQ

'GNGXCVG' VJG KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG, EQIPKVKXG HTCOGYQTMU CPF GRKUVGOQNQIKGU QH VJG RGQRNGU

QH ’CUVGTP −JCO VQ C NGXGN QH CEEGRVCPEG CPF MPQYNGFIG GSWKV[ YKVJ OWNVKRNG MPQYNGFIG

U[UVGOU.

6JG UVWF[ KU KORQTVCPV HQT INQDCN HQTGUVT[ DGECWUG KV RTQXKFGU C OGVJQFQNQI[ VJCV ECP DG

TGRNKECVGF CPF WUGF D[ RNCPPGTU YJQ YCPV VQ FGXGNQR ETQUU-EWNVWTCN OQFGNU QH HQTGUV

UVGYCTFUJKR QT EQPUGTXCVKQP RTGFKECVGF QP OWNVKRNG HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ CP[YJGTG

KP VJG YQTNF.

+V KU KORQTVCPV VQ TGOGODGT VJCV VJG TQCF VQ UWUVCKPCDNG MPQYNGFIG CPF HQTGUV UVGYCTFUJKR KU

RTGFKECVGF QP U[PGTIKUVKE DTKFIKPI CPF FKXGTUKV[. +H + ECP TGRGCV UQOGVJKPI + UCKF KP EJCRVGT VGP,

EWNVWTGU VJCV XCNWG RGTEGRVWCN, GRKUVGOQNQIKECN CPF DKQNQIKECN FKXGTUKV[ CTG OQTG CFCRVCDNG

VJCP EWNVWTGU VJCV FQ PQV. 5WEJ EWNVWTGU CTG DGVVGT CDNG VQ WPFGTUVCPF YJQNG U[UVGOU VJCP CTG

EWNVWTGU VJCV TGN[ QPN[ QP VJG 'UEKGPVKHKE' OGVJQF. 6JG[ CNUQ CTG DGVVGT UVGYCTFU QH VJGKT

GPXKTQPOGPVU, DGECWUG VJG[ ITCUR VJG XCNWG QH VJG YJQNG QH DKQFKXGTUKV[ VJTQWIJ VTCPUTCVKQPCN

CU YGNN CU UEKGPVKHKE RTQEGUUGU CPF NGCFU VQ C JKIJGT FGITGG QH CFCRVCDKNKV[ CPF 'GXQNWVKQPCT['

EQORGVGPEG.


#FFGPFWO


#&&’0&7/

*QY VJG EJQKEG QH OGVJQFQNQI[ YCU UJCRGF CPF RTQUGEWVGF

6JGTG YGTG C PWODGT QH HCEVQTU VJCV UJCRGF VJG EJQKEG QH OGVJQFQNQI[ CFQRVGF HQT VJKU VJGUKU

CPF KVU RTQUGEWVKQP KP VJG HKGNF.

6JG OGVJQFQNQI[ YCU RTKOCTKN[ UJCRGF D[ VYQ RQUV-OQFGTP VTCLGEVQTKGU, RQUV-OQFGTP

HQTGUVT[2011 YJKEJ CFFTGUUGU OWNVKRNG HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF RQUV-OQFGTP UEKGPEG2012 RTGFKECVGF QP

OWNVKRNG OGVJQFQNQIKECN CUUWORVKQPU CPF OGVJQFU.

)KXGP VJG UQEKQ-RQNKVKECN ENKOCVG KP %JKPC2013, CPF VJG GVJPKE UGPUKVKXKVKGU2014, C SWCPVKVCVKXG

OGVJQF HQT HKGNF TGUGCTEJ RTQXGF VQ DG VJG QRVKOWO EJQKEG DGECWUG KV YCU DCUGF QP "UEKGPEG

CPF VGEJPQNQI[". # SWCNKVCVKXG CRRTQCEJ VJCV GNKEKVGF QRKPKQPU OC[ JCXG; RTQXGF RQNKVKECNN[

EJCNNGPIKPI, FGNKXGTGF UWURGEV FCVC, CPF HCKNGF VQ FGNKXGT KFGPVKHKCDNG UVGYCTFUJKR WPKVU.

+ EQPENWFGF KP UGEVKQP 3.2 VJCV C RQUV-OQFGTP RCTCFKIO YCU PQV IGTOCPG VQ VJG YQTNFXKGY QT

XCNWGU QH VJG RGQRNGU QH −JCO DWV TGEQIPK\GF EGTVCKP VTCLGEVQTKGU VJCV YGTG. 2QUV-OQFGTP

HQTGUVT[2015 CPF RQUV-OQFGTP UEKGPEG2016 QHHGTGF C PGY CRRTQCEJ VJCV TGUQPCVGF PQV QPN[ YKVJ

KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU DWV UGC EJCPIGU KP HQTGUV XCNWGU KP VJG FGXGNQRGF YQTNF. 9JKNG

RQUV-OQFGTP HQTGUVT[ TGEQIPK\GU C OWNVKRNKEKV[ QH HQTGUV XCNWGU CPF RQUV-OQFGTP UEKGPEG

OWNVKRNG GRKUVGOQNQIKGU, DQVJ CNNQY HQT VJG IGQURCVKCNN[ FGHKPGF UVGYCTFUJKR (KP JC QT MO2) QH

HQTGUV DCUGF QP OWNVKRNG RNWTKHQTOKV[2017.

2011 TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 5.8 2012 +V FKHHGTU HTQO %CTVGUKCP UEKGPEG (5NGCVQT 1996) DGECWUG KV KU RTGFKECVGF QP :-

• PQPNKPGCTKV[ & FKUEQPVKPWKV[ • VJG VTCPUEGPFGPEG QH %CTVGUKCP FKUVKPEVKQP QH *WOCPMKPF-0CVWTG, 1DUGTXGT-1DUGTXGF CPF

5WDLGEV-1DLGEV • C F[PCOKE YGD QH TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP VJG YJQNG CPF RCTV KP RNCEG QH CVQOKUO CPF TGFWEVKQPKUO • U[ODQNKUO CPF TGRTGUGPVCVKQP • C FGOQETCVKE CRRTQCEJ KP RNCEG QH GNKVKUO

2013 TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 7 2014 TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 7.4.3 2015 TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 5.8 2016 TGHGTTGF VQ KP 2.3 CPF 3.2 2017 TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 1.1, 2.1 CPF 5.8


#FFGPFWO


)KXGP VJCV + JCXG NKXGF KP *KIJ #UKC HQT OQUV QH O[ NKHG CPF JCXG CFQRVGF C YQTNFXKGY VJCV

KU OWEJ ENQUGT VQ CP KPFKIGPQWU YQTNFXKGY VJCP VJG EQORCTVOGPVCNKUGF CECFGOKE FKUEKRNKPGU

RTGXCNGPV YKVJKP VJG 9GUVGTP KPVGNNGEVWCN VTCFKVKQP2018 + PGXGT UCY CP[ KPEQPUKUVGPE[ CFQRVKPI

RQUV-OQFGTP VTCLGEVQTKGU CPF C SWCNKVCVKXG CPF SWCPVKVCVKXG OGVJQFQNQI[. /[ CRRTQCEJ KU PQV

WPKSWG CU (CTTGNN (2004) CFQRVGF C RQUV-OQFGTP CRRTQCEJ WUKPI SWCPVKVCVKXG IGPGVKE XCTKCVKQP

CPF $TQVV (2001) $QYMGT (2001) CPF 4CHKSWG (2005) CFQRVGF C RQUV-OQFGTP CRRTQCEJ WUKPI

DQVJ SWCPVKVCVKXG CPF SWCNKVCVKXG FCVC.

2QUV-OQFGTP UEKGPEG KORNKGU FKXGTUKV[ KP VGTOU QH OWNVKRNG VTWVJU, UVCPFCTFU CPF HQTOU QH FCVC

TGRTGUGPVCVKQPU HQT OWNVKRNG CWFKGPEGU DGECWUG VJG[ DGVVGT TGRTGUGPV DQVJ VJG EQORNGZKV[ QH VJG

NKXGU YG UVWF[, CPF VJG NKXGU YG NGCF (4KEJCTFUQP 1994 6KGTPG[ CPF .KPEQNP (1997). +V QHHGTU

VJG QRRQTVWPKV[ VQ CFQRV C FKXGTUKV[ QH OGVJQFQNQIKECN CUUWORVKQPU CPF OGVJQFU KP IGPGTCVKPI

MPQYNGFIG QH VJG JWOCP CPF UQEKCN YQTNF YKVJKP C UKPING TGUGCTEJ RTQLGEV (4CHKSWG 2005).

+ CFQRVGF C SWCNKVCVKXG CRRTQCEJ HQT GZRNQTKPI CPF KFGPVKH[KPI HQTGUV XCNWGU FWTKPI

RTG-VGUVKPI2019 CPF HQT HQNNQY-WR SWGUVKQPU FWTKPI HKGNF YQTM2020. 9JGP, JQYGXGT + UQWIJV QWV

HKGNF OGVJQFU CFFTGUUKPI VJG TGNCVKXG KORQTVCPEG QH HQTGUV XCNWGU, CPF VJG KFGPVKHKECVKQP QH

RCTCFKIOU, EQIPKVKXG FQOCKPU CPF VJGKT IGQURCVKCN GZVGPV CPF FKUVTKDWVKQP CNN + EQWNF HKPF YGTG

SWCPVKVCVKXG OGVJQFU2021. 6JGUG YGTG NCTIGN[ YKVJKP VJG HKGNFU QH EQIPKVKXG CPVJTQRQNQI[,

EQIPKVKXG RU[EJQNQI[, ETQUU-EWNVWTCN RU[EJQNQI[ CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN RU[EJQNQI[. +P QTFGT

JQYGXGT VQ RTQXKFG UQOG UQTV QH TKIQWT VQ O[ HKPFKPIU CPF VJGKT IGQURCVKCN FKUVTKDWVKQP + CNUQ

KPENWFGF IGQUVCVKUVKEU. + EQWNF PQV HKPF CP[ UVWF[ YKVJ UKOKNCT IQCNU VQ O[ QYP VJCV YCU DCUGF

QPN[ QP C SWCNKVCVKXG CRRTQCEJ CNVJQWIJ + ECP CPF FKF FTCY QP 20 [GCTU QH

RCTVKEKRCPV-QDUGTXCVKQP.

(KGNF TGUGCTEJ COQPI %JKPGUG OKPQTKV[ RGQRNGU JCU PGXGT DGGP GCU[, GURGEKCNN[ COQPI VJG

6KDGVCPU, CPF KPHQTOCVKQP CEEGUU FGGOGF C RTKXKNGIG,. &WTKPI HKGNF YQTM YKVJ CP KPVGTPCVKQPCN

VGCO KP 1994 + JCF VQ URGPF 2 FC[U YCNMKPI VQ TGOQVG HQTGUVU KP QTFGT VQ NQUG O[ 'OKPFGT'

2018 CNNWFGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 3.1.2. 2019 TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 6.5 2020 TGHGTTGF VQ KP EJCRVGT 8 2021 TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 6.1


#FFGPFWO


DGHQTG YG EQWNF DGIKP C 24# UVWF[. 1PG FC[ C RQNKVKECN CIGPV HTQO VJG KPVGTTQICVKQP

FGRCTVOGPV ECOG VQ EJGEM WU QWV CPF FKUEQXGT KH YG VJQWIJV 6KDGVCPU YGTG 'EKXKNK\GF'. 6JG

KPVGTRTGVGT EQWNF PQV WPFGTUVCPF YJ[ YG MGRV CUMKPI VJG UCOG SWGUVKQPU QXGT CPF QXGT CICKP

CPF C OCP HTQO VJG HQTGUVT[ FGRCTVOGPV MGRV CPUYGTKPI SWGUVKQPU QP DGJCNH QH VJG TGURQPFGPV.

’XGPVWCNN[ VJG KPVGTPCVKQPCN VGCO YCU CUMGF VQ NGCXG VJG CTGC DGECWUG "YG FKF PQV JCXG VJG

EQTTGEV V[RG QH XKUC HQT EQPFWEVKPI HKGNF UWTXG[U". 5KPEG VJGP VJKPIU JCXG IQV DGVVGT GURGEKCNN[

UKPEG 1998 YJGP ’CUVGTP −JCO QRGPGF WR HQT VQWTKUO.

(QTGUVT[ KP %JKPC EQOGU WPFGT VJG CGIKU QH 'UEKGPEG CPF VGEJPQNQI[', YJKEJ EQOOCPFU TGURGEV

CU C /CTZKUV 'RTQFWEVKXG HQTEG' (%++% 1988), 'UQEKCN HQTGUVT[' KU RTGFKECVKPI QP UQEKCN

GPIKPGGTKPI2022 CPF 'GVJPKE HQTGUVT[' KU XKGYGF CU C VQWTKUV EQOOQFKV[ HTQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH

OWNVKEWNVWTCNKUO2023. #U C TGUWNV OQUV %JKPGUG ECFTGU YQWNF CUUWOG, IKXGP VJG GVJPQEGPVTKE

UWRGTKQTKV[ QH VJGKT TCVKQPCN UEKGPVKHKE EQIPKVKXG U[UVGO2024 VJCV VJG FCVC + YCU EQNNGEVKPI YQWNF

GKVJGT RTQXKFG VJG DCUKU VQ 'EJCPIG', 'WRNKHV' QT 'EKXKNK\G' VJG RGQRNGU QH −JCO, QT HQT VQWTKUV

RTQOQVKQP DWV PQV CU CP GZGORNCT QH UVGYCTFUJKR. + TGEQIPK\GF KP VJG HKGNF VJCV VJG CRRTQCEJ +

JCF CFQRVGF (GURGEKCNN[ YKVJ UWRRQTVKPI VGEJPQNQIKGU UWEJ CU C HKGNF EQORWVGT CPF )25) CPF

C OKZGF TCEG2025 TGUGCTEJ CUUKUVCPV HTQO VJG HQTGUV FGRCTVOGPV FKF PQV RQUG CP[ UQEKQ-RQNKVKECN

VJTGCV CPF O[ TGUGCTEJ YCU XKGYGF CU 'UEKGPVKHKE'. 1P QPG QEECUKQP VJG RQNKEG FKF UJQY WR JCNH

YC[ VJTQWIJ CP KPVGTXKGY DWV O[ TGUGCTEJ CUUKUVCPV YCU CDNG VQ XQWEJ HQT OG. + CNYC[U ECTTKGF

DQPG HKFGU HTQO 5KEJWCP 0QTOCN 7PKXGTUKV[ DWV PGXGT JCF VQ WUG VJGO CPF QP QPG QEECUKQP +

JCF C NGVVGT QH KPVTQFWEVKQP HTQO VJG EJKGH QH RQNKEG QH VJG RTGHGEVWTG. 6JG QPN[ VKOG + PGCTN[ JCF

C RTQDNGO YCU KP /KP[CM YJGTG O[ FTKXGT YCU VJG KPVGTRTGVGT (JG URQMG VJG NQECN NCPIWCIG).

*G JCF DGGP KP VJG CTO[ CPF DGECOG EQPEGTPGF YJGP TGURQPFGPVU UECNGF "UQEKCNKUO" FKUVCPVN[

HTQO QVJGT XCNWGU YJKEJ JG KPVGTRTGVGF CU WPCEEGRVCDNG ETKVKEKUO2026. + CO PQV UWTG KH JG

TGRQTVGF OG DWV + YCU PQV FGVCKPGF CPF + EQPVKPWGF VQ DG CDNG VQ IGV XKUCU.

2022 TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 7.4.2 2023 TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 7.4.2 2024 TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 7.1 2025 6KDGVCP-%JKPGUG 2026 TGHGTTGF VQ KP UGEVKQP 7.5.1


#FFGPFWO


6JKU UVWF[ QHHGTGF C WPKSWG QRRQTVWPKV[ VQ CFQRV OWNVKRNG TGUGCTEJ OGVJQFU VJCV TGRTGUGPVGF

VJG EQORNGZKV[ QH VJG RGQRNGU QH ’CUV −JCO CICKPUV VJG DCEMFTQR QH VJG %JKPGUG

UQEKQ-RQNKVKECN EQPVGZV CU YGNN CU JCXKPI CRRNKECVKQP HQT QVJGT RGQRNG ITQWRU.


$KDNKQITCRJ[


$+$.+1)4#2*; #DDKY, &, (1990) 7UGHWN 2NCPVU QH )JCPC: 9GUV #HTKECP 7UGU QH 9KNF CPF %WNVKXCVGF 2NCPVU. +PVGTOGFKCVG 6GEJPQNQI[ 2WDNKECVKQPU, .QPFQP #DDQVVU, #,(1997) 0CMGF 5RKTKVU: # ,QWTPG[ +PVQ 1EEWRKGF 6KDGV, %CPQPICVG $QQMU, ’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’PXKTQPOGPV CPF 5WUVCKPCDKNKV[ KP VJG 6JKTF 9QTNF, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP #FCOU, 9. (1993) "5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV CPF VJG )TGGPKPI QH &GXGNQROGPV 6JGQT[", +P 5EJWWTOCP, (. (GF.), $G[QPF VJG +ORCUUG, <GF $QQMU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 207-222 #FCOU, 9. (1995) ")TGGP &GXGNQROGPV 6JGQT[ ’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUO CPF 5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV", +P %TWUJ, ,. (GF.), 2QYGT QH &GXGNQROGPV, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 87-99 #&$ (2003) 1RGTCVKQPU /CPWCN 5GEVKQP (3/$2, #UKCP &GXGNQROGPV $CPM JVVR://YYY.CFD.QTI/&QEWOGPVU//CPWCNU/1RGTCVKQPU/1/(03A13OC[04.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 #FFKPUQHV (1995-2002) :.56#6: 5VCVKUVKECN 5QHVYCTG HQT /5 ’ZEGN, XGTUKQP 2TQ 5.1X2 #FFKPUQHV #GTVU, &., #RQUVGN, .., &G /QQT, $., *GNNGOCPU, 5., ’, /., 8CP $GNNG, *. CPF 8CP &GT 8GMGP, ,. (1994) 9QTNF 8KGYU: (TQO (TCIOGPVCVKQP VQ +PVGITCVKQP, (TGG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH $TWUUGNU, $TWUUGNU #(2 #IGPEG (TCPEG 2TGUUG "6KDGV DWHHGVGF D[ TGEQTF UPQYHCNN", #(2 #IGPEG (TCPEG 2TGUUG (31/12/1997) #(2# (2004) %JKPC'U 5WDUKFK\CVKQP QH KVU (QTGUV 2TQFWEVU +PFWUVT[: −G[ (KPFKPIU, #OGTKECP (QTGUV CPF 2CRGT #UUQEKCVKQP JVVRU://YYY.DKRCE.PGV/CHRC/RFH/%JKPCA−G[A(KPFKPIU6-3-04.RFH 3TF /C[ 2005 #ICTYCN, #. (1984) "$G[QPF RTGVV[ VTGGU CPF VKIGTU: VJG TQNG QH GEQNQIKECN FGUVTWEVKQP KP VJG GOGTIKPI RCVVGTPU QH RQXGTV[ CPF RGQRNG'U RTQVGUVU. 5VJ 8KMTCO 5CTCDJCK --", 2TGUGPVGF CV /GOQTKCN .GEVWTG, FGNKXGTGF KP 0GY &GNJK, 13 #WIWUV, WPFGT VJG CWURKEGU QH VJG +PFKCP %QWPEKN QH 5QEKCN 5EKGPEG 4GUGCTEJ. %QPHGTGPEG #ITCYCN, #., (1995C) +PFKIGPQWU CPF UEKGPVKHKE MPQYNGFIG: UQOG ETKVKECN EQOOGPVU, +P +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG CPF &GXGNQROGPV /QPKVQT 3(3), CV JVVR://YYY.PWHHKE.PN/EKTCP/KMFO/3-3/CTVKENGU/CITCYCN.JVON , CEEGUUGF 5VJ /C[ 2000 #ITCYCN, #. (1995D) "&KUOCPVNKPI VJG &KXKFG DGVYGGP +PFKIGPQWU CPF 5EKGPVKHKE −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’VJPQDKQNQI[, 1 RCIGU 221-230 #NNKUQP, 0. (1984) "/CMG UWTG [QWT IGVVKPI VJTQWIJ", ’/3, 20 (2) RCIGU 167-168 #PCIPQUV, #. (1994C) "6JG 2QNKVKEU QH 4KVWCN &KURNCEGOGPV", +P −G[GU, %., −GPFCNN, .. CPF *CTFCETG, *. (GF.), +P #UKCP 8KUKQPU QH #WVJQTKV[: 4GNKIKQP CPF VJG /QFGTP 5VCVGU QH ’CUV CPF 5QWVJGCUV #UKC., 7PKXGTUKV[ QH *CYCKK 2TGUU., *QPQNWNW, RCIGU 221-254 #PCIPQUV, #, (1994D) "9JQ +U 5RGCMKPI *GTG! &KUEWTUKXG $QWPFCTKGU & 4GRTGUGPVCVKQP KP 2QUV-/CQ %JKPC", +P *C[, ,. (GF.), $QWPFCTKGU KP %JKPC, 4GCMVKQP $QQMU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 257-279 #PFGTUQP, ). (1996) ’EQNQIKGU QH VJG *GCTV ’OQVKQP $GNKGH CPF VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM #PFGTUQP, ). "(NQYGTKPI #RTKEQV: ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TCEVKEG (QNM 4GNKIKQP CPF &CQKUO", 2TGUGPVGF CV (2CRGT RTGUGPVGF CV 6CQKUO & ’EQNQI[ %QPHGTGPEG (5-8 ,WPG) %594 (*CTXCTF) %QPHGTGPEG 1998 #PFGTUQP, ). (2000) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 24VJ ,CP 2000 CDQWV &CQKUO, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/CPFGTUQP2401.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 #PFGTUQP, ). (2000) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 25VJ ,CP 2000 CDQWV 0CVWTG KP %JKPC, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/CPFGTUQP2501.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 #PFGTUQP, ). (2000) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 7VJ (GD 2000E CDQWV *KIJ-NQY 4GNKIKQP, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/CPFGTUQP702.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005

http://www.mail-archive.com/[email protected]/msg42428.html

http://www.lawfulpath.com/ref/greening.shtml

http://www.adb.org/Documents/Manuals/Operations/OMF03_13may04.pdf

https://www.bipac.net/afpa/pdf/China_Key_Findings6-3-04.pdf

http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ikdm/3-3/articles/agrawal.html

http://www.uglychinese.org/tibetan.htm

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/anderson2401.pdf

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/anderson2501.pdf


$KDNKQITCRJ[


#PFGTUQP, ) CPF / (1973) /QWPVCKP CPF 9CVGT: 6JG %WNVWTCN ’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−PQYNGFIG: +PVGTHCEGU $GVYGGP $WTGCWETCVU CPF 2GCUCPVU", +P .QPI, 0. CPF .QPI, #. (GF.), $CVVNGHKGNFU QH −PQYNGFIG, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, #TEG, #. CPF .QPI, 0. (2000) "4GEQPHKIWTKPI /QFGTPKV[ CPF &GXGNQROGPV (TQO CP #PVJTQRQNQIKECN 2GTURGEVKXG", +P #TEG, #. CPF .QPI 0 (GF.), #PVJTQRQNQI[ &GXGNQROGPV & /QFGTPKVKGU: ’ZRNQTKPI &KUEQWTUGU, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 1-31 #TKU, /. (1990) "/CP CPF 0CVWTG KP VJG $WFFJKUV *KOCNC[C", +P 4WUVQOLK, 0. CPF 4CODNG, %. (GF.), *KOCNC[CP ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF %WNVWTG, +PFWU, 0GY &GNJK, RCIGU 85-101 #TOUVTQPI, #. (2003) 6JG %COGTQPKCPU CPF VJG 4GENCKOKPI QH 5EQVNCPF'U 4GXQNWVKQPCT[ 6TCFKVKQP: # 4GURQPUG VQ '&KUEQXGTKPI VJG 5EQVVKUJ 4GXQNWVKQP 1688-1746', #TPGKN, $. (1996) ,QJP .QEMG CPF #OGTKEC: 6JG &GHGPEG QH ’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’PFCPIGTGF NCPIWCIGU, GPFCPIGTGF MPQYNGFIG, GPFCPIGTGF GPXKTQPOGPVU %QPHGTGPEG , $GTMGNG[ %CNKHQTPKC 25-27 1EVQDGT, 1996., #VTCP, 5. (2001) "6JG 8CPKUJKPI .CPFUECRG QH VJG 2GVGP /C[C .QYNCPFU: 2GQRNG, 2NCPVU, #PKOCNU, 2NCEGU, 9QTFU CPF 5RKTKVU", +P /CHHK, . GF. (GF.), 1P $KQEWNVWTCN &KXGTUKV[ .KPMKPI .CPIWCIG, −PQYNGFIG, CPF VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV, 5OKVJUQPKCP +PUVKVWVG, 9CUJKPIVQP &%, #VTCP, 5. CPF /GFKP, &. (1997) "/QFGNU QH 0CVWTG CPF 4GUQWTEG /CPCIGOGPV KP /GUQCOGTKEC", +P $C\GTOCP, /., /GUUKPEM, &., 6GPDTWPUGN, #. CPF 9CFG, −. (GF.), ’PXKTQPOGPV, ’VJKEU, CPF $GJCXKQWT, 0GY .GZKPIVQP 2TGUU, 5CP (TCPUKUEQ, RCIGU 171-208 #WUWDGN, &, 0QXCM, ,.CPF *CPGUKCP, *. (1978) ’FWECVKQPCN 2U[EJQNQI[: # %QIPKVKXG 8KGY, *QNV 4KPGJCTV & 9KPUVQP, 0GY ;QTM #[K (2001) "1P VJG 0CVWTG CPF 6TCPUOKUUKQP QH $KOQ −PQYNGFIG KP .KCPIUJCP", +P *CTTGNN, 5. (GF.), 2GTURGEVKXGU QP VJG ;K QH 5QWVJYGUV %JKPC, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 118-131 #\WOC, *. (2000) "%QOOGPVCT[: +PFKIGPQWU VQ YJCV!": +PVGTPCVKQPCN 5QEKGV[ HQT VJG 5VWF[ QH $GJCXKQWTCN &GXGNQROGPV 0GYUNGVVGT, 1 (37) RCIGU 9-10 $CEM, 2. (2003) &CTYKPKUO CPF VJG 4KUG QH &GIGPGTCVG 5EKGPEG, 2NGCUCPV 9QTF, ’PWOENCY, 9# 98022 $CEQP, (. (1870C) "&G &KIPKVCVG GV #WIOGPVKU 5EKGPVKCTWO", +P 5RGFFKPI, ,., ’NNKU, 4. CPF *GCVJ, &. (GF.), 6JG 9QTMU QH (TCPEKU $CEQP, .QPIOCP CPF %Q, .QPFQP, RCIGU 294-298 $CEQP, (. (1870D) "0GY #VNCPVKU", +P 5RGFFKPI, ,., ’NNKU, 4. CPF *GCVJ, &. (GF.), 6JG9QTMU QH (TCPEKU $CEQP, .QPIOCP CPF %Q, .QPFQP, $CEQP, (. (1870E) "0QXWO 1TICPWO", +P 5RGFFKPI, ,., ’NNKU, 4. CPF *GCVJ, &. (GF.), 6JG 9QTMU QH (TCPEKU $CEQP, .QPIOCP CPF %Q, .QPFQP, RCIG 247 $CEQP, (. (1870F) "2TGRCTCVKXG VQYCTFU C 0CVWTCN & ’ZRGTKOGPVCN *KUVQT[", +P 5RGFFKPI, ,., ’NNKU, 4. CPF *GCVJ, &. (GF.), 6JG 9QTMU QH (TCPEKU $CEQP, .QPIOCP CPF %Q, .QPFQP, RCIG 263 $CEQP, (. (1870G) "6JG )TGCV +PUVCWTCVKQP", +P 5RGFFKPI, ,., ’NNKU, 4. CPF *GCVJ, &. (GF.), 6JG 9QTMU QH (TCPEKU $CEQP, .QPIOCP CPF %Q, .QPFQP, RCIG 20

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http://www.ankerberg.com/Articles/_PDFArchives/new-age/NA3W0505.pdf


$KDNKQITCRJ[


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http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/Sonja/RF/Ukpr/Report_t.htm

http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/dbman/db.cgi?db=schedule2004&uid=default&Title=Qiang&Authors=&Session=&Sequence=&Presentation=&SessionName=&Abstracts=&Day=&Room=&Time=&keyword=&mh=25&sb=---&view_records=View+Records



http://les.man.ac.uk/ipa97/papers/baker13.html

http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/families/press/15_06_04.shtml

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/baur251004.txt



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$$% 0GYU "/QTG CTTGUVU KP 6KDGVCP DQOD ECUG", $$% 0’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−. (2003) "5[PGTI[ DGVYGGP 6TCFKVKQPCN ’EQNQIKECN −PQYNGFIG CPF %QPUGTXCVKQP 5EKGPEG 5WRRQTVU (QTGUV 2TGUGTXCVKQP KP ’EWCFQT", ’EQNQI[ CPF 5QEKGV[, 8 (1)-#TVKENG 1 JVVR://YYY.GEQNQI[CPFUQEKGV[.QTI/XQN8/KUU1/CTV1/OCKP.JVON CEEGUUGF 2005 6VJ #WIWUV $GPIUVQP, &. CPF :W, <. (1995) %JCPIKPI 0CVKQPCN (QTGUV 8CNWGU: # %QPVGPV #PCN[UKU, , 75&#(5 0%(’5 $GPPGVV, ’. CPF <WTGM, /, (WPFCVGF) +PVGITCVKPI GRKUVGOQNQIKGU VJTQWIJ UEGPCTKQU, CV JVVR://YYY.OKNNGPPKWOCUUGUUOGPV.QTI/FQEWOGPVU/DTKFIKPI/RCRGTU/DGPPGVV.GNGPC.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 $GPPGVV, ,. (1976) 6JG ’EQNQIKECN 6TCPUKVKQP: %WNVWTCN #PVJTQRQNQI[ & *WOCP #FCRVKQP, 2GTICOQP 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM $GTIGT, 2. (1974) 2[TCOKFU QH 5CETKHKEG, 2GPIWKP $QQMU .VF, .QPFQP $GTMGU, (., %QNFKPI, ,. CPF (QNMG, %. (1997) 4GFKUEQXGT[ QH 6TCFKVKQPCN ’EQNQIKECN −PQYNGFIG #U #FCRVKXG /CPCIGOGPV, 4Q[CN 5YGFKUJ #ECFGO[ ($GKLGT +PUVKVWVG), 5VQEMJQNO $GTMGU, (. CPF (QNMG, %. (1998) ".KPMKPI 5QEKCN & ’EQNQIKECN 5[UVGOU HQT 4GUKNKGPEG & 5WUVCKPCDKNKV[", +P $GTMGU, (. CPF (QNMG, %. (GF.), .KPMKPI 5QEKCN & ’EQNQIKECN 5[UVGOU: /CPCIGOGPV 2TCEVKEGU CPF 5QEKCN /GEJCPKUOU HQT $WKNFKPI 4GUKNKGPEG, %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG, RCIGU 1-25 $GTOCP, /. (1981) 6JG 4GGPEJCPVOGPV QH VJG 9QTNF, %QTPGNN 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, +VJCEC $GTOCP, /. (1988) #NN 6JCV KU 5QNKF /GNVU KPVQ #KT: 6JG ’ZRGTKGPEG QH /QFGTPKV[, 2GPIWKP, 0GY ;QTM $GTPCTF, 4. (1992) "2TGUGTXKPI NCPIWCIG FKXGTUKV[", *WOCP QTICPKUCVKQP, 51 (1) RCIGU 82-89 $GTPDCWO, ’. (1997C) 2KNITKOCIG CPF %QPUGTXCVKQP KP VJG *KOCNC[C: # /QFGN HQT ’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’XKFGPEG HTQO )JCPC", ,QWTPCN QH 2QNKVKECN ’EQPQO[, 103 (5) RCIGU 903-937 $GUV, 5. CPF −GNNPGT, &. (1997) 6JG 2QUV-OQFGTP 6WTP, )WKNHQTF 2WDNKECVKQPU, 0GY ;QTM $JCDJC, *. (1991) "4CEG VKOG CPF VJG TGXKUKQP QH OQFGTPKV[", 1ZHQTF .KVGTCT[ 4GXKGY, 13 (1-2) RCIGU 193-220 $JCTWEJC, ’. (1999) "%WNVWTCN CPF 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU 4GNCVGF VQ VJG %QPUGTXCVKQP QH $KQFKXGTUKV[ KP VJG 5CETGF )TQXGU QH VJG 9GUVGTP )JCVU KP /CJCTCUJVTC", +P 2QUG[, &. (GF.), %WNVWTCN CPF 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +PVGTOGFKCVG 6GEJPQNQI[/70’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 382-385 $KGNOGKGT, 4. (2005) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 11VJ /CTEJ 2005 CDQWV −JCO 6KDGVCP &KCNGEVU, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/$KGN1103.VZV CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 $KPI 5W, %JWPLKG :KCQ, 4CPLCP &GMC, /CTM 6. 5GKGNUVCF, &CQTQQPI −CPIYCPRQPI, ,WPJWC :KCQ, &CTW .W, 2GVGT 7PFGTJKNN, .WEC %CXCNNK-5HQT\C, 4CPCLKV %JCMTCDQTV[ CPF .K ,KP (2000) "; EJTQOQUQOG JCRNQV[RGU TGXGCN RTGJKUVQTKE OKITCVKQPU VQ VJG *KOCNC[CU", *WOCP )GPGVKEU, 107 RCIGU 582-590 $KUVTKEJ, #., (2003) *WOCPKV['U NQPIKPI HQT EWNVWTCN JGTQGU, GPNKIJVGPGTU CPF UCXKQWTU, CV JVVR://YYY.UJCTGKPVN.QTI/CTEJKXGU/TGNKIKQP/TNACDANQPIKPI.JVO CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 $NCKMKG, 2. (1996) "7PFGTUVCPFKPI ’PXKTQPOGPVCN +UUWGU", +P 5VQEMKPI, /. CPF /QTUG, 5. (GF.), 2GQRNG CPF GPXKTQPOGPV, 7%. 2TGUU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 1-30 $NCMGPG[, /. (1999) 9JCV KU VTCFKVKQPCN MPQYNGFIG! 9J[ UJQWNF KV DG RTQVGEVGF! 9JQ UJQWNF RTQVGEV KV! (TQO 9JQO!: 7PFGTUVCPFKPI VJG XCNWG EJCKP, 9+21/+26−/46/99/3 )GPGXC 1&2/11/99, 9QTNF KPVGNNGEVWCN RTQRGTV[ QTICPKUCVKQP )GPGXC


http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol8/iss1/art1/main.html

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/bridging/papers/bennett.elena.pdf

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/Biel1103.txt

http://www.shareintl.org/archives/religion/rl_ab_longing.htm


$KDNKQITCRJ[


$NCVV, &CXKF , . (1986) "1WV QH VJG %NQUGV CPF QPVQ VJG %QCUV: #GUVJGVKE <QPKPI CU 8KUWCN 4GUQWTEG /CPCIGOGPV", %CTQNKPC 2NCPPKPI, 12 (2) RCIGU 34-43 $NCWV, ,. (1993) 6JG %QNQPK\GT'U /QFGN QH VJG 9QTNF, 6JG )WKNHQTF 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM $NGKUEJ, $. CPF 9QPI, *., (1990) )NQDCN /CTMGVU CPF 5CETGF /QWPVCKPU: 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCVKQP KP VJG 6KDGVCP #TGCU QH 5KEJWCP CPF )CPUW 2TQXKPEGU, +P %JKPC ’ZRNQTCVKQP CPF 4GUGCTEJ 5QEKGV[, %JKPC ’ZRNQTCVKQP CPF 4GUGCTEJ 5QEKGV[, *QPI −QPI CV JVVR://YYY.MJCOCKF.QTI/CDQWVAMJCO/CTVKENGU/DNGKUEJYQPI.JVO , CEEGUUGF 15VJ ,WPG 2001 $NGPEJ, 4. (2001) ")NQDCNK\CVKQP CPF RQNKEKGU VQYCTFU EWNVWTCN FKXGTUKV[", 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEG 2GTURGEVKXGU, 70 (,WPG) $NQPFGCW, #. /. (2003) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 4VJ (GD 2003 CDQWV 6GTTKVQTKCN PWOKPC KP 6KDGV, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/DNQPFGCW4203.VZV CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 $NQPFGCW, #-/. CPF 5VGKPMGNNPGT, ’.(1996) 4GHNGEVKQPU QH VJG /QWPVCKP: ’UUC[U QP VJG *KUVQT[ CPF 5QEKCN /GCPKPI QH VJG /QWPVCKP %WNV KP 6KDGV CPF VJG *KOCNC[C, #WUVTKCP #ECFGO[ QH 5EKGPEG 2TGUU, 8KGPPC $NQPFGCW, #-/. CPF 5VGKPMGNNPGT, ’.(1998) 6KDGVCP /QWPVCKP &GKVKGU: 6JGKT %WNVU CPF 4GRTGUGPVCVKQPU, 8GTNCI FGT 1UVGTTGKEJKUEJGP #MCFGOKG FGT 9KUUGPUEJCHVGP, 9KGP $QFNG[, ,. (1997) #P #PVJTQRQNQIKECN 2GTURGEVKXG (TQO %WNVWTCN #PVJTQRQNQI[: 6TKDGU 5VCVGU CPF VJG )NQDCN 5[UVGO, /C[HKGNF 2WDNKUJKPI %Q, .QPFQP $QPCKWVQ, /., %CTTWU, )., /CTVQTGNNC, *. CPF $QPPGU, /. (2002) ".QECN KFGPVKV[ RTQEGUUGU CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN CVVKVWFGU KP NCPF WUG EJCPIGU: VJG ECUG QH PCVWTCN RTQVGEVGF CTGCU", ,QWTPCN QH ’EQPQOKE 2U[EJQNQI[, 23 (5) RCIGU 631-653 $QPJCO-%CTVGT, ). (1994) )GQITCRJKE +PHQTOCVKQP 5[UVGOU HQT )GQUEKGPVKUVU: OQFGNNKPI 9KVJ )+5, 2GTICOQP, 0GY ;QTM $QPPGT, 4. (1994) #V VJG *CPF QH /CP: 2GTKN & *QRG HQT #HTKECU 9KNFNKHG, 8KPVCIG $QQMU, 0GY ;QTM $QQMEJKP, /. (1962) 1WT 5[PVJGVKE ’PXKTQPOGPV, −PQRH, 0GY ;QTM $QQVJ, #. CPF ,CEQDU, *. (1990) "6KGU VJCV $KPF: 0CVKXG #OGTKECP $GNKGHU CU C (QWPFCVKQP HQT GPXKTQPOGPVCN EQPUEKQWUPGUU", ’PXKTQPOGPVCN ’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’EQNQI[ 4GXKGY, 10 (2) RCIGU 100-112 JVVR://YYY.JWOCPGEQNQI[TGXKGY.QTI/RCUVKUUWGU/JGT102/102DQVVECPVTKNO[GTU.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 $QWTFKGW, 2. (1972) ".C /CKUQP 1W .G /QPFG ’PXGTUÃ", +P $QWTFKGW, 2. (GF.), ’USWKUUG F'WPG VJGQTKG FG NC RTCVKSWG, &TQ\, )GPÂXG, $QWTIWKIPQP, ’ GF. (1973) 4GNKIKQP, #NVGTGF 5VCVGU QH %QPUEKQWUPGUU, CPF 5QEKCN %JCPIG., 1JKQ 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU., %QNWODWU, 1* $QYGTU, %. (1999) 6JG %WNVWTG QH &GPKCN: 9J[ VJG ’PXKTQPOGPVCN /QXGOGPV 0GGFU C 5VTCVGI[ HQT 4GHQTOKPI 7PKXGTUKVKGU CPF 2WDNKE 5EJQQNU (4GXKGY), 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 0GY ;QTM 2TGUU, #NDCP[ 0; $QYMGT, 0, 2001, 7PFGTUVCPFKPI 1PNKPG %QOOWPKVKGU 6JTQWIJ /WNVKRNG /GVJQFQNQIKGU %QODKPGF 7PFGT C 2QUV-OQFGTP 4GUGCTEJ ’PFGCXQWT, (QTWO QH 3WCNKVCVKXG 5QEKCN 4GUGCTEJ 8QNWOG 2, 0Q. 1 JVVR://YYY.SWCNKVCVKXG-TGUGCTEJ.PGV/HSU-VGZVG/1-01/1-01DQYMGT-G.RFH CEEGUUGF 20VJ /C[ 2006 $TCII, %. (1996) "9QOGP CPF 2QNKVKEU: 6JG /[VJ QH 7PHWNHKNNGF ’ZRGEVCVKQP", 2TGUGPVGF CV %57$ 9QOGP'U &C[ 5RGGEJ, 1996 %QPHGTGPEG , $CMGTUHKGNF � 9001 5VQEMFCNG *KIJYC[, $CMGTUHKGNF, %# 93311-1022, 2QNKVKECN 5EKGPEG &GRCTVOGPV, %CNKHQTPKC 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[, JVVR://YYY.EUWD.GFW/‘MDTCII/RTGUGPV1.JVO, CEEGUUGF 4VJ ,WN[ 2005 $TCPFKU, &. (1906) +PFKCP 6TGGU: #P #EEQWPV QH 6TGGU 5JTWDU 9QQF[ %NKODGTU $CODQQU & 2CNOU +PFKIGPQWU QT %QOOQPN[ %WNVKXCVGF KP VJG $TKVKUJ +PFKCP ’ORKTG, %QPUVCDNG & %Q, .QPFQP $TCPPCP, /. (1996) "# 5RGEKCN 4GRQTV: 6JG 9KNFNCPFU 2TQLGEV 7PNGCUJGU +VU 9CT 1P /CPMKPF", /QPGVCT[ CPF ’EQPQOKE 4GXKGY, $TGYGT, /. CPF $TQYP, 4. (1998) "+PVGTITQWR 4GNCVKQPU", +P )KNDGTV, &., (KUMG, 5. CPF )CTFPGT, .. (GF.), 6JG *CPFDQQM QH 5QEKCN 2U[EJQNQI[, /E)TCY-*KNN, $QUVQP, RCIGU 554-594 $TQCF, 4. CPF %CXCPCIJ, ,. (1998) "6JG %QTRQTCVG #EEQWPVCDKNKV[ /QXGOGPV:", +P $TQCF, 4. CPF %CXCPCIJ, ,. (GF.), .GUUQPU & 1RRQTVWPKVKGU, 9QTNF 9KNFNKHG (WPF, .QPFQP, RCIGU 12-30

http://www.khamaid.org/about_kham/articles/bleischwong.htm

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/blondeau4203.txt

http://www.humanecologyreview.org/pastissues/her102/102bottcantrilmyers.pdf

http://www.qualitative-research.net/fqs-texte/1-01/1-01bowker-e.pdf

http://www.csub.edu/~kbragg/present1.htm


$KDNKQITCRJ[


$TQJOCP, ,. (1995) "7PKXGTUCNKUO ’WTQEGPVTKUO CPF +FGQNQIKECN $KCU KP &GXGNQROGPV 5VWFKGU: HTQO OQFGTPKUCVKQP VQ PGQNKDGTCNKUO:", 6JKTF 9QTNF 3WCTVGTN[, 16 (1) RCIGU 121-140 $TQMGPUJC, &. CPF 4KNG[, $. (1980) "/DGGTG −PQYNGFIG QH 6JGKT 8GIGVCVKQP & +VU 4GNGXCPEG HQT 6JGKT &GXGNQROGPV", +P $TQEMGPUJC, &., 9CTTGP, &. CPF 9GTPGT, 1. (GF.), +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU CPF &GXGNQROGPV, 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU QH #OGTKEC, .CPJCO /&, RCIGU 113-129 $TQVV, 2, 2001, 6JG 5VQTKGF #RRTQCEJ: # 2QUV-OQFGTP 2GTURGEVKXG HQT %CTGGT %QWPUGNNKPI, %CTGGT &GXGNQROGPV 3WCTVGTN[, X49 P4 RR 304-313 $TQYP, %., &WTUV, 2. CPF ’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−. CPF ’MQMQ, (. (2001) "(QTGUV ’PEQWPVGTU: 5[PGTI[ COQPI CIGPVU QH HQTGUV EJCPIG KP UQWVJGTP %COGTQQP", 5QEKGV[ CPF 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEGU, 14 RCIG 269-290, 14 RCIGU 269-290 $TQYP, /. CPF /C[, ,. (1991) 6JG )TGGPRGCEG 5VQT[, &QTNKPI −KPFGTUNG[, .QPFQP $TWPFVNCPF, *. (1987) 1WT %QOOQP (WVWTG, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF $TWPGT, ,. (1986) "’VJPQITCRJ[ #U 0CTTCVKXG", +P 6WTPGT, 8. CPF $TWPGT, ’. (GF.), 6JG #PVJTQRQNQI[ QH ’ZRGTKGPEG, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH +NNKPQKU 2TGUU, 7TDCPC, RCIGU 139-155 $TWPPGT, ). CPF /GKUUPGT, $. (1982) 0CVKQPCNKVCVGPRTQDNGOG KP &GT 5QYLGWPKQP 7PF 1UVGWTQRC, /CTMWU, %QNQIPG $TWWP, 1. (1996) "6JG HGPIUJWK TGUWTIGPEG KP %JKPC: %QPHNKEVKPI EQUOQNQIKGU DGVYGGP UVCVG CPF RGCUCPVT[", 6JG %JKPC ,QWTPCN, RCIGU 47-65 $TWWP, 1. (2002) "6JG %QPUVTWEVKQP QH C &KUEQWTUG: (GPIUJWK #U ’PXKTQPOGPVCN ’VJKEU (&TCHV (TQO #WVJQT)", +P $TWWP, 1. (GF.), (GPIUJWK KP %JKPC, %WT\QP 2TGUU, .QPFQP, $TWWP, 1. CPF −CNNCPF, #. (1995) #UKCP 2GTEGRVKQPU QH 0CVWTG: # %TKVKECN #RRTQCEJ, %WT\QP 2TGUU, .QPFQP $T[CPV, 4. CPF $CKNG[, 5. (1997) 6JKTF 9QTNF 2QNKVKECN ’EQNQI[, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP $T[CPV, 4., 4KII, ,. CPF 5VQVV, 2 GFU. (1993) "6JG RQNKVKECN GEQNQI[ QH UQWVJGCUV #UKCP HQTGUVU: VTCPUFKUEKRNKPCT[ FKUEQWTUGU", )NQDCN ’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’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’AQEE-R15.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 $WEM, 9. (1973) /CJCDJCTCVC, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, $GTMGNG[ CPF .QPFQP $WEMKPIJCO, 5 (2000) )GPFGT CPF ’PXKTQPOGPV, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP $WFFJCFCUC, $. (1986) &JCTOKE 5QEKCNKUO, (VTCPUNCVGF D[ ’. 5YGCTGT) +PVGT-TGNKIKQWU EQOOKUUKQP HQT FGXGNQROGPV, $CPIMQM $WHHGTVKNNG, −. (1994) 6JG *CNCUG-/CTCVKMC ECXGU (’ 0GRCN) : # UCETGF RNCEG ENCKOGF D[ DQVJ *KPFWU & $WFFJKUVU, 2QPFKEJGT[ RCRGTU KP UQEKCN UEKGPEG 16, 6JG (TGPEJ +PUVKVWVG 2QPFKEJGT[ $WHHGVTKNNG, −. CPF &KGODGTIGT, * GFU., (2002) 6GTTKVQT[ CPF +FGPVKV[ KP 6KDGV CPF VJG *KOKNC[CU, $TKNN, .’+&’0

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/Brown1503.htm

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/Brown.htm

http://www.icsu.org/Gestion/img/ICSU_DOC_DOWNLOAD/344_DD_FILE_occ-p15.pdf


$KDNKQITCRJ[


$WNCI, 7. (1999) "’VJPKE 4GUKUVCPEG YKVJ 5QEKCNKUV %JCTCEVGTKUVKEU", +P 2GTT[, ’. CPF 5GNFGP, /. (GF.), %JKPGUG 5QEKGV[, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 178-197 $WTIGT, ,. (1987C) +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU: # )NQDCN 3WGUV HQT ,WUVKEG: # 4GRQTV HQT VJG +PFGRGPFGPV %QOOKUUKQP QP +PVGTPCVKQPCN *WOCPKVCTKCP +UUWGU, <GF $QQMU, .QPFQP $WTIGT, ,. (1987D) 4GRQTV HTQO VJG (TQPVKGT VJG 5VCVG QH VJG 9QTNF'U +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU, <GF $QQMU .VF, .QPFQP $WTIGT, ,. (1990) 6JG )CKC #VNCU QH (KTUV 2GQRNGU: # (WVWTG HQT VJG +PFKIGPQWU 9QTNF, )CKC $QQMU, .QPFQP $WTIGUU, ,. (1992) "6JG %WNVWTCN 2QNKVKEU QH 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCVKQP CPF ’EQPQOKE &GXGNQROGPV", +P #PFGTUQP, −. CPF )CNG, (. (GF.), +PXGPVKPI 2NCEGU: UVWFKGU KP EWNVWTCN IGQITCRJ[, .QPIOCP %JGUJKTG, /GNDQWTPG, $WTPGVV, &.(1988) 7PGCTVJN[ 2QYGTU, /#4%, ’CUVDQWTPG $WTTKFIG, −. (1969) 0GY *GCXGP 0GY ’CTVJ: # 5VWF[ QH /KNNGPCTKCP #EVKXKVKGU, $NCEMYGNNU, 1ZHQTF %CK *WC (2001) # 5QEKGV[ 9KVJQWV (CVJGTU 1T *WUDCPFU: 6JG 0C QH %JKPC, <QPG $QQMU 0GY ;QTM., <QPG $QQMU, 0GY ;QTM %CLGVG, ). (2000) 0CVKXG 5EKGPEG, %NGCT .KIJV 2WDNKUJGTU, 5CPVC (G, 0GY /GZKEQ %CNCOG-)TKCWNG, ). (1969) .G 6JÂOG &G .'CTDTG &CPU .GU %QPVGU #HTKECKPU 1, 5’.#(, 2CTKU %CNCOG-)TKCWNG, ) GF. (1970) .G 6JÂOG &G .'CTDTG &CPU .GU %QPVGU #HTKECKPU 2, 5’.’(, 2CTKU %CNFGEQVV, /. (1993) /[VJU QH VJG 5CETGF 6TGG, &GUVKP[ $QQMU, 4QEJGUVGT, 86 %CNFGT, +. (1999) 6JG $NWG 4GXQNWVKQP, ’CTVJUECP, .QPFQP %CNNKEQVV, ,. CPF #OGU. 4. (1989) 0CVWTG KP #UKCP 6TCFKVKQPU QH 6JQWIJV, 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 0GY ;QTM 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM %CNNKEQVV, ,. (1982) "6TCFKVKQPCN #OGTKECP +PFKCP CPF 9GUVGTP ’WTQRGCP #VVKVWFGU VQYCTF 0CVWTG: #P 1XGTXKGY", ’PXKTQPOGPVCN ’VJKEU, 4 RCIGU 293-318 %CNNKEQVV, ,. (1986) "1P VJG +PVTKPUKE 8CNWG QH 0QPJWOCP 5RGEKGU", +P 0QTVQP, $. (GF.), 6JG 2TGUGTXCVKQP QH 5RGEKGU, 2TKPEGVQP 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 2TKPEGVQP, RCIGU 138-172 %CNNKEQVV, ,. (1994) ’CTVJ'U +PUKIJVU, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, $GTMGNG[ %CNNKEQVV, ,. (1999) "8CNWGU CPF ’VJKEU KP %QPUGTXCVKQP", +P /GHHG, ). CPF %CTTQNN, %. (GF.), +P 2TKPEKRNGU QH %QPUGTXCVKQP $KQNQI[. (5GEQPF ’FKVKQP), 5KPCWGT #UUQEKCVGU, 5WPFGTNCPF, /CUUCEJWUGVVU, 7.5.#, RCIGU 29-56 %CODQPK, ). (1991) )GPPCTIGPVW, ’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’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’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2GTURGEVKXGU QP 4GETGCVKQP CPF %QPUGTXCVKQP %QPHGTGPEG , ’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−KMW[W CITQHQTGUVT[: # ECUG UVWF[ QH −KTKP[CIC −GP[C", *WOCP ’EQNQI[, 19 (1) RCIGU 1-18 %CVVQP, 9. CPF &WPNCR, 4. (1978) "’PXKTQPOGPVCN UQEKQNQI[: # PGY RCTCFKIO", #OGTKECP 5QEKQNQIKUV, 13 RCIGU 41-49 %CVVQP, 9. CPF &WPNCR, 4. (1980) "# PGY GEQNQIKECN RCTCFKIO HQT RQUV-GZWDGTCPV UQEKQNQI[", #OGTKECP $GJCXKQTCN 5EKGPVKUV, 24 (1) RCIGU 15-47

http://www.michaelcarmichael.com/research.html

http://www.michaelcarmichael.com/research,partii.html

http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/conferences/wildbritain/index.html


$KDNKQITCRJ[


%CXCNNK-5HQT\C, .. (1994) 6JG *KUVQT[ CPF )GQITCRJ[ QH *WOCP )GPGU, 2TKPEGVQP 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 2TKPEGVQP, 0., %%+%’& (2001) +P RWTUWKV QH C UWUVCKPCDNG )TGGP 9GUV' 0GYUNGVVGT QH VJG %%+%’& 9GUVGTP %JKPC (QTGUV )TCUUNCPFU 6CUM (QTEG, 6JG %JKPC %QWPEKN HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN %QQRGTCVKQP QP ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV $GKLKPI %%+%’& (2002) 6CUMHQTEG 4GVJKPMU .QIIKPI $CP KP %JKPC, 6JG %JKPC %QWPEKN HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN %QQRGTCVKQP QP ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV $GKLKPI %%+%’& (2003) +P RWTUWKV QH C UWUVCKPCDNG )TGGP 9GUV' 0GYUNGVVGT QH VJG %%+%’& 9GUVGTP %JKPC (QTGUV )TCUUNCPFU 6CUM (QTEG +UUWG 6, , 6JG %JKPC %QWPEKN HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN %QQRGTCVKQP QP ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV $GKLKPI %GPVTCN 6KDGVCP #FOKPKUVTCVKQP-KP-’ZKNG ’PXKTQPOGPV & &GXGNQROGPV &GUM (2000) 6KDGV 2000: ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV +UUWGU, ’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−.-−. (1995) "$TKPIKPI 4GNKIKQP KPVQ VJG 5QEKCNKUV (QNF", +P .Q %JK −KP, 2GRRGT, 5. CPF 6UWK −K ;WGP (GF.), %JKPC 4GXKGY, %JKPGUG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, *QPI −QPI, RCIGU 1-27 %JCP, 8. (1994) 6KDGV *CPFDQQM: # 2KNTKOCIG )WKFG, /QQP 2WDNKECVKQPU, %CNKHQTPKC 75# %JCPFNGT, /. (1993) "6JG $KQFKXGTUKV[ %QPXGPVKQP: 5GNGEVGF KUUWGU QH KPVGTGUV VQ VJG KPVGTPCVKQPCN NCY[GT", %QNQTCFQ ,QWTPCN QH KPVGTPCVKQPCN NCY CPF RQNKE[, 4 RCIGU 139-142 %JCPFNGT, 2. (1990) ’EQNQIKECN MPQYNGFIG KP C VTCFKVKQPCN CITQ-HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV U[UVGO COQPI RGCUCPVU KP %JKPC, 2J& FKUUGTVCVKQP, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 9CUJKPIVQP, 5GCVVNG %JCPFNGT, 2. (1991) "6JG KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG QH GEQNQIKECN RTQEGUUGU COQPI RGCUCPVU KP VJG 24 %JKPC", #ITKEWNVWTG & *WOCP 8CNWGU, 8 (1&2) RCIGU 59-66 %JCPI, /.-−. (1993) "/KFFNG %NCUU CPF 5QEKCN CPF 2QNKVKECN /QXGOGPVU KP 6CKYCP", +P *UKCQ, /. (GF.), &KUEQXGT[ QH VJG /KFFNG %NCUUGU KP ’CUV #UKC, +PUVKVWVG QH ’VJPQNQI[ #ECFGOKC 5KPKEC, 6CKRGK, RCIGU 121-176 %JCRRNG, −. CPF 6WEMGT, /. (2000) *KPFWKUO CPF ’EQNQI[, *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG /# %JCYNC, .. (1998) "5KIPKHKECPV NKHG GZRGTKGPEGU TGXKUKVGF: # TGXKGY QH TGUGCTEJ QP UQWTEGU QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN UGPUKVKXKV[.", 6JG ,QWTPCN QH ’PXKTQPOGPVCN ’FWECVKQP, 29 (3) RCIGU 11-21 %JGP $Q, *WCPI *G CPF <JW *GUJWCPI (2003) +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG QH HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV KP 0QTVJYGUV ;WPPCP, 5;.(( 6QM[Q %JGP .K (W (1986) 6JG %QPHWEKCP 9C[: # 0GY CPF 5[UVGOCVKE 5VWF[ QH '6JG (QWT $QQMU' ((QTGYQTF $[ , 0GGFJCO), −GICP 2CWN +PVGTPCVKQPCN, .QPFQP %JKNUQP, ). (1997) "2TGTQICVKXG� 2TQRGTV[ 4KIJVU QT 9TQPIU!", #FKTQPFCEM ,QWTPCN QH ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 5VWFKGU, 4 (2) RCIGU 3-6 JVVR://YYY.CLGU.QTI/RFH/4-2RTGTQ.RFH %JKPI, %. /. (1985) %JGPI 6UW'U 6JKTVGGP 6TGCVKUGU QP 6CK %JK %JWCP, 0QTVJ #VNCPVKE $QQMU, 4KEJOQPF, %# %JK, %.-%. (1994) ")TQYVJ YKVJ 2QNNWVKQP: 7PUWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV KP 6CKYCP CPF KVU EQPUGSWGPEGU", 5VWFKGU KP EQORCTCVKXG KPVGTPCVKQPCN FGXGNQROGPV, 29 (2) RCIGU 23-47 %JK, %.-%., *UKCQ, *. CPF 9CPI, ,. (1996) "6JG GXQNWVKQP QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUG KP 6CKYCP", 2TGUGPVGF CV RCRGT RTGUGPVGF CV #UUQEKCVKQP QH #UKCP 5VWFKGU #RTKN 11-14 1996 %QPHGTGPEG, *QPQNWNW *CYCKK, #UUQEKCVKQP QH #UKCP 5VWFKGU, %JK, %.-%. CPF 9CPI, ,. %. (1996) ’PXKTQPOGPVCN LWUVKEG: CP CPCN[UKU QH VJG EQPHNKEVU DGVYGGP VJG KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG CPF VJG PCVKQPCN RCTMU =KP %JKPGUG? KP 5QEKQNQIKECN TGUGCTEJ KP 6CKYCP, %JKPI, ,WNKC (1978) %QPHWEKCPKUO CPF %JTKUVKCPKV[: # %QORCTCVKXG 5VWF[, −QFCPUJC, 6QM[Q CPF .QPFQP %JQIC[ 6TKEJGP (1983) 6JG *KUVQT[ QH VJG 5CM[C 6TCFKVKQP, )CPGUJC 2TGUU, $TKUVQN %JQOKV\, −. CPF −WOCTK, −. (1996) 6JG &QOGUVKE $GPGHKVU QH 6TQRKECN (QTGUVU: # %TKVKECN 4GXKGY ’ORJCUK\KPI *[FTQNQIKECN (WPEVKQPU, 9QTNF $CPM, 9CUJKPIVQP %JQWKP, ). (2002) (,CP) "5CETGF )TQXGU KP *KUVQT[: 2CVJYC[U VQ VJG 5QEKCN 5JCRKPI QH (QTGUV .CPFUECRGU KP %QCUVCN )JCPC", +&5 $WNNGVKP, 33 (1) RCIGU 39-46 %JWCPI 6\W (1981) 6JG 5GXGP +PPGT %JCRVGTU CPF 1VJGT 9TKVKPIU (TQO VJG $QQM %JWCPI-6\W, #NNGP CPF 7PYKP, .QPFQP %JWTEJKNN, 9. (1996) (TQO C 0CVKXG 5QP: 5GNGEVGF ’UUC[U KP +PFKIGPKUO, 1985-1995, 5QWVJ ’PF 2TGUU, $QUVQP, /#

http://www.ids.ac.uk/ids/particip/research/pra/pranotes02.pdf


$KDNKQITCRJ[


%+(14, (1999) 6JG $#): $CUKE #UUGUUOGPV )WKFG HQT *WOCP 9GNN-$GKPI, %GPVTG HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN (QTGUVT[ 4GUGCTEJ (%+(14), CV JVVR://YYY.UPXYQTNF.QTI/EFU/TI5($/HQTGUV/VQQNU/VQQNDQZ-5E.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 %KIFGP −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’EQUUG: UVCVKUVKECN CPF IGQUVCVKUVKECN GXCNWCVKQP HQT UCORNG KPHQTOCVKQP, )GQUVQMQU ’EQUUG .VF #NNQC, %GPVTCN 5EQVNCPF, (−10 35# %NCTMG, ,. (1997) 1TKGPVCN ’PNKIJVGPOGPV: 6JG ’PEQWPVGT DGVYGGP #UKCP CPF 9GUVGTP 6JQWIJV, 4QWVNGFIG, 0GY ;QTM %NCTMG, ,. (2000) 6JG 6CQ QH VJG 9GUV: 9GUVGTP 6TCPUHQTOCVKQPU QH 6CQKUV 6JQWIJV, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP %NCTMG, 2. (1997) "/[UVGTKGU QH #PEKGPV %JKPC ’ZJKDKVKQP", 6JG 6KOGU: 5QWXGPKT +UUWG %NGCT[, 6 GF. (1991) 6JG ’UUGPVKCN 6CQ: #P +PKVKCVKQP +PVQ VJG *GCTV QH 6CQKUO 6JTQWIJ VJG #WVJGPVKE 6CQ 6G %JKPI & VJG +PPGT 6GCEJKPIU QH %JWCPI-6\W: # %QORGPFKWO QH ’VJKECN 9KUFQO, *CTRGT 5CP (TCPEKUEQ, 0GY ;QTM %NKHH, #. CPF 1TF, ,. (1973) 5RCVKCN #WVQEQTTGNCVKQP, 2KQP, .QPFQP %QDD, ,. (1988) "’EQNQI[ 5EKGPEG & 4GNKIKQP: 6QYCTFU C 2QUV-OQFGTP 9QTNFXKGY", +P )TKHHKP, &. (GF.), 6JG 4GGPEJCPVOGPV QH 5EKGPEG: 2QUV-OQFGTP 2TQRQUCNU, 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 0GY ;QTM 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU 99-113 %QHHOCP, /., (1998) 6JG +7%0: (TQO VJG 70 VQ ;QWT $CEM ;CTF, 5QXGTGKIPV[ +PVGTPCVKQPCN, $CPIQT /’ CV JVVR://YYY.UQXGTGKIPV[.PGV/R/PIQ/KWEP.JVO , CEEGUUGF 5VJ /C[ 2002 %QND[, $, 1996. %QIPKVKXG #PVJTQRQNQI[, +P .GXKPUQP, & CPF ’ODGT, / (GFU.) ’PE[ENQRGFKC QH %WNVWTCN #PVJTQRQNQI[, 8QWNOG 1. 0GY ;QTM: *GPT[ *QNV CPF %QORCP[. RCIGU. 209-215. %QNEJGUVGT, /. 5CNXCIKPI PCVWTG: +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU RTQVGEVGF CTGCU & DKQFKXGTUKV[ EQPUGTXCVKQP, 7054+& &KUEWUUKQP RCRGT 55, 704+5& 94/ 99( )GPGXC (1994C) %QNEJGUVGT, /. %QOOWPKV[ (QTGUVT[ KP ;WPPCP =%JKPC?: 6JG EJCNNGPIG HQT PGVYQTMU, , %GPVTG HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN (QTGUVT[ 4GUGCTEJ $QIQT +PFQPGUKC (2002) %QNEJGUVGT, /. (2001) "6JKU RCTM KU PQ NQPIGT [QWT NCPF", 70’5%1 %QWTKGT, ,WN[/#WI %QNHGT, %., 9QGNHGN, ,., 9CFNG[, 4. CPF *CTYGNN, ’. (1996) #UUGUUKPI 2GQRNG'U 2GTEGRVKQPU QH (QTGUVU KP &CPCW 5GPVCTWO 9KNFNKHG 4GUGTXG, 9QTMKPI 2CRGT 0Q 13, %GPVTG HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN (QTGUVT[ 4GUGCTEJ $QIQT %QNHGT, %, 2TCDJW, 4, CPF 9QNNGPDGTI, ’ (1995) 2TKPEKRNGU ETKVGTKC CPF KPFKECVQTU: #RRN[KPI QEMJCOU TC\QT VQ VJG RGQRNG HQTGUVT[ NKPM, , %+(14 ,CMCTVC %QNHGT, %., 2GNWUQ, 0. CPF %JKP 5GG %JWPI (1977) $G[QPF 5NCUJ & $WTP: .GUUQPU HTQO −GP[CJ KP /CPCIKPI $QTPGQ'U 4CKP (QTGUVU, 0GY ;QTM $QVCPKECN )CTFGP, 0GY ;QTM %QNHGT, %. (1981) "9QOGP /GP & 6KOG KP VJG (QTGUVU QH −CNKOCPVCP", $QTPGQ 4GUGCTEJ $WNNGVKP, 13 (2) RCIGU 75-85 %QNHGT, %. (1983) "%JCPIG & +PFKIGPQWU #ITQHQTGUVT[ KP ’CUV −CNKOCPVCP", $QTPGQ 4GUGCTEJ $WNNGVKP, 15 (1+1) RCIGU 70-86 %QNHGT, %., 9CFNG[, 4., *CTYGNN, ’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’FKPDWTIJ %QPHWEKWU (1998) 6JG #PCNGEVU, (VTCPUNCVGF D[ &. *KPVQP) %QWPVGTRQKPV 2TGUU, 2JKNCFGNRJKC, 2# %QPMNKP, $. CPF )TCJCO, .. (1995) "6JG UJKHVKPI OKFFNG ITQWPF: #OC\QPKCP +PFKCPU CPF GEQ-RQNKVKEU", #OGTKECP #PVJTQRQNQIKUV, 97 (4) RCIGU 695-710 %QPTQ[, %. (1988) "+PVTQFWEVKQP", +P %QPTQ[, %. CPF .KXKPQHH, /. (GF.), 6JG )TGGPKPI QH #KF: 5WUVCKPCDNG .KXGNKJQQFU KP 2TCEVKEG, ’CTVJUECP, .QPFQP, RCIGU ZK-ZKX

http://www.snvworld.org/cds/rgSFB/forest/tools/toolbox-5c.pdf

http://www.issbd.org/newsletter_0100.pdf accessed 22nd August 2005

http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/dengxiaoping/103341.htm

http://www.sovereignty.net/p/ngo/iucn.htm

http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/WPapers/WP-18.pdf

http://www.conspiracyarchive.com/NWO/Ascendancy.htm


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%QQMG, $. (1996) 2CTVKEKRCVKQP RTQEGUU CPF OCPCIGOGPV: NGUUQPU HQT FGXGNQROGPV KP VJG JKUVQT[ QH QTICPKUCVKQP FGXGNQROGPV, 9QTMKPI 2CRGT 7, +PUVKVWVG HQT &GXGNQROGPV 2QNKE[ CPF /CPCIGOGPV (+&2/) /CPEJGUVGT %QQMG, $. CPF −QVJCTK, 7. (2001) 2CTVKEKRCVKQP: 6JG 0GY 6[TCPP[, <GF $QQMU, .QPFQP %QQRGT, ,. (1990C) 6CQKUO, %TWEKDNG, $CVJ %QQRGT, 6. (1990D) )TGGP %JTKUVKCPKV[: %CTKPI HQT VJG 9JQNG %TGCVKQP, *QFFGT CPF 5VQWIJVQP, .QPFQP %QTNKP, %. (1978) "# 6KDGVCP ’PENCXG KP ;WPPCP: .CPF, −KPUJKR CPF +PJGTKVCPEG KP )[GVJCPI", +P $TCWGP, /. CPF −XCGTPG, 2 GFU. (GF.), 6KDGVCP 5VWFKGU, <WTKEJ, 8ÑNMGTMWPFGOWUGWO FGT 7PKXGTUKV¼V <×TKEJ, <WTKEJ, RCIGU 75-90 %QUUCNVGT, %. CPF 2[G-5OKVJ, %. (2003) (CUV 9QQF (QTGUVT[ - /[VJU CPF 4GCNKVKGU, , 99(; 6JG %GPVTG HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN (QTGUVT[ 4GUGCTEJ (%+(14),; +7%0 - 6JG 9QTNF %QPUGTXCVKQP 7PKQP,; (QTGUV 6TGPFU, JVVR://TGUGCTEJ.[CNG.GFW/IKUH/CUUGVU/RFH/VHF/KHO/%QUUCNVGT%20CPF%202[G-5OKVJ%202003.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 %QZ, %. (1926) 6JG ’CTN[ /GPVCN 6TCKVU QH 6JTGG *WPFTGF )GPKWUGU., 5VCPHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 5VCPHQTF, %CNKHQTPKC %QZ, 2 CPF 6 ’NOSXKUV (1997). "’EQEQNQPKCNKUO CPF KPFKIGPQWU-EQPVTQNNGF TCKPHQTGUV RTGUGTXGU KP 5COQC." #ODKQ 26(2): 84-89. %QZQP, #.; $TKGT, #.; ,QPGU, %.; /WZYQTVJ, &.; 1VVQ, 9.; 6CII, 5.; XCP 5EJWWT, 9.; 1OQPF, 4. CPF 8GNFJWKL\GP, 0. (WPFCVGF) 0GY/&5:: OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN UECNKPI RCEMCIG FGXGNQRGF HTQO VJG QTKIKPCN (QTVTCP CPF &15, XGTUKQP 4.0 0GY/&:5 6GCO ’FKPDWTIJ %TCORVQP, 4. (1996) "8GT[ JQPQTCDNG UCIG KP /[UVGTKGU QH #PEKGPV %JKPC", /[UVGTKGU QH #PEKGPV %JKPC ’ZJKDKVKQP %TQNN, ’. (1993C) "6JG 0GIQVKCVKQP QH −PQYNGFIG CPF +IPQTCPEG KP %JKPC'U &GXGNQROGPV 5VTCVGI[", +P *QDCTV, /. (GF.), #P CPVJTQRQNQIKECN ETKVKSWG QH FGXGNQROGPV, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 161-HH %TQNN, ’. (1993D) (TQO *GCXGP VQ ’CTVJ, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP %TQQM, ,. CPF 1UOCUVQP, * GFU. (1994) *KOCN[CP $WFFJKUV 8KNNCIGU: ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 4GUQWTEGU 5QEKGV[ CPF 4GNKIKQWU .KHG KP <CPIUMCT .CFCMJ, 7PKXGTUKV[ 1H $TKUVQN, $TKUVQN %TQYHQQV, ,. (1990) "#ECFGOKC'U HWVWTG KP VJG EQPUGTXCVKQP OQXGOGPV.", 4GPGYCDNG 4GUQWTEGU ,QWTPCN, 8 (4) RCIGU 5-9 %TWUJ, , GF. (1995) 6JG 2QYGT QH &GXGNQROGPV, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP %5/15 (1989) )’1’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−GPIGP, 5. (1985) "(QTGUVT[ QH &GXGNQROGPV CPF 7PFGTFGXGNQROGPV QH (QTGUVT[", +P &CTICXGN, ,. CPF 5KORUQP, ). (GF.), (QTGUVT[: 5WEEGUU QT HCKNWTG KP FGXGNQRKPI EQWPVTKGU! %4’5 9QTMKPI 2CRGT 85/20, #WUVTCNKCP 0CVKQPCN 7PKXGTUKV[, %CPDGTTC, &CTKGT, ’ GF. (1999) &KUEQWTUGU QH VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV, $NCEMYGNN, 1ZHQTF &CTNKPIVQP, 5. (1998) "6JG QTFKPCVKQP QH C VTGG: 6JG $WFFJKUV ’EQNQI[ OQXGOGPV KP 6JCKNCPF", ’VJPQNQI[, 37 (1) RCIGU 1-15 &CTNKPIVQP, 5., (2000) 4GVJKPMKPI $WFFJKUO & &GXGNQROGPV: 6JG GOGTIGPEG QH GPXKTQPOGPVCNKUV OQPMU KP 6JCKNCPF, +P ,QWTPCN QH $WFFJKUV ’VJKEU 7, CV JVVR://LDG.IQNF.CE.WM/7/FCTNKPIVQP001.JVON , CEEGUUGF 29VJ ,WN[ 2001 &CTUJCP 5JCPMCT (1999) "%WNVWTCN CPF 2QNKVKECN &KOGPUKQPU QH $KQRTQURGEVKPI", +P 2QUG[, &. (GF.), %WNVWTCN CPF URKTKVWCN XCNWGU QH DKQFKXGTUKV[, +6/70’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 534-535 &CTYKP, %. (1859) 6JG 1TKIKP QH 5RGEKGU $[ /GCPU QH 0CVWTCN 5GNGEVKQP, (KTUV ’FP, ,QJP /WTTC[, .QPFQP &CUGP, 2, $GTT[, ,. CPF 5CTVQTKWU, 0. (1988) 5CIG, .QPFQP &CUIWRVC, 2. CPF 5GTCIGNFKP, + GFU. (2000) 5QEKCN %CRKVCN: # /WNVK-(CEKVGF 2GTURGEVKXG, 9QTNF $CPM, 9CUJKPIVQP &% &CUOCPP, 4. (1979) "0CVWTG 4GUGTXGU KP )NQDCN 2GTURGEVKXG", +P 0GNUQP, , GF. (GF.), 6JG %CPCFKCP PCVKQPCN RCTMU: 6QFC[ CPF VQOQTTQY (%QPHGTGPEG RTQEGGFKPIU)., 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 9CVGTNQQ., 1PVCTKQ, %CPCFC, RCIGU 39-43 &CXKF-0GGN, #. (1983) /[ ,QWTPG[ VQ .JCUC: #NGZCPFTC &CXKF-0GGN, 8KTCIQ $QQMU, .QPFQP

http://research.yale.edu/gisf/assets/pdf/tfd/ifm/Cossalter and Pye-Smith 2003.pdf

http://jbe.gold.ac.uk/7/darlington001.html


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&CXKFUQP, ). (2002) "6QYCTFU CP #RRNKGF #DQTKIKPCN 2U[EJQNQI[", +P $QNKVJQ, (., %CTT, 5. CPF 1'4GKNN[, $. (GF.), 2U[EJQNQI[ KP VJG 5QWVJ 2CEKHKE: )NQDCN, .QECN CPF )NQECN #RRNKECVKQPU, /CUUG[ 7PKXGTUKV[, 0GY <GCNCPF, RCIGU 102-119 JVVR://URLR.OCUUG[.CE.P\/DQQMU/DQNKVJQ/%JCRVGTA11.RFH CEEGUUGF 3TF #WIWUV 2005 &CXKU, ,. (1999) "9G −GGR #UMKPI 1WTUGNXGU, 9JCV KU 6TCPURGTUQPCN #YCTGPGUU!", 0QWOGPQP, 5 (1) JVVR://YYY.PQWOGPQP.EQ.\C/JVON/YKPVGTA1999.JVON CEEGUUGF 29VJ ,WN[ 2005 &CXKU, /. (1998) $KQNQIKECN FKXGTUKV[ CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG, , 2CTNKCOGPV QH #WUVTCNKC &CXKU, /., (2004) $TKFIKPI VJG )CR QT %TQUUKPI C $TKFIG! +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG CPF VJG .CPIWCIG QH .CY CPF 2QNKE[, CV JVVR://YYY.OKNNGPPKWOCUUGUUOGPV.QTI/FQEWOGPVU/DTKFIKPI/RCRGTU/FCXKU.OKEJCGN.RFH , CEEGUUGF 12VJ &GE 2004 &CXKUQP, ,. CPF 5WVNKXG, 8. (1991) "6JG %JKNFTGP QH 0KUKPI: +OCIGU QH *GCFJWPVKPI CPF /CNG 5GZWCNKV[ KP +DCP 4KVWCN & 1TCN .KVGTCVWTG", +P #RRGNN, 5. (GF.), (GOCNG & /CNG KP $QTPGQ /5, $QTPGQ 4GUGCTEJ %QWPEKN (/QPQITCRJ 5GTKGU), 8KTIKPKC, RCIGU 153-230 &GK, )., *CNN, $. CPF 4QUGPDGTI, &. (2000) +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIGU KP )NQDCN %QPVGZVU - /WNVKRNG 4GCFKPIU QH 1WT 9QTNF, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 6QTQPVQ &GNQTKC, 8. (1973) )QF +U 4GF, )TQUUGV & &WPNCR, 0GY ;QTM &GNQTKC, 8. (1990) "−PQYKPI & 7PFGTUVCPFKPI: 6TCFKVKQPCN GFWECVKQP KP VJG OQFGTP YQTNF", 9KPFU QH %JCPIG, 5 (1) RCIGU 12-14 &GPGXCP, 9/ (GF.) (1992) 0CVKXG 2QRWNCVKQP QH VJG #OGTKECU KP 1492, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 9KUEQPUKP 2TGUU, /CFKUQP 9+5 & .QPFQP &GPP[, ,. (1988) "%QPVGZVWCNK\CVKQP CPF &KHHGTGPVKCVKQP KP %TQUU-%WNVWTCN %QIPKVKQP", +P $GTT[, ,., +TXKPG, 5. CPF *WPV, ’. (GF.), +PFKIGPQWU %QIPKVKQP: (WPEVKQPKPI KP EWNVWTCN EQPVGZV, /CTVKPWU 0KLJQHH 2WDNKUJGTU, &QTFTGEJV, RCIGU 213-229 &GPYQQF, 2. (1999) 6KDGVCP, ,QJP $GPLCOKPU 2WDNKUJKPI %QORCP[, #OUVGTFCO &GTD[UJKTG, ’. CPF )CUUG, (. (1996) "’PXKTQPOGPVCN EJCPIGU QP VJG 6KDGVCP RNCVGCW CPF UWTTQWPFKPI RNCEGU KP 2TGHCEG", 2CNCGQ, 3 (120) RCIGU 1-3 &GXCNN, $. (1979) "4GHQTOKUV ’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUO", *WODQNV ,QWTPCN QH 5QEKCN 4GNCVKQPU, 6 RCIGU 129-157 &KCOQPF, +. CPF 1TGPUVGKP, ) GFU. (1990) 4GYGCXKPI VJG 9QTNF: 6JG ’OGTIGPEG QH ’EQHGOKPKUO, 5KGTTC %NWD $QQMU, 5CP (TCPUKUEQ &KCOQPF, ,. (1987) "6JG ’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUV", /[VJ KP 0CVWTG, 324 RCIGU 9-20 &KEMGPU, 2. (1992) 5QEKGV[ CPF 0CVWTG: 6QYCTFU C )TGGP 5QEKCN 6JGQT[, *CTXGUVGT 9JGCVUJGCH, .QPFQP &KGODGTIGT, *. (1993) ")CPINC 6UJGEJW, $G[WN −JGPDCNWPI: 2KNITKOCIG VQ *KFFGP 8CNNG[U, 5CETGF /QWPVCKPU CPF 5RTKPIU QH .KHG 9CVGT KP 5QWVJGTP 6KDGV CPF ’CUVGTP 0GRCN", +P 4CODNG, %. CPF $TCWGP, /. (GF.), #PVJTQRQNQI[ QH 6KDGV CPF VJG *KOKNC[C, <WTKEJ 7PKXGTUKV[ HQNM OWUGWO, &TWEM, $WEJU, RCIGU 60-72 &KGODGTIGT, *. (2002) "6JG 2GQRNG QH 2QTQPI CPF %QPEGRVU QH 6GTTKVQT[ KP +PVTQFWEVKQP KP 6GTTKVQT[ CPF +FGPVKV[", +P $WHHGVTKNNG, −. CPF &KGODGTIGT, *. (GF.), 6KDGV CPF VJG *KOKNC[CU, $TKNN, .GKFGP, RCIGU 33-55 &++4, (,WN[ 2003) 6KDGV 2003: 5VCVG QH VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV, CV JVVR://YYY.VGY.QTI/VKDGV2003/V2003.TGUQWTEG.GZV.JVON , CEEGUUGF 14VJ ,WN[ 2005 &KMQVVGT, (. (1992) 6JG &KUEQWTUG QH 4CEG KP /QFGTP %JKPC, *QPI −QPI 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, *QPI −QPI &QDUQP, #. (1990) )TGGP 2QNKVKECN 6JQWIJV: #P +PVTQFWEVKQP, 7PYKP & *[OCP, .QPFQP &QDUQP, #. (1999) (CKTPGUU CPF (WVWTKV[: ’UUC[U QP ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 5WUVCKPCDKNKV[ CPF 5QEKCN ,WUVKEG., 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM, 0GY ;QTM &QDUQP, #. CPF .WECTFKG, 2. (1995) 6JG 2QNKVKEU QH 0CVWTG: ’ZRNQTCVKQP KP )TGGP 2QNKVKECN 6JGQT[, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP &QFKP, 6. CPF 4¼VJGT, *. (2001) +OCIKPKPI 6KDGV : 2GTEGRVKQPU 2TQLGEVKQPU & (CPVCUKGU, 9KUFQO 2WDNKECVKQPU, $QUVQP &QPI, <. (1985) "2TGUGPV 5KVWCVKQP QH (QTGUV #FOKPKUVTCVKQPKP 5Y 4GIKQP QH %JKPC CPF +VU 4QNG KP 4KXGT $CUKP /CPCIGOGPV", +P .K 9GPJWC CPF 2CPFC[, −. (GF.), 9CVGTUJGF /CPCIGOGPV, +%+/1& & %#5, −CVJOCPFW, RCIGU 53-57 &QPPGNN[, ,. 5. (1983) "+TKUJ CITCTKCP TGDGNNKQPU: VJG 9JKVGDQ[U QH 1769-76", 2TQEGGFKPIU QH VJG 4Q[CN +TKUJ #ECFGO[, 83 (UGEVKQP %) RCIGU 293-332 &QWINCU, 0. CPF 9JKVG, /. (1976) −CTOCRC: 6JG $NCEM *CV .COC QH 6KDGV, .W\CE, .QPFQP &QXG, /. (1993D) "# TGXKUKQPKUV XKGY QH VTQRKECN FGHQTGUVCVKQP CPF FGXGNQROGPV:", ’PXKTQPOGPVCN %QPUGTXCVKQP, 20 (17) RCIG 24 &QXG, /. (1983) "6JGQTKGU QH UYKFFGP CITKEWNVWTG CPF VJG RQNKVKECN GEQPQO[ QH KIPQTCPEG", #ITQHQTGUVT[ U[UVGOU, 1 (3) RCIGU 85-99 &QXG, /. (1992) "(QTGUVGTU' DGNKGHU CDQWV HCTOGTU: C RTKQTKV[ HQT UQEKCN TGUGCTEJ KP UQEKCN HQTGUVT[", #ITQHQTGUVT[ 5[UVGOU, 17 RCIGU 13-41

http://spjp.massey.ac.nz/books/bolitho/Chapter_11.pdf

http://www.noumenon.co.za/html/winter_1999.html

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/bridging/papers/davis.michael.pdf

http://www.tew.org/tibet2003/t2003.resource.ext.html


$KDNKQITCRJ[


&QYOCP, −. (1991) 6JG 2QYGT 2NCEGU QH %GPVTCN 6KDGV, 2GPIWKP, .QPFQP &QYPGU, &. (1995) ")NQDCN 6TCFG .QECN ’EQPQOKGU CPF VJG %QPXGPVKQP QP $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[", +P 5PCRG, 9. (GF.), $KQFKXGTUKV[ CPF VJG .CY, +UNCPF 2TGUU, 9CUJKPIVQP, &TCMG, 4. (1991) "6JG %WNVWTCN .QIKE QH 6GZVKNG 9GCXKPI 2TCEVKEGU #OQPI VJG +DCPKE 2GQRNG", +P 5WVNKXG, 8. CPF #RRGNN, ). (GF.), (GOCNG & /CNG KP $QTPGQ: %QPVTKDWVKQPU VQ )GPFGT 5VWFKGU, $QTPGQ 4GUGCTEJ %QWPEKN (/QPQITCRJ 5GTKGU), 8KTIKPKC, RCIGU 271-294 &TGPIUQP, #. CPF 6C[NQT, &. (1997) ’EQHQTGUVT[: 6JG #TV CPF 5EKGPEG QH 5WUVCKPCDNG (QTGUV 7UG, 0GY 5QEKGV[ 2WDNKUJGTU, %CPCFC &TG[GT, ,. (1976) %JKPC'U (QTV[ /KNNKQPU, *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG /# & .QPFQP &TG[GT, ,. (2000) "6JG 2QVGPVKCN HQT +PUVCDKNKV[ KP /KPQTKV[ 4GIKQPU", +P 5JCODCWIJ, &. (GF.), +U %JKPC 7PUVCDNG, 5JCTRG, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU 125-142 &TKGUUGP, 2. (2003) ’EQ-+ORGTKCNKUO: )TGGP 2QYGT, $NCEM &GCVJ, (TGG ’PVGTRTKUG 2TGUU, $GNNGXWG, 9CUJKPIVQP &TKXGT, $., &WUVKP, &., $CNVKE,6, ’NUPGT, ). CPF 2GVGTUQP, ). (1996) 0CVWTG CPF VJG *WOCP 5RKTKV: 6QYCTF CP ’ZRCPFGF .CPF /CPCIGOGPV ’VJKE, 8GPVWTG 2WDNKUJKPI, 5VCVG %QNNGIG, 2#: &T[\GM, ,. (1997) 6JG 2QNKVKEU QH VJG ’CTVJ: ’PXKTQPOGPVCN &KUEQWTUGU, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF &W 5JQWHW CPF )WQ :KCQOKPI (2001) %CUG UVWF[ QP EQPXGTUKQP QH HCTONCPF CPF ITCUUNCPF KP 6KCPSWCP %QWPV[ 5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEG, %JKPC %QWPEKN HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN %QQRGTCVKQP QP ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV $GKLKPI &WCTC, 2. (1990) "’NKVGU CPF VJG 5VTWEVWTG QH #WVJQTKV[ KP VJG 8KNNCIGU QH 0QTVJ %JKPC 1900-1949", +P ’UJGTKEM, ,. CPF 4CPMKP, /. (GF.), %JKPGUG .QECN ’NKVGU CPF RCVVGTPU QH FQOKPCPEG, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, $GTMGNG[, RCIGU 100-120 &WPECP, /. (1964) %WUVQOU CPF 5WRGTUVKVKQPU QH 6KDGVCPU., /KVTG, .QPFQP &WPM, 6. (1994) "6CNMKPI CDQWV VTGGU: ’PXKTQPOGPV & 5QEKGV[ KP (QTGUV 9QTMGTU' EWNVWTG", %CPCFKCP 4GXKGY QH 5QEKQNQI[ & #PVJTQRQNQI[, 31 (1) RCIGU 14-34 &WTMJGKO, ’. (1933) 6JG &KXKUKQP QH .CDQWT KP 5QEKGV[, 6JG (TGG 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM &WTMJGKO, ’. (1966) 6JG 4WNGU QH 5QEKQNQIKECN /GVJQF, (VTCPUNCVGF D[ 5. 5QNQXC[) 6JG (TGG 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM &WTPKPI, #. (1992) )WCTFKCPU QH VJG .CPF: +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU CPF VJG *GCNVJ QH VJG ’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’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 503-546 &YKXGFK, 1. CPF 6KYCTK, $. (1987) ’PXKTQPOGPVCN %TKUKU CPF *KPFW 4GNKIKQP, )KVCPLCNK 2WDNKUJKPI *QWUG, 0GY &GNJK ’ *CMK\WOYCOK, ’. CPF /KNQN, %. G., (2000) 4GRQTV QH VJG 2TGNKOKPCT[ 9QTMUJQR QP VJG %QPVTKDWVKQP QH VJG (QTGUVT[ 5GEVQT VQ 2QXGTV[ #NNGXKCVKQP KP %COGTQQP, −TKDK, ,CP 31 VQ (GD 01, 2000, &GRCTVOGPV HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN &GXGNQROGPV (&(+&) .QPFQP ’CFG, &. (1997) %CRCEKV[ $WKNFKPI: #RRTQCEJGU VQ 2GQRNG %GPVTGF &GXGNQROGPV, 1ZHCO, 1ZHQTF ’CUNGC, $TKCP (1981) 5EKGPEG & 5GZWCN 1RRTGUUKQP: 2CVTKCTEJ['U %QPHTQPVCVKQP 9KVJ 9QOGP CPF 0CVWTG, 9GKFGPHGNF CPF 0KEJQNUQP, .QPFQP ’CUVOCP, ,. (1987-2004) +FTKUK: )+5 CPF +OCIG 2TQEGUUKPI 5QHVYCTG, XGTUKQP −KNKOCPLCQ 14.02 %NCTM 7PKXGTUKV[ 9QTEGUVGT 75# ’CVQP, 2. "%JCTCVGT: %QTPGTUVQPG QH C FGECFGPV UQEKGV[", 6JG 5GCVVNG 6KOGU (3/3/1998) ’EMGN, /. (1997) "+U 6JGTG C $WFFJKUV 2JKNQUQRJ[ QH 0CVWTG!", +P 6WEMGT, /. CPF 9KNNKCOU, &. (GF.), $WFFJKUO CPF ’EQNQI[, *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[, %CODTKFIG /#, RCIGU 327-349 ’EMGTUNG[, 4. (1992) ’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUO CPF 2QNKVKECN 6JGQT[: 6QYCTFU CP ’EQEGPVTKE #RRTQCEJ, 7%. RTGUU, .QPFQP ’EMJQNO, −. (1980) "1P VJG NKOKVCVKQPU QH EKXKNK\CVKQP: 6JG UVTWEVWTG CPF F[PCOKEU QH INQDCN U[UVGOU", &KCNGEVKECN #PVJTQRQNQI[, 5 RCIGU 155-166 ’FIGTVQP, (. (1972) 6JG $JCICXCF-)KVC, *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG, /# ’FOQPFU, 4. (1994) 2CVVGTPU QH %JKPC'U .QUV *CTOQP[, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP ’FOQPFU, 4. (1999) "6JG GPXKTQPOGPV KP VJG 2GQRNGU 4GRWDNKE QH %JKPC (KHV[ ;GCTU QP", %JKPC 3WCTVGTN[, 159 RCIGU 640-649 ’FYCTFU, ,. CPF 2CNOGT, / GFU. (1997) *QN[ )TQWPF: 6JG )WKFG VQ (CKVJ CPF ’EQNQI[, 2KNMKPIVQP 2TGUU, ;GNXGTVQHV /CPQT, 0QTVJCORVQPUJKTG ’KVGN, ’. (1873) (GPI-5JWK QT 4WFKOGPVU QH 0CVWTCN 5EKGPEG KP %JKPC (4GRTKPV 1973), %J'GPI 9GP, 6CKRGK


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’MXCNN, 4. (1968) (KGNFU QP VJG *QQH, 9CXGNCPF 2TGUU +PE CEEGUUGF +PENWFGU DKDNKQITCRJKECN TGHGTGPEGU (R 98-100) ZKK 100 R ’NNGP, 4. (1986) "9JCV DNCEM GNM NGHV WPUCKF: QP VJG KNNWUQT[ KOCIGU QH ITGGP RTKOKVKXKUO", #PVJTQRQNQI[ 6QFC[, 2 (6) RCIGU 8-12 ’NUV, −., (2000) 6JG 5CTPC: C ECUG UVWF[ KP PCVWTCN TGNKIKQP, −QGPTCCF ’NUV'U +PFQNQI[ *QOGRCIG, .GWXGP $GNIKWO CV JVVR://MQGPTCCFGNUV.XQKEGQHFJCTOC.EQO/CTVKENGU/EJT/UCTPC.JVON , CEEGUUGF 12VJ 0QX 2004 ’NYKP, 8. (2002) 6JG $CKIC, )[CP, 0GY &GNJK ’OGTVQP, .. (1997) "8CNWKPI HQTGUV TGUQWTEGU HQT EQPUGTXCVKQP RWTRQUG", 2TGUGPVGF CV #HTKECP 4CKPHQTGUVU CPF %QPUGTXCVKQP QH $KQFKXGTUKV[ 2TQEGGFKPIU QH VJG .KODG %QPHGTGPEG 17-24 ,CPWCT[ 1997 %QPHGTGPEG , .KODG $QVCPKE )CTFGP %COGTQQP, ’CTVJYCVEJ +PUVKVWVG, JVVR://YYY.GCTVJYCVEJ.QTI/GWTQRG/NKODG/NKXGNKJQQF.JVON CEEGUUGF 17VJ 2000, ’OGTVQP, .. (2003) "6TQRKECN HQTGUV XCNWCVKQP: JCU KV CNN DGGP C HWVKNG GZGTEKUG!", 2TGUGPVGF CV :++ 9QTNF (QTGUVT[ %QPITGUU %QPHGTGPEG , 3WGDGE %KV[, %CPCFC, 9QTNF (QTGUVT[ %QPITGUU, JVVR://YYY.HCQ.QTI/&1%4’2/#46+%.’/9(%/:++//53-’.*6/, CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 ’PTKU, +. CPF 5CTOKCJ (1999) "(QTGUVU CPF 5CETGF )TQXGU", +P 2QUG[, &. (GF.), %WNVWTCN CPF 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +PVGTOGFKCVG 6GEJPQNQI[/70’2, .QPFQP, RCIG 352 ’05, (2/6/2005) 6KDGVCPU, %JKPGUG DCVVNG QXGT CEEGUU OGFKECN HWPIWU, ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 0GYU 5GTXKEG, CV JVVR://YYY.GPU-PGYUYKTG.EQO/GPU/LWP2005/2005-06-02-01.CUR , CEEGUUGF 4VJ ,WPG 2005 ’RUVGKP, .. (1990) ")CPLC & /WTFQ: 6JG UQEKCN EQPUVTWEVKQP QH URCEG CV VYQ ’CUVGTP 6KDGVCP RKNITKOCIG UKVGU", 2TGUGPVGF CV +PV UGOKPCT QP #PVJTQRQNQI[ QH 6KDGV & VJG *KOCNC[CU 21-28/9/90 %QPHGTGPEG , <WTKEJ, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH <WTKEJ, ’RUVGKP, .. (2002) −JCOU 2C *KUVQTKGU: 8KUKQPU QH 2GQRNG 2NCEG CPF #WVJQTKV[: 2KCVU 2000 6KDGVCP 5VWFKGU 2TQEGGFKPIU QH VJG 0KPVJ 5GOKPCT QH VJG +PVGTPCVKQPCN #UUQEKCVKQP HQT 6KDGVCP 5VWFKGU 5GOKPCT +PVGTPCVKQPCN #UUQEKCVKQP HQT 6KDGVCP 5VWFKGU, $TKNN, .GKFGP $QUVQP ’RUVGKP, .. CPF 2GPI 9GPDKP (1994) ")CPLC & /WTFQ: 6JG UQEKCN EQPUVTWEVKQP QH URCEG CV VYQ 6KDGVCP RKNITKOCIG UKVGU KP ’CUVGTP 6KDGV", 6KDGV ,QWTPCN: 2QYGT RNCEGU CPF URCEGU, 19 (2) RCIGU 21-45 ’RUVGKP, .. CPF 2GPI 9GPDKP (1998) "4KVWCN ’VJPKEKV[ CPF )GPGTCVKQPCN +FGPVKV[", +P )QNFUVGKP, /. CPF −CRUVGKP, /. (GF.), $WFFJKUO KP %QPVGORQTCT[ 6KDGV, /QVKNCN $/QVKNCN $CPCTUKFCUU 2WDNKUJGTU, &GNJK, RCIGU 120-138 ’TCUOWU, &. #PVKRQNGOWU: 1T VJG 2NGC QH 4GCUQP, 4GNKIKQP, CPF *WOCPKV[ #ICKPUV 9CT. # (TCIOGPV. VTCPUNCVGF (TQO ’TCUOWU CPF #FFTGUUGF VQ #IITGUUQTU. =$[ 8. −PQZ.?, &KNN[, %, .QPFQP ’TOKPG, 9. (1995) "#DQTKIKPCN ’RKUVGOQNQI[", +P $CVVKUVG, /. CPF $CTOCP, ,. (GF.), (KTUV 0CVKQPU ’FWECVKQP KP %CPCFC: 6JG %KTENG 7PHQNFU, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH $TKVKUJ %QNWODKC 2TGUU, 8CPEQWXGT, RCIGU 101-112 ’TOKPG, 9., 4CXGP 5KPENCKT CPF ,GHHGT[, $., (2004) 6JG ’VJKEU QH 4GUGCTEJ +PXQNXKPI +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU, l+PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU� *GCNVJ 4GUGCTEJ %GPVTG, ,WN[ 2004, CV JVVR://YYY.KRJTE.EC/VGZV/’VJKEU%204GXKGY%20+2*4%.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 ’UEQDCT, #. (1984) "&KUEQWTUG & 2QYGT KP &GXGNQROGPV: / (QWECWNV CPF VJG 4GNGXCPEG QH JKU 9QTM VQ VJG 6JKTF 9QTNF", #NVGTPCVKXGU, 10 RCIGU 377-400 ’UEQDCT, #. (1992C) "+OCIKPKPI C RQUV FGXGNQROGPV GTC", 5QEKCN 6GZV, 31 RCIGU 20-54 ’UEQDCT, #. (1992D) "4GHNGEVKQPU QP '&GXGNQROGPV", (WVWTGU, 24 (5) RCIGU 411-436 ’UEQDCT, #. (1995) ’PEQWPVGTKPI &GXGNQROGPV: 6JG /CMKPI CPF 7POCMKPI QH VJG 6JKTF 9QTNF, 2TKPEGVQYP 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 2TKPEGVQYP ’UEQDCT, #. (1996) "%QPUVTWEVKPI 0CVWTG: ’NGOGPVU HQT C 2QUV-5VTWEVWTCN 2QNKVKECN ’EQNQI[", +P 2GGV, 4. CPF 9CVVU, /. (GF.), .KDGTCVKQP GEQNQIKGU, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 46-68 ’UVGXC, ). (1985) "%GCUG CKF CPF UVQR FGXGNQROGPV: #P CPUYGT VQ JWPIGT", 2TGUGPVGF CV +PVGTPCVKQPCN UGOKPCT QP HQQF UGNH-UWHHKEKGPE[ %QPHGTGPEG %’56’/-70’5%1, ’UVGXC, ). (1992) "&GXGNQROGPV", +P 5CEJU, 9. (GF.), 6JG &GXGNQROGPV &KEVKQPCT[: # )WKFG VQ MPQYNGFIG CU 2QYGT, <GF $QQMU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 6-25 ’XCPU, ,. (1986) "2NCPPKPI +PFQPGUKC'U (QTGUV 2QNKE[", 5QEKCN (QTGUVT[ 0GVYQTM 0GYUNGVVGT, 3 (1EV) RCIGU 19-29 ’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’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 366-370

http://koenraadelst.voiceofdharma.com/articles/chr/sarna.html

http://www.earthwatch.org/europe/limbe/livelihood.html

http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/ARTICLE/WFC/XII/MS3-E.HTM

http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jun2005/2005-06-02-01.asp

http://www.iphrc.ca/text/Ethics Review IPHRC.pdf


$KDNKQITCRJ[


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’EQNQI[, *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG /#, RCIGU 411-452 (GNF, 5. CPF $CUUQ, −. (1996) "5GPUGU QH 2NCEG", +P 5EJQQN QH #OGTKECP 4GUGCTEJ 2TGUU, 5CPVC (G, RCIGU 1-90 (GNFOCP, 4. (1990) "5GVVNGOGPV - KFGPVKV[: RU[EJQNQIKECN DQPFU YKVJ JQOG RNCEGU KP C OQDKNG UQEKGV[.", ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF $GJCXKQWT, 22 (2) RCIGU 183-229 (GPI ;QW\JK, (1992) :KMCPI 5JK 5JK ;K (5WRRNGOGPVCT[ %QNNGEVKQPU QH :KMCPI *KUVQT[), %WNVWTCN-*KUVQTKECN &CVC %QOOKVVGG, −CPIFKPI (GTIWUQP, ,. (1990) 6JG #PVK-2QNKVKEU /CEJKPG: &GXGNQROGPV &GRQNKVKEKUCVKQP CPF $WTGCWETCVKE 2QYGT KP .GUQVJQ, %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG (GTTCTQ, 2. CPF 5KORUQP, &. (2000) 6JG %QUV-’HHGEVKXGPGUU QH %QPUGTXCVKQP 2C[OGPVU &KUEWUUKQP RCRGT 00-31, 4GUQWTEGU HQT VJG (WVWTG 9CUJKPIVQP &% (GWEJVYCPI, 5. (1999) "4GNKIKQP #U 4GUKUVCPEG", +P 2GTT[, ’. CPF 5GNFGP, /. (GF.), %JKPGUG 5QEKGV[, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 161-177 (GWEJVYCPI, 5. CPF 9CPI /KPIOKPI (1991) "6JG RQNKVKEU QH EWNVWTG QT C EQPVGUV QH JKUVQTKGU: 4GRTGUGPVCVKQPU QH %JKPGUG 2QRWNCT 4GNKIKQP", &KCNGEVKECN #PVJTQRQNQI[, 16 RCIGU 251-272 (KPNC[UQP, 9. (1994) "2CTCFKIOU", %QOOQPYGCNVJ (QTGUVT[ 4GXKGY, 73 (3) RCIG 143 (KTVJ, 4. (1975) *WOCP 6[RGU, #DCEWU, .QPFQP (KUEJGT, #. (2005) 5VCVG )TQYVJ CPF 5QEKCN ’ZENWUKQP KP 6KDGV: %JCNNGPIGU QH 4GEGPV ’EQPQOKE )TQYVJ, 0QTFKE +PUVKVWVG QH #UKCP 5VWFKGU 2TGUU, %QRGPJCIGP (KUEJJQHH, $. (1991) "8CNWG GNKEKVCVKQP: +U VJGTG CP[VJKPI VJGTG!", #OGTKECP RU[EJQNQIKUV, 46 RCIGU 835-847 (KUJGT, 4. (1997) "+PFKIGPQWU (QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV CPF VJG ’HHGEVU QH ’ZVGTPCN +PVGTXGPVKQP", +P 2QUG[, &. CPF &WVHKGNF, ). (GF.), +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CPF UWUVCKPCDKNKV[, +7%0, 7VTGEJV, RCIGU 63-64 (1% (1995) 6JG *QPI[WCP 4GRQTV,, (TKGPFU QH %JKPC, *QPI −QPI (QPXCN (1989) "’VJPQEKFG CPF #EEWNVWTCVKQP", +P %JCNKCPF, ). (GF.), /KPQTKV[ 2GQRNGU KP VJG #IG QH 0CVKQP 5VCVGU, 2NWVQ 2TGUU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 149-152 (QTGUV /QPKVQT .VF (2001) 5QNF FQYP VJG 4KXGT: 6JG PGGF VQ EQPVTQN VTCPUPCVKQPCN HQTGUVT[ EQTRQTCVKQPU: C ’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−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

http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/13/suppl_1/R1

http://www.forestsmonitor.org/reports/solddownriver/sold.pdf


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(TCPM, #), (1967) %CRKVCNKUO CPF 7PFGTFGXGNQROGPV KP .CVKP #OGTKEC, /QPVJN[ 4GXKGY 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM CPF .QPFQP (TCPMGPC, 9. (1973) ’VJKEU, 2TGPVKEG *CNN, ’PINGYQQF %NKHHU, 0, (TC\GT, 5KT ,, (1993) 6JG )QNFGP $QWIJ, 9QTFUYQTVJ ’FKVKQPU .VF, 9CTG 7− (TGGFOCP, /. (1969) 6JG 5VWF[ QH %JKPGUG 5QEKGV[, 5VCPHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 5VCPHQTF (TGWFGPVJCN, 5. CPF 0CTTQYG, ,. (1991) (QEWU QP 2GQRNG CPF 6TGGU : # )WKFG HQT &GUKIPKPI CPF %QPFWEVKPI %QOOWPKV[ $CUGNKPG 5VWFKGU HQT %QOOWPKV[ (QTGUVT[, 9QTMKPI 2CRGT 178, 5YGFKUJ 7PKXGTUKV[ QH #ITKEWNVWTCN 5EKGPEG 7RRUCNC (TG[HQING, ’. (1998) "1YPKPI VJG .CPF: (QWT EQPVGORQTCT[ PCTTCVKXGU", (NQTKFC 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[ ,QWTPCN QH .CPF 7UG CPF ’PXKTQPOGPVCN .CY, 13 (2) JVVR://YYYNCYHUWGFW/LQWTPCNU/NCPFWUG/8QN132/(TG[.JVO CEEGUUGF 12VJ ,WPG 2004 (TKGF, /. (2000) "%QPVKPWKVKGU CPF FKUEQPVKPWKVKGU QH RNCEG", ,QWTPCN QH ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2U[EJQNQI[, 20 RCIGU 193-205 )CFIKN, /. (1985) "5QEKCN 4GUVTCKPVU QP 4GUQWTEG 7VKNK\CVKQP: 6JG +PFKCP ’ZRGTKGPEG", +P /E0GGN[, ,. CPF 2KVV, & GFU. (GF.), %WNVWTG & %QPUGTXCVKQP: 6JG JWOCP FKOGPUKQP KP ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2NCPPKPI, %TQQO *GNO, &WDNKP, RCIGU 135-155 )CFIKN, /., $GTMGU, (. CPF (QNMG, %. (1993) "+PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG HQT DKQFKXGTUKV[ EQPUGTXCVKQP", #ODKQ, 22 (2-3) RCIGU 151-156 )CFIKN, /. CPF )WJC, 4. (1992) 6JKU (KUUWTGF .CPF: #P ’EQNQIKECN *KUVQT[ QH +PFKC, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP )CPFKP, .. (1963) 1DLGEVKXG #PCN[UKU QH VJG /GVGQTQNQIKECN (KGNFU, )KFTQOGVGQK\FCV, .GPKPITCF )CQ, 9. CPF ,KP, &. (1980) "(KPFKPI VJG UWDLGEVKXG ECWUGU CPF VJG QDLGEVKXG UQNWVKQPU HQT VJG RQNNWVKQP CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQDNGOU KP 5JCPIJCK", *&5(&::$, 6 RCIGU 9-14 )CTFPGT, ). (2002) +PXQMKPI VJG 5RKTKV: 4GNKIKQP CPF 5RKTKVWCNKV[ KP VJG 3WGUV HQT C 5WUVCKPCDNG 9QTNF, 9QTNFYCVEJ 2CRGT 164, 9QTNFYCVEJ +PUVKVWVG &CPXGTU /# )CTFPGT, ). CPF 5VGTP, 2. (1996) ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQDNGOU CPF *WOCP $GJCXKQWT, #NN[P & $CEQP, $QUVQP )CTG, #. (1995) 2QUVOQFGTPKUO & VJG ’PXKTQPOGPVCN %TKUKU, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP )CVGU, .., (2004) 6JG 5RKTKVWCN 0CVWTCNKUV: *QPQWTKPI VTCFKVKQPU VJCV GPEQWTCIG C UQWNHWN TGNCVKQPUJKR YKVJ PCVWTG, CV JVVR://RQTVCNRTQFWEVKQPU.EQO/URKTKVPCVWTG/KPFGZ.JVON , CEEGUUGF 6VJ #WIWUV 2005 )&5 (1989-2004) )5+ )GQUVCVKUVKEU HQT VJG ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 5EKGPEGU, XGTUKQP 7 )COOC &GUKIP 5QHVYCTG /KEJKICP )GCT[, 4. (1954) "6JG EQPVKIWKV[ TCVKQ CPF UVCVKUVKECN OCRRKPI", 6JG +PEQTRQTCVGF 5VCVKUVKEKCP, 5 RCIGU 115-145 )GGTV\, %. (1973) 6JG +PVGTRTGVCVKQP QH %WNVWTGU, $CUKE $QQMU, 0GY ;QTM )GGTV\, %. (1985) .QECN −PQYNGFIG: (WTVJGT ’UUC[U KP +PVGTRTGVKXG #PVJTQRQNQI[, $CUKE $QQMU, 0GY ;QTM )GNNPGT, ’. (1983) 0CVKQPU CPF 0CVKQPCNKUO,, %QTPGNN 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, +VJCEC )GTOCPQ, &. (1998) "4G-/GODGTKPI VJG &KUOGODGTGF $QF[ QH 6KDGV: %QPVGORQTCT[ 6KDGVCP 8KUKQPCT[ /QXGOGPVU KP VJG 2GQRNNG'U 4GRWDNKE QH %JKPC", +P )QNFUVGKP, /. CPF −CRUVGKP, /. (GF.), $WFFJKUO KP %QPVGORQTCT[ 6KDGV, /QVKNCN $/QVKNCN $CPCTUKFCUU 2WDNKUJGTU, &GNJK, RCIGU 53-94 )GTOCPQ, &. (2003) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 16VJ #RTKN 2003 CDQWV )QNQM 5GTVC +PUVKVWVG, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/IGTOCPQ16403.VZV CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 )GTXCKU, /. (2002) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 2PF #WI 2002 CDQWV ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2GTEGRVKQP, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/IGTXCKU.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 )KDUQP, ,., (1997 (CNN) %CP VJG %WNVWTCN 4G-’PEJCPVOGPV QH 0CVWTG *GNR 5VQR ’PXKTQPOGPVCN &GUVTWEVKQP!, +P 0GICVKQPU, CV JVVR://PGICVKQPU.KECCR.QTI/KUUWGU/97H/97(ALIKDUQP.JVON , CEEGUUGF 13VJ ,WN[ 2005 )KNOQWT, &. (1988) "0QV UGGKPI VJG VTGGU HQT VJG HQTGUV: # TG-CRRTCKUCN QH VJG FGHQTGUVCVKQP ETKUKU KP VYQ JKNN FKUVTKEVU QH 0GRCN", /QWPVCKP 4GUGCTEJ CPF &GXGNQROGPV, 8 (4) RCIGU 343-350 )KNOQWT, &, −KPI, ). CPF *QDNG[, /. (1989) "/CPCIGOGPV QH HQTGUVU HQT NQECN WUG KP VJG *KNNU QH 0GRCN 1 %JCPIKPI HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV RCTCFKIOU", ,QWTPCN QH 9QTNF (QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV, 4 RCIGU 93-110 )KNOQWT, &. CPF (KUJGT, 4. (1991) 8KNNCIGTU (QTGUVU CPF (QTGUVGTU: 6JG 2JKNQUQRJ[ 2TQEGUU CPF 2TCEVKEG QH %QOOWPKV[ (QTGUVT[ KP 0GRCN, 5C[QIK 2TGUU, −CVJOCPFW )KQTIKQ, (. (1525) &G *CTOQPKC /WPFK 6QVKWU %CPVKEC 6TKC., $GTPCTFKPK FG 8KVCNKDWU, 8GPKEG )KQTIKQ, (. (1574) 8GPGVK ... +P 5ETKRVWTCO 5CETCO 2TQDNGOCVC. %WO +PFKEG 6TKRNKEK, ’VE., #RWF /KEJCGNGO 5QPPKWO, 2CTKU )KTCTFQV, 0., /KNNGT, ,. CPF .KW :KCQICP, (2001) &CQKUO CPF ’EQNQI[, *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG /# )NCFPG[, &TW % (1994C) "4GRTGUGPVKPI PCVKQPCNKV[ KP %JKPC: 4GHKIWTKPI /CLQTKV[//KPQTKV[ +FGPVKVKGU", 6JG ,QWTPCN QH #UKCP 5VWFKGU, 53 (1) RCIGU 92-123 )NCFPG[, &TW % (1994D) "’VJPKE +FGPVKV[ KP %JKPC: 6JG 0GY 2QNKVKEU QH &KHHGTGPEG", +P ,QUGRJ, 9# (GF.), %JKPC $TKGHKPI, 9GUVXKGY 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF, RCIGU 171-192

http://wwwlawfsuedu/journals/landuse/Vol132/Frey.htm

http://portalproductions.com/spiritnature/index.html

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/germano16403.txt

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/gervais.pdf

http://negations.icaap.org/issues/97f/97F_jgibson.html


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)NQDCN 9KVPGUU (2003) %QPHNKEV QH +PVGTGUV: 6JG WPEGTVCKP HWVWTG QH $WTOC'U HQTGUVU!, , )NQDCN 9KVPGUU .QPFQP )/5. (2004-2005) )NQDCN /CRRGT: )+5 UQHVYCTG HQT XKGYKPI, OGTIKPI, KORQTVKPI CPF GZRQTVKPI FKHHGTGPV TCUVGT, XGEVQT CPF GNGXCVKQP FCVCUGV, XGTUKQP 6.08 )NQDCN /CRRGT 5QHVYCTG 1NCVJG −5 66063 )QNFKG, / GF., (1997) .QEMG: 2QNKVKECN ’UUC[U, %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG )QNFOCP, /. (2000) "6JG 2QVGPVKCN HQT +PUVCDKNKV[ #OQPI #NKGPCVGF +PVGNNGEVWCNU CPF 5VWFGPVU KP 2QUV-/CQ %JKPC", +P 5JCODCWIJ, &. (GF.), +U %JKPC 7PUVCDNG, 5JCTRG, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU 112-124 )QNFUOKVJ, ’, (1996) 6JG 9C[: #P ’EQNQIKECN 9QTNFXKGY, 6JGOKU $QQMU, 6QVPGU 7− )QNFUVGKP, /. (1989) # *KUVQT[ QH /QFGTP 6KDGV 1913-1951 : 6JG &GOKUG QH VJG .COCKUV 5VCVG, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, $GTMGNG[, .QU #PIGNGU, .QPFQP )QNFUVGKP, /. CPF $GCNN, %., (1990) 0QOCFU QH 9GUVGTP 6KDGV : 6JG 5WTXKXCN QH C 9C[ QH .KHG, 5GTKPFKC 2WDNKECVKQPU, .QPFQP )QNFUVGKP, /. CPF −CRUVGKP, /. (1998) $WFFJKUO KP %QPVGORQTCT[ 6KDGV : 4GNKIKQWU 4GXKXCN CPF %WNVWTCN +FGPVKV[, /QVKNCN $CPCTUKFCUU 2WDNKUJGTU, &GNJK )QNNKEJGT, ,. (1999) "’VJKECN /QTCN & 4GNKIKQWU %QPEGTPU: +PVTQFWEVKQP", +P 2QUG[, &. (GF.), %WNVWTCN & 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +62, .QPFQP, RCIG 440 )QOGU, /. CPF −CPPGT, #. (1995) "6JG 4CRG QH VJG 9GNN-/CKFGPU: (GOKPKUV 2U[EJQNQI[ CPF VJG ’PXKTQPOGPVCN %TKUKU", +P 4QU\CM, 6, )QOGU, / CPF −CPPGT, # (GF.), ’EQRU[EJQNQI[, 4GUVQTKPI VJG ’CTVJ, *GCNKPI VJG /KPF, 5KGTTC %NWD $QQMU, 5CP (TCPUKUEQ, RCIGU 111-121 )QOG\-2QORC, #. CPF −CWU, #. (1992) "6COKPI VJG YKNFGTPGUU O[VJ", $KQ5EKGPEG, 42 RCIGU 271-279 )QP\CNGU, 4. CPF *WVEJKPUQP, %., (1995) −PQYNGFIG $CUGF 5[UVGOU, )GQITCRJKE +PHQTOCVKQP 5[UVGOU CPF FQEWOGPVKPI +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG, +P +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG CPF FGXGNQROGPV /QPKVQT 3 (1), +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG & &GXGNQROGPV /QPKVQT, 0GVJGTNCPFU CV JVVR://YYY.PWHHKE.PN/EKTCP/KMFO/3-1/CTVKENGU/IQP\CNG\.JVON , CEEGUUGF 14VJ (GD 2000 )QQFNKHH, 2. (1987) %CTG KP C %QPHWUGF %NKOCVG: 2CUVQTCN %CTG & 2QUV-OQFGTP %WNVWTG, &CTVQP .QPIOCP & 6QFF, .QPFQP )QTG, ,. (2002) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 13VJ 0QX 2000 CDQWV $2, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/IQTG.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 )QWNF, 2. CPF 9JKVG, 4. (1986) /GPVCN /CRU,, *CTOQPFUYQTVJ: 2GPIWKP )QXKPF −GNMCT CPF 2JWPVUJQM 6UJGTKPI (2002) "9QOGP QH VJG /QWPVCKPU: )GPFGT 4GNCVKQPU, 4GUQWTEG /CPCIGOGPV CPF ’PVTGRTGPGWTUJKR", 2TGUGPVGF CV %GNGDTCVKPI /QWPVCKP 9QOGP %QPHGTGPEG (1EVQDGT 2002) %QPHGTGPEG, 2CTQ, $JWVCP,, JVVR://YYY.IGPFGTOCKPUVTGCOKPICUKC.QTI/KOI/YQOGPQHOQWPVCKPU.2&(, CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 )TCOUEK, #. (1971) =3WCFGTPK &GN %CTEGTG.? 5GNGEVKQPU HTQO VJG 2TKUQP 0QVGDQQMU QH #PVQPKQ )TCOUEK., (VTCPUNCVGF D[ 3. *QCTG CPF ). 5OKVJ) .CYTGPEG & 9KUJCTV, .QPFQP )TCXGNKPG, ,. (1998) %KTENG 9QTMU: 6TCPUHQTOKPI ’WTQEGPVTKE %QPUEKQWUPGUU, (GTPYQQF 2WDNKUJKPI., *CNKHCZ )TGGPYCNF, ,. (1990) +P 6KOG /CIC\KPG 1 ,CP, 8QN. 135 6KOG /CIC\KPG, 0;. )TGIGTUGP, *., &TCRGT, 5. CPF ’N\, & GFU., (1989) 2GQRNG CPF 6TGGU: VJG 4QNG QH 5QEKCN (QTGUVT[ KP 5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV, 6JG 9QTNF $CPM, 9CUJKPIVQP &% )TKHHKP, &. (1988) 6JG 4GGPEJCPVOGPV QH 5EKGPEG: 2QUV-OQFGTP 2TQRQUCNU, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 0GY ;QTM 2TGUU, #NDCP[ )TKHHKVJU, 6. (2003) # HCKNWTG QH CEEQWPVCDKNKV[: +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU JWOCP TKIJVU CPF FGXGNQROGPV CIGPE[ UVCPFCTFU, (QTGUV 2GQRNGU 2TQITCOOG )TKO, ,. (2001) +PFKIGPQWU 6TCFKVKQPU CPF ’EQNQI[, *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG /# )TKOGU, $. (1988) ’VJPQNQIWG: .CPIWCIGU QH VJG 9QTNF, 6JG 5WOOGT +PUVKVWVG QH .KPIWKUVKEU +PE, &CNNCU 6GZCU )TKOGU, $ GF. (1992) ’VJPQNQIWG: .CPIWCIGU QH VJG 9QTNF 12VJ ’FKVKQP, 5WOOGT +PUVKVWVG QH .KPIWKUVKEU, &CNNCU )TQQV, , FG, (1897) 6JG 4GNKIKQWU 5[UVGOU QH %JKPC 8QN 3 (4GRTKPV 1964), 6CKRGK .KVGTCVWTG *QWUG .VF, 6CKRGK )TQUU, 4, (1997) $WFFJCU CPF /CPFCNCU : #P +PVTQFWEVKQP VQ VJG 5RKTKVWCN KP VJG #TVU QH 6KDGV, 4QNH )TQUU, 2CEKHKE 2CNKUCFGU )TWDD, /., −QEJ, /., /WPUQP, #., 5WNNKXCP, (. CPF 6JQOUQP, −. (1993) 6JG ’CTVJ 5WOOKV #ITGGOGPVU: C )WKFG CPF #UUGUUOGPV, ’CTVJUECP 2WDNKECVKQPU .VF, .QPFQP )TWUEJMG, #. (2001) "&QMJCO - VJG ’CUVGTP 2CTV QH VJG 6KDGVCP 2NCVGCW", +P )TWUEJMG, #. (GF.), 6JG EWNVWTCN OQPWOGPVU QH 6KDGV'U QWVGT RTQXKPEGU: #OFQ, 9JKVG .QVWU 2TGUU, $CPIMQM, )5+ (2002) 5WTHGT: # 2QYGTHWN %QPVQWTKPI, )TKFFKPI, CPF 5WTHCEG /CRRKPI 2CEMCIG HQT 5EKGPVKUVU CPF ’PIKPGGTU, XGTUKQP 8 )QNFGP 5QHVYCTG +PE )QNFGP, %QNQTCFQ 80401-1866 )WCPI <JCQ, )WQHCP 5JCQ (2002) ".QIIKPI TGUVTKEVKQPU KP %JKPC : # VWTPKPI RQKPV HQT HQTGUV UWUVCKPCDKNKV[", ,QWTPCN QH (QTGUVT[, RCIGU 34-37

http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ikdm/3-1/articles/gonzalez.html

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/gore.pdf

http://www.gendermainstreamingasia.org/img/womenofmountains.PDF,


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)WJC, 4. (1985) "5EKGPVKHKE (QTGUVT[ CPF 5QEKCN %JCPIG KP 7VVCTCEMJCPF", ’EQPQOKE CPF 2QNKVKECN 9GGMN[, 20 (45-47) RCIGU 1939-1851 )WJC, 4. (1993) "6JG /CNKIP ’PEQWPVGT: 6JG %JKRMQ /QXGOGPV CPF %QORGVKPI 8KUKQPU QH 0CVWTG", +P $CPWTK /CTINKP (GF.), 9JQ YKNN UCXG VJG (QTGUVU, <GF $QQMU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 80-113 )WJC, 4. (1996) "6YQ 2JCUGU QH #OGTKECP ’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUO: # %TKVKECN *KUVQT[", +P #RHHGN-/CTINKP, (. CPF /CTINKP, 5. (GF.), &GEQNQPK\KPI −PQYNGFIG: (TQO &GXGNQROGPV VQ &KCNQIWG, %NCTGPFQP 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF, RCIGU 110-141 )WJC, 4. (1997) "6JG #WVJQTKVCTKCP $KQNQIKUV CPF VJG #TTQICPEG QH #PVK-*WOCPKUO: 9KNFNKHG %QPUGTXCVKQP KP VJG 6JKTF 9QTNF", 6JG ’EQNQIKUV, 27 (1) RCIGU 14-20 )WJC, 4. (2000) 6JG 7PSWKGV 9QQFU: ’EQNQIKECN %JCPIG CPF 2GCUCPV 4GUKUVCPEG KP VJG *KOCNC[C, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, $GTMGNG[ .QPFQP )WNFKP, ). (1994) 5CIC QH #PVJTQRQNQI[ KP %JKPC: (TQO /CNKPQYUMK VQ /QUEQY VQ /CQ, /. ’. 5JCTRG, 0GY ;QTM )WRVC, #. CPF (GTIWUQP, ,. (1997) %WNVWTG 2QYGT 2NCEG: ’ZRNQTCVKQPU KP %TKVKECN #PVJTQRQNQI[, &WMG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, .QPFQP )WTWPI, ,. (1994) +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU: %QPUKFGTCVKQPU HQT &GXGNQROGPV (3), +%+/1&, −CVJOCPFW )WTWPI, $ (1994) "# %WNVWTCN #RRTQCEJ VQ 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEG /CPCIGOGPV: # %CUG 5VWF[ (TQO ’CUVGTP 0GRCN", +P , $G[QPF VKODGT: UQEKCN, GEQPQOKE CPF EWNVWTCN FKOGPUKQPU QH PQP-YQQF HQTGUV RTQFWEVU KP #UKC CPF VJG 2CEKHKE, (#1, $CPIMQM JVVR://YYY.HCQ.QTI/FQEWOGPVU/UJQYAEFT.CUR!WTNAHKNG=/FQETGR/:5336’/Z5336G0U.JVO CEEGUUGF 14VJ 1EVQDGT 2005 )WVKGTTG\, ). (1973) # 6JGQNQI[ QH .KDGTCVKQP: *KUVQT[, 2QNKVKEU & 5CNXCVKQP, /CT[ −PQNN )[WTOG &QTLG (1996) 6KDGV *CPFDQQM 9KVJ $JWVCP, (QQVRTKPV *CPFDQQMU, $CVJ *CDGTOCU, ,. (1971) 6QYCTF C 4CVKQPCN 5QEKGV[: UVWFGPV 2TQVGUV 5EKGPEG & 2QNKVKEU, (VTCPUNCVGF D[ ,. 5JCRKTQ) *GKPGOCPP ’FWECVKQPCN $QQMU, .QPFQP *CDGTOCU, ,. (1984) 6JG 6JGQT[ QH %QOOWPKECVKXG #EVKQP, $GCEQP 2TGUU, $QUVQP *CICP, , CPF ’CUVOCP, 4. (1998-1999) %CTVCNKPZ : 6JG URCVKCN FCVC DWKNFGT, XGTUKQP 1.2 %NCTM .CDU %NCTM 7PKXGTUKV[ 9QTEGUVGT /# *CNKHCZ +PKVKCVKXG (2002) ".KPMKPI +PXGUVOGPV CPF JWOCP TKIJVU: VJG ECUG QH GZRQTV ETGFKV CIGPEKGU", 2TGUGPVGF CV 4GRQTV QH CP 0)1 5VTCVGI[ 5GUUKQP, .QPFQP, &GEGODGT 6-7, 2002. %QPHGTGPEG JVVR://YYY.GEC-YCVEJ.QTI/RTQDNGOU/JWOCPATKIJVU/TKIJVU.RFH, CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 *CNN, −. CPF /CTWEC, 5. (2001) "/CRRKPI C HQTGUV OQUCKE", 2NCPV ’EQNQI[, 156 RCIGU 105-120 *CNN, /. (1978) 6JG 5GETGV 6GCEJKPIU QH #NN #IGU: #P ’PE[ENQRCGFKE 1WVNKPG QH /CUQPKE, *GTOGVKE, 3CDDCNKUVKE CPF 4QUKETWEKCP 5[ODQNKECN 2JKNQUQRJ[, 2JKNQUQRJKECN 4GUGCTEJ 5QEKGV[, .QU #PIGNGU, %CNKH *CNNGT, ,. (1971) 1WVECUVGU HTQO ’XQNWVKQP: 5EKGPVKHKE #VVKVWFGU QH 4CEKCN +PHGTKQTKV[ 1859-1900, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH +NNKPQKU 2TGUU, 7TDCPC *CPKQğNW, 5 1995, ;QWPI 6WTMU KP 1RRQUKVKQP, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF *CPUGP, 8. (1990) %JCPIKPI )QFU KP /GFKGXCN %JKPC 1127-1276, 2TKPEGVQP 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 2TKPEGVQP *CPUQP, #. (1989) "6JG OCMKPI QH VJG /CQTK: %WNVWTG +PXGPVKQP CPF KVU NQIKE", #OGTKECP #PVJTQRQNQIKUV, 91 RCIGU 273-290 *CQ $KPI (1998) "(TKGPFU QH 0CVWTG: %JKPC'U (KTUV ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 0QP )QXGTPOGPV 0QP )QXGTPOGPV 1TICPKUCVKQP", %JKPC 4GXKGY, RCIGU 28-29 *CTCYC[, &. (1991) 5KOKCPU %[DQTIU & 9QOGP: 6JG 4GKPXGPVKQP QH 0CVWTG, (TGG #UUQEKCVKQP $QQMU, .QPFQP *CTFKP, ). (1968) "6JG VTCIGF[ QH VJG EQOOQPU", 5EKGPEG, 162 RCIGU 1243-1248 *CTFKP, ,. (2003) "4GKPFKIGPCVKQP: 2TKOCN /KPF, 5CETGF $GNQPIKPI", 6CNMKPI .GCXGU, 13 (1) JVVR://YYY.VCNMKPINGCXGU.QTI/U03TGKPFKIGPCVKQP.JVO CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 *CTITQXG, ’. (1989) "(QTYCTF", +P %CNNKEQVV, ,. CPF #OGU, 4. (GF.), 0CVWTG KP #UKCP VTCFKVKQPU QH VJQWIJV: ’UUC[U KP GPXKTQPOGPVCN RJKNQUQRJ[, 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 0GY ;QTM 2TGUU, #NDCP[, RCIGU 1-5 *CTOCP, ). (2000) ’ZRNCKPKPI 8CNWG CPF 1VJGT ’UUC[U KP /QTCN 2JKNQUQRJ[, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF *CTOCP, 9. (1989) "4GENCKOKPI 6TCFKVKQPCN 9KUFQO HQT VJG 0GGFU QH /QFGTP 5QEKGV[", 2TGUGPVGF CV +PFKIGPQWU 5EKGPEGU %QPHGTGPEG, %CNICT[, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNICT[, *CTOQP, &. (1996) ".QUKPI 5RGEKGU, .QUKPI .CPIWCIGU: %QPPGEVKQPU DGVYGGP $KQNQIKECN CPF .KPIWKUVKE &KXGTUKV[", 5QWVJYGUV ,QWTPCN QH .KPIWKU-VKEU, 15 RCIGU 89-108 *CTOQP, &. (1998) "5COGPGUU CPF UKNGPEG: .CPIWCIG ’ZVKPEVKQPU CPF VJG &CYPKPI QH C $KQEWNVWTCN #RRTQCEJ VQ &KXGTUKV[", )NQDCN $KQFKXGTUKV[, 8 (3) RCIGU 2-10 *CTTGNN, 5. (1993) ".KPIWKUVKEU CPF *GIGOQP[ KP %JKPC KP .CPIWCIG KP 2QYGT", +PV ,QWTPCN QH VJG 5QEKQNQI[ QH .CPIWCIG, 103 RCIGU 97-114

http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/X5336E/x5336e0s.htm

http://www.eca-watch.org/problems/human_rights/rights.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._Sukru_Hanioglu

http://www.talkingleaves.org/s03reindigenation.htm


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*CTTGNN, 5. (1995) "6JG *KUVQT[ QH VJG *KUVQT[ QH VJG ;K", +P *CTTGNN, 5. (GF.), %WNVWTCN GPEQWPVGTU KP %JKPC'U ’VJPKE (TQPVKGTU, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 9CUJKPIVQP, 5GCVVNG, RCIGU 63-91 *CTTGNN, 5, (2001) 2GTURGEVKXGU QP VJG ;K QH 5QWVJYGUV %JKPC .QPFQP, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, .QPFQP *CTTGNN, 5 GF., (1993) 6JG %KXKNK\KPI 2TQLGEV : 2GTKRJGTCN 2GQRNGU QH %JKPC ’PEQWPVGT %QPHWEKCPKUO, %JTKUVKCPU, CPF %QOOWPKUVU, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 9CUJKPIVQP 2TGUU, 5GCVVNG 9# *CTTKU, *. (1996) # ETKVKECN CPCN[UKU QH VJG EQPEGRV QH KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG YKVJKP EWTTGPV FGXGNQROGPV FKUEQWTUG, /# 6JGUKU, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH −GPV, %CPVGTDWT[ *CTTKU, 6. CPF 9GKPGT, &. (1996) ")+5 & 5QEKGV[: 6JG 5QEKCN +ORNKECVKQPU QH *QY 2GQRNG 5RCEG & ’PXKTQPOGPV #TG 4GRTGUGPVGF KP )+5", +P 0CVKQPCN %GPVTG HQT )GQITCRJKE +PHQTOCVKQP CPF #PCN[UKU (GF.), 6GEJPKECN 4GRQTV, 0CVKQPCN %GPVTG HQT )GQITCRJKE +PHQTOCVKQP CPF #PCN[UKU., 5QWVJ *CXGP /0, RCIGU 96-97 *CTTKU, 6. CPF 9GKPGT, &. (1998) "’ORQYGTOGPV OCTIKPCNKUCVKQP CPF EQOOWPKV[-KPVGITCVGF )+5", %CTVQITCRJ[ CPF )+5, 25 (2) RCIGU 67-76 *CTTKU, 6., 9GKPGT, &., 9CTPGT, 6. CPF .GXKP, 4. (1995) "2WTUWKPI 5QEKCN )QCNU 6JTQWIJ 2CTVKEKRCVQT[ )+5", +P 2KEMNGU, ,. (GF.), 4GFTGUUKPI 5QWVJ #HTKEC'U *KUVQTKECN 2QNKVKECN ’EQNQI[ KP )TQWPF 6TWVJ:, )WKNHQTF, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU 196-222 *CTVGT, 6. (1994) 7PEQPFKVKQPCN CPF %QPFKVKQPCN 5KOWNCVKQP QH (NQY CPF 6TCPURQTV KP *GVGTQIGPGQWU, 8CTKCDN[ 5CVWTCVGF 2QTQWU /GFKC, &KUUGTVCVKQP, 6JG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH #TK\QPC, *CUVKPIU, ,. (1908) "(GPI 5JWK", +P *CUVKPIU, ,. (GF.), ’PE[ENQRCGFKC QH 4GNKIKQP CPF ’VJKEU, 5ETKDPGT, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU 833-835 *CVVCYC[, 2., (2000) 1RGTCVKQP %JKPC: +PVTQFWEKPI CNN VJG RGQRNGU QH %JKPC, 2KSWCPV, %CTNKUNG 7− *C[, &. CPF 4QIGTU, 0. (1997) ’KIJVGGPVJ %GPVWT[ ’PINKUJ 5QEKGV[: 5JWVVNGU CPF 5YQTFU, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF *G %JQPI *WC (2000) "/KPQTKV[ 9QOGP CPF (QTGUV", +P *G 2KMWP, ;W &GLKCPI CPF .K 9GKEJCPI (GF.), (QTGUVU, 6TGGU CPF /KPQTKVKGU, ;WPPCP 0CVKQPCNKV[ 2TGUU, −WPOKPI, RCIGU 217-228 *G ,KJQPI, (1996) 6TGCVKUG QP VJG 9GUVGTP 6GTTKVQTKGU, :KPLKCPI TGPOKP EJWDCPUJG, 7TWOWPSK *G 2KMWP, ;W &GLKCPI CPF .K 9GKEJCPI (2000) (QTGUVU 6TGGU & /KPQTKVKGU, ;WPPCP 0CVKQPCNKV[ 2TGU, −WPOKPI *G <JQPIJWC (2003) "(QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV KP /QUWQ /CVTKNKPGCN 5QEKGV[ ;WPPCP %JKPC", +P −GNMCT, )., 0CVJCP, &. CPF 9CNVGT, 2. (GF.), )GPFGT TGNCVKQPU KP HQTGUV UQEKGVKGU KP #UKC, 5CIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 147-165 *G, $, (1991) %JKPC QP VJG ’FIG: VJG %TKUKU QH ’EQNQI[ CPF &GXGNQROGPV, %JKPC $QQMU, 5CP (TCPUKUEQ *GCF[, 4. (1997) 2GTOCR: 2GTEGRVWCN /CRRKPI 5QHVYCTG, XGTUKQP 5 *GCF[, 4$ .CHC[GVVG *GDGTGT, 6JQOCU (1987) ’VJKPKE /KPQTKVKGU KP %JKPC: 6TCFKVKQP CPF 6TCPUHQTO, GFKVKQP JGTQFQV, 4CFGT8GTNCI *GDGTGT, 6JQOCU (1989) %JKPC CPF +VU 0CVKQPCN /KPQTKVKGU: #WVQPQO[ 1T #UUKOKNCVKQP!, / ’ 5JCTRG, #TOQPM 0; *GPFGTUQP, ,. (2000) "2QUVEQNQPKCN )JQUV &CPEKPI: &KCIPQUKPI ’WTQRGCP %QNQPKCNKUO.", +P $CVVKUVG, /. (GF.), 4GENCKOKPI +PFKIGPQWU XQKEG CPF XKUKQP, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH $TKVKUJ %QNWODKC 2TGUU, 8CPEQWXGT, RCIGU 57-76 *GVVPG, $. (1995) &GXGNQROGPV 6JGQT[ CPF VJG 6JTGG 9QTNFU: 6QYCTFU CP +PVGTPCVKQPCN 2QNKVKECN ’EQPQO[ QH &GXGNQROGPV, .QPIOCP, .QPFQP CPF *CTNQY *KGDGTV, 2. (1982C) "(QNM 4GNKIKQP KP #PFJTC 2TCFGUJ", +P 5COWCN, 8. CPF 5WIFGP, %. (GF.), ’XCPIGNKUO CPF VJG RQQT, 2CTVPGTUJKR KP /KUUKQP: #UKC, 1ZHQTF, *KGDGTV, 2. (1982D) "6JG (NCY QH VJG ’ZENWFGF /KFFNG", /KUUKQNQI[, 10 (,CP) RCIGU 35-47 *KNF[CTF, 0., *GIFG, 2., 9QNXGMCOR, 2. CPF 4GFF[, 5. (1998D) "2NWTCNKUO RCTVKEKRCVKQP CPF RQYGT", (QTGUVU 6TGGU & 2GQRNG 0GYUNGVVGT, 35 RCIGU 31-35 *KNF[CTF, 0., *GIFG, 2., 9QNXGTMCOR, 2. CPF 4GFF[ (1988C) "5COG RNCVHQTO FKHHGTGPV VTCKP: 6JG RQNKVKEU QH RCTVKEKRCVKQP", 7PCU[NXC =+UUWG 194?, 49 (3) RCIGU 26-34 *KNVQP, ,. (1933) .QUV *QTK\QP, /CEOKNNCP CPF %Q, .QPFQP *KPV\G, ,. (1998) 0%55: 3WKEM UVCTV CPF UGNH JGNR OCPWCN, 0%55 −C[UXKNNG 7VCJ *KPV\G, ,. (2000) 0%55 2000 5VCVKUVKECN 5QHVYCTG, 0%55 5VCVKUVKECN 5QHVYCTG 7VCJ *KTQUJKO #\WOC (2000) "%QOOGPVCT[: +PFKIGPQWU VQ 9JCV!", +P /KNNGT, ,. (GF.), +PVGTPCVKQPCN 5QEKGV[ HQT VJG 5VWF[ QH $GJCXKQWTCN &GXGNQROGPV, RCIGU 9-10 JVVR://YYY.KUUDF.QTI/PGYUNGVVGTA0100.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 *KTUEJ, 2. (1990) &GXGNQROGPV &KNGOOCU KP 4WTCN 6JCKNCPF, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 5KPICRQTG *KTUEJOCP, #. (1981) "6JG 4KUG CPF &GENKPG QH &GXGNQROGPV ’EQPQOKEU", +P *KTUEJOCP, #. (GF.), ’UUC[U KP 6TGURCUUKPI: ’EQPQOKEU VQ 2QNKVKEU CPF $G[QPF (*KTUEJOCPP), %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG, RCIGU 1-24 *KTUJ, 2. (1990) &GXGNQROGPV &KNGOOCU KP 4WTCN 6JCKNCPF, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF *KVEJEQEM, 4. (1992) "+PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU: 9QTMKPI &GHKPKVKQPU", +P ,QJPUVQP (GF.), *WOCP 4KIJVU CPF VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV, 5QEKGV[ HQT #RRNKGF #PVJTQRQNQI[, 1MJNCJQOC %KV[,

http://www.issbd.org/newsletter_0100.pdf


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*QDCTV, /. (1993) #P #PVJTQRQNQIKECN %TKVKSWG QH &GXGNQROGPV, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP *QDGP, #. (1995) "2CTCFKIOU & 2QNKVKEU: VJG EWNVWTCN EQPUVTWEVKQP QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN RQNKE[ KP ’VJKQRKC", 9QTNF &GXGNQROGPV, 23 (6) RCIGU 1007-1022 *QDUDCYO, ’. (1988) 6JG #IG QH 4GXQNWVKQP: ’WTQRG 1789-1848, %CTFKPCN, .QPFQP *QDUDCYP, ’. CPF 4CPIGT, 6 GFU., (1983) 6JG +PXGPVKQP QH 6TCFKVKQP, %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG *QHH, $. (1982) 6JG 6CQ QH 2QQJ, 2GPIWKP, 0GY ;QTM *QHH, $. (1992) 6JG 6G QH 2KINGV, &WVVQP, 0GY ;QTM *QHHOCP, /. (2001) 5GETGV 5QEKGVKGU CPF 2U[EJQNQIKECN 9CTHCTG, +PFGRGPFGPV *KUVQT[ CPF 4GUGCTEJ, +FCJQ *QNNKPI, %. (1978) #FCRVKXG ’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−PQYNGFIG: #PCN[UKU +ORNKECVKQPU & +UUWGU", +P $TQMGPUJC, &., 9GTPGT, 1. CPF 9CTTGP, &. (GF.), +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU CPF &GXGNQROGPV, 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU QH #OGTKEC, $QUVQP, RCIGU 329-340 *UKCQ, *. (1996) "6JG %JCTCEVGT CPF %JCPIGU QH 6CKYCP'U .QECN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQVGUV /QXGOGPV 1980-1991 =+P %JKPGUG?", +P , ’PXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGEVKQP CPF KPFWUVTKCN RQNKEKGU (6CKYCP 4GUGCTEJ (WPF), 8CPIWCTF 2WD %Q, 6CKRGK, RCIGU 550-573 *UKCQ, /. (1986) 6CKYCP &KHCPIZKPI *WCPLKPI :KPIFQPI &G :KPUK =1981-1986?, 6CKYCP [W UJKLKG, 6CKRGK *UKCQ, /. (1989) "%JCPIKPI 2WDNKE ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2GTEGRVKQPU #VVKVWFGU CPF $GJCXKQWTU KP 6CKYCP 2000", +P , $CNCPEKPI GEQPQOKE ITQYVJ CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGEVKQP, 6CKYCP 2000 UVGGTKPI EQOOKVVGG, 6CKRGK, RCIGU 369-375 *UKCQ, /. (1994) "6JG %JCTCEVGT CPF %JCPIGU QH 6CKYCPU .QECN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQVGUV /QXGOGPV 1980-1991", +P 6CKYCP 4GUGCTEJ (WPF (GF.), ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQVGEVKQP & +PFWUVTKCN 2QNKEKGU, 8CPIWCTF, 6CKRGK, RCIGU 550-573 *WDGT, 6. (1995) ")TGGP 6KDGVCPU: # $TKGH 5QEKCN *KUVQT[", +P −QTQO, (. (GF.), 6KDGVCP %WNVWTG KP VJG &KCURQTC, 8GTNCI FGT 1UVGTTGKEJKUEJKGP #MCFGOKG FGT 9KUUGPUEJCHVGP, 9KGP, RCIGU 103-119 *WDGT, 6. (1999C) 6JG %WNV QH 2WTG %T[UVCN /QWPVCKP: 2QRWNCT 2KNITKOCIG CPF 8KUKQPCT[ .CPFUECRG KP 5QWVJGCUV 6KDGV, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF *WDGT, 6. (1999D) "/CMKPI 5GPUG QH 6KDGVCP 2KNITKOCIGU", #UKC 3WCTVGTN[, 5 (#RTKN/,WPG) RCIGU 10-11 *WDGT, 6. (1991) "6TCFKVKQPCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQVGEVKQPKUO KP 6KDGV", 6JG 6KDGV ,QWTPCN, 16 (3) RCIGU 63-77 *WIJ-,QPGU, %. (1979) (TQO VJG /KNM 4KXGT: 5RCVKCN CPF 6GORQTCN 2TQEGUUGU KP 0QTVJYGUV #OC\QPKC., %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG *WNN, 4. (1992) "+OCIG %QPITWKV[, 2NCEG #VVCEJOGPV CPF %QOOWPKV[ &GUKIP.", 6JG ,QWTPCN QH #TEJKVGEVWTCN CPF 2NCPPKPI 4GUGCTEJ, 9 RCIGU 181-192 *WORJTG[U, %. (1989) 6JG $WFFJKUV 9C[ QH #EVKQP, 7PYKP 2CRGTDCEMU, .QPFQP *WPP, ’. (1993) "9JCV +U 6TCFKVKQPCN ’EQNQIKECN −PQYNGFIG!", +P 9KNNKCOU, 0. CPF $CKPGU, ). (GF.), 6TCFKVKQPCN ’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’FKVKQP, XGTUKQP 56 4GUGCTEJ 5[UVGOU +PE $QWFGT %1 ++’&, (2003) 2CTVKEKRCVQT[ .GCTPKPI CPF #EVKQP, +PVGTPCVKQPCN +PUVKVWVG HQT ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV, .QPFQP CV JVVR://YYY.KKGF.QTI/UCTN/RNCAPQVGU/ , CEEGUUGF 2PF (GD 2003

http://www.cjc-online.ca/viewarticle.php?id=231%20

http://www.generoyambiente.org/act_secciones/archivos/376_11_35_35_Briefing P.doc

http://www.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk/genetics/orinoco.html

http://www.savetibet.org/news/newsitem.php?id=767%20%20

http://www.iied.org/sarl/pla_notes/


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+OCOWTC, *. (1989) "#FOKPKUVTCVKQP QH 2QNNWVKQP %QPVTQN CV .QECN .GXGN", +P 5JKIGVQ, 6. CPF 9GKFPGT, *. (GF.), ’PXKTQPOGPVCN RQNKE[ KP ,CRCP, 5KIOC, $GTNKP, RCIGU 54-60 +68.%1/, (17/5/2005) ’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’., (1995) &TCHV +PVGTPCVKQPCN %QXGPCPV QP ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV, +PVGTPCVKQPCN 7PKQP HQT VJG %QPUGTXCVKQP QH 0CVWTG CPF 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEGU/+PVGTPCVKQPCN %QWPEKN QH ’PXKTQPOGPVCN .CY, 5YKV\GTNCPF +XGU, ,. CPF /GUUGTNK, $. (1989) 6JG *KOCNC[CP &KNGOOC: 4GEQPEKNKPI &GXGNQROGPV CPF %QPUGTXCVKQP, 6JG 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU 7PKXGTUKV[/4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP CPF 0GY ;QTM JVVR://YYY.WPW.GFW/WPWRTGUU/WPWRDQQMU/80C02G/80#02’00.JVO#%QPVGPVU, CEEGUUGF 2PF #WIWUV 2005 ,CEMUQP, 2. (1988) $WFFJCFCUC: # $WFFJKUV 6JKPMGT QH VJG /QFGTP 9QTNF, 5KCO 5QEKGV[, $CPIMQM ,CEMUQP, 4. CPF −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’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 492-499 ,KCPI <JCK, (1993) <JQPIIWQ *WCPLKPI $CQJW )QPI\WQ &G :KP ,KP\JCP, &KNK <JKUJK, &− ,QJCPPGU, 4. (1987) "2TKOKVKXG /[VJ", 0CVWTG, 325, RCIG 474 ,QJCPPGU, 4’ GF., (1989) 6TCFKVKQPCN ’EQNQIKECN −PQYNGFIG: # %QNNGEVKQP QH ’UUC[U, +PVGTPCVKQPCN 7PKQP HQT VJG %QPUGTXCVKQP QH 0CVWTG CPF 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEGU, 5YKV\GTNCPF ,QJPUQP, .. CPF )CIG, 5. (1997) ".CPFUECRG CRRTQCEJGU VQ VJG CPCN[UKU QH CSWCVKE GEQU[UVGOU", (TGUJYCVGT $KQNQI[, 37 (1) RCIGU 113-132(20) ,QJPUQP, /. (1992C) .QTG: %CRVWTKPI 6TCFKVKQPCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN −PQYNGFIG, &GPG %WNVWTCN +PUVKVWVG/+PVGTPCVKQPCN &GXGNQROGPV 4GUGCTEJ %GPVTG, 1VVCYC ,QJPUQP, /. (1992D) "+PVTQFWEVKQP 4GUGCTEJ QP 6TCFKVKQPCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN −PQYNGFIG: +VU &GXGNQROGPV CPF 4QNG", +P ,QJPUQP, /. (GF.), .QTG %CRVWTKPI 6TCFKVKQPCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN −PQYNGFIG, &GPG %WNVWTCN +PUVKVWVG, ;GNNQYMPKHG, RCIGU 3-33 ,QPCU, 9., (2004) 5WUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV CPF +PFKIGPQWU 4KIJVU, CV JVVR://YYY.JTGQE.IQX.CW/URGGEJGU/UQEKCNALWUVKEG/UWUVCKPCDNGAFGXGNQROGPV.JVON , CEEGUUGF 15VJ /CTEJ 2005 ,QPGU, 4. (1976) "5CPMTKVK\CVKQP KP ’CUVGTP 0GRCN", ’VJPQNQI[, 15 RCIGU 63-75 4, ,. $. (2001) "5GPUG QH RNCEG CU CP CVVKVWFG: .CMGUJQTG QYPGTU CVVKVWFGU VQYCTF VJGKT RTQRGTVKGU", ,QWTPCN QH ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2U[EJQNQI[, 21 RCIGU 233-248 ,QTIGPUGP, $. (2002) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 18VJ ,WN[ 2002 CDQWV ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2GTEGRVKQP, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/LQTIGPUGP18702.JVO CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 ,QUJK, ). (1983) "(QTGUV 2QNKE[ CPF 6TKDCN &GXGNQROGPV: 2TQDNGOU QH +ORNGOGPVCVKQP, ’EQNQI[ CPF ’ZRNQKVCVKQP,", +P (GTPCPFGU, 9. CPF 5, −. (GF.), 6QYCTF C PGY (QTGUV 2QNKE[: 2GQRNG'U 4KIJVU CPF ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 0GGFU,, +PFKCP 5QEKCN +PUVKVWVG, 0GY &GNJK, RCIGU 25-47 ,WP ,KP, (2001) 2TQVGUV NGCFGT NQIKE CPF UGOK-HQTOCNK\GF QTICPK\CVKQP: EQNNGEVKXG RTQVGUV CV &CJG &CO, CV YYY.[CNG.GFW/UET/LKPFQE , CEEGUUGF 16VJ /C[ 2003 ,WP ,KPI (1999) "’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQVGUVU KP 4WTCN %JKPC", +P 2GTT[, ’. CPF 5GNFGP, /. (GF.), %JKPGUG 5QEKGV[, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 143-160

http://www.itv.com/news/186727.html

http://www.wrm.org.uy/actors/WB/iucnimpactoBMing.pdf

http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80a02e/80A02E00.htm#Contents,

http://www.hreoc.gov.au/speeches/social_justice/sustainable_development.html


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,WPI, %. (1964) /CP CPF *KU 5[ODQNU, &GNN, 0GY ;QTM ,WPI, %. (1969) 6JG %QNNGEVGF 9QTMU QH % , ,WPI, 2TKPEGVQP 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 2TKPEGVQP −CJCMCNCW, −. (2004) "+PFKIGPQWU *GWTKUVKE #EVKQP 4GUGCTEJ: $TKFIKPI 9GUVGTP CPF +PFKIGPQWU 4GUGCTEJ /GVJQFQNQIKGU", *×NKNK: /WNVKFKUKRNKPCT[ 4GUGCTEJ QP *CYCKKCP 9GNN-$GKPI, 1 (1) RCIGU 19-33 JVVR://YYY.MUDG.GFW/RCUG/RFH/*WNKNK/−CJCMCNCW.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 −CKOQYKV\, &. +PFKCU XKNNCIGU PGGF RQYGT PQV LWUV RCTVKEKRCVKQP, %GPVTG HQT +PVGTPCVKQPCN (QTGUVT[ 4GUGCTEJ $QIQT (21/6/2001) −CPVKMCT, 8. (1989) *KPFWKUO, 6JQTPGU CPF *WNVQP, %JGNVGPJCO −CRHGTGT, $. (1988) .GIGPFU QH 2GQRNG /[VJU QH 5VCVG, 5OKVJUQPKCP +PUVKVWVKQP 2TGUU, 9CUJKPIVQP &% −CRNCP, 5. CPF −CRNCP, 4. (1982) %QIPKVKQP CPF ’PXKTQPOGPV: (WPEVKQPKPI KP CP 7PEGTVCKP 9QTNF, 2TCGIGT 2WDNKUJGTU, 0GY ;QTM −CRR, −. (1975) "4GE[ENKPI KP %QPVGORQTCT[ %JKPC", 9QTNF &GXGNQROGPV 3 (7-8) RCIGU 565-573, 3 (7-8) RCIGU 565-573 −CTMK, /. (2000) "&GXGNQROGPV QH $KQRCTVPGTUJKRU HQT UWUVCKPCDNG OCPCIGOGPV QH OGFKEKPCN CPF CTQOCVKE RNCPVU KP UQWVJ #UKC", 2TGUGPVGF CV 21UV EQPITGUU QH +7(41 #WIWUV 2000 %QPHGTGPEG, −WCNC .WORQTG, +PVGTPCVKQPCN 7PKQP QH (QTGUV 4GUGCTEJ 1TICPKUCVKQPU, −CTOC,7TC, (2001) &GKVKGU CPF ’PXKTQPOGPV, %GPVTG HQT $JWVCP 5VWFKGU, 6JKORW CV JVVR://YYY.OVPHQTWO.QTI/TGUQWTEGU/NKDTCT[/MCTOW01C.JVO , CEEGUUGF 4VJ #RTKN −CTOC-6JKPNG[, (1978) 6JG 5KZVGGP −JCOCRCU, 5JCODJCNC, $QUVQP CPF 5JCHVUDWT[, −CTOC[, 5. (1972) 6JG 6TGCUWT[ QH )QQF 5C[KPIU: # 6KDGVCP *KUVQT[ QH $QP, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF −CTOC[, 5. (1994) "/QWPVCKP %WNVU CPF 0CVKQPCN +FGPVKV[", +P $CTPGVV, 4. CPF #MKPGT, 5. (GF.), 4GUKUVCPEG & 4GHQTO KP 6KDGV, *WTUV & %Q, .QPFQP, RCIGU 112-120 −CTOC[, 5. (1996) "6JG 6KDGVCP %WNV QH /QWPVCKP &GKVKGU CPF +VU 2QNKVKECN 5KIPKHKECPEG", +P $NQPFGCW, #-/. CPF 5VGKPMGNNPGT, ’. (GF.), 4GHNGEVKQPU QH VJG OQWPVCKP:, #ECFGO[ QH 5EKGPEGU 2TGUU, 8KGPPC, RCIGU 59-76 −CV\, %. (1998) "9JQUG 0CVWTG 9JQUG %WNVWTG!: 2TKXCVG 2TQFWEVKQPU QH 5RCEG CPF VJG 2TGUGTXCVKQP QH 0CVWTG", +P $TCWP, $. CPF %CUVTGG, 0. (GF.), 4GOCMKPI 4GCNKV[: 0CVWTG CV VJG /KNNGPPKWO, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 46-63 −CYCMKVC, ,. 3WGUV HQT JWOCP PGGFU KP C *KOCNC[CP XKNNCIG, 70%4& YQTMKPI RCRGT 83-8, 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU %GPVTG HQT 4GIKQPCN &GXGNQROGPV (70%4&) 0CIQ[C ,CRCP (1984C) −GCTPG[, ,., (1998) 6JG RQNKVKEU QH 5JCPITK-NC, +P 9QTNF 6KDGV 0GVYQTM 0GYU (17/7/98), %CPCFC CV JVVR://YYY.VKDGV.EC/GP/YVPCTEJKXG/1998/7/17A4.JVON , CEEGUUGF 12VJ ,WN[ 2004 −GCTPG[, /. (1984) 9QTNF 8KGY, %JCPFNGT & 5JCTR 2WDNKUJKPI, 0QXCVQ %# −GCVKPI, /. (1993) 6JG ’CTVJ 5WOOKV'U #IGPFC HQT %JCPIG: 6JG 2NCKP .CPIWCIG 8GTUKQP QH #IGPFC 21 CPF VJG 1VJGT 4KQ #ITGGOGPVU, %GPVTG HQT QWT %QOOQP (WVWTG, )GPGXC −GGNGT, ,., (2002) 6JG 9KNFNCPFU 2TQLGEV: 6JG 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCPE['U NCPF CESWKUKVKQP RTQITCO, +P 5KGTTC 6KOGU, CV JVVR://YYY.UKGTTCVKOGU.EQO/02/12/06/CTLM021206.JVO , CEEGUUGF 5VJ ,WPG 2004 −GGUKPI, 4. (1981) %WNVWTCN #PVJTQRQNQI[ C %QPVGORQTCT[ 2GTURGEVKXG, *QNV 4GKPJCTFV & 9KPUVQP, .QPFQP −GNMCT, )., 0CVJCP, &. CPF 9CNVGT, 2. (2003) )GPFGT 4GNCVKQPU KP (QTGUV 5QEKGVKGU KP #UKC, 5CIG 2WDNKECVKQPU, .QPFQP −GNNGTV, 5. (1991) ",CRCPGUG RGTEGRVKQPU QH 9KNFNKHG", %QPUGTXCVKQP $KQNQI[, 5 RCIGU 297-308 −GNNGTV, 5. (1995) "%QPEGRVU QH 0CVWTG ’CUV CPF 9GUV", +P 5QWNG, /. CPF .GCUG, ). (GF.), 4GKPXGPVKPI 0CVWTG! 4GURQPUGU VQ 2QUV-OQFGTP &GEQPUVTWEVKQP, +UNCPF 2TGUU, 9CUJKPIVQP &%, RCIGU 103-121 −GOR, ’ GF. (1993) 6JG .CY QH /QVJGT: 2TQVGEVKPI +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU KP 2TQVGEVGF #TGCU, 5KGTTC %NWD $QQMU, 5CP (TCPUKUEQ −GVVNG, /. (2004) "5QEKCNKUO KP FGCF. .QPI NKXG NKDGTCNKUO CPF UQEKCN LWUVKEG: ,QJP .QEM KU C RTQRJGV HQT QWT VKOGU, NCTIGN[ KIPQTGF KP JKU QYP NCPF", )WCTFKCP (26VJ 1EVQDGT 2004 ) CEEGUUGF 12VJ 1EVQDGT, 2005 −KO, 7. CPF $GTT[, 6. (1993) +PFKIGPQWU 2U[EJQNQIKGU: 4GUGCTEJ CPF ’ZRGTKGPEG KP %WNVWTCN %QPVGZV, 5CIG, 0GYDWT[ 2CTM, %# −KPI, /., (1995) 0CVWTG /[UVKEKUO KP VJG YTKVKPIU QH 6TCJGTPG, 9JKVOCP, ,GHHGTKGU CPF −TKUJPCOWTVK: 2CTV 1, CV JVVR://YGD.WMQPNKPG.EQ.WM/OT.MKPI/YTKVKPIU/GUUC[U/GUUC[UWME/PCVO[UVC.JVON#VGZV12 , CEEGUUGF 6VJ #WIWUV 2005 −KPI, 4. (1999) 1TKGPVCNKUO CPF 4GNKIKQP: 2QUVEQNQPKCN 6JGQT[ +PFKC CPF VJG '/[UVKE ’CUV', 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP −KPUNG[, &. (1995) ’EQNQI[ & 4GNKIKQP: ’EQNQIKECN 5RKTKVWCNKV[ KP %TQUU-%WNVWTCN 2GTURGEVKXG, 2TGPVKEG-*CNN, 0GY ,GTUG[ −KPUNG[, &. (1993) *KPFWKUO: # %WNVWTCN 2GTURGEVKXG, 2TGPVKEG-*CNN, 0GY ,GTUG[ −KP\GNDCEJ, 9. (1981) "’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQDNGOU KP VJG 2T %JKPC", +P (C\\QNCTG, 4. CPF 5OKVJ, %. (GF.), 3TF +PVGTPCVKQPCN %QPHGTGPEG QP GPGTI[ WUG OCPCIGOGPV 1EV 26-30, 2GTICOQP 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF, −KTD[, #., (2002) %JKPC HCEGU WR VQ GPXKTQPOGPVCN EJCNNGPIGU, +P $$% 0’95 #UKC-2CEKHKE, CV JVVR://PGYU.DDE.EQ.WM/1/JK/YQTNF/CUKC-RCEKHKE/2494521.UVO , CEEGUUGF 2PF (GD 2003

http://www.ksbe.edu/pase/pdf/Hulili/Kahakalau.pdf

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−KVQUUC, 6. (2000) "5COG &KHHGTGPEG: $KQEGPVTKE +ORGTKCNKUO CPF VJG #UUCWWNV QP +PFKIGPQWU %WNVWTG CPF *WPVKPI", ’PXKTQPOGPVU, 28 (2) RCIGU 23-36 −NGKP, &. (1994) "9KNFGTPGUU: # 9GUVGTP %QPEGRV #NKGP VQ #TEVKE %WNVWTGU", +PHQTOCVKQP 0QTVJ, 20 (3) RCIGU 1-6 JVVR://CTEVKEEKTENG.WEQPP.GFW/*KUVQT[%WNVWTG/YKNFGTPGUU.JVON CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 −PKIJV, &., (27/7/2000) %JKPC'U &GOCPF HQT 6KODGT (WGNU ENGCT-EWVVKPI KP 5KDGTKC,, +PVGTRTGUU 5GTXKEG, CV JVVR://HQTGUVU.QTI/CTEJKXG/GWTQRG/EJFGHWGN.JVO , CEEGUUGF 15VJ ,WN[ 2004 −QNNGT, ,. (1982) 6JG +PFKCP 9C[, /CEOKNNCP, $CUKPIUVQMG *CORUJKTG, −QRRGNN, %. (1990) 6JG /CLQT 5KIPKHKECPEG QH "/KPQT" (QTGUV 2TQFWEVU: 6JG .QECN 7UG CPF 8CNWG QH (QTGUVU KP VJG 9GUV #HTKECP *WOKF (QTGUV <QPG: % ( 0QVG 6, (#1 4QOG −QTQO, (, GF. (1995) "6KDGVCP %WNVWTG KP VJG &KCURQTC", 2TGUGPVGF CV 2CRGT RTGUGPVGF CV +PVGTPCVKQPCN #UUQEKCVKQP QH 6KDGVCP 5VWFKGU %QPHGTGPEG, 9KGP: 8GTNCI FGT 1UVGTTGKEJKUEJGP, #MCFGOKG FGT 9KUUGPUEJCHVGP, −QTQO, (, GF. (1997) %QPUVTWEVKPI 6KDGVCP %WNVWTG: %QPVGORQTCT[ 2GTURGEVKXGU, 9QTNF *GTKVCIG 2TGUU, 3WGDGE −QTVGP, &., (4GNGCUGF 1/11/1996) 4KIJVU QH OQPG[ XGTUWU TKIJVU QH NKXKPI RGTUQPU, 2GQRNG-%GPVTGF &GXGNQROGPV (QTWO, CV JVVR://YYY.KUNCPFJQUVKPI.EQO/‘EQPVGORQ/NKDTCT[/OCK/OQPG[TKIJV.JVON , CEEGUUGF 2PF (GD 2000 −QVJCTK, #., $KQFKXGTUKV[ VTCFKVKQPU & +PFKCP NCY: ECP VJG VYQ EQ-GZKUV, %GPVTG HQT ’PXKTQPOGPVCN .CY, 4GUGCTEJ CPF #FXQECE[, 2WPG +PFKC CV JVVR://YYY.EGGTCKPFKC.QTI/FQEWOGPVU/CTVADFACUJA160300.JVO, CEEGUUGF 2PF /CTEJ 2003 −QVJCTK, #. CPF &CU, 2. (1999) ".QECN %QOOWPKV[ −PQYNGFIG & 2TCEVKEGU", +P 2QUG[, &. (GF.), %WNVWTCN & 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +6 & 70’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 180-184 −TCWUU, /. (1992) "6JG YQTNFU NCPIWCIGU KP ETKUKU", .CPIWCIG, /CTEJ RCIGU 1-10 −TGKU, 5., (1998) 6JG PGY KPVGNNGEVWCN QTFGT: /CP 0CVWTG & 5QEKGV[, JVVR://YYY.JKUVQT[IWKFG.QTI/KPVGNNGEV/NGEVWTG8C.JVON CEEGUUGF 21UV /CTEJ 2003 −TKUCFCYCP *QPINCFCTQO (2002) "6JG −JCODCU QH 6KDGV'U ’CUVGTP (TQPVKGTU: .CPIWCIG, +FGPVKV[ CPF ’VJPQJKUVQT[", 2TGUGPVGF CV VJG 2PF #PPWCN %QPHGTGPEG QH VJG #UKCP 5EJQNCTUJKR (QWPFCVKQP, ,WN[ 1-2, 2002, $CPIMQM. %QPHGTGPEG −TWGIGT, (., (WPFCVGF) (QTGUVU CTG OQTG VJCP 6TGGU: 9J[ VJG 0QP-’EQPQOKE 8CNWGU QH (QTGUV HCT GZEGGF VJGKT &QNNCT 8CNWGU, CV JVVR://YYY.ETGCVKQPGVJKEU.QTI/KPFGZ.EHO!HWUGCEVKQP=YGDRCIG&RCIGAKF=107 CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 −TWI, ’. (1994) "# /QFGTP *KUVQT[ QH VJG 0GY )TGGP 9QTNF 1TFGT", %QPVTC /WPFWO, 12 (5WOOGT) JVVR://YYY.EQPVTC-OWPFWO.QTI CEEGUUGF 5VJ #RTKN 2000 −TWIGT, (., (WPFCVGF) (QTGUVU CTG OQTG VJCP 6TGGU: 9J[ VJG 0QP-’EQPQOKE 8CNWGU QH (QTGUV HCT GZEGGF VJGKT &QNNCT 8CNWGU, CV JVVR://YYY.ETGCVKQPGVJKEU.QTI/KPFGZ.EHO!HWUGCEVKQP=YGDRCIG&RCIGAKF=107 , CEEGUUGF 5VJ #WIWUV 2005 −5, (2003) )TCRJKU: ITCRJKPI UQHVYCTG HQT 2& CPF 3& FCVC - JKIJ-SWCNKV[ UEKGPVKHKE/GPIKPGGTKPI XKUWCNK\CVKQP HQT VJG 9KPFQYU FGUMVQR, XGTUKQP 2.6.2 −[NGDCPM 5QHVYCTG .VF #[T −WECP, #., (1997) 6JG OQFGTP UQEKCN EQPEGRVKQP QH 5NQXGPG URCEG, CV JVVR://YYY.\TE-UC\W.UK/IK/CEU/MWECP37.RFH −WJP, 6. (1962) 6JG 5VTWEVWTGU QH 5EKGPVKHKE 4GXQNWVKQPU, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %JKECIQ 2TGUU, %JKECIQ −WJP, 6. (1970) 6JG 5VTWEVWTGU QH 5EKGPVKHKE 4GXQNWVKQPU (9KVJ 2QUVUETKRV), 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %JKECIQ 2TGUU, %JKECIQ −WJP, 6. (1977C) 6JG ’UUGPVKCN 6GPUKQP: 5GNGEVGF 5VWFKGU KP 5EKGPVKHKE 6TCFKVKQP CPF %JCPIG, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %JKECIQ 2TGUU, %JKECIQ ; .QPFQP −WJP, 6. (1977D) "5GEQPF 6JQWIJVU QP 2CTCFKIOU", +P 5WRRG, (. (GF.), +P 6JG 5VTWEVWTG QH 5EKGPVKHKE 6JGQTKGU, 2PF GF., 7PKXGTUKV[ QH +NNKPQKU 2TGUU, 7TDCPC, RCIGU 459-482 −WJP, 6. (1979) $NCEM-$QF[ 6JGQT[ CPF VJG 3WCPVWO &KUEQPVKPWKV[, %NCTGPFQP 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF −WNMCTPK, 5. (1983) "6JG (QTGUV 2QNKE[ CPF VJG (QTGUV $KNN: # %TKVKSWG CPF 5WIIGUVKQPU HQT %JCPIG", +P (GTPCPFGU, 9. CPF 5, −. (GF.), 6QYCTF C PGY (QTGUV 2QNKE[: 2GQRNG'U 4KIJVU CPF ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 0GGFU,, +PFKCP 5QEKCN +PUVKVWVG, 0GY &GNJK, RCIGU 84-101 −YQM, −., (1998) 2QUVOQFGTPKUO, CV JVVR://XNUK.WYCVGTNQQ.EC/‘MJMYQM/RQUVOQFGTPKUO/RQUVOQFGTPKUO.JVON , CEEGUUGF 26VJ (GD 1998 .C %JCRGNNG, &. (1984) "4KVWCN KU ’UUGPVKCN: 5GGKPI TKVWCN CPF EGTGOQP[ CU UQRJKUVKECVGF UQEKCN & URKTKVWCN VGEJPQNQI[", +P %QPVGZV, 5 (5RTKPI) RCIGU 39-45 .C(NGWT, 9. (1988) $WFFJKUO, 2TGPVKEG *CNN, 0GY ,GTUG[ .CIWG, & "#UKC'U (QTGUVU *GCF VQ %JKPC - $GKLKPI'U .QIIKPI $CP 5RCTMU (GCTU QH &GHQTGUVCVKQP #DTQCF", 9CNN 5VTGGV ,QWTPCN (13/1/2004) .CIWG, & "(GNNKPI #UKC'U (QTGUVU", (CT ’CUVGTP ’EQPQOKE 4GXKGY (25/12/2003) .CKTF, 5. (1995) $KQFKXGTUKV[ 2TQURGEVKPI: 2QUUKDNG 4QNGU HQT 99( +PVGTPCVKQPCN, %QWPVT[ 1HHKEGU CPF 2TQLGEVU, 99(-+PVGTPCVKQPCN 2GQRNG CPF 2NCPVU 2TQITCOOG,)NCPF, 5YKV\GTNCPF

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http://vlsi.uwaterloo.ca/~khkwok/postmodernism/postmodernism.html ,


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.CKTF, 5., (2004) +PVGITCVKPI .QECN ’RKUVGOQNQIKGU KPVQ VJG 4GUGCTEJ 2TQEGUU: 6JG ’XQNWVKQP QH /GVJQFU CPF #UUWORVKQPU KP C 4GUGCTEJ 2TQLGEV CTQWPF /V %COGTQQP, CV JVVR://YYY.OKNNGPPKWOCUUGUUOGPV.QTI/FQEWOGPVU/DTKFIKPI/RCRGTU/NCKTF.UCTCJ.RFH CEEGUUGF 14VJ 1EVQDGT 2005 .CPECUJKTG, +.CPF 5VCKTU, /. (1995) 6CEV: 6GZV #PCN[UKU %QORWVKPI 6QQNU, XGTUKQP 2.1 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 6QTQPVQ .CPFQY, ). (1993) *[RGTVGZV: 6JG %QPXGTIGPEG QH %QPVGORQTCT[ %TKVKECN 6JGQT[ CPF 6GEJPQNQI[, ,QJP *QRMKPU 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, $CNVKOQTG /& .CPG, (. (1994) "6JG 9CTTKQT 6TKDGU QH −JCO", #UKC9GGM, /CTEJ 2 RCIG 30-38 .CPIGT, 5. (1953) (TGGFQO CPF (QTO, %JCTNGU 5ETKDPGT'U 5QPU, 0GY ;QTM .CQ\K (.CQ-6\W), (1993) #PQVJGT 9C[: 6JG 9C[ QH .CQ 6\W, (VTCPUNCVGF D[ ). −COKPUMK) %QXG 8KGY 2TGUU, $GNOQPV, %# .CQ\K (.CQ-6\W), (1998) .CQ-6\W: 6CQ-6G %JKPI (&CQFGLKPI): 6JG 9C[ CPF VJG 2QYGT QH VJG 9C[, (VTCPUNCVGF D[ 5GCVQP, ,2) 5JCODJCNC, $QUVQP CPF 5JCHVUDWT[ .C2QNNC, 4. (1998) "(CEVQTU KPXQNXGF KP NCPIWCIG EJCPIG: ’XKFGPEG HTQO 5KPQ-6KDGVCP", 2TGUGPVGF CV #TGCN FKHHWUKQP CPF NCPIWCIG TGNCVKQPUJKR %QPHGTGPEG, #07 %CPDGTTC, JVVR://YYY.NCVTQDG.GFW.CW/NKPIWKUVKEU/UVNCRQNNCAFCVC/2WDNKECVKQP+VGOU//KUEGNNCPGQWU/NE.JVON, CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 .C2QNNC, 4. (2003) "6JG KPENWUKXG-GZENWUKXG FKUVKPEVKQP KP 6KDGVQ-$WTOCP .CPIWCIGU", 2TGUGPVGF CV 36VJ KPVGTPCVKQPCN EQPHGTGPEG QP 5KPQ-6KDGVCP .CPIWCIGU CPF .KPIWKUVKEU %QPHGTGPEG, .C 6TQDG 7PKXGTUKV[ /GNDQWTPG, .CTOGT, $. CPF 5GPQ, #. "# 4GEMNGUU *CTXGUV: %JKPC KU RTQVGEVKPI KVU QYP VTGGU DWV KV JCU DGIWP KPUVGCF VQ FGXQWT #UKC'U HQTGUVU", 0GYUYGGM (27/1/2003) .CVGNKPG 0GYU "6KDGV RTQVGUVU %JKPC TWNG CV ,QDWTI ’CTVJ 5WOOKV", .CVGNKPG 0GYU (27/4/2002) JVVR://FCKN[PGYU.OW\K.EQO/NN/GPINKUJ/1222656.UJVON CEEGUUGF 17VJ 1EV, 2003 .CVQWEJG, 5. (1993) +P VJG 9CMG QH VJG #HHNWGPV 5QEKGV[: #P ’ZRNQTCVKQP QH 2QUV &GXGNQROGPV, <GF $QQMU, .QPFQP .CVQWEJG, 5. (1996) 6JG 9GUVGTPK\CVKQP QH VJG 9QTNF, 2QNKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG .CVQWT, $. (1993) 9G *CXG 0GXGT $GGP /QFGTP, *CTXGUVGT, *GOGN *GORUVGCF .CWIJNKP, %. (,WPG 2000) "$KQIGPGVKE 5VTWEVWTCN 5VWFKGU QH 4GNKIKQP", (QTGUKIJV, 2 (3) JVVR://YYY.IGQEKVKGU.EQO/KQPCAO/0GWTQVJGQNQI[/%JCTNGU.CWIJNKP.JVON CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 .CXGNG[G, ’ FG (1878) 2TKOKVKXG 2TQRGTV[, (VTCPUNCVGF D[ ). /CTTKQVV) /CEOKNNCP, .QPFQP .CXGTV[, /. CPF 5VGTNKPI, ’., (2004) +PVTKPUKE 8CNWG, CV JVVR://EPZ.TKEG.GFW/EQPVGPV/O12160/NCVGUV/ , CEEGUUGF 12VJ ,WN[ 2005 .CYTGPEG, # GF. (2000) (QTGUVT[ (QTGUV 7UGTU CPF 4GUGCTEJ: 0GY 9C[U QH .GCTPKPI, ’6(40, 9CIGPIKPIGP .CYTGPEG, # GF. (2000) +PEQTRQTCVKPI +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG KP (QTOCN (QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV: #FCRVCVKQP 1T 2CTCFKIO %JCPIG KP 6TQRKECN (QTGUVT[!, ’WTQRGCP 6TQRKECN (QTGUV 4GUGCTEJ 0GVYQTM (’6(40), 9CIGPIKPIGP .C\GPDCVV, #. CPF /E/WTTC[, (. (2004) "7UKPI RCTVKEKRCVQT[ TCRKF CRRTCKUCN CU C VQQN VQ CUUGUU YQOGP'U RU[EJQUQEKCN JGCNVJ PGGFU KP 0QTVJGTP +TGNCPF", *GCNVJ ’FWECVKQP, 104 (3) RCIGU 174-187 .G )TCPIG, .. (2001) "%JCNNGPIGU HQT RCTVKEKRCVQT[ CEVKQP TGUGCTEJ CPF KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG KP #HTKEC'", #EVC #ECFGOKEC, 33 (3) RCIGU 136-150 .GCEJ, /. (2003) 9QOGP CU 0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN %CTGTU: ’CTVJ /QVJGT /[VJU CPF 1VJGT ’EQHGOKPKUV (CDNGU 1T *QY C 5VTCVGIKE 0QVKQP 4QUG CPF (GNN, +PUVKVWVG QH &GXGNQROGPV 5VWFKGU (+&5), $TKIJVQP .GCEJ, ). CPF /GCTPU, 4. (1988) "6TGGU HQT 4WTCN 2GQRNG", +P .GCEJ, ). CPF /GCTPU, 4. (GF.), $G[QPF VJG 9QQFHWGN %TKUKU: 2GQRNG .CPF & 6TGGU KP #HTKEC, ’CTVJUECP, .QPFQP, RCIGU 27-29 .GCEJ, /. CPF /GCTPU, 4. (1996) 6JG .KG QH VJG .CPF: %JCNNGPIKPI 4GEGKXGF 9KUFQO QP VJG #HTKECP ’PXKTQPOGPV, *GKPGOCPP, 2QTVUOQWVJ .GG, %. (2000) "2CVJYC[U QH .CDQWT +PUWTIGPE[", +P 2GTT[, ’. CPF 5GNFGP, /. (GF.), %JKPGUG 5QEKGV[, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 41-61 .GG, 4. (1992) "’EQNQIKECNN[ ’HHGEVKXG 5QEKCN 1TICPK\CVKQP CU C 4GSWKTGOGPV HQT 5WUVCKPKPI 9CVGTUJGF ’EQU[UVGOU", +P 0CKOCP, 4. (GF.), 9CVGTUJGF /CPCIGOGPV, 5RKPIGT-8GTNCI, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU 73-90 .GG, 6. (2001) 2GTEGRVKQPU #VVKVWFGU CPF 2TGHGTGPEGU KP (QTGUVU CPF 9QQFNCPFU, (QTGUVT[ %QOOKUUKQP, ’FKPDWTIJ .GG, 6. (2003) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 28VJ #RTKN 2003 CDQWV (QTGUVT[ 2GTEGRVKQP 7− & 6KDGV, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/%NQUGV.JVO CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 .GGWYGP, . XCP (1998) #RRTQCEJGU HQT 5WEEGUUHWN /GTIKPI QH +PFKIGPQWU (QTGUV 4GNCVGF −PQYNGFIG YKVJ (QTOCN (QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV, 0CVKQPCN 4GHGTGPEG %GPVTG HQT 0CVWTG /CPCIGOGPV, 9CIGPKPIGP .GNG, 5. (1991) "5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV: C %TKVKSWG", 9QTNF &GXGNQROGPV, 19 RCIGU 607-621

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/bridging/papers/laird.sarah.pdf

http://www.latrobe.edu.au/linguistics/stlapolla_data/PublicationItems/Miscellaneous/lc.html

http://dailynews.muzi.com/ll/english/1222656.shtml

http://www.geocities.com/iona_m/Neurotheology/CharlesLaughlin.html

http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m12160/latest/

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/Closet.htm


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http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1899/devel/

http://www.hkcss.org.hk/cb4/CIIF_Joe_Leung.htm

http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2002/08/04/158961


$KDNKQITCRJ[


.QEMG, ,., (1690) 6YQ 6TGCVKUGU QH )QXGTPOGPV (FKIKVK\GF GFKVKQP), .QPFQP CV JVVR://YYY.KDKDNKQ.QTI/IWVGPDGTI/GVGZV05/VTIQX10J.JVO , CEEGUUGF 2PF (GD 1998 .QEMYQQF, /. (1999) "*WOCPU 8CNWKPI 0CVWTG: 5[PVJGUKUKPI +PUKIJVU HTQO 2JKNQUQRJ[, 2U[EJQNQI[ CPF ’EQPQOKEU", ’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’PVCPINGF .KODU: ’CTVJ (KTUV CPF VJG )TQYVJ QH 2QUV-9KNFGTPGUU ’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUO QP %CNKHQTPKC'U 0QTVJ %QCUV", #PVKRQFG: # 4CFKECN ,QWTPCN QH )GQITCRJ[: (%CRKVCN CPF 0CVWTG KP VJG #OGTKECP 9GUV), 30 (2) RCIGU 155-176 .QRG\, & ,P, (1998) 2TKUQPGTU QH 5JCPITK-.C, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %JKECIQ 2TGUU, %JKECIQ .QYG, .. (1991) %QPVGUVGF 6GTTCKPU: $TKVKUJ & (TGPEJ 1TKGPVCNKUO, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, $GTMGNG[ NUCCMU, ’. CPF 5TKXCUVCXC, 4. (1989) #P +PVTQFWEVKQP VQ #RRNKGF )GQUVCVKUVKEU, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF .W −WCP[W, (1971) 2TCEVKECN $WFFJKUO, 4KFGT, .QPFQP .WECTGNNK, ). (2001) "2TGUGTXKPI NQECN MPQYNGFIG VJTQWIJ FKUEQXGT[ NGCTPKPI", +− /QPKVQT, 9-3 JVVR://YYY.PWHHKE.PN/EKTCP/KMFO/9-3/NWECTGNNK.JVON CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 .WGEM, &. (1995) "6JG 4WNG QH (KTUV 2QUUGUUKQP CPF VJG &GUKIP QH VJG .CY", 38 ,QWTPCN QH .CY CPF ’EQPQOKEU, RCIGU 393-436 .WMG, 6. (1995) "5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV #U C 2QYGT/MPQYNGFIG 5[UVGO: 6JG 2TQDNGO QH ')QXGTPOGPVCNKV[", +P (KUEJGT, (. CPF $NCEM, /. (GF.), )TGGPKPI ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2QNKE[, 5V /CTVKPU 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU 21-32 .WMG, 6. (1999C) %CRKVCNKUO &GOQETCE[ & ’EQNQI[: &GRCTVKPI (TQO /CTZ, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH +NNCPQKU 2TGUU, %JKECIQ .WMG, 6. (1999D) "’PXKTQPOGPVCNKV[ #U )TGGP )QXGTPOGPVCNKV[", +P &CTKGT, ’. (GF.), &KUEQWTUGU QH VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV, $NCEMYGNN, 1ZHQTF, RCIGU 121-151 .WMGU, 5. (1972) 2QYGT C 4CFKECN 8KGY, /CEOKNNCP 2TGUU, .QPFQP .WMG[, $., 5JGHHKGNF, ,., $CVJWTUV, ,., *KNG[, 4. CPF /CVJ[U, /. (2000) "6GUV QH VJG 5*’64#0 VGEJPQNQI[ HQT OQFGNNKPI VJG KORCEV QH TGHQTGUVCVKQP QP DCFNCPFU TWPQHH CPF UGFKOGPV [KGNF CV &TCKZ, (TCPEG", ,QWTPCN QH *[FTQNQI[, 235 RCIGU 44-62 .WOOKU, &. (1991) "&GXGNQROGPV CICKPUV FGOQETCE[", #NVGTPCVKXGU, 16 (1) RCIGU 31-66 .WORMKP, 6. (/CTEJ/,WPG 2001) "2GTEGRVWCN &KXGTUKV[: +U 2QN[RJCUKE %QPUEKQWUPGUU 0GEGUUCT[ HQT )NQDCN 5WTXKXCN!", #PVJTQRQNQI[ QH %QPUEKQWUPGUU, 12 (1) RCIGU 37-70 .WQ 2GPI, 9W 0KPI, ;CP <JCQNK CPF 2GK 5JGPILK (2003) "5CETGF 5KVGU KP 0QTVJYGUV ;WPPCP, %JKPC", 2TGUGPVGF CV +PVGTPCVKQPCN 9QTMUJQR QP VJG +ORQTVCPEG QH 5CETGF 0CVWTCN 5KVGU HQT $KQFKXGTUKV[ %QPUGTXCVKQP %QPHGTGPEG , −WPOKPI CPF :KUJWCPIDCPPC $KQURJGTG 4GUGTXG, 2GQRNG'U 4GRWDNKE QH %JKPC, 17-20 (GDTWCT[ 2003, 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU ’FWECVKQPCN, 5EKGPVKHKE CPF %WNVWTCN 1TICPK\CVKQP (70’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−PQYNGFIG, /CPEJGUVGT 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, /CPEJGUVGT /C .KJWC (1993) "5JCOCPKE $GNKGH #OQPI 0QOCFU", +P 4CODNG, % CPF $TCWGP, /. (GF.), #PVJTQRQNQI[ QH 6KDGV CPF VJG *KOCNC[C, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH <WTKEJ, <WTKEJ, RCIGU 193-197 /C 5JKLWP CPF %JCPI 5JW\JQPI (1980) "+V KU QH KOOGFKCVG 7TIGPE[ VQ 2TQVGEV 1WT ’PXKTQPOGPV & 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEGU", ’EQPQOKE /CPCIGOGPV, 10 RCIG 28-29 39 /CECDG, %. (1988) "(QTYCTF", +P 5RKXCM, ). (GF.), 1VJGT 9QTNFU: GUUC[U KP EWNVWTCN RQNKVKEU, 4QWVNGFIG, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU KZ-ZKZ /CECU, .. (2001) "$CPEQ OWPFKCN [ 2TQFGRKPG: ¿JCEKC WP PGQNKDGTCNKUOQ ÃVPKEQ!", +%%+ $QNGVÈP, 25 (#RTKN 2005) /CECWNG[, .QTF, (1863) *KUVQT[ QH ’PINCPF, .QPIOCPU, .QPFQP /CEFQPCNF, #9 GF., (1997) /CPFCNC & .CPFUECRG, &− 2TKPVYQTNF, 0GY &GNJK

http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext05/trgov10h.htm

http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/archive/00000853/00/logop290502.pdf

http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ikdm/9-3/lucarelli.html

http://phero.net/iobc/samos/bulletin/lyons.pdf


$KDNKQITCRJ[


/CE&QPCNF, (, (1996) 6JG #PEKGPV #\VGEU: 5GETGVU QH C .QUV %KXKNK\CVKQP VQ 7PNQEM CPF &KUEQXGT, 4WPPKPI 2TGUU, 2JKNCFGNRJKC, 2# /CEFQPCNF, *., (2003) ’PXKTQPOGPVCN *KUVQT[ KP *KUVQT[, RJKNQUQRJ[ & UEKGPEG %CODTKFIG, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CODTKFIG, %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG CV JVVR://YYY.JRU.ECO.CE.WM/TGUGCTEJ/GPXJKUV.JVON , CEEGUUGF 29VJ ,WN[ 2004 /CEMGP\KG, #. (1998) "6JG %JGXKQV, VJG 5VCI CPF VJG 9JKVG 9JKVG 4QEM: %QOOWPKV[ +FGPVKV[ CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN VJTGCV QP VJG +UNG QH *CTTKU", ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF 2NCPPKPI &, 16 RCIGU 509-532 /CEMGP\KG, (. (2002) "4G-ENCKOKPI RNCEG: VJG /KNNGPPKWO (QTGUV $QTIKG 0QTVJ 5WVJGTNCPF 5EQVNCPF", ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF 2NCPPKPI &, 20 (5) RCIGU 535-560 CEEGUUGF 3337 *1 /CEPCWIJVGP, 2. CPF 7TT[, ,. (1998) %QPVGUVGF 0CVWTGU, 5CIG, .QPFQP /CE[, ,. (1985) &JCTOC & &GXGNQROGPV: 4GNKIKQP CU 4GUQWTEG KP 5CTXQF[C 5GNH-*GNR /QXGOGPV, −WOCTKCP 2TGUU, %QPPGEVKEWV /CHHK, .. (1999C) ".KPIWKUVKE &KXGTUKV[", +P 2QUG[, &. (GF.), %WNVWTCN & 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +62/70’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 19-58 /CHHK, .. (1999) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 1999D CDQWV $KQEWNVWTCN FKXGTUKV[, /CIWTTCP, #. (1988) ’EQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[ CPF +VU /GCUWTGOGPV, 2TKPEGVQP 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 2TKPEGVQP, 0GY ,GTUG[ /CK-/CK 5\G, (1963) 6JG 6CQ QH 2CKPVKPI: # 5VWF[ QH VJG 4KVWCN &KURQUKVKQP QH %JKPGUG 2CKPVKPI, 2CPVJGQP $QQMU, 0GY ;QTM /CK-/CK 5\G, (1967) 6JG 6CQ QH 2CKPVKPI. # 5VWF[ QH VJG 4KVWCN &KURQUKVKQP QH %JKPGUG 2CKPVKPI (5GEQPF ’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’. CPF 5GNFGP, /. (GF.), %JKPGUG 5QEKGV[, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 83-101 /CPFGT, ,. (1997) "(QTGYQTF", +P &TGPIUQP, #. CPF 6C[NQT, &. (GF.), ’EQHQTGUVT[: 6JG CTV CPF UEKGPEG QH UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUV WUG, 0GY 5QEKGV[ 2WDNKUJGTU, %CPCFC, RCIGU 9-13 /CPFGTUEJGKF, #., (2000) 6JG $NCEM 6GPV KP +VU ’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’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2U[EJQNQI[, 23 (1) RCIGU 47-61 /CTEJ, #. (1968) "#P CRRTGEKCVKQP QH %JKPGUG )GQOCPE[", ,QWTPCN QH #UKCP 5VWFKGU, 27 (2) RCIGU 253-267 /CTNQYG, %. (1604) &T (CWUVWU, $TQCFXKKGY 2TGUU, 2GVGTDQTQWIJ %CPCFC /CTNQYG, %. (1633) 6JG ,GY QH /CNVC, +$ HQT 0 8CXCUQWT, .QPFQP /CTOCP, ). (2000) "+PVTKPUKE 8CNWG", +P /CTOCP, ). (GF.), ’ZRNCKPKPI 8CNWG CPF 1VJGT ’UUC[U KP /QTCN 2JKNQUQRJ[, %NCTGPFQP 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF, RCIGU 137-148 /CTTKQVV, / (GF.) (1955) ".KVVNG %QOOWPKVKGU KP CP +PFKIGPQWU %KXKNK\CVKQP KP 8KNNCIG +PFKC", #OGTKECP #PVJTQRQNQI[, 57 RCIGU 171-222 /CTUJCNN, 5. (2002) +P VJG +PVGTGUVU QH VJG 5VCVG: *QUVKNG ’NGOGPVU +KK - 2QNKVKECN +ORTKUQPOGPVU KP 6KDGV 1987-2001, 6+0, .QPFQP /CTUJCNN, 5. CPF %QQMG, 5. (1997) #NNKCPEG HQT TGUGCTEJ KP 6KDGV, *QPI −QPI. /CTVKP, ). (1995) ’VJPQDQVCP[: XQNWOG 1, %JCROCP & *CNN, .QPFQP /CTZ, −. (1976) %CRKVCN: # %TKVKSWG QH 2QNKVKECN ’EQPQO[, *CTOQPFUYQTVJ (2GPIWKP), .QPFQP /CTZ, −. (1986) −CTN /CTZ: # 4GCFGT, %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG /CUJOCP, 8. (1991) "9CTTKQTU CPF 9GCXGTU: # 5VWF[ QH )GPFGT 4GNCVKQPU #OQPI VJG +DCP QH 5CTCYCM", +P 5WVNKXG, 8. (GF.), (GOCNG & /CNG KP $QTPGQ: %QPVTKDWVKQPU, $QTPGQ 4GUGCTEJ %QWPEKN, 2JKNNKRU, /G, RCIGU 231-270 /CUUCSWQK, ,. (1993) "5CNV (TQO 5KNV KP 5KGTTC .GQPG", +P )COUGT, /., #RRNGVQP, *. CPF %CTVGT, 0 GFU. (GF.), 6KPMGT, 6KNNGT, CPF 6GEJPKECN EJCPIG, +62, .QPFQP, RCIGU 48-63

http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/research/envhist.html

http://www.cwru.edu/affil/tibet/booksAndPapers/Black Tent.htm


$KDNKQITCRJ[


/C[DWT[-.GYKU, &. (1992) /KNNGPPKWO: 6TKDCN 9KUFQO CPF VJG /QFGTP 9QTNF, 8KMKPI 2GPIWKP 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM /C\WOFCT, 5. CPF /C\WOFCT, 5. (1993) "5CETGF URCEG CPF RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV.", ,QWTPCN QH ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2U[EJQNQI[, 13 RCIGU 231-242 /E%C[, $. (2000) "2QUV-OQFGTPKUO CPF VJG /CPCIGOGPV QH 0CVWTCN CPF %QOOQP 4GUQWTEGU", 6JG %QOOQP 2TQRGTV[ 4GUQWTEG &KIGUV, 54 (5GRV) RCIGU 1-6 JVVR://YYY.KPFKCPC.GFW/‘KCUER/’-%24/ERT54.RFH CEEGUUGF 2004 8VJ ,WPG /E%TCEMGP, ,., 2GVV[, ,. CPF %QPYC[, ). (1988) #P +PVTQFWEVKQP VQ 4CRKF 4WTCN #RRTCKUCN HQT #ITKEWNVWTCN &GXGNQROGPV, +PVGTPCVKQPCN +PUVKVWVG HQT ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV, .QPFQP /E)QXGTP, 6., $KIGNQY, )., #OQTQUK, 6. CPF 4WUUGNN, &. (1988) "0QTVJGTP +UNCPFU *WOCP GTTQT CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP: # XKGY QH UQEKCN & GEQNQIKECN EJCPIG KP VJG /GFKGXCN 0QTVJ #VNCPVKE", *WOCP ’EQNQI[, 16 RCIGU 225-270 /E*CTI, +. (1969) &GUKIP YKVJ 0CVWTG, 0CVWTCN *KUVQT[ 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM /E−C[, #. (2000) "6JG EWNV QH 2WTG %T[UVCN /QWPVCKP (TGXKGY)", ,QWTPCN QH $WFFJKUV ’VJKEU, 7 RCIGU 14-21 /E.CTGP, &. (1998) 4GVJKPMKPI 6QWTKUO CPF ’EQVTCXGN, −WOCTKCP 2TGUU, 9GUV *CTVHQTF /E.CWIJNKP, #. (1985) "+OCIGU CPF ’VJKEU QH 0CVWTG", ’PXKTQPOGPVCN ’VJKEU, 7 RCIGU 293-319 /E/CMGP, 4., (2001) 6JG ’PXKTQPOGPVCN ’PENQUWTG, /E/CMGP, 4, &GPXGT CV JVVR://YYY.NGYTQEMYGNN.EQO/OEOCMGP/OEOCMGP32.JVON , CEEGUUGF 20VJ (GD 2002 /E/CUVGT, 2. "5VQR JQOQIGPK\CVKQP VQ RTQVGEV VQWTKUO", %JKPC &CKN[ (19/4/1999) /E0GGN[, ,., /KNNGT, −., 4GKF, 9., 4WUUGNN, #. CPF 9GTPGT, 6. (1990) %QPUGTXKPI VJG 9QTNF'U $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[, +7%0 94+ %+ 99(-75 9$, )NCPF/9CUJKPIVQP /’# (2004) "$TKFIKPI 5ECNGU CPF ’RKUVGOQNQIKGU: .KPMKPI .QECN −PQYNGFIG CPF )NQDCN 5EKGPEG KP /WNVK-5ECNG #UUGUUOGPVU", #NGZCPFTKC ’I[RV | /CTEJ 17-20 2004, 6JG /KNNGPPKWO ’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’. (GF.), 4GNKIKQP KP 5QWVJ #UKC, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 9CUJKPIVQP 2TGUU, 5GCVVNG, RCIGU 5-20 /GTEJCPV, %. (1980) 6JG &GCVJ QH 0CVWTG, *CTRGT %QNNKPU, 0GY ;QTM /GTEJCPV, %. (1989) ’EQNQIKECN 4GXQNWVKQPU: 0CVWTG, )GPFGT, CPF 5EKGPEG KP 0GY ’PINCPF, 6JG 70% 2TGUU, %JCRGN *KNN, 0% 27515-2288 /GTEJCPV, %. (1992) 4CFKECN ’EQNQI[, 4QWVNGFIG, 0GY ;QTM /GTEJCPV, %. (1995) "4GKPXGPVKPI ’FGP: 9GUVGTP %WNVWTG #U C 4GEQXGT[ 0CTTCVKXG", +P %TQPQP, 9. (GF.), 7PEQOOQP )TQWPF: 6QYCTF 4GKPXGPVKPI 0CVWTG, 99 0QTVQP & %Q, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU 132 & 154-156 /GTEJCPV, %. (1996) ’CTVJECTG: 9QOGP CPF VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV, 4QWVNGFIG, 0GY ;QTM /GTEJCPV, %. (1997) 2CTCFKUG & 2TQRGTV[: .QEMG'U PCTTCVKXG CPF VJG VTCPUHQTOCVKQP QH 0CVWTG, , WPRWDNKUJGF OCPWUETKRV YKVJ CWVJQT $GTMGNG[ /GTMNG, ,. (1980) /CPCIGOGPV & +FGQNQI[: 6JG .GICE[ QH VJG +PVGTPCVKQPCN 5EKGPVKHKE /CPCIGOGPV /QXGOGPV, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, $GTMGNG[ /GUUGTUEJOKFV, &. (1976C) 6JG )WTWPIU QH 0GRCN: %QPHNKEV & %JCPIG KP C 8KNNCIG 5QEKGV[, #TKU & 2JKNNKRU, 9CTOKPUVGT 7− /GUUGTUEJOKFV, &. (1976D) "’EQNQIKECN EJCPIG CPF CFCRVCVKQP COQPI VJG )WTWPIU QH VJG 0GRCN *KOCNC[C", *WOCP ’EQNQI[, 4 RCIGU 167-185 /GUUGTUEJOKFV, & 1991. 4CRKF #RRTCKUCN HQT %QOOWPKV[ (QTGUVT[: 6JG 4# 2TQEGUU & 4CRKF &KCIPQUVKE 6QQNU, +PUVKVWVG QH (QTGUVT[ 2QMJCTC 0GRCN /GVURCNW, /., −KXKUKNF, 6., /GVURCNW, ’., 2CTKM, ,., *WFLCUJQX, )., −CNFOC, −., 5GTM, 2., −CTOKP, /., $GJCT, &., )KNDGTV, /., ’PFKEQVV, 2., /CUVCPC, 5., 2CRKJC, 5., 5MQTGEMK, −., 6QTTQPK, #. CPF 8KNNGOU, 4. (2004) "/QUV QH VJG GZVCPV OV&0# DQWPFCTKGU KP 5QWVJ CPF 5QWVJYGUV #UKC YGTG NKMGN[ UJCRGF FWTKPI VJG KPKVKCN UGVVNGOGPV QH ’WTCUKC D[ CPCVQOKECNN[ OQFGTP JWOCPU", $/% )GPGVKEU, 5 (26) /G[GTU, 4. (1993) "6GEJPQNQI[ UGTXKPI 6TCFKVKQP", %WNVWTCN 5WTXKXCN 3WCTVGTN[, 17 (1) RCIGU 35-37 /KNNGT, ,., (2001) ’PXKUKQPKPI VJG &CQKUV $QF[ KP VJG ’EQPQO[ QH %QUOKE 2QYGT, +P &CGFCNWU (CNN 2001, #OGTKECP #ECFGO[ QH #TVU CPF 5EKGPEGU, CV JVVR://YYY.COCECF.QTI/RWDNKECVKQPU/HCNN2001/OKNNGT.CURZ , CEEGUUGF 17VJ ,WN[ 2003

http://www.indiana.edu/~iascp/E-CPR/cpr54.pdf

http://www.lewrockwell.com/mcmaken/mcmaken32.html

http://www.amacad.org/publications/fall2001/miller.aspx


$KDNKQITCRJ[


/KNNGT, / GF. CPF %WNVWTCN 5WTXKXCN, (1993) 5VCVG QH VJG 2GQRNGU: # )NQDCN *WOCP 4KIJVU 4GRQTV QP 5QEKGVKGU KP &CPIGT, $GCEQP 2TGUU, $QUVQP /KNNGVV, −. (1969) 5GZWCN 2QNKVKEU, )TCPCFC 2WDNKUJKPI /KPCUP[, $.; /E$TCVPG[, #. CPF 9JGNCP, $. (2005) 8GURGT: 8CTKQITCO ’UVKOCVKQP CPF URCVKCN RTGFKEVKQP VJCV KU ECRCDNG QH RGTHQTOKPI MTKIKPI, XGTUKQP 1.63 #WUVTCNKCP %GPVTG HQT 2TGEKUKQP #ITKEWNVWTG, 6JG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 5[FPG[, 059 2006. 5[FPG[ /KPPKEJ, ’. (1990) 6TCPUHQTOKPI −PQYNGFIG, 6GORNG 2TGUU., 2JKNCFGNRJKC /1##(, (2001) (QTGUV 8CNWGU, /KPKUVT[ QH #ITKEWNVWTG CPF (QTGUVT[, CV JVVR://YYY.OOO.HK/GPINKUJ/HQTGUVT[/XCNWGU/ CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 /QOCFC[, 0. (1976C) 0CVKXG #OGTKECP #VVKVWFGU 6QYCTFU VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV KP 5GGKPI 9KVJ C 0CVKXG ’[G, *CTRGT & 4QY, 0GY ;QTM /QOCFC[, 0. (1976D) "# HKTUV #OGTKECP XKGYU JKU NCPF", 0CVKQPCN )GQITCRJKE, 150 (1) RCIGU 13-18 /QPDKQV, ). (1994) 0Q /CPU .CPF, /CEOKNNCP, .QPFQP /QPVTGG, %. (1992) "2GQRNG CPF (QTGUVU QH 6JCKNCPF", +P .GWPICTCOUTK, 2. CPF 4CLGUJ, 0. (GF.), 6JG HWVWTG QH RGQRNG CPF HQTGUVU KP 6JCKNCPF CHVGT VJG NQIIKPI DCP, 2TQLGEV HQT ’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−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’PSWKT[ HQT 4WTCN &GXGNQROGPV: # 4GXKGY, +PVGTOGFKCVG 6GEJPQNQI[ 2TGUU CPF 1XGTUGCU &GXGNQROGPV #FOKPKUVTCVKQP, .QPFQP /5, (WPFCVGF) /KETQUQHV 2QEMGV ’ZEGN, XGTUKQP 3.01 HQT *2%2000 /KETQUQHV %QTRQTCVKQP 5GCVVNG /WJNJCWUNGT, 2. (1995) "6JG +PVGTFGRGPFGPEG QH .KPIWKUVKE CPF $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[", +P /[GTU, &. (GF.), 6JG 2QNKVKEU QH /WNVKEWNVWTCNKUO KP #UKC/2CEKHKE, 0QTVJGTP 6GTTKVQT[ 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, &CTYKP, RCIGU 154-161 /WJNJCWUNGT, 2. (1996) .KPIWKUVKE ’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’PINGYQQF %NKHHU, 0, /WPTQ, 4. (1989) "5[PETGVKE UGEVU CPF UGETGV UQEKGVKGU: 4GXKXCN KP VJG 1980'U", %JKPGUG 5QEKQNQI[ & #PVJTQRQNQI[, 21 (4) /WTFQEJ, ,. (1988) "%TGG %QIPKVKQP KP 0CVWTCN CPF ’FWECVKQPCN %QPVGZVU", +P $GTT[, ,., +TXKPG, 5. CPF *WPV, ’. (GF.), +PFKIGPQWU EQIPKVKQP: HWPEVKQPKPI KP EWNVWTCN EQPVGZV, 0KLJQHH, &QTFTGEJV, RCIGU 231-256 /WTFQEJ, ,. CPF %NCTM, ,. (1994) "5WUVCKPCDNG MPQYNGFIG", )GQHQTWO, 25 (2) RCIGU 115-132 /[GTU, 0. (1988) "6JTGCVGPGF DKQVCU: JQVURQVU KP VTQRKECN HQTGUVU", ’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUV, 9 RCIGU 187-208 0CGUU, #. (1984) "+PVWKVKQP +PVTKPUKE 8CNWG & &GGR ’EQNQI[", 6JG ’EQNQIKUV, 14 RCIG 202 0CGUU, #. (1995) "6JG 5JCNNQY CPF VJG &GGR, .QPI 4CPIG ’EQNQI[ /QXGOGPV: # 5WOOCT[.", +PSWKT[, 16 RCIGU 95-100 0CMCUJKOC, &. (1990) #RRNKECVKQP QH 0CVKXG −PQYNGFIG KP ’KC: +PWKV ’NFGTU CPF *WFUQP $C[ 1KN, 6JG %CPCFKCP ’FWECVKQP & 4GETWKVOGPV %GPVTG, 3WGDGE 0COMJCK 0QTDW, 6KDGVCP &TGCO ;QIC: 2CTV: 2, CV JVVR://YYY.RNQVKPWU.EQO/\JKPGAVKDGVCPAFTGCOA[QICARCTV2.JVO , CEEGUUGF 14VJ ,WN[ 2005 0CPF[, #. (1986) "6JG +FGC QH &GXGNQROGPV", +P /CNNOCPP, #. CPF 0WFNGT, 1. (GF.), *WOCP FGXGNQROGPV KP KVU UQEKCN EQPVGZV, ’FYCTF #TPQNF 1XGTUGCU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 248-259 0CPF[, #. (1988) 5EKGPEG *GIGOQP[ & 8KQNGPEG: # 4GSWKGO HQT /QFGTPKV[, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 0GY &GNJK

http://www.mmm.fi/english/forestry/values/

http://fhm.fs.fed.us/posters/posters03/bbdriskposter.pdf

http://www.plotinus.com/zhine_tibetan_dream_yoga_part2.htm


$KDNKQITCRJ[


0CTC[CP, &. CPF 5TKPKXCUCP, .. (1994) 2CTVKEKRCVQT[ &GXGNQROGPV 6QQN −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’PE[ENQRCGFKC, /CTUJCNN %CXGPFKUJ, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU 841-844 0GUVK, .. (1999) +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU' TKIJV VQ NCPF: KPVGTPCVKQPCN UVCPFCTFU CPF RQUUKDNG FGXGNQROGPVU. 6JG EWNVWTCN XCNWG QH NCPF CPF VJG NKPM YKVJ VJG RTQVGEVKQP QH VJG GPXKTQPOGPV. 6JG RGTURGEVKXG KP VJG ECUG QH /CRWEJG-2GJWGPEJG., /CUVGTU, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 2CFWC, 0GVVNG, &. CPF *CTTKUU, .. (2003) ")GPGVKE CPF .KPIWKUVKE CHHKPKVKGU DGVYGGP JWOCP RQRWNCVKQPU KP ’WTCEKC CPF 9GUV #HTKEC", *WOCP $KQNQI[, 75 (3) RCIGU 331-344 0GXQ, ’. (1998) ")GPGVKE FKXGTUKV[ KP YKNF EGTGCNU", )GPGVKE TGUQWTEGU CPF %TQR ’XQNWVKQP, 45 RCIGU 355-370 0GYD[, (. CPF 6CQ, *. (1993) 6JG 5NGGRKPI )KCPV #YCMGPU: (QTGUV 2CTMU HQT 6QWTKUO KP %JKPC, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 6GEJPQNQI[, 5[FPG[ 0GYOCP, &. (WPFCVGF) 1\KGZRNQTGT: )25 /CRRKPI 5QHVYCTG, XGTUKQP 3.954H & + . 5QHVYCTG 2V[ .VF 0GYOCP, &. (WPFCVGF) 1\K’ZRNQTGT%’: )25 /CRRKPI 5QHVYCTG YJKEJ YKNN YQTM YKVJ OQUV )25 TGEGKXGTU HQT TGCN VKOG VTCEMKPI QH )25 RQUKVKQP (/QXKPI /CR)., XGTUKQP 1.11.6J & + . 5QHVYCTG 2V[ .VF 0GYVQP, $. (1977) "2GTEGRVKQPU QH 5GZ 4QNGU CV VJG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH *CYCKK", 2TGUGPVGF CV 9QOGP KP %QOOWPKECVKQP %QPXGPVKQP %QPHGTGPEG, *QPQNWNW *CYCKK, 0GYVQP, $., $WEM, ’. CPF 9QGNHGN, ,. (1984) "/GVTKE OWNVKFKOGPUKQPCN UECNKPI QH XKGYGT'U RGTEGRVKQPU QH 68 KP HKXG EQWPVTKGU", *WOCP 1TICPKUCVKQP, 0KFC, 0 1964 6QYCTF C 5EKGPEG QH 6TCPUNCVKPI, $TKNN, .GKFGP 0KGVUEJOCPP, $. (1988 ) "/KUMKVQ CPF −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−JCUK 9QOGP CPF /CVTKNKP[: 6TCPUHQTOCVKQPU", )GPFGT 4GNCVKQPU, )GPFGT, 6GEJPQNQI[ CPF &GXGNQROGPV, 4 (3) RCIGU 359-395 0QTDGTI-*QFIG, *. (1992) #PEKGPV (WVWTGU: .GCTPKPI (TQO .CFCMJ, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, &GNJK 0QTDGTI-*QFIG, *. (1995) "6JG 2TGUUWTG VQ /QFGTPKUG", +P )QNFUOKVJ, ’. (GF.), 6JG (WVWTG QH 2TQITGUU, )TGGP $QQMU, &CTVKPIVQP, RCIGU 91-108 0QTDW, 6. (1960) 6KDGV +U /[ %QWPVT[, 4WRGT *CTV-&CXKU, .QPFQP 0QTVJ, 4. (1995) .KHG QP C /QFGTP 2NCPGV: # /CPKHGUVQ HQT 2TQITGUU, /CPEJGUVGT 7PKXGTUKV[, /CPEJGUVGT 0QTVQP, $. CPF *CPPQP, $. (1997) "’PXKTQPOGPVCN 8CNWGU: # 2NCEG-$CUGF 6JGQT[", ’PXKTQPOGPVCN ’VJKEU, 19 RCIGU 227-245 0QTVQP, $. CPF *CPPQP, $. (1999) "&GOQETCE[ CPF 5GPUG QH 2NCEG 8CNWGU KP ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2QNKE[", 2JKNQUQRJKGU QH 2NCEG, RCIGU 119-143 0QUQVTQ, 4., (2004) *QDDGU CPF .QEMG /GP QH +PHNWGPEG, CV JVVR://YYY.J[RGTJKUVQT[.PGV/CRYJ/GUUC[U/EQOR/EY20JQDDGUANQEMG.JVO CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 0QUU, 4. (1995) +P ’EQ-.QIKE /CIC\KPG (’PXKTQPOGPVCN %QPUGTXCVKQP 1TICPK\CVKQP), 8QN. 0QXGODGT/&GEGODGT. 0<(+% (1999) (QEWU 7, 0GY <GCNCPF (QTGUV +PFWUVTKGU %QWPEKN CV JVVR://YYY.P\HKE.QTI.P\/OCKPUKVG/(QEWU9.JVON CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005

http://psychology.waikato.ac.nz/mpru/pubs/paps-sums/2004indpsyc.pdf

http://www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/essays/comp/cw20hobbes_locke.htm

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$KDNKQITCRJ[


1'%QPPQT, ,. (1989) "7PGXGP CPF %QODKPGF &GXGNQROGPV CPF ’EQNQIKECN %TKUKU", 4CEG CPF %NCUU, 30 (3) RCIGU 1-12 1'%QPPQT, ,. (1994) "+U 5WUVCKPCDNG %CRKVCNKUO 2QUUKDNG !", +P 1'%QPPQT, ,. (GF.), +U %CRKVCNKUO 5WUVCKPCDNG, 6JG )WKNFHQTF 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU 152-173 1'*CICP, ,. (1995) "%KXKNKUCVKQP %QPHNKEV! NQQMKPI HQT EWNVWTCN GPGOKGU", 6JKTF 9QTNF 3WCTVGTN[, 16 (1) RCIGU 19-38 1'−CPG, /. "# $KVVGT %QNF", 6JG )WCTFKCP 12/2/1998 (12/12/1998) 1'.QWIJNKP, ,. (1997) ")GQITCRJ[ CPF &GOQETCE[: 6JG 5RCVKCN &KHHWUKQP QH 2QNKVKECN CPF %KXKN 4KIJVU", 2TGUGPVGF CV 6JG 5RCVKCN CPF 6GORQTCN &KHHWUKQP QH &GOQETCE[ 1946-1994: 37VJ #PPWCN %QPHGTGPEG QH VJG +PVGTPCVKQPCN 5VWFKGU #UUQEKCVKQP 16VJ-20VJ #RTKN 1996 %QPHGTGPEG, 5CP &KGIQ, %CNKHQTPKC, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %QNQTCFQ, 1'.QWIJNKP, ,. (2002) "6JG GNGEVQTCN IGQITCRJ[ QH 9GKOGT )GTOCP[: ’ZRNQTCVQT[ URCVKCN FCVC CPCN[UKU QH RTQVGUVCPV UWRRQTV HQT VJG 0C\K RCTV[", 2QNKVKECN #PCN[UKU, 10 (3) 1'4KQTFCP, 6. (1981) ’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUO, 2KQP .VF, .QPFQP 1'4KQTFCP, 6. CPF 6WTPGT, 4. (1983) #P #PPQVCVGF 4GCFGT KP ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2NCPPKPI CPF /CPCIGOGPV, 2GTICOQP 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF 1CMGU, 6 (1993) "6JG EWNVWTCN URCEG QH OQFGTPKV[: GVJPKE VQWTKUO CPF RNCEG KFGPVKV[ KP %JKPC", ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF 2NCPPKPI & 5QEKGV[ CPF 5RCEG, 11 RCIGU 47-66 1$7, (1997) &CKN[ 9GD )WKFG 9GF 5GRV 3TF 1997, 1MJNCJQOC $CRVKUV 7PKXGTUKV[, 1MJNCJQOC CV JVVR://YYY.QMDW.GFW/ , CEEGUUGF 14VJ 5GRV 2000 1&# )WKFCPEG QP ’VJPKEKV[, ’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−TKIKPI: C OGVJQF QH KPVGTRQNCVKQP HQT IGQITCRJKECN KPHQTOCVKQP U[UVGOU.", +PVGTPCVKQPCN ,QWTPCN QH )GQITCRJKECN +PHQTOCVKQP 5[UVGOU, 4 RCIGU 313-332 1NKXGT, 4., (TKRR, ’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’PXKTQPOGPV & 2NCPPKPI #, 23 RCIGU 621-628 1RGPUJCY, 5. (1992) "(WTVJGT VJQWIJVU QP IGQITCRJ[ CPF )+5: C TGRN[", ’PXKTQPOGPV & 2NCPPKPI #, 24 RCIGU 463-466 1UVTQO, ’. (1990) )QXGTPKPI VJG %QOOQPU: 6JG ’XQNWVKQP QH +PUVKVWVKQPU HQT %QNNGEVKXG #EVKQP, %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU., 0GY ;QTM 1XGTO[GT, &. (1986) 4GNKIKQPU QH %JKPC: 6JG 9QTNF CU C .KXKPI 5[UVGO, *CTRGT & 4QY, 5CP (TCPUKUEQ 2CDQPIMC 4KPRQEJG, (1991) .KDGTCVKQP KP VJG 2CNO QH ;QWT *CPF, 9KUFQO, .QPFQP 2CDQPIMC 4KPRQEJG, (1994) 6JG 9QTFU QH /[ 2GTHGEV 6GCEJGT, *CTRGT %QNNKPU, 0GY ;QTM 2CNVTWN 4KPRQEJG, (1994) 6JG 9QTFU QH /[ 2GTHGEV 6GCEJGT, *CTRGT %QNNKPU 2CPFG[, &. (1997) "’VJPQHQTGUVT[ D[ +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNG", 2TGUGPVGF CV :+ 9QTNF (QTGUVT[ %QPITGUU %QPHGTGPEG, #PVCN[C 6WTMG[, 70 (QQF CPF #ITKEWNVWTG 1TICPKUCVKQP, 2CPFG[, &. (1998) ’VJPQHQTGUVT[: .QECN −PQYNGFIG HQT 5WUVCKPCDNG (QTGUVT[ CPF .KXGNKJQQF 5GEWTKV[, *KOCPUJW 2WDNKECVKQPU, 0GY &GNJK 2CPFG[, &. (2000) "(QTGUV, RGQRNG CPF MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU: KPVGITCVKQP QH KPFKIGPQWU & HQTOCN HQTGUVT[", 2TGUGPVGF CV .GCTPKPI HTQO TGUQWTEG WUGTU- C RCTCFKIO UJKHV KP VTQR HQTGUVT[ 28/29/4/2000 %QPHGTGPEG, 8KGPPC, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH #ITKEWNVWTCN 5EKGPEGU,

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$KDNKQITCRJ[


2CPPCVKGT, ;. (1996) 8#4+19+0: 5QHVYCTG HQT 5RCVKCN &CVC #PCN[UKU KP 2&, XGTUKQP 2.21 5RTKPIGT-8GTNCI 0GY ;QTM 2CTCLWNK, 2. (2001C) "0Q 0CVWTG #RCTV: #FKXCUK %QUOQXKUKQP CPF ’EQNQIKECN &KUEQWTUGU KP ,JCTMJCPF +PFKC", +P #TPQNF, 2. CPF )QNF, #. (GF.), 5CETGF .CPFUECRGU CPF %WNVWTCN 2QNKVKEU: 2NCPVKPI C VTGG, #UJICVG, #NFGTUJQV $WTNKPIVQP 5KPICRQTG 5[FPG[, RCIGU 83-113 2CTCLWNK, 2. (1991) "2QYGT CPF −PQYNGFIG KP &GXGNQROGPV &KUEQWTUG: PGY UQEKCN OQXGOGPVU CPF VJG UVCVG KP +PFKC", +PVGTPCVKQPCN 5QEKCN 5EKGPEG ,QWTPCN, 43 RCIGU 173-190 2CTCLWNK, 2. (1998) "*QY ECP HQWT VTGGU OCMG C ,WPING!", 6GTTC 0QXC, 3 (3 - 5WOOGT) RCIGU 15-31 2CTVTKFIG, 9., 7SWKNNCU, ,. CPF ,QJPU, −. (1996) "+PENWFKPI VJG ’ZENWFGF: ’VJPQFGXGNQROGPV KP .CVKP #OGTKEC", 2TGUGPVGF CV 6JG #PPWCN 9QTNF $CPM %QPHGTGPEG QP &GXGNQROGPV KP .CVKP #OGTKEC CPF VJG %CTKDDGCP, $QIQVC %QNQODKC ,WPG 30-,WN[ 2 1996 %QPHGTGPEG , 9CUJKPIVQP &%, 9QTNF $CPM, JVVR://YYY-YFU.YQTNFDCPM.QTI/UGTXNGV/9&5A+$CPMA5GTXNGV!REQPV=FGVCKNU&GKF=000012009A20031111141714 CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 , 2CU, ,. (1989) 6JG 6WTPKPI QH VJG 6KFG 4GNKIKQP KP %JKPC 6QFC[ VJG *QPI −QPI $TCPEJ QH VJG 4Q[CN #UKCVKE 5QEKGV[, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF 2CUU[, 5. (2001) "5RCVKCN 2CTCFKIOU QH .QVKE &KCVQO &KUVTKDWVKQP: # .CPFUECRG ’EQNQI[ 2GTURGEVKXG", ,QWTPCN QH 2J[EQNQI[, 37 (3) RCIGU 370-378(9) 2CVGTUQP, 4. (1999) "%GPVTCN #HTKECP 8QKEGU QP *WOCP-’PXKTQPOGPV 4GNCVKQPUJKR", +P 2QUG[, & (GF.), %WNVWTCN & 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +6 & 70’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 95-98 2CVVCPC[CM, &. (1988) "/QPQNKPIWCN /[QRKC CPF VJG 2GVCNU QH VJG +PFKCP .QVWU: &Q /CP[ .CPIWCIGU &KXKFG 1T 7PKVG C 0CVKQP!", +P 5MWVPCDD-−CPICU, 6. CPF %WOOKPU, ,. (GF.), /KPQTKV[ ’FWECVKQP, /WNVKNKPIWCN /CVVGTU, %NGXGFQP 7−, RCIGU 379-389 2%#56, (1998) 6GCOKPI 9KVJ .KHG: +PXGUVKPI KP 5EKGPEG VQ 7PFGTUVCPF CPF 7UG #OGTKEC'U .KXKPI %CRKVCN, 2CPGN QP $KQFKXGTUKV[ & ’EQU[UVGOU: 2TGUKFGPV'U %QWPEKN QH #FXKUQTU QP 5EKGPEG CPF 6GEJPQNQI[ (2%#56), 9CUJKPIVQP 2GCTEG, &. (1990) 2GCTEG, &. 9. 1990. #P GEQPQOKE CRRTQCEJ VQ UCXKPI VJG VTQRKECN HQTGUVU, &KUEWUUKQP 2CRGT 90-06, , .QPFQP ’PXKTQPOGPVCN ’EQPQOKEU %GPVTG .QPFQP 2GCTEG, (. "6TGG VJGQT[ KU EWV FQYP", 6JG )WCTFKCP (25/3/1999) 2GCV, & (1995) $NCEMHQQV 2J[UKEU, 4VJ ’UVCVGU .KOKVGF, .QPFQP 2GFGTUGP, 2. (1995) "0CVWTG 4GNKIKQP & %WNVWTCN +FGPVKV[: 6JG 4GNKIKQWU ’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUV 2CTCFKIO", +P $TWWP, 1. CPF −CNNCPF, #. (GF.), #UKCP 2GTEGRVKQP QH 0CVWTG, %WT\QP 2TGUU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 258-276 2GGV, 4. CPF 9CVVU, /. (1996) .KDGTCVKQP ’EQNQIKGU: ’PXKTQPOGPV &GXGNQROGPV 5QEKCN /QXGOGPVU, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP 2GK 5JGPILK (1993) "/CPCIKPI HQT $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[ %QPUGTXCVKQP KP 6GORNG ;CTFU CPF *QN[ *KNNU", +P *COKNVQP, .. (GF.), ’VJKEU 4GNKIKQP & $KQFKXGTUKV[, 6JG 9JKVG *QTUG 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG, RCIGU 118-132 2GK 5JGPILK (1999) "6JG *QN[ *KNNU QH VJG &CK", +P 2QUG[, &. (GF.), %WNVWTCN & 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +PVGTOGFKCVG 6GEJPQNQI[ 2TGUU CPF 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU ’PXKTQPOGPV 2TQITCOOG - 70’2, .QPFQP, RCIG 381 2GKUUGN, /. (1972) %CXCNKGTU QH −JCO: VJG 5GETGV 9CT KP 6KDGV, *GKPGOCPP, .QPFQP 2GPI, 9GPDKP (2002) "(TQPVKGT 2TQEGUU 2TQXKPEKCN 2QNKVKEU CPF /QXGOGPVU HQT −JCODC #WVQPQO[ FWTKPI VJG 4GRWDNKECP 2GTKQF", +P ’RUVGKP, .. (GF.), −JCOU RC *KUVQTKGU: 8KUKQPU QH 2GQRNG 2NCEG CPF #WVJQTKV[, $TKNN, .GKFGP, $QUVQP, −QNP, RCIGU 57-84 2GQRNG'U &CKN[ ")NQDCN 9CTOKPI VQ 4GFWEG )NCEKGTU (TQ\GP 5QKN 5PQY KP %JKPC", 6JG 2GQRNG'U &CKN[ (04/04/2003) 2GRRGT, &. (1993) ’EQ-5QEKCNKUO: (TQO &GGR ’EQNQI[ VQ 5QEKCN ,WUVKEG, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP 2GRRGT, &. (1996) /QFGTP ’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUO: #P +PVTQFWEVKQP, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP 2GTFWG, 2. (1987) ’ZJCWUVKPI VJG ’CTVJ: 5VCVG & 2GCUCPV KP *WPCP 1500-1850, *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG /# 2GTT[, ’. CPF 5GNFGP, /. (1999) %JKPGUG 5QEKGV[: %JCPIG %QPHNKEV CPF 4GUKUVCPEG, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP 2GTT[, ,. 0., .KGDJQNF, #., 4QUGPDGTI, /., &WPICP, ,., /KTKVK, /., ,CMQOWNUMC, #. CPF %KVTQP-2QWUV[, 5. (2002) "+NNWUVTCVKQPU CPF IWKFGNKPGU HQT UGNGEVKPI UVCVKUVKECN OGVJQFU HQT SWCPVKH[KPI URCVKCN RCVVGTP KP GEQNQIKECN FCVC", ’EQITCRJ[, 25 (5) RCIGU 578-600(23) 2GVGTW, %. (1995) "+PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU −PQYNGFIG CPF +PVGNNGEVWCN 2TQRGTV[ 4KIJVU", 2TGUGPVGF CV +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU −PQYNGFIG CPF +PVGNNGEVWCN 2TQRGTV[ 4KIJVU %QPUWNVCVKQP, 24 -27 #RTKN %QPHGTGPEG, 5WXC, (KLK, 2GWSWGV, &. (1994) "+V'U CDQWV VKOG: # EQPEGRVWCN HTCOGYQTM HQT VJG TGRTGUGPVCVKQP QH VGORQTCN F[PCOKEU KP )+5", #PPWNU QH VJG #UUQEKCVKQP QH #OGTKECP )GQITCRJGTU, 84 RCIGU 441-461 2KCIGV, ,. (1971) (QTKI 1967) $KQNQI[ & −PQYNGFIG, ’FKPDWTIJ 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, ’FKPDWTIJ 2KEMGTKPI, #. (1992) 5EKGPEG CU 2TCEVKEG & %WNVWTG, %JKECIQ 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %JKECIQ

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$KDNKQITCRJ[


2KEMNGU, ,. (1991) ")GQITCRJ[ )+5 CPF VJG UWTXGKNNCPV UQEKGV[", 2CRGTU CPF 2TQEGGFKPIU QH #RRNKGF )GQITCRJ[ %QPHGTGPEGU, 14 RCIGU 80-91 2KGTQVVK, 4. CPF 9KNFECV, &. (1999) "6TCFKVKQPCN −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’PXKTQPOGPV", 9CUJKPIVQP 2QUV (22/11/1998) 2QOHTGV, ,. "%JKPC'U )KCPV &CO (CEGU *WIG 2TQDNGOU", 9CUJKPIVQP 2QUV : (QTGKIP 5GTXKEG (7/1/2001 ) , RCIG #01 JVVR://YYY.KTP.QTI/RTQITCOU/VJTGGI/010201.3IRTQDNGOU.JVON CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 2QRG, %., (1997) 4GOCTMU OCFG CV VJG U[ORQUKWO QP TGNKIKQP UEKGPEG & GPXKTQPOGPV 0QX 6-8 1997, %JTKUVKCP ’EQNQI[, 5CPVC $CTDCTC CV JVVR://YYY.EJTKUVKCPGEQNQI[.QTI/%CTN2QRG.JVON , CEEGUUGF 3TF /CTEJ 2004 2QTQFQPI, 2. (2000) "$QDQNK\CP, (QTGUVU CPF )GPFGT 4GNCVKQPU KP 5CDCJ, /CNC[UKC", )GPFGT, 6GEJPQNQI[ CPF &GXGNQROGPV, 5 (1) RCIGU 63-90 2QTVGQWU, #. (1928) 6JG .QTG QH VJG (QTGUV: /[VJU CPF .GIGPFU, )WGTPUG[ 2TGUU %Q. .VF, )WGTPUG[ 2QUG[, &. (1989) "#NVGTPCVKXGU VQ HQTGUV FGUVTWEVKQP: .GUUQPU HTQO VJG /GDGPIQMTG +PFKCPU", 6JG ’EQNQIKUV, 19 RCIGU 241-244 2QUG[, &. (1995) +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU CPF 6TCFKVKQPCN 4GUQWTEG 4KIJVU: # $CUKU HQT ’SWKVCDNG 4GNCVKQPUJKRU!, )TGGP %QNNGIG %GPVTG, 1ZHQTF 2QUG[, & GF. (1999) 5RKTKVWCN & %WNVWTCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +PVGTOGFKCVG 6GEJPQNQI[ 2WDNKECVKQPU CPF 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU ’PXKTQPOGPV 2TQITCOOG - 70’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’. (1996) 6GUVKPI %TKVGTKC CPF +PFKECVQTU HQT VJG 5WUVCKPCDNG /CPCIGOGPV QH (QTGUVU: 2JCUG 1, (KPCN 4GRQTV %+(14 2WDNKECVKQP, %+(14, $QIQT 2TCOQF 2CTCLWNK (1999) "2GCUCPV %QUOQXKUKQPU CPF $KQFKXGTUKV[: 5QOG 4GHNGEVKQPU (TQO 5QWVJ #UKC", +P +PVGTOGFKCVG 6GEJPQNQI[/70’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 385-388 2TCUCF, 2. CPF ’NOGU, /. (2005) "# 4GURQPUG VQ 6KO 0GYVQP.", ,QWTPCN QH /CPCIGOGPV 5VWFKGU, 42 (4) RCIGU 885-887 2TKEG, 4. (1803) 6YQ 1DUGTXCVKQPU QP 4GXGTUKQPCT[ 2C[OGPVU 6VJ ’FKVKQP, 9 /QTICP, .QPFQP 2TKGUV, #-/. (2002) "# FKHHGTGPV SWCNKV[: *[RGTVGZV, RQUVOQFGTPKUO, CPF FKUGSWKNKDTKWO", 2TGUGPVGF CV 3WCNKV[ %QPXGTUCVKQPU: *’4&5# 2002 7-10VJ ,WN[ 2002 %QPHGTGPEG , 2GTVJ, 9GUVGTP #WUVTCNKC, 6JG *KIJGT ’FWECVKQP 4GUGCTEJ CPF &GXGNQROGPV 5QEKGV[ QH #WUVTCNCUKC, RCIGU 537-543, JVVR://YYY.GEW.GFW.CW/EQPHGTGPEGU/JGTFUC/OCKP/RCRGTU/TGH/RFH/2TKGUV.RFH CEEGUUGF 18VJ ,WN[ 2005, 2TKIQIKPG, +. CPF 5VGPIGTU, +. (1984) 1TFGT 1WV QH %JCQU: /GP'U 0GY &KCNQIWG YKVJ 0CVWTG, $CPVCO $QQMU, 0GY ;QTM 2TQUJCPUM[, *. (1978) "6JG EKV[ CPF UGNH-KFGPVKV[", ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF $GJCXKQWT, 10 RCIGU 147-169

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http://www.irn.org/programs/threeg/010201.3gproblems.html

http://www.christianecology.org/CarlPope.html

http://www.mega.nu:8080/ampp/

http://www.ecu.edu.au/conferences/herdsa/main/papers/ref/pdf/Priest.pdf


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2TQUJCPUM[, *., (CDKCP, #. CPF −COKPQHH, 4. (1983) "2NCEG-KFGPVKV[: RJ[UKECN YQTNF UQEKCNK\CVKQP QH VJG UGNH.", ,QWTPCN QH ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2U[EJQNQI[, 3 (1) RCIGU 57-83 3KCP ;, 3KCP $, 5W $, ;W ,, −G ;, %JW <, 5JK ., .W &, %JW ,, ,KP . (2001) "5VWF[ QP VJG OWNVKRNG QTKIKPU QH 6KDGVCP WUKPI ; EJTQOQUQOG 502 OCTMGTU", 2TGUGPVGF CV *WOCP )GPQOG 2001 %QPHGTGPEG , ’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’&#/$# 5WOOGT #ECFGO[, 5QTG\G, (TCPEG ,WN[ 2005 JVVR://GFCODC.YW-YKGP.CE.CV/2CRGT%20/WJCOOCF%206CJKT%204CHKSWG.FQE CEEGUUGF 20VJ /C[ 2006 4CJWNC, 9. (1990) 9JCV VJG $WFFJC 6CWIJV 4GXKUGF ’FKVKQP, 9KUFQO, .QPFQP 4CLCP, 5. CPF 5GVJWTCOO, /. (1993) "+PFKIGPQWU HQNM RTCEVKEGU COQPI 0KNIKTK +TWNCU", +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG & &GXGNQROGPV /QPKVQT, 1 (3) RCIGU 19-20 4CODNG, %. (1993) "9JKVJGT +PFGGF VJG 6UCORC ’CVGTU", *KOCN, 5GRV/1EV RCIGU 21-22-25 4CODNG, %. (1997) "6JG %TGCVKQP QH VJG $QP /QWPVCKP QH −KPIRQ", +P /CEFQPCNF, #. (GF.), /CPFCNC & .CPFUECRG, & − 2TKPVYQTNF, 0GY &GNJK, RCIGU 133-232 4CODNG, %. (1998), "6JG %NCUUKHKECVKQP QH 6GTTKVQTKCN &KXKPKVKGU KP 2CICP CPF $WFFJKUV 4KVWCNU QH 5QWVJ /WUVCPI", +P $NQPFGCW, #-/.CPF 5VGKPMGNNPGT, ’. (GF.), 6KDGVCP /QWPVCKP &GKVKGU: 6JGKT %WNVU CPF 4GRTGUGPVCVKQPU, 8GTNCI FGT 1UVGTTGKEJKUEJGP #MCFGOKG FGT 9KUUGPUEJCHVGP, 9KGP, 4CODNG, %. (2000) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 13VJ ,CP 2000 CDQWV $QPRQ 5RKTKVWCN ’EQNQI[, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/TCODNG.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 4CODNG, %. (2003) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 2PF ,WPG 2003 CDQWV ;WN-NJC CPF 5CTPC, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/4CODNG2603.JVO CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 4CODNG, %. CPF $TCWGP, %. (1993) #PVJTQRQNQI[ QH 6KDGV CPF VJG *KOCNC[C, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH <WTKEJ, <WTKEJ 4CVUEJ, %. (2005) 6JG ’PE[ENQRCGFKC QH 2U[EJQCEVKXG 2NCPVU: ’VJPQRJCTOCEQNQI[ CPF +VU #RRNKECVKQPU, 2CTM 5VTGGV 2TGUU, 4QEJGUVGT, 86 JVVR://YYY.DQWPEKPIDGCTDQVCPKECNU.EQO/DQQMVJG-GPE[ENQRGFKC-RU[EJQCEVKXG-RNCPVU-R-405.JVON, CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 4CXGP 5KPENCKT, (/CTEJ 2003) 2#4 CPF #DQTKIKPCN ’RKUVGOQNQI[: # TGCNN[ IQQF HKV, CV JVVR://YYY.CDQTKIKPCNUQEKCNYQTM.EC/URGEKCNAVQRKEU/RCT/GRKUVGOQNQI[.JVO , CEEGUUGF 14VJ ,WN[ 2005 4CYCV, #. (1982) "#FOKPKUVTCVKQP QH .CPF 4GXGPWG KP $TKVKUJ )CTJYCN 5VCVG (1856-1900)", 3WCTVGTN[ 4GXKGY QH *KUVQTKECN 5VWFKGU (%CNEWVVC), 21 (2 CPF 3) 4GFENKHV, /. (1987) 5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV: ’ZRNQTKPI VJG %QPVTCFKEVKQPU, /GVJWGP, .QPFQP & 0GY ;QTM 4GFENKHV, /. (1992) "6JG /GCPKPI QH UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV", )GQHQTWO, 23 RCIGU 395-403 4GFENKHV, /. (1996) 9CUVGF: %QWPVKPI VJG %QUVU QH )NQDCN %QPUWORVKQP, ’CTVJUECP, .QPFQP 4GFHKGNF, 4. (1955) "6JG 5QEKCN 1TICPKUCVKQP QH 6TCFKVKQP", (CT ’CUVGTP 3WCTVGTN[, 15 RCIGU 13-22 4GFHQTF, −. (1991) "6JG GEQNQIKECNN[ PQDNG UCXCIG", %WNVWTCN 5WTXKXCN 3WCTVGTN[, 15 (1) RCIGU 46-48 4GKEJ, %. (1971) 6JG )TGGPKPI QH #OGTKEC, 2GPIWKP, *CTOQPFUYQTVJ 7− 4GKEJGN, ’. (1992) "5JCOCPKUVKE /QFGU HQT GPXKTQPOGPVCN CEEQWPVKPI KP VJG %QNQODKCP #OC\QP: .GUUQPU HTQO +PFKIGPQWU GVJPQ-GEQNQI[ HQT 5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV", 2TGUGPVGF CV +PVGTPCVKQPCN 5[ORQUKWO QP +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG CPF 5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV 20-26 5GRVGODGT 1992. %QPHGTGPEG, 5KNCPI, 2JKNNKRKPGU, +PVGTPCVKQPCN +PUVKVWVG QH 4WTCN 4GEQPUVTWEVKQP (++44), 4GKEJGN, ’. (1999) ")GPFGT $CUGF −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU KP VJG ’EQ-2QNKVKEU QH VJG ;WMWPC CPF 6CPKOWMC QH 0QTVJYGUV #OC\QP, %QNWODKC", +P 2QUG[, &. (GF.), %WNVWTCN CPF 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +PVGTOGFKCVG 6GEJPQNQI[/ 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQITCOOG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 82-86 4GKEJGN-&QNOCVQHH, ). (1996) 6JG (QTGUV 9KVJKP: 6JG 9QTNF 8KGY QH VJG 6WMCPQ #OC\QPKCP +PFKCPU., %QWPEKN 1CM $QQMU, 6WNUC, 1MNCJQOC, 75# 4GKF, 9. CPF /KNGT, −. (1993) −GGRKPI 1RVKQPU #NKXG: 6JG 5EKGPVKHKE $CUKU HQT %QPUGTXKPI $KQFKXGTUKV[, 9QTNF 4GUQWTEGU +PUVKVWVG, 9CUJKPIVQP 4GKVGT, ’. (1981) "6JG 6KDGV %QPPGEVKQP", 0CVWTCN *KUVQT[, 7 RCIGU 65-70

http://www.asa2000.anthropology.ac.uk/rack/rack.html

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/adina11104.htm

http://edamba.wu-wien.ac.at/Paper Muhammad Tahir Rafique.doc

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/ramble.pdf

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/Ramble2603.htm

http://www.bouncingbearbotanicals.com/bookthe-encyclopedia-psychoactive-plants-p-405.html

http://www.aboriginalsocialwork.ca/special_topics/par/epistemology.htm


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4G[PQNFU, ,. (1989) 6JG $QPRQ 6TCFKVKQPU QH &\QIEJGP, 8KF[CFJCTC +PUVKVWVG, $GTMGNG[ %CNKHQTPKC 4KDG, 4. CPF /CVVGUQP, /. (2002) "8KGYU QH QNF HQTGUVT[ CPF PGY COQPI TGHGTGPEG ITQWRU KP VJG 2CEKHKE 0QTVJYGUV", 9GUVGTP ,QWTPCN QH #RRNKGF (QTGUVT[, 17 (4) RCIGU 173-182(10) 4KEJ, $. (1994) /QTVICIKPI VJG ’CTVJ: 6JG 9QTNF $CPM ’PXKTQPOGPVCN +ORQXGTKUJOGPV CPF VJG %TKUKU QH &GXGNQROGPV, ’CTVJUECP, .QPFQP 4KEJCTFU, 2. (1980) "%QOOWPKV[ ’PXKTQPOGPVCN −PQYNGFIG KP #HTKECP 4WTCN &GXGNQROGPV", +P $TQEMGPUJC, &., 9CTTGP, &. CPF 9GTPGT, 1. (GF.), +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU & &GXGNQROGPV, 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU QH #OGTKEC, .CPJCO /&, RCIGU 183-195 4KEJCTFU, 2. (1985) +PFKIGPQWU #ITKEWNVWTCN 4GXQNWVKQP: ’EQNQI[ & (QQF 2TQFWEVKQP KP 9GUV #HTKEC, *WVEJKPUQP, .QPFQP 4KEJCTFUQP, %., .GG, 4. CPF /KNNGT, /. (1996) "6JKPMKPI CDQWV ’EQNQI[: %QIPKVKQP QH 2CEKHKE 0QTVJYGUV (QTGUV /CPCIGTU CETQUU &KXGTUG +PUVKVWVKQPU", *WOCP 1TICPK\CVKQP, 55 (3) RCIGU 314-323 4KEJCTFUQP, &. (1988) "6JG (QTGUV ’EQPQO[ QH 6KDGV", %QOOQPYGCNVJ (QTGUVT[ 4GXKGY, 67 (3) RCIGU 253-262 4KEJCTFUQP, &. (1990) (QTGUVU CPF (QTGUVT[ KP %JKPC : %JCPIKPI 2CVVGTPU QH 4GUQWTEG /CPCIGOGPV, +UNCPF 2TGUU, 9CUJKPIVQP &% 4KEJCTFUQP, *. (1986) #FXGPVWTGU QH C 6KDGVCP (KIJVKPI /QPM, 6JG 6COCTKPF 2TGUU, $CPIMQM 4KEJCTFUQP, ., 1994, 9TKVKPI: # OGVJQF QH KPSWKT[. +P 0QTOCP −. &GP\KP CPF ;XQPPC 5. .KPEQNP (’FU.), *CPFDQQM QH 3WCNKVCVKXG 4GUGCTEJ. 6JQWUCPF 1CMU, %#: 5CIG. 4KUV 5, <., # CPF 9KGUOCPP, 7. (2004) "(TQO GRKUVGOKE OQPQEWNVWTG VQ EQQRGTCVKQP DGVYGGP GRKUVGOKE EQOOWPKVKGU - NGUUQPU NGCTPV HTQO FGXGNQROGPV TGUGCTEJ", 2TGUGPVGF CV $TKFIKPI UECNGU CPF GRKUVGOQNQIKGU: .KPMKPI NQECN MPQYNGFIG CPF INQDCN UEKGPEG KP OWNVK-UECNG CUUGUUOGPVU 17-20 /CTEJ 2004 %QPHGTGPEG, #NGZCPFTKC ’I[RV, /’#, 4KV\GT, ). (1993) 6JG /EFQPCNFK\CVKQP QH 5QEKGV[, 5CIG, .QPFQP 4KXCN, .. (1999) "6TGGU CPF VJG 5[ODQNKUO QH .KHG KP +PFKIGPQWU %QUOQNQIKGU ", +P 2QUG[, &. (GF.), %WNVWTCN CPF 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +PVGTOGFKCVG 6GEJPQNQI[/70’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 358-362 4QDGTV, ,., (1999) *KUVQT[ QH 5RCEG 2GTEGRVKQPU +++ # UGPUG QH RNCEG: 5QOG JKUVQTKECN U[ODQNU O[VJU CPF TKVWCNU QH "RNCEGPGUU", CV JVVR://YYY.RWFGN.WPK-DTGOGP.FG/RFH/*52#%’3.RFH , CEEGUUGF 17VJ 0QX 2003 4QDGTVU, 6.CPF *TWD[, 2. (1997) 4GNKIKQP CPF 2U[EJQCEVKXG 5CETCOGPVU: #P ’PVJGQIGP %JTGUVQOCVJ[, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM 4QDGTVUQP, 6. CPF $GCUNG[, & (WPFCVGF) %QIPKVKXG #PVJTQRQNQI[, &GRCTVOGPV QH #PVJTQRQNQI[ %QNNGIG QH #TVU CPF 5EKGPEGU 6JG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH #NCDCOC, CV JVVR://YYY.CU.WC.GFW/CPV/(CEWNV[/OWTRJ[/436/EQICPVJ.JVO , CEEGUUGF 26VJ 5GRV 2005 4QDKPUQP, 4. CPF ,QJPUQP, 9. (1982) 6JG $WFFJKUV 4GNKIKQP 3TF ’FKVKQP, &KEMGPUQP 4QEJGNGCW &, 6.-5., $ CPF ’FOWPFU, &. (1995C) ")GPFGTGF 4GUQWTEG /CRRKPI: (QEWUKPI QP 9QOGP'U 5RCEGU KP VJG .CPFUECRG", %WNVWTCN 5WTXKXCN 3WCTVGTN[, 18 (4) RCIGU 62-68 4QEM, , (1930C) 5GGMKPI VJG /QWPVCKPU QH /[UVGT[ - #P ’ZRGFKVKQP QP VJG %JKPC-6KDGV (TQPVKGT VQ VJG 7PGZRNQTGF #OP[K /CEJGP 4CPIG, 0CVKQPCN )GQITCRJKE /CIC\KPG, 8QN. 57, RCIGU.131-185. 4QEM, ,. (1930D) "6JG )NQTKGU QH /KP[C −QPMC", 6JG 0CVKQPCN )GQITCRJKE /CIC\KPG, .8+++ (4) RCIGU 385-437 4QFOCP, ,. (1980) "2CTCFKIO %JCPIG KP 2QNKVKECN 5EKGPEG: #P ’EQNQIKECN 2GTURGEVKXG", #OGTKECP $GJCXKQWTCN 5EKGPVKUV, 24 RCIGU 49-78 4QG, ’. (1991) "&GXGNQROGPV PCTTCVKXGU QT OCMKPI VJG DGUV QH DNWGRTKPV FGXGNQROGPV", 9QTNF &GXGNQROGPV, 18 (4) RCIGU 287-300 4QIGTU, ,. (1866) # *KUVQT[ QH #ITKEWNVWTG CPF 2TKEGU KP ’PINCPF 7 8QNU, %NCTGPFQP 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF 4QIGTU, ,. (1990) $TGCMKPI 7R VJG ’CUVGTP $NQE KP VJG (QTGTWPPGT +PVGTPCVKQPCN, /GFKC *QWUG +PVGTPCVKQPCN, /GNDQTPG (. 4QJT, 4. "9G PGGF VTCPUHQTOCVKQP PQV HCNUG 6TCPUEGPFGPEG", 0CVKQPCN %CVJQNKE 4GRQTVGT (15/2/2002) 4QMGCEJ, /. (1973) 6JG 0CVWTG QH *WOCP 8CNWGU, (TGG 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM 4QNUVQP, *. CPF %QWHCN, ,. (1991) "# HQTGUV ’VJKE CPF OWNVKXCTKCVG HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV", ,QWTPCN QH (QTGUVT[, 89 RCIG 35 4QQUGXGNV, 6 & −, (1929) 6TCKNKPI VJG )TGCV 2CPFC, 0GY ;QTM & .QPFQP 4QTV[, 4. (1979) 2JKNQUQRJ[ CPF VJG /KTTQT QH 0CVWTG, 2TKPEGVQP 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 2TKPEGVQP 4QUG, &. (2001) "5CETGF 5KVGU #PEGUVTCN %NGCTKPI CPF ’PXKTQPOGPVCN ’VJKEU", +P 4WOUG[, #. CPF 9GKPGT, &.,. (GF.), ’ORNCEGF /[VJ: 5RCEG 0CTTCVKXG CPF −PQYNGFIG KP #DQTKIKPCN #WUVTCNKC CPF 2CRWC 0GY )WKPGC, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH *CYCKK'U 2TGUU, *QPQNWNW, RCIG 109 4QUGPDGTI, /., 5QMCN, 4., 1FGP, 0. CPF &K)KQXCPPK, &. (1999) "5RCVKCN CWVQEQTTGNCVKQP QH ECPEGT KP 9GUVGTP ’WTQRG", ’WTQRGCP LQWTPCN QH ’RKFGOKQNQI[, 15 RCIGU 15-22

http://www.pudel.uni-bremen.de/pdf/HSPACE3.pdf

http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/436/coganth.htm


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4QUGPDGTI, /. (1998-2004) 2CUUCIG : 2CVVGTP CPCN[UKU, URCVKCN UVCVKUVKEU CPF )GQITCRJKE ’ZQIGUKU, XGTUKQP 1.1 4QUGPDGTI, /5 6GORG, #< 85287-4501 4QUGPDGTI, /. (2000) "6JG $GCTKPI %QTTGNQITCO: # 0GY /GVJQF QH #PCN[\KPI &KTGEVKQPCN 5RCVKCN #WVQEQTTGNCVKQP", )GQITCRJKECN #PCN[UKU, 32 (3) RCIGU 267-278 4QUGPDGTI, /. (2001) 2CUUCIG: 2CVVGTP #PCN[UKU, 5RCVKCN 5VCVKUVKEU CPF )GQITCRJKE ’ZQIGUKU - 8GTUKQP 1, &GRCTVOGPV QH $KQNQI[, #TK\QPC 5VCVG 7PKXGTUKV[, 6GORG, #< 4QUU, .. (1988) ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2QNKE[ KP %JKPC, +PFKCPC 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, $NQQOKPIVQP 4QUUDCEJ, 5. (1983) (GPIUJWK: 6JG %JKPGUG #TV QH 2NCEGOGPV, 2GPIWKP, 0; 4QU\CM, 6. (1995) "6JG 5RKTKV QH VJG )QFFGUU", +P 4QU\CM, 6., )QOGU, /. CPF −CPPGT, #. (GF.), ’EQRU[EJQNQI[: 4GUVQTKPI VJG ’CTVJ, *GCNKPI VJG /KPF,, 5KGTTC %NWD $QQMU, 5CP (TCPUKUEQ, RCIGU 288-300 4QVJ, 4. "5RCVKCN 1TICPK\CVKQP QH ’PXKTQPOGPVCN −PQYNGFIG: %QPUGTXCVKQP %QPHNKEVU KP VJG +PJCDKVGF (QTGUV QH 0QTVJGTP 6JCKNCPF", ’EQNQI[ CPF 5QEKGV[, 9 (3 #TVKENG 5) JVVR://YYY.GEQNQI[CPFUQEKGV[.QTI/XQN9/KUU3/CTV5/OCKP.JVON CEEGUUGF 6VJ #WIWUV 2005 4QWVNGFIG, 2. (1993) 6GTTCKPU QH 4GUKUVCPEG: 0QPXKQNGPV 5QEKCN /QXGOGPVU CPF VJG %QPVGUVCVKQP QH 2NCEG KP +PFKC, 2TCGIGT, .QPFQP 4QYETQHV, 2., 5VWFNG[, ,. CPF 9CTF, −., (2005) ’NKEKVKPI (QTGUV 8CNWGU CPF 'EWNVWTCN NQUU' HQT %QOOWPKV[ 2NCPVCVKQPU CPF 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCVKQP, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/(QTXCN.2&( CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 4WFFNG, −. CPF <JQPI, ). (1988) +PVGITCVGF #ITKEWNVWTG-#SWCEWNVWTG KP 5QWVJ %JKPC: 6JG &KMG-2QPF 5[UVGO QH VJG <JWLKCPI &GNVC, %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG 4WPFUVTWO, 4. (1995) ")+5 KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CPF GRKUVGOQNQIKECN FKXGTUKV[", %CTVQITCRJ[ & )+5, 22 (1) RCIGU 45-57 4[FGT, /. (1997) "#DFWEVKXG .QIKE: 2TKOCT[ UMKNN HQT C RQUV-OQFGTP GTC", 2TGUGPVGF CV #OGTKECP ’FWECVKQPCN 4GUGCTEJ #UUQEKCVKQP 1997 #PPWCN /GGVKPI %QPHGTGPEG #OGTKECP ’FWECVKQPCN 4GUGCTEJ #UUQEKCVKQP, JVVR://YYY.EWFGPXGT.GFW/‘OT[FGT/UGOKQVKEUA97.JVON, CEEGUUGF 12VJ &GE 2003 5CEJU, 9. (1992) 6JG &GXGNQROGPV &KEVKQPCT[, <GF $QQMU, .QPFQP 5CJVQWTKU, ’. (1992) "6JG 5WTXKXCN 2CVJ: %QQRGTCVKQP DGVYGGP +PFKIGPQWU CPF +PFWUVTKCN *WOCPKV[", 2TGUGPVGF CV 70 2QNKE[ /GGVKPI QP +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU 5CPVKCIQ %JKNG /C[ 1992 %QPHGTGPEG 5CJVQWTKU, ’., (1995) ’CTVJFCPEG: .KXKPI U[UVGOU KP ’XQNWVKQP, ’ 5CJVQWTKU, CV JVVR://YYY.TCVKECN.QTI/.KHG9GD/’TVJFPEG/ , CEEGUUGF 19 VJ #RTKN 2004 5CJVQWTKU, ’. (1995) "6JG +PFKIGPQWU 9C[", +P 5CJVQWTKU, ’. (GF.), ’#46*&#0%’: .KXKPI 5[UVGOU KP ’XQNWVKQP =#DTKFIGF?, JVVR://VYO.EQ.P\/5CJVAKPFKIAYC[.JVON CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 5CKF, ’. (1979) 1TKGPVCNKUO =2CRGTDCEM 4GRTKPV?, 8KPVCIG $QQMU, 0GY ;QTM 5CKF, ’. (1993) %WNVWTG CPF +ORGTKCNKUO, #NHTGF # −PQRH, 0GY ;QTM 5CNCU, /., 6KNNOCPP, *. CPF :W ,KCPEJW (2000) "+PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU RGTURGEVKXGU KP VJG 21UV EGPVWT[ KP ;WPPCP", 2TGUGPVGF CV ’%#4&% 8+ EQPHGTGPEG .GKFGP %QPHGTGPEG , −WPOKPI, %$+−, 5CNNPQY, /. (1987) 2KNITKOU QH VJG #PFGU: 4GIKQPCN %WNVU KP %WUEQ, 5OKVJUQPKCP +PUVKVWVKQP 2TGUU, 9CUJKPIVQP &% 5COWCN, 8. CPF 5WIFGP, %. (1982) ’XCPIGNKUO CPF VJG 2QQT: # 6JKTF 9QTNF 5VWF[ )WKFG, 2CTVPGTUJKR KP /KUUKQP-#UKC, 1ZHQTF 5COWGN, ). (1992) )G 5CT QH .KPI: 6JG 1TKIKPU CPF /GCPKPI QH VJG ’CUV 6KDGVCP ’RKE KP 4GRQTV 0Q 2 711-722 (’FU 5JQTGP & <WKJQ) 5VJ 5GOKPCT - /QPQITCRJ 5GTKGU, 0CTKVCUCP +PUVKVWVG HQT $WFFJKUV 5VWFKGU 1EECUKQPCN 2CRGTU 5. 5916655000, 0GYECUVNG 059 5COWGN, ). (1993C) %KXKNK\GF 5JCOCPU: $WFFJKUO KP 6KDGVCP 5QEKGVKGU, 5OKVJUQPKCP +PUVKVWVG 2TGUU, 9CUJKPIVQP &% 5COWGN, ). (1993D) "5JCOCPKUO $QP CPF 6KDGVCP 4GNKIKQP", +P 4CODNG, %. CPF $TCWGP, /. (GF.), #PVJTQRQNQI[ QH 6KDGV CPF VJG *KOCNC[C (GFU. 4CODNG & $TCWGP), 7PKXGTUKV[ QH <WTKEJ, <WTKEJ, RCIGU 318-330 5COWGN, ). (2002C) "6JG ’RKE CPF 0CVKQPCNKUO KP 6KDGV", +P 2GPP[ $GPLCOKP (GF.), 4GNKIKQP CPF $KQITCRJ[ KP %JKPC CPF 6KDGV, %WT\QP 2TGUU, 4KEJOQPF 5WTTG[, JVVR://WUGTUJWPVGTNKPMPGVCW/‘ODDIDU/)GQHHTG[/IGUCTRQN.JVON CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 5COWGN, ). (2002) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 12VJ #WI 2002 CDQWV ’PXKTQPOGPVCN RGTEGRVKQP, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/UCOWGN12802.VZV CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 5CPFGTU, $., (PF) 6JG 4GDGEEC 4KQVU, CV JVVR://YYY.CPIGNHKTG.EQO/IC/$QD5CPFGTU/4’$’%%#.JVON , CEEGUUGF 15VJ ,WPG 2005 5CTKP, /. (2001) "&KUGORQYGTOGPV KP VJG PCOG QH 'RCTVKEKRCVQT[' HQTGUVT[!- XKNNCIG HQTGUVU LQKPV OCPCIGOGPV KP 7VVCTCMJCPF", (QTGUVU 6TGGU & 2GQRNG 0GYUNGVVGT, 44 RCIGU 26-35

http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss3/art5/main.html

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/Forval.PDF

http://www.cudenver.edu/~mryder/semiotics_97.html

http://www.ratical.org/LifeWeb/Erthdnce/

http://twm.co.nz/Saht_indig_way.html

http://usershunterlinknetau/~mbbgbs/Geoffrey/gesarpol.html

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/samuel12802.txt

http://www.angelfire.com/ga/BobSanders/REBECCA.html


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5CTWR, /. (1988) #P +PVTQFWEVQT[ )WKFG VQ 2QUV-5VTWEVWTCNKUO CPF 2QUVOQFGTPKUO, *CTXGUVGT 9JGCVUJGCH, 0GY ;QTM 5CVVGTHKGNF, 6. (1997) "8QQFQQ 5EKGPEG CPF %QOOQP 5GPUG: 9C[U QH −PQYKPI 1NF-)TQYVJ (QTGUVU", ,QWTPCN QH #PVJTQRQNQIKECN 4GUGCTEJ, 53 (2) RCIGU 443-459 5CVVGTHKGNF, 6. (2001) "+P 5GCTEJ QH 8CNWG .KVGTCE[: 5WIIGUVKQPU HQT VJG ’NKEKVCVKQP QH ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 8CNWGU", ’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’PXKTQPOGPVCN %QPUGTXCVKQP $CUGF QP 5CETGF 5KVGU", +P 2QUG[, & (GF.), %WNVWTCN & 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +6 & 70’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 341-342 5EJCNNGT, ). (1998) %QOOGPVU QP VJG *CKNWQIQW 4GUGTXG (’PINKUJ & %JKPGUG), 9KNFNKHG %QPUGTXCVKQP 5QEKGV[ 0GY ;QTM 5EJGEJVGT, &. (2000) (CNWP )QPI'U %JCNNGPIG VQ %JKPC: 5RKTKVWCN 2TCEVKEG QT '’XKN %WNV', #MCUJKE $QQMU, 0GY ;QTM 5EJGKP, . (1989) "6JG &[PCOKEU QH %WNVWTCN 4GXKXCN #OQPI VJG /KCQ KP )WK\JQW", +P %JKCQ, 6CRR 0 (GF.), ’VJPKEKV[ CPF ’VJPKE ITQWRU KP %JKPC, 0GY #UKC %QNNGIG, 5JCVKP, RCIGU 199-212 5EJGNJCU, ,. (2003) "0GY 6TGPFU KP (QTGUV 2QNKE[ CPF /CPCIGOGPV: #P ’OGTIKPI 2QUV-OQFGTP #RRTQCEJ!", +P 6GGVGT, .., %CUJQTG, $. CPF <JCPI, &. (GF.), (QTGUV 2QNKE[ HQT 2TKXCVG (QTGUVT[: )NQDCN CPF 4GIKQPCN %JCNNGPIGU, %#$ +PVGTPCVKQPCN, 9CNNKPIHQTF, RCIGU 17-27 5EJKNNGT, ,. (1795) )JQUVUGGT, 8GTPQT CPF *QQF, .QPFQP 5EJKRRGT, −. (1993) 6JG 6CQKUV $QF[, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, $GTMGNG[, %CNKHQTPKC; .QPFQP 5EJTQGFGT, *. (1996C) "’EQNQI[ QH VJG *GCTV: 7PFGTUVCPFKPI *QY 2GQRNG ’ZRGTKGPEG 0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVU", +P ’YGTV, #. (GF.), 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEG /CPCIGOGPV: 6JG *WOCP &KOGPUKQP, 9GUVXKGY 2TGUU, $QWNFGT %1, RCIGU 13-27 5EJTQGFGT, *. (1996D) 8QKEGU HTQO /KEJKICP'U $NCEM 4KXGT: 1DVCKPKPI +PHQTOCVKQP QP "5RGEKCN 2NCEGU" HQT 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEG 2NCPPKPI: )GPGTCN 6GEJPKECN 4GRQTV 0%-184, , 75&#-(5 0QTVJ %GPVTCN (QTGUV ’ZRGTKOGPV 5VCVKQP 5EJTQGFGT, *., (2001) /[VJKECN &KOGPUKQPU QH 6TGGU: 6JGKT 4GNCVKQP VQ VJG *WOCP 2U[EJG CU 4GHNGEVGF KP &TGCOU, /[VJU, CPF %WNVWTCN 6TCFKVKQPU, 75&# (QTGUV 5GTXKEG, %JKECIQ CV JVVR://YYY.IUGPGV.QTI/NKDTCT[/08HQT/VTGGO[VJ.RJR , CEEGUUGF 2PF 5GRVGODGT 2005 5EJTQGFGT, *. (2002) "’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−. (1986) "5CETGF 9QTNF 8KGYU & ’EQNQI[ KP 0GRCN", +P 5GGNCPF, −. (GF.), 4GEGPV TGUGCTEJ KP 0GRCN, 9GNVHQTWO 8GTNCI, −QNP, RCIGU 187-198 5GGNCPF, −. (1993) "5CPUMTKVKUCVKQP CPF ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2GTEGRVKQP #OQPI 6KDGVQ-$WTOCP 5RGCMKPI )TQWRU", +P 4CODNG, %. CPF $TCWGP, /. (GF.), #PVJTQRQNQI[ QH 6KDGV CPF VJG *KOCNC[C, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH <WTKEJ, <WTKEJ, RCIGU 123-143 5GYGNN, 9. (1940) 6JG %QPUVTWEVKQP CPF 5VCPFCTFK\CVKQP QH C 5ECNG HQT VJG /GCUWTGOGPV QH VJG 5QEKQ-’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’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 93-94 5JGRJGTF, ). (1986) "(QTGUV 2QNKEKGU, (QTGUV 2QNKVKEU", 5QEKCN (QTGUVT[ 0GVYQTM 0GYUNGVVGT, 0GVYQTM 2CRGT3C

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/Satterfield19503.htm

http://wwwarc.murdoch.edu.au/asiaview/nov00/sayers.html

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/sayers7502.txt

http://www.gsenet.org/library/08for/treemyth.php


$KDNKQITCRJ[


5JGRRCTF, ’. (1995) ")+5 CPF UQEKGV[: 6QYCTFU C TGUGCTEJ CIGPFC", %CTVQITCRJ[ & )+5, 22 (1) RCIGU 5-16 5JGTOGT, / 2002 6JG 5JCOCPU QH 5EKGPVKUO, 5EKGPVKHKE #OGTKECP, 286 (6) RCIG 35 5JGTRC, .. (2003) "5CETGF $G[WNU CPF $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[ %QPUGTXCVKQP KP VJG *KOCNC[CU", 2TGUGPVGF CV +PVGTPCVKQPCN 9QTMUJQR QP VJG +ORQTVCPEG QH 5CETGF 0CVWTCN 5KVGU HQT $KQFKXGTUKV[ %QPUGTXCVKQP %QPHGTGPEG , −WPOKPI CPF :KUJWCPIDCPPC $KQURJGTG 4GUGTXG, 2GQRNG'U 4GRWDNKE QH %JKPC, 17-20 (GDTWCT[ 2003, 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU ’FWECVKQPCN, 5EKGPVKHKE CPF %WNVWTCN 1TICPK\CVKQP (70’5%1), 2CTKU, 5JK *QPI, &QPI ;QPINK, .K 9GKZKCPI, ;CPI ,KG, .K −CK[WCP, <CP 4WKIWCPI CPF :KCQ %JWPLKG (2003) "6JG IGQITCRJKE RQN[OQTRJKUOU QH ; EJTQOQUQOG CV ;#2 NQEWU COQPI 25 GVJPKE ITQWRU KP ;WPPCP, %JKPC", 5EKGPEG KP %JKPC, % RCIGU 135-140 5JKJ, %-−. (1993) 6JG ;QPIPKPI /QUQ: 5GZWCN 7PKQP, *QWUGJQNF 1TICPK\CVKQP, )GPFGT CPF ’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’PENQUWTG CPF TGEQXGT[ QH VJG EQOOQPU : DKQFKXGTUKV[, KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG, CPF KPVGNNGEVWCN RTQRGTV[ TKIJVU, 6JKTF 9QTNF 4GUWTIGPEG, 4GUGCTEJ (QWPFCVKQP HQT 5EKGPEG, 6GEJPQNQI[, CPF ’EQNQI[ 0GY &GNJK (1997C) 84 5JKXC, 8. (1997D) $KQRKTCE[: 6JG 2NWPFGT QH 0CVWTG CPF −PQYNGFIG, 5QWVJ ’PF 2TGUU, $QUVQP /# 5JKXC, 8. (1998C) /QPQEWNVWTGU /QPQRQNKGU /[VJU CPF VJG /CUEWNKPC\CVKQP QH #ITKEWNVWTG =5VCVGOGPV 9QOGP KP #ITKEWNVWTG %QPHGTGPEG 9CUJKPIVQP 28 ,WPG?, 4GUGCTEJ (QWPFCVKQP HQT 5EKGPEG, 6GEJPQNQI[ CPF ’EQNQI[, 0GY &GNJK 5JKXC, 8. (1998D) $GVVKPI QP $KQFKXGTUKV[: 9J[ )GPGVKE ’PIKPGGTKPI 9KNN 0QV (GGF VJG *WPIT[, 4GUGCTEJ (QWPFCVKQP HQT 5EKGPEG, 6GEJPQNQI[ CPF ’EQNQI[, 0GY &GNJK 5JKXC, 8. (2000) "(QTGYQTF: %WNVWTCN &KXGTUKV[ CPF VJG 2QNKVKEU QH −PQYNGFIG", +P &GK, )., *CNN, $. CPF 4QUGPDGTI, &. (GF.), +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIGU KP )NQDCN %QPVGZVU - /WNVKRNG 4GCFKPIU QH 1WT 9QTNF, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 6QTQPVQ 2TGUU RCIGU XKKK-KZ 5JKXC, 8. (2002) 9CVGT 9CTU, 5QWVJ ’PF 2TGUU, $QUVQP /# 5JKXC, 8. CPF $CPF[QRCFJ[C[, ,. (1986) "6JG GXQNWVKQP UVTWEVWTG CPF KORCEV QH VJG %JKRMQ OQXGOGPV", /QWPVCKP 4GUGCTEJ CPF &GXGNQROGPV, 6 (2) RCIGU 133-142 5JKXC, 8. CPF $CPF[QRCFJ[C[, ,. (1986) "’PXKTQPOGPVCN EQPHNKEVU CPF RWDNKE KPVGTGUV UEKGPEG", ’EQPQOKE CPF 2QNKVKECN 9GGMN[, ::+ (,CP) 5JTGUVJC, −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’CTVJ: ’PXKTQPOGPV *KUVQT[ %WNVWTG, $NCEMYGNN, 1ZHQTF 7− 5KOQP, ). (1997) "#P CPIWNCT XGTUKQP QH URCVKCN EQTTGNCVKQPU YKVJ GZCEV UKIPKHKECPEG VGUVU", )GQIT #PCN, 29 RCIGU 267-278 5KOQP, −., (2002) 5GCTEJKPI HQT 5[PGTI[: /CQTK/+PFKIGPQWU CPF 5EKGPVKHKE %QPUGTXCVQT[ 8CNWGU: 4GEQPEKNKPI #HHKPKV[ CPF &KHHGTGPEG!, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 9CKMCVQ, CV JVVR://YYY.FGXPGV.QTI.P\/EQPH2002/RCRGTU/5KOQPA−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−. (1999) %JCPIKPI #VVKVWFG VQ (QTGUV CPF 0CVWTG: # *KUVQTKECN 4GXKGY YKVJ (QEWU QP ,JCTMJCPF, WPRWDNKUJGF 5MKPPGT, 5. (1982) 6JG .KXKPI ’CTVJ /CPWCN QH (GPI-5JWK, 4QWVNGFIG & −GICP 2CWN, .QPFQP

http://encyclopedia.laborlawtalk.com/Scientific_American

http://www.devnet.org.nz/conf2002/papers/Simon_Katerina.pdf


$KDNKQITCRJ[


5NCVGT, &. (1992C) "1P VJG $QTFGTU QH 5QEKCN 6JGQT[: NGCTPKPI HTQO QVJGT TGIKQPU", ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF 2NCPPKPI &: 5QEKGV[ CPF 5RCEG, 10 RCIGU 307-327 5NCVGT, &. (1992D) "6JGQTKGU QH &GXGNQROGPV CPF 2QNKVKEU QH VJG 2QUV-/QFGTP:", &GXGNQROGPV CPF %JCPIG, 23 (3) RCIGU 283-319 5NCVGT, &. (1995) "6TCLGEVQTKGU QH &GXGNQROGPV 6JGQT[: %CRKVCNKUO 5QEKCNKUO CPF $G[QPF", +P ,QJPUVQP, 4., 6C[NQT, 2. CPF 9CVVU, /. (GF.), )GQITCRJKGU QH )NQDCN %JCPIG, $NCEMYGNN, 1ZHQTF, RCIGU 63-76 5NCVGT, &. (1997) ’ZRNQTKPI 1VJGT <QPGU QH VJG 2QUV-OQFGTP: 2TQDNGOU QH ’VJPQEGPVTKUO CPF &KHHGTGPEG CETQUU VJG 0QTVJ-5QWVJ &KXKFG, 7PKXGTKFCF 0CEKQPCN #WVQPQOC FG /GZKEQ, /GZKEQ 5NCVGT, &. (1998) "2QUV-EQNQPKCN SWGUVKQPU HQT INQDCN VKOGU", 4GXKGY QH +PVGTPCVKQPCN 2QNKVKECN ’EQPQO[, 5 (4 9KPVGT) RCIGU 647-678 5NGCVQT, &, 1996, 6TCPUITGUUKPI VJG $QWPFCTKGU: 6QYCTFU C .KDGTCVQT[ 5EKGPEG JVVR://YYY.RJ[UKEU.P[W.GFW/HCEWNV[/UQMCN/VTCPUITGUUAX2/PQFG6.JVON CEEGUUGF 20VJ /C[ 2006 5OCTVFTCY, (2005) 5OCTV&TCY 5WKVG ’FKVKQP, XGTUKQP 7.2 5OCTVFTCY 5CP &KGIQ, %CNKHQTPKC 5OKN, 8. (1984) 6JG $CF ’CTVJ: ’PXKTQPOGPVCN &GITCFCVKQP KP %JKPC, <GF $QQMU, .QPFQP 5OKN, 8. (1993) %JKPC'U ’PXKTQPOGPVCN %TKUKU: #P +PSWKT[ KPVQ VJG .KOKVU QH 0CVKQPCN &GXGNQROGPV 1-56324-041-6, #TOQPM 5JCTR +PE, 0; & .QPFQP 5OKVJ, #. (1986) 6JG ’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’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’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2GTEGRVKQP, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/URGPEGT.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 5RGPIGP, 9 XCP (2002) "(TQPVKGT *KUVQT[ QH 5QWVJGTP −JCO: $CPFKVT[ CPF 9CT KP VJG /WNVK-’VJPKE (TKPIG .CPFU QH %JCVTKPI /KNK CPF )[GVJCPI 1890-1940", +P ’RUVGKP, .. (GF.), −JCOU RC *KUVQTKGU: 8KUKQPU QH 2GQRNG 2NCEG CPF #WVJQTKV[, $TKNN, .GKFGP, $QUVQP CPF −QNP, RCIGU 7-29 5RGTNKPI, ’. (1998) 2TKUQPGTU QH 5JCPIK-.C, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %JKECIQ 2TGUU, %JKECIQ 5RQPDGTI, #. CPF *CTFCETG, * GFU. (1988) /CKVTG[C: 6JG (WVWTG $WFFJC, %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG 5RQTTQPI, 7. (1997) "&CNGECTNKC KP %GPVTCN 5YGFGP $GHQTG 1800", +P $GTMGU, (. CPF (QNMG, %. (GF.), .KPMKPI 5QEKCN & ’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’. (1922) 6JG (QTGUV QH +PFKC (3 8QNU), ,QJP .CPG 6JG $QFNG[ *GCF, .QPFQP 5VGKP, 4. (1972) 6KDGVCP %KXKNK\CVKQP, (CDGT, .QPFQP 5VGKP, 4. (1990) 6JG 9QTNF KP /KPKCVWTG: %QPVCKPGT )CTFGPU CPF &YGNNKPIU KP (CT ’CUVGTP 6JQWIJV, 5VCPHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 5VCPHQTF 5VGTNKPI, 5. (2001) ’FWECVKQP & 5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV, )TGGP $QQMU, &CTVKPIVQP 5VGXGPU, 5. (1993) %NCKOKPI VJG *KIJ )TQWPF: 5JGTRCU 5WDUKUVGPEG CPF ’PXKTQPOGPVCN %JCPIG KP VJG *KIJGUV *KOCNC[C, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, $GTMGNG[

http://www.physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/transgress_v2/node6.html

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/spencer.pdf

http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/6029


$KDNKQITCRJ[


5VGXGPU, 5 GF. (1997) %QPUGTXCVKQP VJTQWIJ %WNVWTCN 5WTXKXCN: +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNG CPF 2TQVGEVGF #TGCU, +UNCPF 2TGUU, 9CUJKPIVQP 5VGYCTV, 4.; .[QP, $. CPF 2WTWEMGT, 6. (2000-2002) 5#&# - 5RCVKCN #PCN[UKU CPF &GEKUKQP #UUKUVCPEG, XGTUKQP 3 6JG +PUVKVWVG HQT ’PXKTQPOGPVCN /QFGNNKPI CV VJG 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 6GPPGUUGG −PQZXKNNG 5VQNNG, &. CPF .GYKU, ,., (WPFCVGF) 5QEKCN %CRKVCN - #P ’OGTIKPI %QPEGRV, CV JVVR://YYY.RTQHU-RQNKUEK.OEIKNN.EC/UVQNNG/5QEKCN%20%CRKVCN%20CPF%20)GPFGT%20EJCRVGT.RFH, CEEGUUGF 19VJ ,WN[ 2004 5VQVV, 2. (1978) 0CVWTG CPF /CP KP 5QWVJGCUV #UKC, 5EJQQN QH 1TKGPVCN CPF #HTKECP 5VWFKGU, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH .QPFQP, .QPFQP 5VQVV, 2. (1991) 6JCK %WNVWTG CPF (QTGUV 2TGUGTXCVKQP #UKCP 2CEKHKE %WNVWTG KP 7PGUEQ 45, 5VTCVJGTP, /. (1995) 5JKHVKPI %QPVGZVU, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP 5VTCWUU, 4. (1992) "6KDGV: # 6TCXGN 5WTXKXCN −KV", +P 4, 5. (GF.) .QPGN[ 2NCPGV 2WDNKECVKQPU, #WUVTCNKC, RCIGU 22-29 565%, (1991) 5VCVITCRJKEU: UVCVKUVKECN UQHVYCTG RCEMCIG HQT FCVC CPCN[UKU, UVCVKUVKECN OQFGNNKPI, SWCNKV[ KORTQXGOGPV CPF 5KZ 5KIOC, XGTUKQP 5 565% +PE 5VWCTV, −., $CPOCFQTLK CPF *WCPIEJQLKC (1995) "/QWPVCKP )QFU CPF 6TCPEG /GFKWOU: # 3KPIJCK 6KDGVCP 5WOOGT (GUVKXCN", #UKCP (QNMNQTG 5VWFKGU, 54 RCIGU 219-237 5VWFNG[, ,. (1992) 4GNKIKQWU $GNKGH CPF &GXGNQROGPV: &GXGNQROGPV COQPI #PKOKUVKE/ 5JCOCPKUVKE RGQRNG (YKVJ URGEKCN TGHGTGPEG VQ PQTVJ YGUVGTP 0GRCN (,WONC)), /# &KUUGTVCVKQP, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 4GCFKPI, 4GCFKPI 5VWFNG[, ,. (1994) "2CTCFKIOU", %QOOQPYGCNVJ (QTGUVT[ 4GXKGY, 73 (2) RCIG 73 5VWFNG[, ,. (1995) ")TGGP ’VJKEU", +PUVKVWVG QH %JCTVGTGF (QTGUVGTU 0GYU, 3 RCIG 26 5VWFNG[, ,. (1995C) 4GRQTV QP VJG 2TQRQUGF *QPI[WCP %QWPV[ 5JGNVGT (QTGUV 2TQLGEV, (TKGPFU QH %JKPC, *QPI −QPI 5VWFNG[, ,. (1999C) "(QTGUVU CPF GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP KP 59 %JKPC", +PVGTPCVKQPCN (QTGUVT[ 4GXKGY, 1 (4) RCIGU 260-265 5VWFNG[, ,. (1999D) "’PXKTQPOGPVCN &GITCFCVKQP KP 59 %JKPC", %JKPC 4GXKGY, 5RTKPI (12) RCIGU 28-33 5VWFNG[, ,. (2000) "’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2GTEGRVKQP & %QPUGTXCVKQP ’VJKEU COQPI (QTGUV #EVQTU", +PVGTPCVKQPCN (QTGUVT[ 4GXKGY (5WDOKVVGF), 5VWFNG[, ,. (2002C) 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCVKQP CU FGVGTOKPGF D[ NQECN RGTEGRVKQP CPF MPQYNGFIG KP VJG *GPIFWCP /QWPVCKPU QH %JKPC, 6JG 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCPE[ (75#) #TNKPIVQP (2002C) 5VWFNG[, ,., (2002D) /CRRKPI 6KDGVCP ’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’VJPKEKV[ 5VTCVGIKGU KP %JKPC, JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/’VJPKEKV[ 5VTCVGI[.TVH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 5VWFNG[, ,., (2004J) )+5 %TKVKSWG, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/)+5 %TKVKSWG.TVH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 5VWFNG[, ,., (2005) 6JG *KUVQT[ QH −JCO, CV JVVR://YYY.OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/−JCO *KUVQT[.TVH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 5VWFNG[, ,, 4KEJCTFUQP, −. CPF ’YKPI, 5., (1999) 8KIPGVVGU QH $GPIFC, %CTG & 5JCTG (QWPFCVKQP, .QWIJDQTQWIJ CV JVVR://YYY.IGQEKVKGU.EQO/LQJPAHAUVWFNG[/$GPIFC/8KIPGVVGU.JVO CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 5VWFNG[, ,., ’XCPU, 4. CPF 5VGGPFCO, FG 8TKGU 2 (1995 ) 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEG 7UG CPF .KXGNKJQQF 5VTCVGIKGU KP &GPIMG 6QYPUJKR: #P #ITKEWNVWTG (QTGUVT[ CPF 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEG $CUGNKPG 5VWF[, %CTG CPF 5JCTG (QWPFCVKQP, .QWIJDQTQWIJ 5VWFNG[, ,., (QTDGU, $. CPF (KUVQPKEJ, #. 5JKSW %QWPV[ &KUCUVGT 4GNKGH 4GRQTV, (TKGPFU QH %JKPC (QWPFCVKQP *QPI −QPI (1996C) 5VWFNG[, ,., (QTDGU, $., (KUVQPKEJ, #. CPF <K :KCPI &QPI, (1996D) 5JKSW %QWPV[ .KXGUVQEM 2WTEJCUKPI 4GRQTV, (TKGPFU QH %JKPC (QWPFCVKQP, *QPI −QPI 5VWFNG[, ,., 4QYETQHV, 2. CPF 9CTF, −. (2005) "’NKEKVKPI (QTGUV XCNWGU CPF 'EWNVWTCN NQUU' HQT EQOOWPKV[ RNCPVCVKQPU CPF PCVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP", JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/(QTXCN.2&( CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005

http://www.profs-polisci.mcgill.ca/stolle/Social Capital and Gender chapter.pdf

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/Mds1.pdf

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/Ethnicity Strategy.rtf

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/GIS Critique.rtf

http://www.members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/Kham History.rtf

http://www.geocities.com/john_f_studley/Bengda/Vignettes.htm

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/Forval.PDF


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5VWTIGQP, ,., (2003) 3WCNKV[ %QPVTQN CPF VJG .QUU QH VJG %QOOQPU, $TQYP 7PKXGTUKV[, 2TQXKFGPEG, 4+ 75# CV JVVR://FNE.FNKD.KPFKCPC.GFW/CTEJKXG/00001102/00/,CPGVA5VWTIGQP.RFH , CEEGUUGF 10VJ /C[ 2004 5WDDC, 5. (2000) 6TCPUKVKQP QH )GPFGT 4GNCVKQPU KP 6COCPI QH 0GRCN, WPRWDNKUJGF 5WNVCP, 4., %TCKI, &. CPF 4QUU, *. (1997) "#DQTKIKPCN ,QKPV /CPCIGOGPV QH #WUVTCNKCP 0CVKQPCN 2CTMU: 7NWTW-−CVC 6LWVC", +P 2QUG[, &. CPF &WVHKGNF, ). (GF.), +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU CPF UWUVCKPCDKNKV[, +PVGTPCVKQPCN 7PKQP HQT 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCVKQP CPF 0CVWTCN 4GUQWTEGU, 7VTGEJV, RCIGU 326-338 5W\WMK, &. CPF −PWFUQP, 2. (1992) 6JG 9KUFQO QH VJG ’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−PQYNGFIG & &GXGNQROGPV /QPKVQT, 2 (1) RCIG 2 6CLHGN, * GF. (1978) &KHHGTGPVKCVKQP DGVYGGP 5QEKCN )TQWRU: ’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’PXKTQPOGPVCN GVJKEU: UWUVCKPCDKNKV[ EQORGVKVKQP & HQTGUVT[ EQPHGTGPEG , %GPVTG HQT #RRNKGF ’VJKEU: 7PKXGTUKV[ QH $TKVKUJ %QNWODKC 23/24/10/92, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH $TKVKUJ %QNWODKC, JVVR://YYY.GVJKEU.WDE.EC/RCRGTU/UWUFGX.JVON#VCWDGPGEM , CEEGUUGF 14VJ 0QX 2004 6C[NQT, &. (1994) 1HH %QWTUG: 4GUVQTKPI $CNCPEG DGVYGGP %CPCFKCP 5QEKGV[ CPF VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV, +&4% JVVR://YGD.KFTE.EC/GU/GX-9340-201-1-&1A612+%.JVON, CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 6C[NQT, (. (1911) 6JG 2TKPEKRNGU QH 5EKGPVKHKE /CPCIGOGPV, *CTRGT, 0GY ;QTM 6C[NQT, ,. (1993C) "5QEKCN CEVKXKUO CPF TGUKUVCPEG QP VJG 6JCK HTQPVKGT: 6JG ECUG QH 2JTC 2TCLCM −JWVVCLKVVQ", %TKVKECN #UKCP 5VWFKGU, 25 (2) RCIGU 3-16 6C[NQT, 2. (1991) "# FKUVQTVGF YQTNF QH MPQYNGFIG", ,QWTPCN QH )GQITCRJ[ KP *KIJGT ’FWECVKQP, 15 RCIGU 85-90 6C[NQT, 2. CPF $WVVGN, (. (1992) "*QY FQ YG MPQY YG JCXG GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQDNGOU", )GQHQTWO, 23 RCIG 405 6GKUEJ, ,. (1997) ".QEMG'U .GICE[: 6JG RTQRGTV[ PCTTCVKXG KP #OGTKEC", 2TGUGPVGF CV #5’*'U )QXGTPOGPV, 5EKGPEG, CPF VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV 5VJ-9VJ /CTEJ 1997 %QPHGTGPEG , 4CFKUUQP 2NC\C .QTF $CNVKOQTG *QVGN, $CNVKOQTG /&, #OGTKECP 5QEKGV[ HQT ’PXKTQPOGPVCN *KUVQT[(#5’*), 6GTPQP, ;. (1989) "4GHNGEVKQPU QP )GPQEKFG", +P %JCNKCPF, ). (GF.), /KPQTKV[ 2GQRNGU KP VJG #IG QH 0CVKQP 5VCVG, 2NWVQ 2TGUU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 126-148 6JG ’EQPQOKUV (1999) "6KDGVCP 6KPFGTDQZ", 6JG ’EQPQOKUV (19/6/1999) 6JG 2TKPEG QH 9CNGU, (2002) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 17VJ &GE 2002 CDQWV $2, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/RQY.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 6JG ; EJTQOQUQOG EQPUQTVKWO (2002) "# 0QOGPENCVWTG 5[UVGO HQT VJG 6TGG QH *WOCP ;-%JTQOQUQOCN $KPCT[ *CRNQITQWRU", )GPQOG 4GUGCTEJ, 12 RCIGU 339-348 6JKGDGTIGT, 0. (1990) ".CPIWCIG OCKPVGPCPEG: 9J[ DQVJGT !", /WNVKNKPIWC, 9 (4) RCIGU 333-358 6JKGTT[, (. (1989) "’ORKTG CPF /KPQTKV[ KP %JKPC", +P %JCNKCPF, ). (GF.), /KPQTKV[ 2GQRNGU KP VJG #IG QH 0CVKQP 5VCVGU, 2NWVQ 2TGUU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 76-99 6JQOCU, −. (1983) /CP CPF VJG 0CVWTCN 9QTNF, 2GPIWKP, *CTOQPFUYQTVJ 6JQORUQP, ’. (1975) 9JKIU CPF *WPVGTU, *CTOQPFUYQTVJ, .QPFQP 6JQORUQP, ’. (1991) %WUVQOU KP %QOOQP, /GTNKP, .QPFQP 6JQORUQP, ,. (1996) 2CTVKEKRCVQT[ #RRTQCEJGU KP )QXGTPOGPV $WTGCWETCEKGU: (CEKNKVCVKPI VJG 2TQEGUU QH +PUVKVWVKQPCN %JCPIG (&TCHV), +PVGTPCVKQPCN +PUVKVWVG HQT ’PXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV (++’&), .QPFQP 6JQPFWR, 6WNMW (1987) $WFFJKUV %KXKNK\CVKQP KP 6KDGV, 4QWVNGFIG & −GICP 2CWN, .QPFQP 6JQTGCW, *. (1854) 9CNFGP QT .KHG KP VJG 9QQFU, .QPFQP (QNKQ 5QEKGV[, .QPFQP 6JQTGCW, *. (1858) "%JGUWPEQQM", #VNCPVKE /QPVJN[, 2 (8910) RCIG 1-12 224-233 305-3 6KGTPG[, 9. ). & .KPEQNP, ;.5. (’FU.) 1997, 4GRTGUGPVCVKQP CPF VJG VGZV. #NDCP[: 570; 2TGUU.

http://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/archive/00001102/00/Janet_Sturgeon.pdf

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/syden9603.txt

http://www.abjpress.com/tarpv6.html

http://www.abjpress.com/tarpv6.html

http://web.idrc.ca/es/ev-9340-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html,

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/pow.pdf


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6KODGTNCMG, .. CPF 6KPMGT, ,. (1984) ’PXKTQPOGPV & %QPHNKEV: .KPMU DGVYGGP ’EQNQIKECN &GEC[ ’PXKTQPOGPVCN $CPMTWRVE[ CPF 2QNKVKECN & /KNKVCT[ +PUVCDKNKV[, ’CTVJUECP, .QPFQP 6+0 (1996) $NK\\CTFU: 25000 /QTG 0QOCFU 5VTCPFGF KP 5GTUJWN, 6+0 0GYU 7RFCVG, 6KDGV +PHQTOCVKQP 0GVYQTM (03/03/1996) 6+0 (1998) 6KDGV 5PQYUVQTO: #KF #IGPEKGU CPF 5QNFKGTU 6CEMNG %TKUKU, 6+0 0GYU 7RFCVG, 6KDGV +PHQTOCVKQP 0GVYQTM, .QPFQP (13/3/1998) 6+0 (1998) *CTUJ 2WPKUJOGPV HQT ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQVGUV, 6+0 0GYU 7RFCVG, 6KDGV +PHQTOCVKQP 0GVYQTM, .QPFQP (15/12/1998) 6+0, (1999) (15/6/1999) 6KDGVCPU QRRQUG 9QTNF $CPM 2TQLGEV, 15/6/99, 6KDGV +PHQTOCVKQP 0GVYQTM, .QPFQP 6+0 (2000) %JKPC'U )TGCV .GCR 9GUV, 6KDGV +PHQTOCVKQP 0GVYQTM (6+0), .QPFQP 6+0 (2000) %JKPC'U )TGCV .GCR 9GUV, 6+0, .QPFQP 6+0 (2002) 5GPKQT 4KPRQEJG &GVCKPGF QP '$QODKPI' %JCTIGU, 6+0 0GYU 7RFCVG, 6KDGV +PHQTOCVKQP 0GVYQTM, .QPFQP (5/5/2002) 6+0 (2003) &GCVJ 5GPVGPEGU HQT 5CDQVCIKPI %JKPC'U 7PKV[ CPF 6GTTQTKUO, 6KDGV +PHQTOCVKQP 0GVYQTM, 6KDGV +PHQTOCVKQP 0GVYQTM (27/1/2003) 6KPFCNN, &. # 4GRQTV QP VJG (QTGUV 8CNWGU 3WGUVKQPPCKTG: &GXGNQROGPV, #FOKPKUVTCVKQP, CPF ’XCNWCVKQP, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH $TKVKUJ %QNWODKC 8CPEQWXGT, $% %CPCFC 866 1<4 (WPFCVGF) JVVR://HCEWNV[.CTVU.WDE.EC/VKPFCNN/TR/HXR/TGRQTV.JVO CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 6KUFGNN, %. (1996) "’EQVQWTKUO ’EQPQOKEU CPF VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV: 1DUGTXCVKQPU HTQO %JKPC", ,QWTPCN QH 6TCXGN 4GUGCTEJ, 34 (4) RCIGU 11-19 60%, (2005) 4QDGTV /QUGNG[, 6JG 0CVWTG %QPUGTXCPE[ (75#), #TNKPIVQP 8# CV JVVR://YYY.PCVWTG.QTI/VPEUEKGPEG/UEKGPVKUVU/OKUE/OQUGNG[.JVON , CEEGUUGF 15VJ ,CP 2005 6QDKP, − GF. (1993) 6JG 2TCEVKEG QH %QPUVTWEVKXKUO KP 5EKGPEG ’FWECVKQP, .CYTGPEG ’TNDCWO #UUQEKCVGU, *KNNUKFG 0* 6QGNMGP, $. (1976) "5GGKPI 9KVJ C 0CVKXG ’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’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’CVGTU!", *KOCNC[CP ’PXKTQPOGPV & %WNVWTG, 5GRV/1EV RCIGU 8-11 6UGTKPI 5JCM[C (1999) 6JG &TCIQP KP VJG .CPF QH 5PQYU, 2GPIWKP %QORCUU, *CTOQPFUYQTVJ 6UGTKPI 5JCM[C, (2002) $NQQF KP VJG 5PQYU, +P 0GY .GHV 4GXKGY 15: /C[-,WPG 2002, CV JVVR://YYY.PGYNGHVTGXKGY.PGV/0.424902.UJVON , CEEGUUGF 15VJ ,WN[ 2004 6UGTKPI, 6. (1985) "0CI-4QP /IQP-2Q 4PCO- 4I[CN: # 19VJ EGPVWT[ −JCOU-2C 9CTTKQT", +P #\K\, $. CPF −CRUVGKP, /. (GF.), 5QWPFKPIU KP 6KDGVCP EKXKNK\CVKQP, /CPQJCT, &GNJK, RCIGU 196-214 6UKPI, #. (1993) +P VJG 4GCNO QH VJG &KCOQPF 3WGGP, 2TKPEGVQP 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 2TKPEGVQP 6W 9GKOKPI (1998) #P #NVGTPCVKXG 8KGY QH /QFGTPKV[ (TQO C %QPHWEKCP 2GTURGEVKXG, *CTXCTF %JKPC 4GXKGY, %CODTKFIG /# 6WCP, ;K-(W (1968) "&KUETGRCPEKGU DGVYGGP GPXKTQPOGPVCN CVVKVWFG CPF DGJCXKQWT: ’ZCORNGU HTQO ’WTQRG CPF %JKPC", %CPCFKCP )GQITCRJGT, 12 (3) RCIGU 176-191 6WEEK, ). (1980) 6JG 4GNKIKQPU QH 6KDGV, 4QWVNGFIG CPF −GICP 2CWN, .QPFQP 6WEMGT, /. CPF $GTVJTQPI, ,. (1998) %QPHWEKCPKUO & ’EQNQI[, *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG /# 6WEMGT, /. CPF 9KNNKCOU, &. (1998) $WFFJKUO & ’EQNQI[ : 6JG +PVGTEQPPGEVKQP QH &JCTOC CPF &GGFU, *CTXCTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG /#

http://faculty.arts.ubc.ca/tindall/rp/fvp/report.htm

http://www.nature.org/tncscience/scientists/misc/moseley.html

http://www.law.berkeley.edu/journals/btlj/articles/vol15/travis.pdf

http://www.newleftreview.net/NLR24902.shtml


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6WEMGT, /. CPF )TKO, ,., (2001) +PVTQFWEVKQP: 6JG ’OGTIKPI #NNKCPEG QH 9QTNF 4GNKIKQPU CPF ’EQNQI[, +P &CGFCNWU (9GD XGTUKQP) (CNN, JVVR://YYY.COCECF.QTI/RWDNKECVKQPU/HCNN2001/VWEMGT-ITKO.CURZ , CEEGUUGF 22PF &GE 2004 6WEMGT, 8. (1999) "6JG /[VJ QH &GXGNQROGPV: # %TKVKSWG QH C ’WTQEGPVTKE &KUEQWTUG", +P /WPEM, 4. CPF 1'*GCTP, &. (GF.), %TKVKECN &GXGNQROGPV 6JGQT[, <GF $QQMU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 1-26 6WTPDWNN, %. (1972) 6JG /QWPVCKP 2GQRNG, 2CNCFKP, .QPFQP 6WTPGT, (. (1996) 6JG (TQPVKGT KP #OGTKECP *KUVQT[, &QXGT 2WDNKECVKQPU, /KPGQNC, 0GY ;QTM 6WTPGT, *. (1974) .KXKPI 6TKDCN 4GNKIKQPU, 9CTF .QEM ’FWECVKQPCN, .QPFQP 6WTPGT, 8. (1977) 6JG 4KVWCN 2TQEGUU, %QTPGNN 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, +VJCEC 6[NQT, ’. (1871) 2TKOKVKXG %WNVWTG, ,QJP /WTTC[, .QPFQP 7EJKFC, ’., ,KPVCQ :W CPF 4Q\GNNG, 5. (2004) )TCKP HQT )TGGP: %QUV-’HHGEVKXGPGUU CPF 5WUVCKPCDKNKV[ QH %JKPC'U %QPUGTXCVKQP 5GV-#UKFG 2TQITCO, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC, &CXKU 7GVC, −. (1989) "’PXKTQPOGPVCN RQNKE[ RNCPPKPI KP ,CRCP", 2TGUGPVGF CV 2TQEGGFKPIU QH VJG +PVGTPCVKQPCN %QPHGTGPEG QP 2WDNKE 2QNKE[ 2NCPPKPI %QPHGTGPEG , 6CKRGK, 6’;4 & CPF ’%, RCIGU 429-458, 7NNWYKUJGYC, 4., (1993) +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG PCVKQPCN +− TGUQWTEG EGPVTGU CPF UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV, +P +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG CPF &GXGNQROGPV /QPKVQT 1 (3), +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG CPF &GXGNQROGPV /QPKVQT, 0GVJGTNCPFU CV JVVR://YYY.PWHHKE.PN/EKTCP/KMFO/1-3/CTVKENGU/WNNWYKUJGYC.JVON , CEEGUUGF 15VJ &GE 1999 7OCPU, .. (1992) #PCN[UKU CPF 6[RQNQI[ QH +PFKIGPQWU (QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV KP VJG *WOKF 6TQRKEU QH #UKC, /KPKUVT[ QH #ITKEWNVWTG, 0CVWTG /CPCIGOGPV, CPF (KUJGTKGU (+−%, 0$.() CPF $15 (QWPFCVKQP, 9CIGPKPIGP 7OCPU, .. (1997) "6JG TCRKF CRRTCKUCN QH C MPQYNGFIG U[UVGO: VJG JGCNVJ U[UVGO QH )WCTCPK +PFKCPU KP $QNKXKC", +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG & &GXGNQROGPV /QPKVQT, 5 (3) RCIGU 11-14 7OCPU, .. (1998) "2CTVKEKRCVQT[ RTQEGUU CPCN[UKU", (QTGUV 6TGGU & 2GQRNG 0GYUNGVVGT, 35 70, (1993) &TCHV &GENCTCVKQP QP VJG *WOCP 4KIJVU QH +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU, 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU %QOOKUUKQP QP *WOCP 4KIJVU, )GPGXC 70, (1994) *WOCP 4KIJVU: # %QORKNCVKQP QH +PVGTPCVKQPCN +PUVTWOGPVU 8QN 1: 7PKXGTUCN +PUVTWOGPVU, %GPVTG HQT *WOCP TKIJVU 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU, 0GY ;QTM & )GPGXC 70, (1994) &TCHV &GENCTCVKQP QH 2TKPEKRNGU QP *WOCP 4KIJVU CPF VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV, 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU, )GPGXC 70’2, (1997) 6JG $KQFKXGTUKV[ #IGPFC: &KUEWUUKQPU (TQO VJG 3TF /GGVKPI QH VJG %QPHGTGPEG QH VJG 2CTVKGU VQ VJG %QPXGPVKQP QP $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[, 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQITCOOG, )GPGXC 70’2/%$&, (1996) %QORKNCVKQPU QH +PVGTPCVKQPCN )WKFGNKPGU %QPEGTPKPI +PFKIGPQWU CPF .QECN %QOOWPKVKGU &QE 70’2/%$&/%12/3/+0(24, %QPXGPVKQP QP $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[/7PKVGF 0CVKQP ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQITCOOG, /QPVTGCN 70’5%1 (1994) 1RGTCVKQPCN )WKFGNKPGU HQT VJG +ORNGOGPVCVKQP QH VJG 9QTNF *GTKVCIG %QPXGPVKQP, 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU ’FWECVKQPCN, 5EKGPVKHKE CPF %WNVWTCN 1TICPK\CVKQP, 2CTKU 70’5%1 (1996) 5CETGF 5KVGU - %WNVWTCN +PVGITKV[, $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[. 2TQITCOOG 2TQRQUCN, 7PKVGF 0CVKQPU ’FWECVKQPCN, 5EKGPVKHKE CPF %WNVWTCN 1TICPK\CVKQP, 2CTKU 7RVQP, ). CPF (KPINGVQP, $. (1985) 5RCVKCN &CVC #PCN[UKU D[ ’ZCORNG 8QNWOG 1: 2QKPV 2CVVGTP CPF 3WCPVKVCVKXG &CVC, 9KNG[, 6QTQPVQ 5KPICRQTG $TKUDCPG 0GY ;QTM %JKEJGUVGT 7RVQP, ,. (1996) "*QOG QP VJG )TCUUNCPFU! 6TCFKVKQP /QFGTPKV[ CPF VJG 0GIQVKCVKQP QH +FGPVKV[ $[ 6KDGVCP +PVGNNGEVWCNU KP VJG 24%", +P $TQYP, /. (GF.), 0GIQVKCVKPI ’VJPKEKVKGU KP %JKPC CPF 6CKYCP, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC, $GTMGNG[, RCIGU 98-124 75’, (2000) 6TGGU XU 2GQRNG- 24% 0CVWTCN (QTGUV 2TQVGEVKQP, 75 ’ODCUU[, $GKLKPI 75) (1964) 9+.&’40’55 #%6 (2.. 88-577, 78 5VCV. 890; 16 7.5.%. 1 1 21 (PQVG), 1 1 31-1136)6Q GUVCDNKUJ C 0CVKQPCN 9KNFGTPGUU 2TGUGTXCVKQP 5[UVGO HQT VJG RGTOCPGPV IQQF QH VJG YJQNG RGQRNG, CPF HQT QVJGT RWTRQUGU., , 5GPCVG CPF *QWUG QH 4GRTGUGPVCVKXGU QH VJG 7PKVGF 5VCVGU QH #OGTKEC (75)) (5GRVGODGT 3, 1964) JVVR://YYY.YKNFGTPGUU.PGV/0925/FQEWOGPVU/RWDNKENCYU/88-577.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 7UJGT, 4. CPF ’FYCTFU, 4. (1994) 2QUVOQFGTPKUO CPF ’FWECVKQP, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP XCP )GPPWR, #. (1960) 6JG 4KVGU QH 2CUUCIG, 4QWVNGFIG CPF −GICP 2CWN, .QPFQP 8CTVCM, 8. CPF )CFIKN, /. (1981) "5VWFKGU QP 5CETGF )TQXGU CNQPI VJG 9GUVGTP )JCVU HTQO /CJCTCUJVTC CPF )QC: 4QNG QH $GNKGHU CPF (QNMNQTG", +P ,CKP, 5. (GF.), )NKORUGU QH +PFKCP ’VJPQDQVCP[, +$* 2WDNKUJKPI %QORCP[, 0GY &GNJK CPF 1ZHQTF, RCIGU 271-278 8GTOCPFG, $. (1997) 6JG ;K'U 1H .KCPIUJCP 2TGHGEVWTG, 6JG 4KEEK $WNNGVKP 1997, 6CKRGK 4KEEK +PUVKVWVG 6CKRGK JVVR://YYY.TKEEKDCUG.EQO/FQEHKNG/GVJ-[K13.JVO (%JKPGUG) CEEGUUGF 1UV 5GRV 2004 8GTOCPFGT, $. (2000) "’PXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGEVKQP CPF VJG %JKPGUG FGXGNQROGPV OQFGN: 5WRGTHKEKCN VJQWIJVU QH CP QDUGTXGT HTQO #DTQCF", 2TGUGPVGF CV 5#55 %QPHGTGPEG QP ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQVGEVKQP CPF &GXGNQROGPV %QPHGTGPEG , %JGPIFW, 5KEJWCP #ECFGO[ QH 5QEKCN 5EKGPEG CPF 4KEEK KPUVKVWVG 6CKRGK,

http://www.amacad.org/publications/fall2001/tucker-grim.aspx

http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ikdm/1-3/articles/ulluwishewa.html

http://www.wilderness.net/NWPS/documents/publiclaws/88-577.pdf

http://www.riccibase.com/docfile/eth-yi13.htm


$KDNKQITCRJ[


8GTOGGT, ’. (1990) "/CPCIGOGPV QH GPXKTQPOGPVCN RQNNWVKQP KP %JKPC: RTQDNGOU CPF CDCVGOGPV RQNKEKGU", %JKPC +PHQTOCVKQP, 5 (1) RCIGU 34-65 8KIQFC, /. (1989) "4GNKIKQWU CPF 5QEKQ-%WNVWTCN 4GUVTCKPVU QP ’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’FKVKQP), 9 *GHHGT & 5QPU, %CODTKFIG 9CFNG[, 5. (1985) 5JCMVK: 2QYGT KP VJG %QPEGRVWCN 5VTWEVWTG QH −CTKORWT 4GNKIKQP, /WPUJKTCJ /CPQJCTNCN, 0GY &GNJK 9CNNCEG, 2. (1986) 6JG 9JKVG 4QQVU QH 2GCEG. , %JCWPEG[ 2TGUU., 5CTCPCE .CMG, 0;: 9CNUJ, 4. CPF 8CWIJCP, (. (1993) 2CVJU $G[QPF ’IQ, 2GPIWKP 2WVOCP +PE, 0GY ;QTM 9CNVGTU, %. (1986) #FCRVKXG /CPCIGOGPV QH 4GPGYCDNG 4GUQWTEGU, /E)TCY-*KNN, 0GY ;QTM 9CPI *QPIEJCPI, &GHQTGUVCVKQP CPF &GUKEECVKQP KP %JKPC, CV JVVR://YYY.NKDTCT[.WVQTQPVQ.EC/REU/UVCVG/EJKPCGEQ/HQTGUV.JVO , CEEGUUGF 2PF 1EV 2000 9CPIW /CFJW $C\C\, (1993) $WFFJKUO, (CEVU QP (KNG, 0GY ;QTM 1ZHQTF 9CTF, (. (1931) 2NCPV *WPVKPI KP VJG 9KNFU, (KIWTGJGCF, .QPFQP 9CTF, −. CPF %JCWFT[, 2. (2001) 6[RQNQI[ 5VWF[ HQT ;’&2 2KNQV 2TQLGEVU KP ;WPPCP, ;’&2 CPF 59− −WPOKPI CPF .QPFQP 9CTTGP, &. (1992) "+PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG DKQFKXGTUKV[ EQPUGTXCVKQP & FGXGNQROGPV (−G[PQVG CFFTGUU)", 2TGUGPVGF CV %QPUGTXCVKQP QH $KQFKXGTUKV[ KP #HTKEC: .QECN +PKVKCVKXGU CPF +PUVKVWVKQPU %QPHGTGPEG, 0CKTQDK 0CVKQPCN /WUGWOU QH −GP[C, 9CTTGP, &., 5NKMMGTXGGT, .. CPF $TQMGPUJC, &. (1995) 6JG %WNVWTCN &KOGPUKQP QH &GXGNQROGPV : +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG 5[UVGOU, +PVGTOGFKCVKQP 6GEJPQNQI[ 2WDNKECVKQPU, .QPFQP 9CVCPDG, *. (1974) "6JG EQPEGRVKQP QH PCVWTG KP ,CRCPGUG EWNVWTG", 5EKGPEG, 183 RCIGU 279-282 9CVVGTU, &. (2002) # )TCOOCT QH −JCO, %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG 9CVVU, /. (1995) "# 0GY &GCN KP ’OQVKQPU 6JGQT[ CPF 2TCEVKEG CPF VJG %TKUKU QH &GXGNQROGPV", +P %TWUJ, ,. (GF.), 2QYGT QH &GXGNQROGPV, 4QWVNGFIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 44-62 9C[OCP, #. (1967) "5KIPKHKECPEG QH &TGCOU KP +PFKC CPF 6KDGV", *KUVQT[ QH 4GNKIKQPU 7: 1-12, 7 RCIGU 1-12 9C[UWP .KCQ (1990) 6JCK %JK %NCUUKEU, 5JCODJCNC, $GTMGNG[ CPF .QPFQP 9C[UWP .KCQ (1995) 6JG ’UUGPEG QH 6CK %JK, 5JCODJCNC, $GTMGNG[ CPF .QPFQP 9%& (2000) &COU CPF &GXGNQROGPV: # 0GY (TCOGYQTM: 6JG 4GRQTV QH VJG 9QTNF %QOOKUUKQP QP &COU (9%&), ’CTVJUECP 2WDNKECVKQPU .VF, .QPFQP CPF 5VGTNKPI, 8# 9GDGT, /. (1930) 6JG 2TQVGUVCPV ’VJKE CPF VJG 5RKTKV QH %CRKVCNKUO, )GQTIG #NNGP & 7PYKP, .QPFQP 9GDGT, /. (1972) 9KTVUEJCHV 7PF )GUGNNUEJCHV, ,.%.$. /QJT (2CWN 5KGDGEM), 6×DKPIGP 9GKLKG &GPI (2003) "%JCNNGPIKPI VJG 0CVKQPCN .QIIKPI $CP KP %JKPC: #P ’ZRGTKGPEG QH %QOOWPKV[-$CUGF 0CVWTCN (QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV KP 5KEJWCP 2TQXKPEG", 2TGUGPVGF CV :++ 9QTNF (QTGUVT[ %QPITGUU %QPHGTGPEG, 3WÃDGE %KV[, %CPCFC ^ 21 - 28 5GRVGODGT 2003, 9GKPGT, &., 9CTPGT, 6., *CTTKU, 6. CPF .GXKP, 4. (1995) "#RCTVJGKF TGRTGUGPVCVKQPU KP C FKIKVCN NCPFUECRG: )+5 4GOQVG 5GPUKPI CPF .QECN −PQYNGFIG KP −KGRGTUQN 5 #HTKEC", %CTVQITCRJ[ & )+5, 22 (1) RCIGU 30-44 9GKT, #. (2002) *GPT[ 8VJ: −KPI CPF %QWTV, 2KONKEQ, .QPFQP 9GNNGPU, −. (2002) "6JG 2TGOK", +P ’ODGT, %., ’ODGT, /. CPF 5MQIICTF, +. (GF.), ’PE[ENQRGFKC QH 9QTNF %WNVWTGU: 5WRRNGOGPV (*WOCP 4GNCVKQPU #TGC (KNGU), /CEOKNNCP, 0GY ;QTM, 9GNNGPU, −. (2003) 2GTUQPCN %QOOWPKECVKQP QP 21UV 0QX 2003 CDQWV 2WOK *CPIWK, CV JVVR://OGODGTU.N[EQU.EQ.WM/LQJPHUVWFNG[/DNQI/YGNNGPU211103.VZV CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 9GNNGT, 4. (1999) #NVGTPCVKXG %KXKNKVKGU: &GOQETCE[ CPF %WNVWTG KP %JKPC CPF 6CKYCP, 9GUVXKGY 2TGUU, $QWNFGT, %QNQTCFQ 9GNNGT, 5 CPF 4QOPG[, #− 1988. 5[UVGOCVKE &CVC %QNNGEVKQP, 0GYDWT[ 2CTM, %#: 5CIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU. 9GP $Q, 5WRRQTVKPI %JKPC'U ’PXKTQPOGPVCN *GTQGU, CV JVVR://YYY.RCEKHKEGPXKTQPOGPV.QTI/EJKPC/KPVTQ.JVO , CEEGUUGF 7VJ #WI 2004 9GP $Q (1996) 4CEKPI VQ UCXG VJG ;WPPCP UPWD-PQUGF OQPMG[, 9QTNF 9KNFNKHG (WPF $GKLKPI 9GP $Q (2000) "%JKPC'U ;QWPI )TGGP 9CTTKQTU", 6KOG #UKC, 156 (16) 9GP, &. CPF 2KOGPVGN, &. (1996) "5GXGPVGGPVJ %GPVWT[ 1TICPKE #ITKEWNVWTG KP %JKPC", +P $CVGU, &. CPF .GGU, 5. (GF.), %CUG 5VWFKGU KP *WOCP ’EQNQI[, 2NGPWO 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM, RCIGU 311-325

http://www.voanews.com/tibetan/2005-05-26-voa1.cfm

http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/state/chinaeco/forest.htm

http://members.lycos.co.uk/johnfstudley/blog/wellens211103.txt

http://www.pacificenvironment.org/china/intro.htm


$KDNKQITCRJ[


9GPDCP-5OKVJ , , GF., (2001) (QTGUVU QH (GCT: VJG CDWUG QH JWOCP TKIJVU KP HQTGUV EQPHNKEVU, (’40, /QTGVQP KP /CTUJ CV JVVR://YYY.HGTP.QTI/RWDU/TGRQTVU/HGCT.RFH CEEGUUGF 22PF #WIWUV 2005 9GUVQD[, ,. (1987) 6JG 2WTRQUG QH (QTGUVU - (QNNKGU QH &GXGNQROGPV, $CUKN $NCEMYGNN .VF, 1ZHQTF 9JKVG, .. (1967) "6JG JKUVQTKE TQQVU QH QWT GEQNQIKECN ETKUKU", 5EKGPEG, 155 RCIGU 1203-1207 9KGPGT, ,. (1999) "2TQRGTV[ #IGPE[ 6KOG %WNVWTG 5RKTKV", +P 2QUG[, &. (GF.), %WNVWTCN & 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +PVGTOGFKCVG 6GEJPQNQI[ 2WDNKECVKQPU/7PKVGF 0CVKQP ’PXKTQPOGPVCN 2TQITCOOG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 520-524 9KGPGT, /. (1981) ’PINKUJ %WNVWTG CPF VJG &GENKPG QH VJG +PFWUVTKCN 5RKTKV 1850-1980, %CODTKFIG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, %CODTKFIG 9KGTUWO, −. (1997) "0QTOCVKXG RNWTKHQTOKV[ KP HQTGUV OCPCIGOGPV: 2TQHGUUKQPCN CPF %QOOWPKV[ RGTURGEVKXGU", 2TGUGPVGF CV 2NWTCNKUO CPF 5WUVCKPCDNG (QTGUVT[ CPF 4WTCN &GXGNQROGPV: 4QOG: &GEGODGT 9-12 1997 %QPHGTGPEG 9KGTUWO, −. (2000) "+PEQTRQTCVKPI +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG KP (QTOCN (QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV: #FCRVCVKQP 1T 2CTCFKIO %JCPIG KP 6TQRKECN (QTGUVT[!", +P .CYTGPEG, # GF. (GF.), (QTGUVT[ (QTGUV 7UGTU CPF 4GUGCTEJ: 0GY 9C[U QH .GCTPKPI, ’WTQRGCP 6TQRKECN (QTGUV 4GUGCTEJ 0GVYQTM (’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’NWUKXG %QPEGRV 6JCV +U (KPFKPI C *QOG KP ’EQU[UVGO /CPCIGOGPV", ,QWTPCN QH (QTGUVT[, 96 (5) RCIGU 18-24 CEEGUUGF 6349 5&1 9KNNKCOU, 2. (1989) /CJC[CPC $WFFJKUO, 4QWVNGFIG & −GICP 2CWN, .QPFQP 9KNNKCOU, 4. (1976) −G[YQTFU, (QPVCPC 2TGUU, .QPFQP 9KNNKU, ,. (1995) ’PNKIJVGPGF $GKPIU: .KHG 5VQTKGU (TQO VJG )CPFGP 6TCFKVKQP, 9KUFQO, .QPFQP 9KNOJWTUV, 9. (1980) 6JG /GCPKPI QH /CUQPT[, )TCOGTE[ $QQMU, 0GY ;QTM 9KNUQP, 5. (2001) "9JCV KU CP +PFKIGPQWU TGUGCTEJ OGVJQFQNQI[!", %CPCFKCP ,QWTPCN QH 0CVKXG ’FWECVKQP, 25 RCIGU 175-179 9KODGT, ,. (1985) 2QYGT ’XCPIGNKUO, *QFFGT & 5VQWIJVQP, .QPFQP 9KPMNGT, &. (1998C) "6JG (QTGUVU QH VJG ’CUVGTP 2CTV QH VJG 6KDGVCP 2NCVGCW - # ECUG UVWF[ HTQO ,WK\JCKIQW", 2NCPV 4GUGCTEJ & &GXGNQROGPV, 47/48 RCIGU 184-210 9KPMNGT, &. (1998D) "6JG (QTGUVU QH VJG 6KDGVCP 2NCVGCW", +P %NCTMG, ). (GF.), *WOCP +ORCEV CPF &GHQTGUVCVKQP KP 2CUV CPF 2TGUGPV, 1UVGTTGKEJKUEJG #MCFGOKG FGT 9KUUGPUEJCHVGP, $CPF, RCIGU 79-96 9KVVDGEMGT, #. (1997) "(QTGUV 2TCEVKEGU 4GNCVGF VQ (QTGUV ’EQU[UVGO 2TQFWEVKXKV[", +P &TGPIUQP, #. CPF 6C[NQT, &. (GF.), ’EQHQTGUVT[: 6JG CTV CPF UEKGPEG QH UWUVCKPCDNG HQTGUV WUG, 0GY 5QEKGV[ 2WDNKUJGTU, %CPCFC, RCIGU 42-56 9KVVG, ,. (1992) "&GHQTGUVCVKQP KP <CKTG: .QIIKPI CPF .CPFNGUUPGUU"", 6JG ’EQNQIKUV, 22 (2) RCIGU 58-64 9NGEJ, *. CPF 5GKFGN, #. (1979) (CEGVU QH 6CQKUO, ;CNG 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 0GY *CXGP, %QPP 9QGNHGN, ,. (2000C) 6JQWIJV8KGY 2000: 6JG 2TGOKGT 2GTEGRVWCN /CR 8KGYGT, 6JG )CNKNGQ %QORCP[ #OJGTUV 0; 9QGNHGN, ,. (2000D) )CNKNGQ 2000: 5VTCVGIKE 2GTEGRVWCN /CRRKPI 5[UVGO, 6JG )CNKNGQ %QORCP[ #OJGTUV 0; 9QGNHGN, ,. CPF $CTPGVV, ). (1982) "/WNVKFKOGPUKQPCN 5ECNKPI KP 4KGOCPP 5RCEG", 3WCNKV[ & 3WCPVKV[, 16 RCIGU 461-491 9QGNHGN, ,. CPF (KPM, ’. (1980) 6JG /GCUWTGOGPV QH %QOOWPKECVKQP 2TQEGUUGU: )CNKNGQ 6JGQT[ & /GVJQF, #ECFGOKE 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM 9QNH, ’. (1982) ’WTQRG CPF VJG 2GQRNG YKVJQWV *KUVQT[, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, .QPFQP 9QNHG, ,., $GEJCTF, ,., %K\GM, 2. CPF %QNG, &. (1992) +PFKIGPQWU CPF 9GUVGTP −PQYNGFIG CPF 4GUQWTEG /CPCIGOGPV 5[UVGOU 4WTCN 4GRQTVKPIU 0CVKXG %CPCFKCP +UUWGU 5GTKGU 1, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH )WGNRJ, )WGNRJ 1PV 9QNHH, 2. CPF /GFKP, &. (2000) "/GCUWTKPI VJG ’XQNWVKQP CPF &GXQNWVKQP QH (QNMDKQNQIKECN −PQYNGFIG", +P /CHHK, .. (GF.), .CPIWCIG, MPQYNGFIG CPF VJG GPXKTQPOGPV: 6JG KPVGTFGRGPFGPEG QH $KQNQIKECN CPF %WNVWTCN &KXGTUKV[, 5OKVJUQPKCP +PUVKVWVKQP 2TGUU., 9CUJKPIVQP &%, RCIGU 260-278 9QODNG, 9. (1951) "&KHHGTGPVKCVKPI U[UVGOKEU", 5EKGPEG, 114 RCIGU 315-322 9QQFDGTT[, ,. (1989) /WUNKOU CPF %JTKUVKCPU QP VJG ’OOCWU 4QCF, /#4%, /QPTQXKC %# 9QTNF $CPM (1978) (QTGUVT[: 5GEVQT 2QNKE[ 2CRGT, 9QTNF $CPM, 9CUJKPIVQP &% 9QTNF $CPM (1989) 1988 #PPWCN 4GRQTV, 9QTNF $CPM 9CUJKPIVQP 9QTNF $CPM (1990) 9QTNF &GXGNQROGPV 4GRQTV 1990, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM 9QTNF $CPM (1991) 9QTNF &GXGNQROGPV 4GRQTV 1991, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM 9QTNF $CPM (1992) 9QTNF &GXGNQROGPV 4GRQTV 1992, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM

http://www.fern.org/pubs/reports/fear.pdf

http://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/value/docs/post-utilitarian_forestry.pdf


$KDNKQITCRJ[


9QTNF $CPM (1993) 9QTNF &GXGNQROGPV 4GRQTV 1993, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 0GY ;QTM 9QTNF $CPM (2004) +PFKIGPQWU 2GQRNGU, CV JVVR://NPYGD18.YQTNFDCPM.QTI/’55&/UFXGZV.PUH/63$[&QE0COG/−G[%QPEGRVU , CEEGUUGF 3TF /CTEJ 2005 9QTUVGT, &. (1993) 6JG 9GCNVJ QH 0CVWTG: ’PXKTQPOGPVCN *KUVQT[ CPF VJG ’EQNQIKECN +OCIKPCVKQP, 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU, 1ZHQTF 9TKIJV, &., )QQFEJKNF, /. CPF 2TQEVQT, ,. (1997) "&GO[UVKH[KPI VJG RGTUKUVGPV CODKIWKV[ QH )+5 CU '6QQN' XGTUWU '5EKGPEG'", #PPCNU QH VJG #UUQEKCVKQP QH #OGTKECP )GQITCRJGTU, 87 (2) RCIGU 346-362 960 "/CXGTKEM %CPCFKCP %QORCP[ UGGMU VQ OKPG 6KDGV", 9QTNF 6KDGV 0GVYQTM 0GYU (24/10/1997) 9W 0KPI (1998) "+PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG QH [CM DTGGFKPI CPF ETQUU-DTGGFKPI COQPI PQOCFU KP YGUVGTP 5KEJWCP %JKPC", +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG & &GXGNQROGPV /QPKVQT, 6 (1) RCIGU 7-9 9[M, ). CPF XCP ,QJPUQP, 4. (1997) 5JQPC, 4QUGP 2WDNKUJKPI )TQWR :K ;WJWC (2003) "5JW: 0CZK 0CVWTG )QFFGUU #TEJGV[RG", +P −GNMCT, )., 0CVJCP, &. CPF 9CNVGT, 2. (GF.), )GPFGT 4GNCVKQPU KP (QTGUV 5QEKGVKGU KP #UKC: 2CVTKCTEJ[ CV 1FFU, 5CIG, .QPFQP, RCIGU 61-78 :KPJWC (1994) ")QQF JCTXGUV GZRGEVGF FGURKVG FKUCUVGTU", :KPJWC 0GYU #IGPE[ (28/8/1994) :W ,KCPEJW, /C ’T\K, 6CUJK &WQLKG, (W ;QPIUJQW, .W <JK CPF /GNKEM, &. (2004) "+PVGITCVKPI 5CETGF −PQYNGFIG HQT %QPUGTXCVKQP: %WNVWTGU CPF .CPFUECRGU KP 59 %JKPC", 2TGUGPVGF CV $TKFIKPI UECNGU CPF GRKUVGOQNQIKGU: .KPMKPI NQECN MPQYNGFIG CPF INQDCN UEKGPEG KP OWNVK-UECNG CUUGUU 17-20 /CTEJ %QPHGTGPEG , #NGZCPFTKC ’I[RV, /’#, JVVR://YYY.EDKM.QTI/EDKM-GP/EDKM/QWTAYQTM/KPFKIGPQWU/’EQNQI[%20CPF%205QEKGV[%202CRGT.RFH :W, ,. CPF 5CNCU, /., (2003) /QXKPI VJG RGTKRJGT[ VQ VJG EGPVTG: KPFKIGPQWU RGQRNG EWNVWTG CPF MPQYNGFIG KP C EJCPIKPI ;WPPCP , CV JVVR://YYY.TQEMOGMQPI.QTI/RWDU/;GCT2003/UQEKCN/05AZW.2&( , CEEGUUGF 19VJ ,WPG 2004 ;CPI (WSWCP (2003) "/GPVQTUJKR QH +PFKIGPQWU %WNVWTCN 5RGEKCNKUVU: # %CUG 5VWF[ QH 6TCKPKPI QH &QPIDC 0CZK 2TKGUVU", +P :W ,KCPEJW (GF.), .CPFUECRGU QH &KXGTUKV[: +PFKIGPQWU −PQYNGFIG 5WUVCKPCDNG .KXGNKJQQFU CPF 4GUQWTEG )QXGTPCPEG KP /QPVCPG 5QWVJGCUV #UKC, ;WPPCP 5EKGPEG CPF 6GEJPQNQI[ 2TGUU, −WPOKPI, RCIGU 479-485 ;CPI (WSWCP CPF :K ;WJWC (2003) "0CZK 9QOGP: 2TQVGEVKQP CPF /CPCIGOGPV QH (QTGUVU KP .KLKCPI, %JKPC", +P −GNMCT, −., 0CVJCP, &. CPF 9CNVGT, 2. (GF.), )GPFGT 4GNCVKQPU KP (QTGUV 5QEKGVKGU KP #UKC: 2CVTKCTEJ[ CV 1FFU, 5CIG 2WDNKECVKQPU, 0GY &GNJK, 6JQWUCPF 1CMU, .QPFQP, RCIGU 177-200 ;CPI, ;. (1986) "+ORQTVCPEG QH ’EQNQIKECN $CNCPEG KP 6JG 5WDCNRKPG (QTGUV 1H 9GUVGTP 5KEJWCP", +PVGTEQN $WNNGVKP, 13 RCIGU 41-44 ;CPI, ;. (1987) #NRKPG (QTGUVU KP 9GUVGTP 5KEJWCP %JKPC CPF VJG ’HHGEVU QH (QTGUV /CPCIGOGPV KP *WOCP +ORCEVU CPF /CPCIGOGPV QH /QWPVCKP (QTGUVU, +PVGTPCVKQPCN 7PKQP QH (QTGUV 4GUGCTEJ 1TICPK\CVKQPU, ,CRCP ;CRC, .. (1989) "9J[ )+5 0GGFU 2QUV-OQFGTP 5QEKCN 6JGQT[ CPF 8KEG 8GTUC", +P 6C[NQT, &. (GF.), 2QNKE[ +UUWGU KP OQFGTP ECTVQITCRJ[, 2GTICOQP, 1ZHQTF, RCIGU 249-269 ;CRC, .. (1991) "+U )+5 CRRTQRTKCVG VGEJPQNQI[!", +PVGTPCVKQPCN ,QWTPCN QH )+5, 5 RCIGU 41-58 ;KP 5JCQVKPI (2001) 2GQRNG CPF (QTGUVU: ;WPPCP 5YKFFGP #ITKEWNVWTG KP *WOCP-’EQNQIKECN 2GTURGEVKXG, ;WPPCP ’FWECVKQP 2WDNKUJKPI *QWUG, −WPOKPI ;KRKPI .K CPF *KPEJ, 6. (1998) "’VJPKE 6QWTKUO #VVTCEVKQPU & 6JGKT 2TQURGEV HQT 5WUVCKPCDNG &GXGNQROGPV CV 2 5KVGU KP %JKPC & %CPCFC KP #UKC 2CEKHKE ,QWTPCN QH 6QWTKUO 4GUGCTEJ 2(1)5-18", +P ;QPI −CPI <JGP (1981) "# $TKNNKCPV (WVWTG HQT VJG &GXGNQROGPV QH VJG .CPIWCIGU QH VJG 0CVKQPCN /KPQTKVKGU", +P 2QWNKP, 4. (GF.), .C RQNKVKSWG FG UKPKUCVKQP KP 2NWTKGN, RCIG 65 ;QWPI, &., +PITCO, ). CPF 5YCTV\, .. (1989) %T[ QH VJG ’CING: ’PEQWPVGTU YKVJ C %TGG *GCNGT, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH 6QTQPVQ 2TGUU, 6QTQPVQ ;QWPI, /. (1993) (QT 1WT %JKNFTGP'U %JKNFTGP: 5QOG 2TCEVKECN +ORNKECVKQPU QH +PVGT-)GPGTCVKQPCN ’SWKV[ CPF VJG 2TGECWVKQPCT[ 2TKPEKRNG, 4GUQWTEG #UUGUUOGPV %QOOKUUKQP 1EECUKQPCN 2WDNKECVKQP 0WODGT 6, 0QXGODGT 1993, #WUVTCNKCP )QXGTPOGPV 5GGF CPF 2NCPV )GPGVKE 4GUQWTEGU 5GTXKEG (#)25), %CPDGTTC ;QWPI, 0. (1996) #PCN[UKU: 0QVGU QP GPXKTQPOGPV CPF &GXGNQROGPV, %JKPC KP %JKPC &GXGNQROGPV $TKGHKPIU /C[ 96, %QORCTCVKXG ’FWECVKQP 4GUGCTEJ %GPVTG (%’4%), *QPI −QPI 7PKXGTUKV[ *QPI −QPI JVVR://YYY.JMW.JM/EGTE/EJKPC/EFD/2-3.JVO CEEGUUGF 15VJ 0QX 2004 ;QWPI, 6., (1994) (WPFCVGF) 2CTCFKIO 6JGQT[: (QWPFCVKQPU HQT 2QUV-OQFGTP 5EKGPEG, 4GF (GCVJGT +PUVKVWVG HQT #FXCPEGF UVWFKGU KP 5QEKQNQI[, 9GKFOCP /KEJKICP, 48893 CV JVVR://ETKVETKO.QTI/TGFHGCVJGT/EJCQU/004RCTCFKIO.JVON , CEEGUUGF 27VJ #RTKN 1999 <GPV, 5. (2001 ) "#EEWNVWTCVKQP CPF ’VJPQDQVCPKECN −PQYNGFIG .QUU #OQPI VJG 2KCTQC QH 8GPG\WGNC: &GOQPUVTCVKQP QH C 3WCPVKVCVKXG /GVJQF HQT VJG ’ORKTKECN 5VWF[ QH 6’− %JCPIG", +P /CHHK, .. (GF.), 1P $KQEWNVWTCN &KXGTUKV[ .KPMKPI .CPIWCIG, −PQYNGFIG, CPF VJG ’PXKTQPOGPV, 5OKVJUQPKCP +PUVKVWVG, 9CUJKPIVQP &%, <GPV, 5. (1999) "6JG 3WCPFCT[ QH %QPUGTXKPI ’VJPQDQVCPKECN −PQYNGFIG: # 2KCTQC ’ZCORNG", +P (GFU.), +.6. (GF.), ’VJPQGEQNQI[: −PQYNGFIG, 4GUQWTEGU, 4KIJVU, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH )GQTIKC 2TGUU, #VJGPU, RCIGU 90-124

http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/sdvext.nsf/63ByDocName/KeyConcepts

http://www.cbik.org/cbik-en/cbik/our_work/indigenous/Ecology and Society Paper.pdf

http://www.rockmekong.org/pubs/Year2003/social/05_xu.PDF

http://www.hku.hk/cerc/china/cdb/2-3.htm

http://critcrim.org/redfeather/chaos/004paradigm.html


$KDNKQITCRJ[


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’PXKTQPOGPVCN GVJKEU, 10 RCIGU 3-30 <KOOGTOCP, /. (1994) %QPVGUVKPI ’CTVJ'U (WVWTG: 4CFKECN ’EQNQI[ CPF 2QUV OQFGTPKV[, 7PKXGTUKV[ QH %CNKHQTPKC 2TGUU, $GTMGNG[, %# <QWPFLKJGMRQP, ,. CPF &QUUQW-)NGJQWGPQW, $. (1999) "%WNVWTCN CPF 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[ KP 9GUV #HTKEC: 6JG %CUG QH $GPKP CPF %QVG &'KXQKTG", +P 2QUG[, &. (GF.), %WNVWTCN CPF 5RKTKVWCN 8CNWGU QH $KQFKXGTUKV[, +PVGTOGFKCVG 6GEJPQNQI[/70’2, .QPFQP, RCIGU 370-371


+PFGZ


+0&’: #DFWEVKQP, 47 #DQTKIKPCN ITQWRU, 71 #EEWOWNCVKQP, 9, 27, 28, 36, 43, 56, 66 #EVKXKV[, GEQPQOKE, 28, 153 #EVQTU, 14, 38, 43, 60, 63, 90, 141, 205, 419 #&, 18, 137, 157, 159, 189, 216, 218, 314 #FCOU, 38, 40, 41, 42, 381 #FCRVKXG OCPCIGOGPV, 47, 418 #FFKPUQHV, 120, 125, 127, 381 #FJGTGPVU, 41, 45 #GIKU, 21, 22, 100, 238, 345 #HHGEVKQP, DQPFU QH, 53, 54, 97 #HHQTGUVCVKQP, 201, 205 #HTKEC, 70, 83, 222, 254, 337, 338, 393, 398, 403,

409, 414, 423, 426 #IG, 16, 20, 26, 27, 30, 55, 56, 73, 137, 156, 163,

177, 240, 245, 361, 382, 394, 399, 405, 420, 437 #IGPFC, 39, 40, 68, 129, 134, 155, 157, 194, 239,

255, 293, 328, 386, 401, 417, 422 #ITCYCN, 3, 16, 33, 60, 61, 63, 65, 94, 381 #ITGGOGPV, 39, 130, 154, 339 #ITKEWNVWTG, 67, 71, 73, 74, 75, 80, 107, 152, 202,

205, 221, 257, 335, 349, 388, 391, 408, 410, 412, 414, 415, 417, 419, 422, 423, 424, 425

#ITQ-HQTGUVT[, 204, 207, 208, 382 #NKGP, 15, 34, 64, 70, 73, 76, 86, 105, 162, 237, 254,

318, 330, 351, 352, 355, 402 #NVGTPCVKXG FGXGNQROGPV, 31� 32 #OFQ, 163, 185, 186, 216, 396 #OGTKECP 9GUV, 155, 195, 405 #OGTKECU, 60, 349, 391 #PCIPQUV, 155, 157, 381 #PCN[UKU

DQWPFCT[, 100, 102, 103, 110, 111, 112, 113, 124, 125, 362, 363, 375, 400

EQTTGNQITCO, 108, 109 URCVKCN, KX, 103, 108, 124, 273, 274, 282, 291

#PEKGPV, 18, 25, 39, 133, 138, 149, 151, 166, 175, 190, 210, 240, 256, 311, 317, 348, 389, 390, 406, 408, 409

#PFGTUQP, 45, 51, 53, 102, 134, 139, 176, 331, 381, 382, 387

#PKOCNU, 43, 51, 74, 142, 149, 152, 181, 189, 206, 235, 236, 239, 240, 257, 258, 311, 316, 317, 320, 326, 333, 342, 343, 382

#PKOKUO, 63, 123, 320 #PKOKUVKE, 4, 67, 123, 145, 150, 156, 162, 258, 419 #PKOKUVKE/UJCOCPKUVKE, 54, 78, 148, 159, 162, 164,

167, 235, 256, 257, 259 #PKOKUVU, 258 #PPKXGTUCTKGU, 165, 168 #PQOCNKGU, 15, 17, 108, 165, 204 #PVJTQRQEGPVTKE, 21, 41, 42, 44, 65, 81, 87, 254,

255, 342

#PVJTQRQEGPVTKUO, 34, 142 #PVJTQRQNQIKUVU, 138, 144, 343 #PVJTQRQNQI[, 10, 12, 35, 78, 82, 141, 152 #PVKVJGUKU, 157, 207 #RRGCUG, 257, 258, 343 #RRNKECVKQP, 13, 39, 71, 82, 92, 96, 134, 373 #RRQUKVG, 33, 47, 54, 118, 321 #RRTQCEJGU, 31, 35, 37, 43, 59, 61, 65, 79, 82, 88,

95, 96, 103, 147, 154, 372 DQVVQO-WR, 93, 373 FGRGPFGPE[, 31 GVJPQ-HQTGUVT[, 95� 96 HQTGUV XCNWG, 95 HQTGUV XCNWGU, 96 JQNKUVKE, 304 KPFKIGPQWU, 78 OCKPUVTGCO, KK, 3, 46, 48, 381, 400 PGQ-RQRWNKUV, 3, 31, 79 RGQRNG-EGPVTGF, 47 RQUV-OQFGTP, 31, 34, 35, 43, 47, 92 RQUVUVTWEVWCNKUV, 381

#RRTQRTKCVKQP, 28, 136, 163 #TEJKVGEVWTG, 11, 17, 21, 145, 147, 412 #TEJKXG, 61, 143, 402, 405, 420 #TGCU, 39, 54, 61, 75, 85, 87, 107, 110, 132, 155,

173, 192, 203, 205, 207, 208, 219, 221, 223, 236, 249, 314, 318, 319, 320, 328, 329, 330, 346 DQTFGT, 128 EQPUGTXCVKQP, 315 HQTGUVGF, 199, 203, 221, 316, 318, 319 OKPQTKV[, 171, 176, 190, 195, 255 OQWPVCKP, 176, 201 PQOCFKE, 163 RTQVGEVGF, 202, 330 TGOQVG, 160, 190 UCETGF, 234, 236, 257 YKNFGTPGUU, 329

#TTGUV, 161, 179, 182, 185 #UKC, 6, 50, 60, 70, 131, 132, 137, 144, 150, 162,

183, 200, 209, 213, 216, 223, 233, 348, 355, 381, 383, 384, 386, 388, 398, 399, 401, 402, 403, 404, 407, 408, 412, 415, 416, 419, 422, 423, 425

#URKTCVKQPU, 15, 70, 96, 158, 337, 351 #UUGVU, 45, 336, 356, 390 #UUKOKNCVKQP, 11, 68, 72, 75, 76, 129, 152, 153, 154,

193, 276, 279, 280, 281, 350 HQTEGF, 75

#VTCP, 73, 357, 382 #VVGPVKQP, KKK, 1, 2, 3, 36, 58, 88, 90, 97, 140, 141,

153, 201, 210, 218, 317 #VVKVWFGU, 11, 36, 51, 87, 96, 103, 105, 106, 145,

170, 172, 234, 313, 320, 332, 374, 385, 400 F[UHWPEVKQPCN, 149, 209

#WUVTCNKC, 71, 78, 222, 337, 391, 399, 412, 414, 419


+PFGZ


#WVJQTKVKGU, 88, 132, 136, 157, 167, 176, 181, 182, 188, 190, 196, 210, 332, 355 %JKPGUG, 163, 168

#WVQEQTTGNCVKQP, 109 PGICVKXG, 277, 278 RQUKVKXG, 277, 278 URCVKCN, 109, 274, 297, 362

#WVQPQOQWU 4GIKQP, 5 #WVQPQO[, 57, 129, 154, 155, 170, 211, 218, 219,

325 OKPQTKV[, 155 RQNKVKECN, 54

$CEMYCTF, 130, 152, 154, 156, 157, 158, 203 FGUETKRVKQP, 1

$CEQP, 20, 22, 24, 26, 305, 382, 383, 395 $CJWICPC, KK, 78 $CK[W, 122, 181, 186 $CNCPEG, 55, 74, 138, 149, 159, 207, 209, 311, 370

GEQNQIKECN, 55, 189 UCETGF, 65

$CPINCFGUJ, 91, 195, 223 $CPM

#UKCP &GXGNQROGPV, 350, 381 $CTKPIU, 23 QH ’PINCPF, 23 9QTNF, 32, 78, 88, 89, 340, 350, 351

$CPPKPI, 156, 167, 197 $CPWTK, KK, 9, 10, 27, 30, 60, 78, 81, 86, 150, 154,

234, 383, 397 $CTDWLCPK, 110, 111, 293, 348, 383 $CTHKGNF, 35, 56, 131, 383 $CTPGVV, 105, 106, 167, 168, 214, 383, 401, 416, 424 $CUKU

EQPEGRVWCN, 9, 10 GEQNQIKECN, 178 NGICN, 175, 197, 210 UWUVCKPCDNG, 5, 98, 200, 360, 375

$CVCPI, 215, 269, 284, 286, 291, 296 $CVGUQP, 47, 372, 383 $CVVNG, 22, 84, 161, 165, 393 $$% 0GYU, 156, 182, 183, 185, 383, 384 $%, 18, 189, 348, 421 $GCWV[, 121, 122, 159, 190, 192, 315, 322 $GKLKPI, 161, 171, 174, 178, 182, 195, 196, 198, 200,

218, 388, 392, 402, 404, 422, 423, 426 $GNKGHU, 1, 4, 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, 46, 56, 75, 105, 106,

133, 139, 150, 156, 160, 163, 167, 177, 215, 235, 236, 238, 259, 261, 314, 315, 318, 319, 320, 326, 342, 360, 391 HQNM, 159, 160 TGNKIKQWU, 57, 85, 87, 167, 259, 300, 321

$GPIFC, 235, 237, 345, 419 $GTPDCWO, 384 $GUV RTCEVKEGU, 96, 210, 351 $JCICXCF )KVC, 87 $KDNG, 29 DKOQ, 236, 258

$KQEGPVTKE, 207, 210, 254, 255, 328, 342, 343 $KQFKXGTUKV[, 1, 6, 64, 67, 68, 73, 137, 201, 202, 203,

204, 207, 208, 212, 255, 259, 306, 309, 315, 317, 318, 319, 320, 324, 328, 340, 341, 344, 350, 357, 358, 368, 376, 389, 390, 395, 399, 400, 423

$KQNQI[, 12, 80, 102, 143, 383 $KQRJ[UKECN, 103, 110, 232, 283 $KQRKTCE[, 69, 72 $KQRTQURGEVKPI, 68, 72 $KTFU, 54, 181, 191, 206 $KTVJ, 21, 56, 135, 179, 188, 314 $KUJPQKU 8CKUJPCXKVG, 133, 209 $NCEM 0QDKNKV[, 21 $NGUUKPI, 121, 123, 124, 141, 162, 234, 235, 239,

240, 257, 315 $NKPF, 37, 48, 97 $NQPFGCW, 149, 159, 236, 254, 256, 343, 385, 401,

413 $QFKGU, 18, 37, 95, 304, 357 $QP (DQP EJQU), 50, 53, 122, 124, 213, 217, 235,

401, 413, 415 OQFGTP, 53

$QTICVVK, 105, 127, 385 $QVVQO-WR, 3, 60, 90, 93, 373 $QWPFCTKGU, 57, 62, 110, 111, 203, 236, 284, 291,

293, 303, 343, 348, 370, 383, 400, 407 HW\\[, 110

$QWPFCT[5GGT, KK, 110, 125, 127, 400 $2 ENWUVGT, 187, 238, 291, 341, 381, 396, 420 $2 .VF, 183, 186 $TCOCRWVTC, 6, 216, 223 $TC\KN, 195, 337 $TGEMGPTKFIG 4GUQWTEGU, 186 $TKDGT[, 178, 211 $TKFIG, 165, 166, 307, 320, 321, 369 $TKVKUJ ’ORKTG, 22, 23 $TQYP, KK, 67, 104, 386 $TQYP CPF 4GGF, 95, 104, 335, 386 $TWPFVNCPF, 38, 39, 42, 323, 386 $TWWP, 130, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 150,

386, 411 $T[CPV, 2, 17, 38, 70, 83, 84, 88, 92, 386 $WFFJC-PCVWTG, 52 $WFFJCU, 165, 396 $WFFJKUO, 18, 50, 51, 52, 53, 121, 124, 137, 143,

146, 147, 148, 156, 160, 161, 217, 219, 234, 235, 238, 256, 259, 314, 321, 354, 390, 392, 393, 395, 396, 402, 404, 405, 408, 412, 415, 421, 423, 424

$WFFJKUV VGCEJKPIU GEQNQIKECN KPVGTRTGVCVKQP, 133, 209

$WFFJKUVU, 44, 52, 128, 161, 386 $WNCI, 129, 155, 158, 176, 387 $WTOC, 83, 88, 166, 198, 386, 396 $WUKPGUU, 12, 38, 71, 138, 186, 193, 196, 357 %CNNKEQVV, 33, 46, 133, 140, 144, 234, 259, 300, 311,

387, 397 %CORCKIPU, 139, 156, 157, 217, 326


+PFGZ


%CRCEKV[, 30, 40, 45, 52, 63, 83, 90, 155, 190, 193, 197, 207, 357 JWOCP, 145, 205

%CRKVCN, 26, 29, 36, 42, 43, 63, 183, 184, 204, 216, 276, 279, 297, 342, 356, 383 UQEKCN, 45, 177, 178

%CRKVCNKUO, 1, 16, 17, 20, 25, 27, 29, 36, 84, 85, 97, 342, 404

%#46#.+0: 8 1.2, 125, 127, 397 %CTVGUKCP

UEKGPEG, 1, 97 YQTNFXKGY, 16, 17, 20, 46

%CVGIQTKGU FKCNGEV, 291, 297 YCVGTUJGF, 290, 297

%GPVTCNKV[, 178, 218 %GPVTG, 21, 39, 165, 166, 174, 183, 215, 276, 279,

280, 281, 293, 371, 425 %JCODGTU, 3, 12, 15, 18, 58, 60, 65, 66, 88, 115, 388,

399 %JCOFQ, 214, 215, 222 %JCPIG

ENKOCVG, 131, 136, 169, 344, 345 UGC, 48, 78 UQEKCN, 159, 175 UQEKQGEQPQOKE, 193, 203

%JKPC, 4, 5, 6, 7, 39, 50, 51, 52, 98, 100, 118, 121, 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 147, 152, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 164, 165, 168, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194, 195, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 209, 210, 212, 214, 216, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223, 237, 240, 249, 255, 259, 260, 306, 308, 316, 317, 321, 331, 333, 334, 337, 350, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 425, 426 EQPVGORQTCT[, 139, 178, 190 RTQITGUUKXG, 156, 157 UQWVJYGUV, 129, 191, 194

%JKPGUG, 6, 7, 17, 18, 35, 51, 52, 70, 79, 106, 118, 121, 124, 125, 128, 130, 131, 133, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 147, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 158, 160, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 173, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 201, 204, 210, 215, 216, 218, 223, 234, 237, 238, 240, 249, 255, 259, 260, 293, 311, 315, 322, 325, 328, 343, 344, 348, 353, 383, 387, 388, 392, 393, 394, 395, 399, 400, 403, 404, 406, 408, 411, 415, 416, 422, 423 GPXKTQPOGPVCN FKUEQWTUG, 132� 75 GPXKTQPOGPVCN RQNKEKGU, 188� 91 GPXKTQPOGPVCN RQNKE[ EJCNNGPIGU, 191� 94

GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGUV, 175� 79 GVJPKE PCVKQPCNKVKGU, 151� 53 JKUVQT[, 135, 175, 210 OKPQTKV[ RQNKEKGU, 153� 55 XKGYU QH UWRGTUVKVKQP, 156� 59

%JKPGUG UVCVG, 163, 164, 168, 184, 249 %JKRMQ, 4, 43, 78, 84, 86, 87, 133, 209, 325, 344,

397, 417 %KXKNK\CVKQP, 25, 35, 85, 87, 138, 148, 152, 153, 188,

325, 329, 392, 421 YGUVGTP, 16, 30

%NCUUGU, 42, 50, 75, 109, 189 OKFFNG, 200 TWNKPI, 18

%NKOCVG, 121, 136, 140, 169, 201, 221, 344, 345 %NQUWTG, 7, 173, 196

OQWPVCKP, 201 %QFGU, 71, 236, 316

GVJKECN, 39, 186 %QGHHKEKGPVU, 109, 274 %QIPKVKQP, 11, 13, 15, 22, 25, 105, 106, 305, 333,

408 GRKUVGOKE, 15, 95

%QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI, KKK, 101, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 212, 224, 225, 226, 227, 232, 237, 238, 240, 245, 253, 255, 265, 266, 267, 269, 273, 274, 283, 285, 286, 288, 289, 293, 297, 298, 309, 360, 361, 374

%QJGUKQP, 32, 332 UQEKCN, 3, 48, 56, 76, 131, 154, 203, 350

%QNQPKCNKUO, 30, 70, 136, 155, 171, 255, 328, 407 YGUVGTP, 87, 135

%Q-OCPCIGOGPV, 1, 94, 155 %QOOQPU, 27, 29, 84, 85, 90, 397 %QOOWPKUV RCTV[, 153, 156, 157, 158 %QOOWPKVKGU, 10, 12, 44, 60, 64, 65, 69, 70, 73, 74,

86, 96, 104, 110, 113, 114, 115, 146, 150, 154, 195, 303, 319, 339, 340, 353, 354, 361, 414 NQECN, 58, 64, 90, 92, 95, 96, 154, 197, 199, 318,

340, 351 XKNNCIG, 85, 86

%QORGPUCVKQP, 70, 71, 173, 174, 196, 197, 201, 202, 203, 205, 206

%QORGVKVKQP, 90, 125, 139, 195, 217, 420 %QPEGRVU, 3, 13, 14, 37, 42, 51, 65, 88, 105, 107,

140, 142, 261, 322, 328, 330, 333, 360 GEQNQIKECN, 140

%QPHNKEVU, 42, 43, 57, 84, 150, 158, 164, 338, 356, 388, 417, 424

%QPHWEKCPKUO, 17, 18, 50, 51, 52, 53, 141, 142, 145, 152, 321, 325, 354, 388, 398, 399, 421

%QPUEKQWUPGUU, 1, 10, 25, 44, 97, 133, 135, 161, 218, 236, 305, 306, 313, 326, 358, 374 EQOOQFKV[, 131, 154 GPXKTQPOGPVCN, 131, 134, 169, 170, 171, 210,

238, 385


+PFGZ


%QPUGTXCVKQP, 1, 3, 7, 40, 41, 44, 51, 52, 53, 64, 65, 67, 68, 69, 72, 82, 85, 94, 95, 97, 107, 121, 122, 123, 124, 129, 130, 139, 145, 149, 150, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 198, 200, 204, 206, 207, 209, 210, 233, 234, 235, 236, 238, 249, 256, 311, 313, 315, 316, 317, 319, 320, 321, 326, 332, 335, 341, 350, 351, 357, 368, 369, 374, 389, 393, 395, 399, 405, 423 DKQFKXGTUKV[, 58, 315, 317, 338, 357, 358 GPXKTQPOGPVCN, 38, 50, 52, 318, 404 KP UKVW, 62, 63, 155 TGUQWTEG, 40 UQKN, 201, 208 YCVGT, 188

%QPUGTXCVKQP OQXGOGPV, 41, 44 KPVGTPCVKQPCN, 40

%QPVGZV, 10, 12, 15, 25, 36, 43, 58, 59, 60, 62, 66, 67, 89, 114, 115, 135, 147, 152, 164, 165, 177, 260, 309, 343, 346, 357, 389, 408 EWNVWTCN, 45, 175, 391, 408 PQTOCVKXG, 92, 94, 95 UQEKQ-EWNVWTCN, 2, 92

%QPVTCFKEVKQPU, 15, 17, 130, 135, 164, 190, 193, 308, 365, 368

%QPVTQN, 14, 21, 22, 23, 37, 51, 52, 53, 61, 62, 73, 75, 80, 91, 94, 97, 107, 136, 137, 145, 157, 158, 164, 168, 170, 178, 179, 184, 188, 191, 193, 199, 203, 218, 315, 317, 318, 328, 332, 352, 353, 355, 394, 417

%QPXGPVKQP QP $KQNQIKECN &KXGTUKV[, 58, 68, 358, 392, 422

%QPXGTUKQP, 74, 146, 204, 205, 340, 392 WRNCPF, 194, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206

%QRKPI UVTCVGIKGU, 132, 159, 179 %QTRQTCVKQPU, 69, 80, 187, 341, 394

VTCPUPCVKQPCN, 32, 187 %QTTGNCVKQP, 54, 73, 102, 103, 107, 109, 110, 221,

275, 276, 279, 281, 292, 293, 349, 350 CPIWNCT, 279 FGETGCUKPI, 108, 109

%QTTGNQITCOU, 108, 109, 274, 277, 418 CPIWNCT, 108, 109, 279 DGCTKPI, 108, 109, 278 YKPFTQUG, 277

%QUOKE EGNGUVKCN RCTCFKIO, 52, 145 %QUOQNQIKGU, 141, 144, 152, 386

KPFKIGPQWU, 54, 139, 141, 344, 414 %QWPVKGU, 6, 196, 201, 202, 223, 226, 249, 260, 283,

284, 361 %QWPVTKGU, 35, 36, 51, 54, 57, 71, 88, 136, 161, 166,

191, 197, 199, 200, 204, 330, 338, 339, 345, 346, 355, 390, 409

%QXGT UPQY, 221 VTGG, 294, 346

%TGCVKQP, 16, 21, 22, 23, 26, 54, 63, 66, 70, 130, 138, 142, 146, 152, 195, 259, 320, 333

%TKUKU, 17, 30, 31, 42, 43, 59, 395, 402, 410, 412 GEQNQIKECN, 42, 87, 424 GPXKTQPOGPVCN, 36, 134, 174, 210, 389, 416 KFGPVKV[, 153, 159

%TKVKSWG, KK, 12, 19, 33, 34, 46, 78, 79, 100, 114, 135, 160, 336, 390

%TQRU, 70, 73, 74, 172, 175, 206, 221 ECUJ, 73

%WDKE OGVTGU, 199 %WNVKXCVKQP, 55, 74, 76, 148, 204, 234, 236, 316

UJKHVKPI, 59, 84 %WNVWTG

DCEMYCTF, 133, 209 FQOKPCPV, 5, 70, 75 KPFKIGPQWU, 3, 68, 70, 213, 328 OKPQTKV[, 153, 155 VTCFKVKQPCN, 154, 167, 190 YGUVGTP, 21, 305, 329

&CNCK .COC, 160, 163, 166, 167, 182, 187, 188, 382, 390

&COCIG, 169, 179, 180, 181, 182, 203, 221, 223, 340

&CPIGTU, 33, 37, 46, 60, 67, 68, 76, 94, 98, 112, 129, 130, 135, 136, 152, 158, 175, 177, 189, 306, 319, 321, 349, 368

&GHQTGUVCVKQP, 51, 89, 130, 142, 144, 179, 182, 189, 191, 195, 197, 220, 221, 223, 291, 326, 338, 344, 345, 391, 395

&GKVKGU, 76, 146, 157, 162, 163, 167, 168, 177, 316, 317, 319

&GOQETCE[, 25, 44, 113, 177, 178, 405 &GRGPFGPE[, 73 &GUVTWEVKQP, 30, 36, 65, 87, 130, 131, 142, 144, 179,

182, 185, 186, 199, 211, 219, 220, 221, 223, 303, 306, 337, 381, 412

&GXGNQROGPV, KKK, 1, 3, 4, 5, 11, 12, 16, 17, 19, 20, 26, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 48, 50, 51, 54, 58, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 68, 70, 71, 72, 78, 82, 88, 89, 91, 92, 96, 97, 113, 114, 130, 131, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 163, 170, 171, 172, 179, 184, 187, 189, 192, 193, 194, 195, 198, 205, 207, 211, 237, 246, 249, 306, 307, 318, 324, 334, 335, 338, 339, 341, 345, 350, 351, 355, 358, 367, 368, 371, 374, 381, 386, 388, 390, 391, 393, 396, 399, 400, 404, 408, 414, 422, 423 ENCUUKECN, 31 KFGQNQIKGU, 1, 97 OCKPUVTGCO, 3, 7, 9, 31, 32, 76, 98, 366, 368 OQFGNU, 195, 358, 371, 422 RQUV-EQNQPKCN, 32 RQUVFGXGNQROGPV, 3, 31, 33� 34 RQUV-OQFGTP, 3, 83 RTQLGEVU, 5, 71, 179, 351 UQEKCN, 31, 32, 339 VGEJPQNQI[, 20, 154 YGUVGTP, 33, 34, 304

&GXGNQROGPV CV VJG GPF QH OQFGTPKV[, 30� 31


+PFGZ


&GXGNQROGPV RTQLGEVU, 96 &KUEQWTUG

FGXGNQROGPV, 2, 19, 20, 34, 38, 40, 61, 398, 411, 412

GPXKTQPOGPVCN, 41� 42 KPFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG, 58� 63 PCVWTG, 42� 43 UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[ UETKRVU, 82� 84

&KUEQXGT[, 69, 70, 184, 405 &KUUKOKNCTKV[, 102, 106, 111, 125 &KUVCPEG, 106, 109, 111, 129, 238, 274, 275, 278,

279, 283, 297, 312, 341, 349 &KUVKPEVKQPU, 67, 150, 307 &KXGTUKV[, 37, 40, 48, 54, 64, 65, 97, 130, 137, 154,

204, 213, 235, 306, 307, 312, 324, 376, 384, 391, 406, 409, 415 DKQNQIKECN, 54, 64, 103, 328, 358 EWNVWTCN, 54, 65, 72, 132, 194, 306, 312, 335, 385,

409 GVJPKE, 350 HQNMNQTKE, 158, 209

&KXKPKVKGU, 146, 148, 162, 235, 254, 256, 325, 343 VGTTKVQTKCN, 123, 161, 343

&QOCKPU, 11, 92, 257, 324, 357, 385 &QOKPKQP, 27 &WVHKGNF, 18, 54, 55, 58, 65, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 114,

382, 392, 394, 405, 412, 420 ’CTVJ, 3, 26, 29, 30, 42, 45, 46, 52, 68, 73, 93, 114,

128, 132, 134, 137, 138, 145, 147, 148, 167, 212, 216, 221, 259, 300, 320, 321, 324, 328, 357, 365, 420

’CUVGTP −JCO, KK, 5, 6, 50, 52, 98, 113, 126, 161, 194, 213, 214, 226, 233, 235, 236, 237, 240, 254, 259, 260, 291, 293, 308, 311, 313, 315, 328, 334, 343, 344, 360, 375 ENKOCVG EJCPIG, 221� 22 GPXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP, 219� 20 KORCEV QH PGY HQTGUV RQNKEKGU, 194� 208 MJCO JKUVQT[, 216� 17

’EMGTUNG[, 17, 27, 28, 33, 37, 40, 41, 134, 392 ’EQNQI[, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388,

389, 390, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 400, 401, 404, 405, 407, 408, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 421, 422, 423, 426 RQNKVKECN, KKK, 2, 83, 386

’EQPQOKE ITQYVJ, 39, 169, 170, 399 ’EQPQOKEU, 16, 17, 18, 26, 31, 41, 42, 48, 97, 133,

209, 322, 350, 412 ’EQPQOKGU, 55, 56, 68, 74, 83, 144, 223, 345 ’EQU[UVGOU, 6, 40, 64, 69, 80, 82, 88, 181, 310, 311,

317, 318, 337, 400 ’EQVQWTKUO, 7, 132, 188, 190, 193, 203, 207, 210,

249 ’FOQPFU, 144, 171, 172, 189, 191, 194, 392 ’FWECVKQP, 11, 43, 66, 71, 72, 95, 96, 154, 157, 187,

191, 192, 197, 219, 245, 246, 257, 259, 304, 351, 355, 391

’NGOGPVU DQWPFCT[, 111, 285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 291,

294, 296 EWNVWTCN, 75

’ORQYGTOGPV, 60, 90, 113, 353 ’PENQUWTG, 28, 30, 84, 407 ’PINCPF, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 30, 85, 383, 404,

405, 407, 414 ’PNKIJVGPOGPV, 19, 20, 22, 31, 52, 136 ’PXKTQPOGPV, 1, 2, 11, 12, 18, 19, 29, 32, 36, 37, 39,

41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 52, 55, 62, 63, 64, 65, 68, 69, 82, 83, 87, 91, 93, 97, 104, 123, 130, 132, 137, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 150, 169, 171, 174, 175, 178, 179, 181, 187, 188, 189, 192, 193, 195, 199, 207, 208, 212

’PXKTQPOGPVCN FGITCFCVKQP, 36, 144, 170, 174, 178, 181, 191, 258

’PXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGEVKQP, 46, 54, 171, 173, 175, 181, 187, 189, 210

’PXKTQPOGPVCNKUO, 9, 35, 40, 41, 48, 50, 54, 62, 97, 136, 169, 367

’RKUVGOQNQIKECN DTKFIKPI, KKK, 2, 307, 310 ’RKUVGOQNQIKECN ECTVGN, 20, 21, 22 ’RKUVGOQNQIKGU, 153, 211, 256, 303, 304, 307, 308,

309, 310, 349, 384, 414, 425 ’RKUVGOQNQIKGU QH PCVWTG, 96, 153, 211, 256, 308,

349 ’TQUKQP, 3, 52, 69, 144, 150, 180, 188, 189, 193,

204, 344, 349 EWNVWTCN, 158, 209

’VJKEU, 36, 48, 54, 64, 72, 130, 136, 137, 140, 186, 311, 367, 420, 426

’VJPKE OKPQTKVKGU, 71, 128, 129, 152, 153, 155, 173, 176, 197, 245, 350

’VJPKE RGTEGRVKQP, 243, 250, 349 ’VJPKEKV[, 151, 152, 155, 158, 175, 250, 349, 350,

351, 420 ’VJPQ-HQTGUVT[, 4, 7, 9, 54, 77, 79, 89, 93, 95, 96, 98,

107, 109, 113, 115, 300, 367 ’WTQRG, 21, 27, 30, 35, 79, 80, 84, 177, 200, 221,

321, 341, 349, 383, 399, 414, 421, 424 ’7'U DCP QP DCD[ UGCN RGNVU, 137 ’XQNWVKQP, 25, 26, 28, 35, 47, 158, 329, 372, 373,

388, 406, 417 ’ZGORNCTU, KKK, 2, 3, 13, 15, 55, 129, 133, 141, 195,

209, 235, 367 ’ZRNQKVCVKQP, 28, 29, 36, 43, 51, 53, 69, 70, 81, 97,

130, 143, 144, 155, 179, 186, 320, 329, 338, 340 ’ZVTCEVKQP, 21, 58, 59, 71, 84, 88, 184, 187, 219,

335 (CTOGTU, 26, 27, 28, 29, 50, 85, 89, 135, 173, 175,

184, 196, 197, 198, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 219, 235, 347, 391

(GNNKPI, 7, 43, 87, 132, 139, 143, 191, 195, 196, 200, 201, 219, 220, 249, 317, 344, 352 ENGCT, 132, 220

(GNNKPI DCP, 7, 87, 132, 195, 196, 201, 249


+PFGZ


(GPIUJWK, 129, 133, 137� 41, 142, 143, 209 (KGNF VGUVKPI

%JKPC, 121� 24 7−, 118� 21

(NQQFU, 7, 162, 182, 194, 195, 201, 223, 344 (QTGUV OCPCIGOGPV, KKK, 2, 80, 83, 86, 93, 96, 100,

103, 107, 198, 207, 208, 245, 318, 323, 335, 336, 337, 355, 356, 369, 388, 395, 412, 414, 424 LQKPV, 78, 89, 91, 92

(QTGUV RQNKEKGU, 194, 195, 206, 207, 208, 237, 416 (QTGUV RTQFWEVU

PQP-VKODGT, 121, 197, 237, 257, 381, 393, 402 (QTGUV RTQVGEVKQP, 1, 132, 194, 196, 198, 201 (QTGUV XCNWG UECNKPI (%JKPGUG), 440 (QTGUV XCNWG UECNKPI (’PINKUJ), 439 (QTGUV XCNWGU, 7, 89, 92, 93, 95, 96, 98, 100, 103,

104, 105, 109, 113, 115, 118, 225, 237, 240, 243, 245, 254, 260, 274, 275, 278, 283, 285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 300, 308, 313, 324, 332, 335, 336, 337, 352, 362, 367, 373, 376, 384, 386, 393, 408, 415, 416, 420, 421

(QTGUVCVKQP KPFWUVTKCN, 104, 122, 124, 237, 248, 249, 337,

374 (QTGUVGTU, KKK, 1, 2, 12, 78, 79, 83, 91, 92, 100, 235,

340, 373 (QTGUVT[

EQOOGTEKCN, 81, 84, 87 EQOOWPKV[, 4, 78, 89, 90, 91, 182, 203, 207, 208,

210, 400, 417 KPFKIGPQWU, KKK, 1, 2, 4, 95, 97 PGQ-RQRWNKUV, 88� 92 RCTCFKIOU, KKK, 2, 4, 12, 77, 79, 93, 94, 96, 98,

300, 367 RQUV-OQFGTP, 92� 93 UQEKCN, 78, 89, 90, 96, 207, 391, 393, 396, 404,

416 (QTGUVT[ CPF OQFGTPKV[, 81� 82 (QTGUVT[ CPF RTQVGUV, 84� 88 (QTGUVT[ CPF VJG EQNQPKCN NGICE[, 88 (QTGUVU, 27, 36, 39, 43, 68, 73, 79, 80, 84, 89, 91, 93,

104, 106, 115, 119, 121, 132, 138, 143, 169, 189, 190, 191, 195, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 208, 219, 220, 233, 235, 236, 254, 257, 259, 260, 283, 311, 313, 315, 316, 317, 319, 323, 324, 326, 331, 335, 336, 337, 338, 340, 341, 346, 351, 353, 354, 355, 356, 361, 374, 386, 395, 396, 402, 403, 408, 410, 411, 415, 421

(TCOGYQTMU, KX, 2, 3, 7, 9, 10, 11, 15, 32, 34, 37, 38, 42, 48, 61, 65, 90, 91, 94, 95, 105, 301, 305, 307, 308, 313, 321, 322, 325, 336, 357, 364, 376, 411

(TGGOCUQP, 20, 22, 23 KNNWOKPCVGF, 23

)CP\K, 181, 214, 225, 240, 286, 287, 291, 294, 295 )GPFGT, 3, 12, 25, 56, 74, 90, 92, 158, 175, 210, 245,

352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 360, 371, 399

)QFU, 26, 76, 146, 147, 148, 149, 159, 160, 161, 167, 215, 236, 240, 256, 316, 317, 342, 343, 370

)QXGTPOGPVU, 57, 58, 69, 72, 74, 80, 88, 91, 114, 182, 184, 185, 193, 195, 196, 197, 200, 201, 329, 341, 350, 358

)TGGP IQXGTPOGPVCNKV[, 35, 37� 38, 169, 405 )TQWRU

GPXKTQPOGPVCN, 44, 172, 200, 340 GVJPKE, 75, 129, 152, 158, 165, 331, 349, 350,

352, 417 JWOCP TKIJVU, 179, 185, 186, 211

)5+ 8 7, 108, 125, 127, 395 )WJC, 43, 70, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 92, 150, 255,

328, 344, 395, 397 *CP %JKPGUG, 6, 52, 70, 128, 129, 131, 137, 142,

151, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158, 159, 161, 170, 176, 180, 183, 184, 187, 189, 195, 196, 210, 211, 218, 237, 238, 240, 293, 325, 331, 348, 353

*CTOQP[, 21, 51, 52, 53, 59, 64, 67, 68, 130, 138, 139, 145, 149, 162, 209, 257, 258, 352, 367

*KPFWKUO, 50, 52, 135, 143, 259, 354, 388, 400, 401 *WPVKPI, 55, 67, 74, 84, 122, 124, 139, 149, 162,

189, 191, 192, 234, 235, 236, 238, 239, 240, 256, 258, 316, 342, 343

+FGPVKV[, 5, 18, 48, 57, 64, 94, 104, 132, 141, 149, 153, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 166, 167, 168, 179, 195, 218, 240, 249, 254, 256, 306, 314, 324, 325, 331, 332, 333, 357, 385, 394, 410, 412, 413 EWNVWTCN, 141, 158, 159, 160, 161, 209, 240, 331 PCVKQPCN, 160, 162, 163, 165

+FGQNQIKGU, 31, 41, 45, 46, 85, 130, 154, 165, 177, 190

+&4+5+ −KNKOCPLCTQ, 125, 127, 392 KPFKIGPQWU HQTGUVT[, 76, 94, 95 +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG, 1, 2, 3, 12, 16, 18, 19, 34, 50,

54, 58, 64, 65, 129, 388, 395, 407 +PFKIGPQWU MPQYNGFIG U[UVGOU, 65, 129, 388 +PFKIGPQWU RGQRNGU, 1, 3, 5, 7, 12, 18, 46, 50, 54� 58,

59, 64, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 76, 94, 96, 98, 100, 102, 114, 141, 158, 195, 207, 209, 234, 240, 254, 259, 260, 303, 304, 308, 311, 313, 326, 329, 330, 344, 345, 346, 350, 351, 355, 360, 368, 370, 375, 382, 388

+PHGTKQT, 1, 51, 81, 149, 158, 209 +PUVKVWVKQPU, 19, 31, 37, 38, 43, 47, 48, 55, 83, 85,

106, 129, 152, 158, 166, 193, 209, 303, 334, 352, 355, 372

+PVGITCVKQP, 47, 55, 67, 91, 125, 205 ,CRCP, 51, 52, 156, 171, 198 −JCO ITC\KPI NCPF, 5, 6, 7, 132, 196, 201 −JCO URGCMGTU, 291 −JCODC KFGPVKV[, 218, 219 −KPI )GUCT, 161, 163, 217, 218 −KPUJKR, 55, 57, 175, 176, 177, 178, 210, 353 −PQYNGFIG, 9

UEKGPVKHKE, 12, 66, 94, 113, 381 YGUVGTP, 3, 50, 58, 60, 72


+PFGZ


−PQYNGFIG U[UVGO ENCUUKECN PQP-YGUVGTP, 18, 50� 54 FKEJQVQO[, 2, 46, 60, 65, 76, 95, 114, 150, 303 HKV, 3, 7, 46 KPFKIGPQWU, 18� 19, 63� 77 OQFGTP, 16� 17

−PQYNGFIG U[UVGO DTKFIKPI, KKK, 2, 16, 60, 62, 76, 94, 98, 351, 368

−PQYNGFIG U[UVGO KPVGITCVKQP, 1, 15, 48, 73, 94, 97 −PQYNGFIG U[UVGOU, 1, 5, 16, 18, 26, 33, 49, 50, 51,

53, 54, 58, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 76, 93, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 360, 375

.CPFUECRG, 43, 58, 67, 132 UCETGF, 96, 129, 130, 145, 214

.CPIWCIG, 3, 18, 19, 48, 57, 72, 73, 83

.CYU, 19, 27, 66, 71, 92, 170 GPXKTQPOGPVCN, 36

.GG, 403 NJC, 162 .KXGNKJQQFU, 57, 60, 88, 143, 195, 206, 338, 340 .KXGUVQEM, 74, 203, 222, 223 .QEMG, 20, 22, 26, 28, 29, 23� 30, 35, 39, 40, 81, 195,

234, 305, 382, 396, 405, 407, 409, 420 .QEMGCP, 24, 26, 39, 40, 42, 66, 81, 85, 94, 131, 154,

255, 311, 320 .QIIKPI, 103, 172, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200,

203, 208, 223, 318, 339, 344, 386, 408 .QIIKPI DCP, 172, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200,

208, 344, 408 .WIW .CMG, 233, 235, 236, 237, 254, 256, 257, 258,

259, 260, 308, 334, 335, 345, 419 /CKPUVTGCO UWUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV, 38� 41 /CPCIGOGPV, 37, 41, 47, 48, 61, 72, 79, 80, 85, 86,

88, 91, 94, 154, 168, 185, 192, 193, 198, 202, 205, 206, 207, 211, 307, 320, 323, 324, 328, 332, 333, 335, 336, 350, 351, 352, 356, 357, 358, 372, 374, 390, 399, 401, 415 CFCRVKXG, 47, 93, 373 GPXKTQPOGPVCN, 18, 129, 130, 140, 149 TGUQWTEG, 3, 41, 42, 47, 48, 58, 63, 65, 67, 92, 93,

96, 106, 143, 155, 193, 307, 312, 333, 351, 356, 357, 372

UEKGPVKHKE, 69 /CRU, 104, 107, 113, 114, 125, 216, 291, 292, 293,

315 OGPVCN, 76, 79, 92, 104

/CTMGVU, 25, 173, 185, 205, 330, 339, 356 /&5, 105, 106, 107, 110, 113, 118, 121, 125, 127,

230, 232, 233, 234, 237, 239, 243, 245, 248, 254, 271, 291, 352

/&5 RNQVU, 125, 230, 239, 243, 245, 248, 271 /GP, 21, 26, 28, 74, 75, 106, 119, 216, 235, 239,

260, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357 /GVCRJQTU, 16, 26, 150 /GVTKEU, 111 OK EJQU, 123, 160, 161, 235 /KPQTKVKGU, 75, 128, 129, 155, 201, 203

/KPQTKV[ ITQWRU, 160, 193, 203, 210, 293 /KPQTKV[ RGQRNGU, 131, 153, 157, 158, 179, 193, 237 /QFGN, 13, 32, 52, 58, 80, 88, 93, 108, 125, 130,

153, 171, 193, 255, 267, 317, 319, 328 /QFGTPKV[, 16, 17, 19, 20, 30, 32, 34, 37, 48, 58, 78,

157, 161, 246, 331, 354, 384, 410, 426 /QPMU, 106, 161, 166, 167, 215, 235, 238, 239 /QWPVCKPU, 51, 52, 116, 145, 146, 147, 148, 159,

162, 189, 190, 199, 203, 214, 254, 257, 316, 317, 325 UCETGF, 235, 258, 315, 316

/QXGOGPVU, 25, 64, 147, 163, 169, 170, 171, 176, 184, 210, 211, 218, 219, 350 GPXKTQPOGPVCN, 171, 172 UQEKCN, 33, 37, 170, 175, 176, 210, 411

/WNVKFKOGPUKQPCN UECNKPI, 102, 105, 106, 120, 124, 125, 390, 409

0CVKQPCNKV[, 129, 151, 153, 154, 160, 177, 214, 325, 326, 395

0CVWTCN TGUQWTEGU, 19, 36, 41, 54, 55, 68, 93, 113, 135, 143, 144, 153, 159, 179, 184, 187, 188, 203, 211, 314, 332, 334, 350, 370

0CVWTG, 9, 19, 22, 25, 26, 27, 30, 35, 36, 37, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56, 59, 63, 64, 65, 78, 81, 85, 87, 96, 97, 103, 111, 123, 124, 128, 129, 130, 132, 136, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 152, 162, 167, 170, 171, 172, 174, 182, 188, 189, 197, 199, 204, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 214, 217, 233, 234, 235, 238, 249, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 309, 310, 311, 315, 317, 320, 322, 327, 328, 329, 330, 332, 334, 344, 346, 347, 351, 354, 357, 389, 395, 404 GPXKTQPOGPVCN XCNWGU CPF DGJCXKQWT, 149� 50 KP %JKPGUG CTV, NKVGTCVWTG CPF TGCNKV[, 142� 43 KVU TG-QTFGTKPI CPF VCOKPI KP 6KDGV, 145� 49,

145� 49 0CVWTG EQPUGTXCVKQP, 64, 123, 132, 144, 162, 170,

171, 172, 214, 238, 249, 257, 258, 328, 419 GZRNKEKV, 96, 129, 167, 259

0CVWTG TGUGTXGU, 171, 188, 189, 197, 199, 206, 210, 255, 315, 317, 328, 351, 404

0%55 2000, 125, 127, 398 0’( 0CVWTCN GPXKTQPOGPVCN HWPEVKQP, 124, 233 PGTK OQWPVCKPU, 146, 147, 313 0*( 0CVWTCN J[FTQNQIKECN HWPEVKQP, 124, 233 0QOCFU, 55, 149, 164, 216, 217, 240, 256 0WOKPC, 146, 159, 160, 162, 214, 235, 257, 385 1YPGTUJKR, 26, 28, 29, 55, 56, 57, 58, 93, 165, 192,

193, 312 2CTCFKIO

J[RGTVGZV, 371, 404 RQUV-4KQ HQTGUVT[, 93� 96 TGNKIKQWU-GPXKTQPOGPVCN, 43� 46 UEKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[, 79� 81

2CTCFKIO UJKHV, 1, 15, 21, 22, 79, 91, 92, 94, 96, 103 2CTCFKIOU, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12� 15, 17, 18, 21, 22,

32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41, 43, 45, 46, 49, 50,


+PFGZ


51, 54, 61, 62, 68, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 86, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 103, 104, 107, 109, 110, 113, 115, 129, 130, 132, 136, 144, 145, 155, 162, 238, 254, 255, 258, 300, 360, 367, 368, 373, 375 EQOOWPKV[ HQTGUVT[, 78, 91

2CTVKEKRCVQT[, 1, 2, 47, 60, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 115, 149, 155, 195, 205, 206, 208, 343

2CUUCIG, 148, 258, 329, 422 2#55#)’ 8 1.1, 127, 415 2GCUCPVU, 29, 84, 86, 87, 143, 153, 172, 176 2GQRNG-EGPVTGF CRRTQCEJ, 47� 48 2GTEGRVKQP, 7, 11, 13, 46, 52, 59, 76, 96, 102, 103,

105, 106, 130, 142, 214, 305, 310, 330, 343, 353, 361, 381, 415, 419

2GTURGEVKXGU, 17, 41, 49, 82, 87, 134, 149, 209, 390, 405, 415, 424

2JGPQOGPC, 15, 17, 46, 63, 91, 92, 135, 136, 161, 162, 203, 211, 408

2JKNQUQRJ[, 17, 25, 26, 27, 51, 130, 136, 138, 139, 140, 142, 145, 151, 152, 321, 397, 406

2KGVGTUG, 12, 15, 16, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 412 2NCEG, 9, 11, 19, 20, 35, 39, 52, 56, 58, 60, 62, 66,

75, 76, 78, 84, 89, 91, 104, 109, 132, 137, 139, 146, 147, 148, 149, 153, 156, 157, 159, 160, 162, 166, 175, 176, 179, 203, 218, 225, 233, 236, 239, 240, 245, 256, 292, 303, 308, 317, 331, 332, 333, 334, 342, 346, 352, 354, 361, 370, 386, 395, 400, 406, 407, 410, 414

2NCEG CVVCEJOGPV, 109, 132, 159, 179, 240, 245, 331, 332, 333, 334, 407

2NCVHQTO, 3, 78, 161, 358 2QNKEKGU, 37, 40, 58, 62, 72, 94, 95, 153, 154, 176,

184, 185, 190, 194, 195, 200, 203, 208, 210, 237, 333, 334, 341, 350, 356, 385, 399, 423

2QNKVKEU, KKK, 2, 12, 17, 21, 22, 23, 26, 31, 32, 34, 41, 43, 48, 64, 78, 97, 165, 311, 382, 386, 389, 394, 398, 401, 405

2QNNWVKQP, 51, 80, 137, 139, 144, 169, 170, 172, 173, 174, 178, 191, 193, 210, 395, 423

2QUG[, 382, 384, 390, 392, 393, 394 2QUVOQFGTPKV[, 33� 35 2QYGT, 2, 3, 14, 21, 23, 26, 27, 37, 38, 62, 63, 74, 75,

83, 88, 90, 140, 146, 147, 150, 157, 158, 164, 166, 193, 218

2TGUUWTG, 39, 71, 76, 171, 174, 175, 184, 186, 187, 189, 192, 197, 200, 205, 219, 221

2TQDNGOU, 3, 11, 15, 39, 52, 56, 61, 63, 80, 81, 82, 88, 90, 135, 136, 144, 164, 173, 189, 191, 192

2TQEGUU, KKK, 2, 9, 11, 38, 42, 43, 47, 59, 75, 76, 110, 133, 137, 146, 148, 155, 157, 158, 162, 163, 167, 177, 184, 193, 196, 209, 218, 307, 308, 310, 311, 326, 334, 337, 390, 404, 413, 422

2TQITCOOGU, 72, 94, 124, 125, 204, 208 2TQLGEVU, KKK, 1, 16, 30, 37, 71, 90, 95, 97, 135, 180,

184, 185 2TQRGTV[, 3, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 48, 69, 84, 86, 175

RTKXCVG, 26, 28, 29, 57 2TQRGTV[ TKIJVU, 27, 28, 29, 48, 69, 175, 198, 205,

208 2TQVGEVKQP, 50, 53, 54, 58, 65, 68, 70, 97, 114, 135,

149, 152, 172, 187, 189, 191, 195, 198, 201, 207, 342

2TQVGUVU, 89, 169, 170, 172, 173, 175, 178, 179, 183 GPXKTQPOGPVCN, 131, 169, 175, 210 RQRWNCT, 170

2TQXKPEG, 214, 220, 222 2TQXKPEKCN ECRKVCNU, 296 2TQZKOKV[, 104, 119, 122 3KCPIKE URGCMGTU, 214, 238, 276, 284, 291, 293, 299,

361 4CEG, 25, 30, 35 4CODNG, 382 4GCNKVKGU, 14, 17, 33, 39, 59 4GEQIPKVKQP, 43, 58, 68, 69, 93, 95, 373 4GHQTO, 41 4GNCVKQPUJKR, 5, 12, 14, 36, 47, 56, 64 4GNKIKQP, 43, 44, 46, 50, 86

HQNM, 86, 148 RQRWNCT, 168, 170, 175, 176, 177, 178

4GNKIKQWU, 21, 27, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 54, 55, 56, 57, 85, 86, 87

4GNKIKQWU RTCEVKEGU, 76 4GRTGUGPVCVKQP, 51, 53, 63 TGU PWNNKWU, 30, 69 4GUGCTEJ OGVJQFU

$QWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU, 110� 13 )GQUVCVKUVKEU, 107� 9 )+5 CPF )25, 113� 15 /&5, 104� 7

4GUGTXGU, 56 4GUKUVCPEG, 33, 43, 84, 86, 87 4GUQPCVGU, 11, 16 4GUQWTEGU, 2, 3, 9, 29, 30, 45, 50, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57,

62, 63, 65, 97 4GURQPUG, 3, 4, 53, 62 4GUWNVU

DQWPFCT[ CPCN[UKU, 297 4JGVQTKE, 31, 32, 33, 38, 41, 48, 59, 60, 64, 76, 91,

94, 97, 98, 368 4KIJVU, 27, 28, 29, 30, 47, 56, 62, 69, 71, 74, 84, 85,

87, 93, 94, 155, 158, 187, 201, 204, 209, 210, 255, 339, 351 JWOCP, 179, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 211, 351,

352, 353, 356, 358 4KVWCNU, 54, 55, 132, 146, 149, 163, 165, 166, 177,

179, 209, 256, 324, 325, 342, 355, 413, 414 4KXGTU, 6, 73, 190, 199, 213, 223, 290, 316, 317 4QQVU, 20, 21, 41, 42, 82, 86, 87, 167, 171, 178, 190,

195, 201, 314, 316, 424 4QUKETWEKCP, 20, 21, 22, 23 4WNGU, 13, 85, 185, 189, 352 5CORNG UKVGU, 112


+PFGZ


5COWGN, 50, 53, 123, 124, 147, 148, 161, 162, 163, 168, 214, 217, 219, 235, 415

5CTRK, 21, 22, 24, 26 5EKGPEGU, 1, 12, 13, 16, 17, 20, 22, 23, 25, 27, 31, 32,

33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 42, 43, 46, 47, 48, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 79, 83, 87, 92, 93, 94, 97, 107, 133, 138, 139, 140, 154, 209, 303, 305, 306, 308, 312, 344, 386, 406, 412, 414, 417, 424, 425 PCVWTCN, 12, 22, 46, 82, 392 YGUVGTP, 27, 61, 66, 67

5EKGPVKHKE HQTGUVT[, KK, 4, 17, 27, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 91, 92, 255, 397

5GNH, 3, 14, 32, 44, 53, 56, 66, 73, 85, 87, 106, 114, 122, 123, 124, 141, 154, 159, 160, 161, 163, 168, 170, 203, 233, 304, 329, 331, 342, 393, 398, 409, 412, 413

5JCOCP, 76, 162, 168, 236, 256, 257, 311, 343, 354, 370

5JKXC, KK, 3, 4, 16, 26, 27, 30, 33, 72, 78, 84, 92, 145, 345, 346, 349, 417

5KEJWCP, 6, 181, 192, 195, 208, 213, 214, 219, 220, 236, 276, 279, 291, 293, 385, 392, 413, 422, 423, 425, 426

5KOKNCTKV[, 106, 111, 214 5QEKCN GPIKPGGTKPI, 130, 154, 203 5QEKCNKUO, 1, 16, 17, 31, 41, 97, 122, 124, 154, 161,

170, 190, 237, 238, 341, 370 FJCOOKE, 341, 370, 386

5QEKGVKGU, 3, 10, 18, 19, 22, 25, 26, 28, 34, 35, 37, 41, 45, 46, 55, 56, 57, 62, 64, 65, 66, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 87, 88, 114, 115, 124, 129, 130, 132, 137, 138, 139, 144, 147, 149, 154, 157, 158, 171, 174, 176, 186, 193, 195, 209, 210, 219, 233, 238, 246, 306, 311, 324, 329, 331, 332, 334, 344, 352, 353, 354, 355, 357, 370, 374, 384, 392, 394, 398, 408, 412, 417 EKXKN, 25, 26, 28, 177 JWOCP, 21, 45, 65, 143, 306, 311, 320, 370 PCVKQPCN, 57, 70, 71, 74, 75, 98, 152, 159, 179,

193, 326 5QHVYCTG, KK, 100, 105, 106, 110, 119, 120, 121, 124,

125, 126, 390, 396, 402, 419 5RCEG, 2, 3, 13, 16, 25, 42, 43, 58, 60, 61, 63, 79, 85,

93, 94, 105, 106, 111, 121, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, 162, 218, 221, 240, 303, 307, 332, 333, 347, 352, 354, 361, 373, 393, 402, 407, 410

5RCVKCN FGRGPFGPE[, 102, 107, 125 5RCVKCN UVWFKGU, 113 5RCVKCN VTGPFU, 273 5RGEKGU, 6, 40, 80, 83, 87, 89, 116, 172, 189, 191,

203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 212, 240, 255, 258, 295, 312, 315, 316, 317, 318, 324, 339, 340, 343, 356, 369, 392

5RKTKVWCN, 12, 14, 19, 25, 39, 51, 52, 54, 56, 63, 64, 69, 76, 121, 134, 163, 165, 234, 235, 254, 258, 259, 303, 304, 305, 310, 314, 319, 320, 321, 322, 325, 326, 333, 343, 352, 354, 355, 357, 390, 402

5VWFNG[, 4, 39, 52, 72, 91, 95, 114, 181, 214, 216, 220, 221, 235, 236, 237, 245, 254, 257, 258, 259, 260, 308, 344, 351, 352, 415, 419

5WDUKUVGPEG, 29, 55, 57, 59, 71, 73, 74, 75, 88, 89, 91, 152, 154, 196, 202, 206, 207, 208, 210, 232, 237, 329, 336, 343, 345, 346, 347, 356, 370

5WRGTUVKVKQP, 129, 131, 133, 137, 138, 140, 151, 154, 155, 156, 157, 168, 176, 209, 236, 326, 413

5WRRQTV, 23, 25, 40, 41, 43, 44, 50, 52, 53, 86, 92, 94, 97, 121, 122, 129, 144, 155, 172, 204, 233, 253, 311, 313, 324, 330, 335, 346, 350, 355, 357, 374, 410

574(’4 8 8, 125, 127, 396 5WUVCKPCDKNKV[, KKK, KX, 2, 32, 36, 41, 42, 48, 49, 65, 68,

76, 93, 95, 97, 98, 131, 154, 204, 302, 312, 323, 329, 330, 358, 367, 368, 376, 382, 394, 396, 418, 420

5WUVCKPCDNG FGXGNQROGPV, 18, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 48, 49, 58, 64, 65, 97, 140, 155, 203, 399, 404, 413, 420, 422

5[ODQNKUO, 51, 52, 53, 86, 132, 143, 145, 155, 159, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168, 324, 414

5[PGTIKUVKE DTKFIKPI, 49, 93, 94, 96, 307, 320, 321, 369

5[UVGOU, KK, KKK, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, 26, 30, 40, 42, 45, 47, 48, 50, 53, 54, 57, 60, 61, 66, 67, 68, 69, 73, 76, 78, 81, 83, 85, 88, 91, 93, 97, 98, 104, 124, 129, 130, 134, 139, 140, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 207, 209, 210, 221, 240, 304, 306, 310, 319, 320, 325, 330, 350, 351, 357, 358, 360, 368, 371, 372, 373, 375, 376, 391, 392, 399, 410, 415

6CKYCP, 70, 131, 169, 170, 171, 177, 178, 200, 388, 393, 399, 422, 423

6GEJPQNQI[, 22, 28, 31, 43, 59, 87, 183, 187, 205, 341, 356, 402, 425

VGTTC PWNNKWU, 30 6JCK OQPMU, 132, 209, 390 6JGOGU, 25, 105, 106, 118, 119, 121, 122, 124, 164,

167, 168, 176, 230, 239 6JTGCVU, 70, 72, 73, 75, 76, 368 6KDGV, 4, 5, 6, 50, 53, 79, 114, 124, 125, 129, 131,

145, 146, 147, 148, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 173, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 196, 214, 216, 218, 219, 221, 223, 249, 256, 314, 332, 354, 381, 383, 385, 386, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 399, 401, 402, 403, 405, 406, 409, 411, 413, 414, 415, 416, 418, 419, 420, 421, 423, 425

6KDGVCP $WFFJKUO, 52, 53, 124, 129, 160, 166, 213, 235, 238, 240, 314, 343, 353, 354, 418

6KDGVCP GPXKTQPOGPVCN RTQVGUV CPF EQRKPI UVTCVGIKGU, 179� 88

6KDGVCP RGQRNGU, 79, 148, 162 6KDGVCPU, 4, 6, 53, 54, 79, 104, 106, 123, 128, 131,

132, 141, 149, 159, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 188,


+PFGZ


211, 214, 217, 234, 235, 238, 240, 246, 249, 256, 260, 291, 313, 314, 342, 343, 348, 353, 381, 392, 393, 399, 421

6+0, 7, 155, 181, 182, 183, 184, 195, 202, 203, 222, 406, 421

6QQNU, 32, 34, 42, 56, 79, 100, 103, 107, 111, 113, 125, 197, 310, 356, 389, 390, 405

6QWTKUO, 72, 121, 154, 155, 176, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 197, 206, 207, 236, 260, 334, 335, 404, 407 GVJPKE, 193, 410, 420

6TCFKVKQPU, 17, 18, 44, 45, 46, 52, 53, 59, 96, 140, 145, 147, 149, 152, 154, 156, 165, 167, 213, 236, 303, 319, 351, 352, 395, 397, 402 EWNVWTCN, 75, 149, 209 TGNKIKQWU, 124, 133, 165, 176, 177, 235

6TCLGEVQTKGU, 7, 12, 16, 31, 32, 34, 40, 41, 46, 47, 48, 50, 54, 82, 91, 94, 95, 169, 306, 307, 319, 341, 366, 367, 370

6TGG RNCPVKPI, 188, 198, 205, 220, 325, 326 6TGGU, 5, 78, 79, 80, 87, 98, 115, 116, 132, 135, 193,

197, 198, 202, 203, 205, 207, 223, 235, 236, 257, 258, 316, 317, 319, 320, 326, 340, 344, 347, 352, 353, 360, 375, 381, 392, 395, 403, 411

6TWVJ, 66, 83, 150, 152, 164, 170, 303, 322, 340 7−, 23, 29, 39, 78, 84, 89, 118, 119, 121, 183, 233,

234, 254, 259, 304, 328, 395, 396, 398, 403, 407, 411, 413, 417

8CNWGU D[ CIG, 245� 46, 245� 46 D[ GVJPKEKV[, 347� 52 D[ IGPFGT, 352� 58 EQOOGTEKCN, 39, 253� 54, 302� 37 EQPUGTXCVKQP, 233� 34, 310� 13, 310� 13 EWNVWTCN, 69, 89, 140, 159, 209, 254

VTCFKVKQPCN, 130, 153 HWVWTG, 260, 322� 24, 322� 24 JWPVKPI, 238� 40 KPFWUVTKCN HQTGUVCVKQP, 237, 337� 41, 337� 41 KPVTKPUKE, 259, 321� 22 NGCTPKPI, 256, 309, 310 NKHG UWRRQTV, 233, 343� 45

RNCEG CVVCEJOGPV, 240, 331� 34 TGETGCVKQP CPF VQWTKUO, 334� 35 UQEKCNKUO, 237� 38, 237� 38, 341� 42 URKTKVWCN CPF UCETGF, 234, 313� 21 UWDUKUVGPEG, 237, 345� 47 YKNFGTPGUU, 254� 55, 326� 30

8CTKCDNGU, 111, 410 8GPGVKCP QNKICTEJ[, 21, 20� 23 8KNNCIGU, 196, 202, 208, 216, 256, 353, 401 8KUKQP, 13, 45, 53, 59, 61, 134, 139, 140, 154, 156,

207, 218, 304, 398 9CVGTUJGFU, 283, 288, 290 9GCNVJ, 1, 14, 28, 37, 56, 88, 142, 159, 190, 195,

209, 338 9KNFGTPGUU, 64, 104, 121, 254, 255 9KNFNKHG, 36, 51, 114, 124, 132, 189, 206, 207, 234,

315, 324, 329, 343 9KNNKCOU, 17, 42, 50, 92, 96, 104, 326, 333, 373,

392, 399, 404, 421, 424 9QOGP, 26, 52, 73, 74, 75, 87, 89, 106, 119, 122,

124, 157, 176, 260, 334, 340, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 361, 399, 403

914&5/+6* 611.5 8 4, 127, 416 9QTM, KK, 5, 9, 22, 24, 44, 56, 61, 63, 70, 74, 75, 78,

79, 81, 82, 100, 102, 105, 126, 134, 140, 141, 144, 149, 153, 157, 158, 161, 189, 200, 327, 328, 334, 347, 409

9QTNFXKGY, 4, 10� 12, 13, 15, 17, 20, 21, 22, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 45, 47, 48, 65, 67, 91, 100, 129, 130, 135, 136, 142, 258, 259, 367 YGUVGTP, 48, 49, 97

:.56#6 8 5.1, 125, 127, 381 ;CLKCPI, 248, 269, 284, 286, 290, 296, 361 [WN-NJC, 123, 124, 146, 147, 148, 149, 159, 160, 161,

162, 234, 235, 239, 254, 256, 313, 342 [WN-NJC NQECNGU, 145 ;WPPCP, 4, 172, 196, 201, 202, 206, 207, 214, 220,

245, 249, 315, 316, 348, 388, 389, 390, 398 <JQPIFKCP, 207, 248, 249, 269, 285, 287, 288, 291,

292, 294, 295, 296, 353 <QPGU, 11, 18, 208, 218 <QPGU QH TCRKF EJCPIG, 103, 269, 283, 383


#RRGPFKZ 1 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UKVGU


#22’0&+: 1 : %1)0+6+8’ /#22+0) 5+6’5 (%JKPC)

+& &#6’ %QWPV[ 8KNNCIG )GPFGT #IG ’VJPKEKV[ %CVEJOGPV .CV .QPI

1 06/05/2002 ;CLKCPI 1TNQPI (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 30.057 101.28

2 06/06/2002 ;CLKCPI 2COCNKPI /CNG 1NF 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 30.1026 101.187

3 06/06/2002 ;CLKCPI 2COCNKPI2 /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 30.10264 101.187

4 06/07/2002 ;CLKCPI /GGTC (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 30.075 101.145

5 06/07/2002 ;CLKCPI /GGTC2 (GOCNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 30.07503 101.145

6 06/08/2002 ;CLKCPI 4CMWVK /CNG 1NF 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 29.83 101.072

7 06/08/2002 ;CLKCPI ,CEMW1 (GOCNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 29.83003 101.072

8 06/08/2002 ;CLKCPI ,CEMW2 /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 29.83006 101.072

9 06/08/2002 ;CLKCPI ,CEMW3 (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 29.83008 101.072

10 06/08/2002 ;CLKCPI ,CEMW4 /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 29.83011 101.072

11 13/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP &CDCQ /CNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 27.96 99.99

12 13/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP &CDCQ1 (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 27.96003 99.9900

13 13/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP &CNC /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 27.98 99.98

14 14/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP $GPFKPI /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.01 99.48

15 14/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP 5JCPEJQWVCQ (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.1 99.43

16 14/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP 6QPFW /CNG 1NF 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 27.93 99.49

17 14/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP %JQPIQT /CNG 1NF 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.096 99.78

18 14/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP %JQPIQT1 (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.09603 99.7800

19 15/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP 2WUJCP /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.173 99.74

20 15/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP 2WUJCP1 /CNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.17303 99.7400

21 15/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP )QTPQT (GOCNG 1NF 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 27.57 99.71

22 15/12/2001 <JQPIFKCP )QTPQT1 /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 27.57003 99.7100

23 08/01/1999 5JKSW *QP\G /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 32.665 97.5152

24 08/01/1999 5JKSW *QP\G2 (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 32.66503 97.5153

25 08/01/1999 5JKSW *QP\G3 (GOCNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 32.66506 97.5153

26 08/01/1999 5JKSW $CK[W (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 32.67 97.5055

27 08/01/1999 5JKSW $CK[W2 (GOCNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 32.67003 97.5055

28 08/01/1999 5JKSW 4C\JK (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 32.69 97.5

29 08/01/1999 5JKSW 4C\JK2 /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 32.69003 97.5000

30 08/01/1999 5JKSW 4C\JK3 /CNG 1NF 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 32.69006 97.5000



33 08/11/2003 −CPFKPI )CDC /CNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 29.95244 101.574

34 08/11/2003 −CPFKPI )CDC 2 (GOCNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 29.95087 101.577

35 08/11/2003 −CPFKPI )CDC 3 /CNG 1NF 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 29.95888 101.572

36 09/11/2003 −CPFKPI ,C\C[ /CNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 29.91803 101.585

37 09/11/2003 −CPFKPI ,C\C[ 2 (GOCNG 1NF 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 29.91818 101.583

38 09/11/2003 −CPFKPI ,C\C[ 3 /CNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 29.91921 101.593

39 10/11/2003 −CPFKPI ,CIGPDC /CNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 29.84446 101.554

40 10/11/2003 −CPFKPI ,CIGPDC 2 /CNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 29.84316 101.553

41 10/11/2003 −CPFKPI ,CIGPDC 3 (GOCNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 29.84256 101.569

42 11/11/2003 −CPFKPI ,CIC[EJC /CNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 29.80013 101.525

43 11/11/2003 −CPFKPI ,CIQPI (GOCNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 29.78215 101.518

44 11/11/2003 −CPFKPI ,CODCMC /CNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 29.80222 101.529

45 12/11/2003 −CPFKPI 0C #UJC[ /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 30.08761 101.695

46 12/11/2003 −CPFKPI 0C #JC[ 2 /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 30.09182 101.695

47 12/11/2003 −CPFKPI 0C #UJC[ 3 /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 30.08761 101.685


#RRGPFKZ 1 %QIPKVKXG OCRRKPI UKVGU


48 05/04/2004 &GTQPI %JWF\C /CNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.33715 99.2333

49 05/04/2004 &GTQPI ;CIW (GOCNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.76892 99.2941

50 04/05/1944 &GTQPI 5JKGRC[ /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.84453 99.2888

51 05/06/2004 $CVCPI .JCFC /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 30.17893 99.2027

52 05/06/2004 $CVCPI ;CYCJ /CNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 30.15156 99.1874

53 05/06/2004 $CVCPI .Q[CYC (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 30.14751 99.1840

54 05/06/2004 $CVCPI &CDC /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 30.11314 99.1724

55 05/06/2004 $CVCPI )CTNQY /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 30.06078 99.1480

56 05/08/2004 .KVCPI ,CYC (GOCNG 1NF 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 29.76498 100.371

57 05/08/2004 .KVCPI )QQFGG (GOCNG 1NF 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 29.75555 100.380

58 05/08/2004 .KVCPI ’GLW /CNG 1NF 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 29.70964 100.392

59 05/09/2004 &CQEJGPI 0[CFGG /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.45515 100.346

60 05/09/2004 &CQEJGPI ;CFKPI1 /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.45595 100.337

61 05/09/2004 &CQEJGPI ;CFKPI2 /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.45396 100.343

62 05/09/2004 &CQEJGPI .QNQDC (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.45189 100.347

63 05/10/2004 :KCPIEJGPI −QTC (GOCNG 1NF 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.9673 99.8347

64 05/10/2004 :KCPIEJGPI <CUJC /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 28.99308 99.8430

65 05/10/2004 :KCPIEJGPI ’UJCTG /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CPIV\G 29.01696 99.0169

66 25/01/2005 :KPNQPI *CTFC[ /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 30.89159 100.223

67 25/01/2005 :KPNQPI 0CPLC /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 30.91215 100.279

68 25/01/2005 :KPNQPI %JCM[ (GOCNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 30.92843 100.291

69 26/01/2005 )CP\K ,WFC[ (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 31.60405 100.022

70 26/01/2005 )CP\K 6CUJC[ /CNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 31.57817 100.102

71 26/01/2005 )CP\K .QIQVUC[ /CNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 31.59472 100.145

72 29/01/2005 &GIG 6QQIQPIFC /CNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 31.81307 99.4202

73 29/01/2005 &GIG 4QPIEJKPIUC[ (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 31.86572 99.3310

74 29/01/2005 &GIG /CPKICPIQ (GOCNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 31.93146 99.2035

75 30/01/2005 .WJWQ −JCUC /CNG ;QWPI 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 31.64766 100.268

76 30/01/2005 .WJWQ &TWYQ (GOCNG /KFFNG 6KDGVCP ;CLKCPI 31.52111 100.475

77 30/01/2005 .WJWQ #EJW /CNG 1NF 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 31.30746 100.740

78 31/01/2005 &CQYW 5JQYIQEJQY /CNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 31.13925 100.934

79 31/01/2005 &CQYW 6CKEWRQ /CNG ;QWPI 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 31.04162 101.051

80 31/01/2005 &CQYW −JCP[C (GOCNG ;QWPI 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 30.94501 101.174

81 02/02/2005 ,KWNQPI &C\JCT (GOCNG ;QWPI 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 28.91551 101.540

82 02/02/2005 ,KWNQPI 5KTIQPRKP /CNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 28.79633 101.661

83 02/02/2005 ,KWNQPI 5TKFCDC /CNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 28.72144 101.678

84 03/02/2005 /WNK .WF\CIQ (GOCNG ;QWPI 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 27.97447 101.252

85 03/02/2005 /WNK .KPUJC (GOCNG ;QWPI 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 27.96973 101.238

86 03/02/2005 /WNK .GGF\CRKPI (GOCNG /KFFNG 3KCPI ;CLKCPI 27.97505 101.230


#RRGPFKZ 2 (QTGUV 8CNWG 5ECNKPI


#22’0&+: 2C : (14’56 8#.7’ 5%#.+0) +V KU PGEGUUCT[ CV VJG DGIKPPKPI QH VJG UECNKPI VCUM VQ GZRNCKP WPCODKIWQWUN[ VQ VJG TGURQPFGPVU VJCV C TCVKQ TWNG KU YJCV KU TGSWGUVGF QH VJGO. +P VJKU ECUG VJG HQNNQYKPI GZRNCPCVKQP YCU IKXGP RTKQT VQ VJG VCUM (KP VJG NQECN NCPIWCIG). "9G YCPV VQ WPFGTUVCPF JQY [QW UGG CPF VJKPM CDQWV [QWT GPXKTQPOGPV, GURGEKCNN[ VJG HQTGUV. 6JKU HQTO WUGU UQOG YQTFU VJCV UGGO VQ DG KORQTVCPV KP VJKU CTGC CPF YG CTG LWUV KPVGTGUVGF KP [QWT XKGYU, CPF JQY [QW UGG VJKPIU. 6JGTG CTG PQ TKIJV QT YTQPI CPUYGTU. 9G YCPV [QW VQ KOCIKPG VJCV VJG FKUVCPEG DGVYGGP YJKVG & DNCEM KU 5 WPKVU CRCTV (UJQY YKVJ QPG JCPF). 9G VJGP YCPV [QW VQ WUG VJCV FKUVCPEG NKMG C TWNGT, VQ OGCUWTG VJG FKUVCPEG DGVYGGP UWEJ VGTOU CU "HQTGUV" & "HQTGUV RTQFWEVU", "HQTGUV" & "EQPUGTXCVKQP".

1 2 3 4 5

1=ENQUG 5=FKUVCPV 5QOG VJKPIU NKMG "HQTGUV" CPF "HQTGUV RTQFWEVU" OKIJV UGGO SWKVG ENQUG CPF [QW OKIJV IKXG VJGO C 2 CPF QVJGTU UWEJ CU "EQPUGTXCVKQP" CPF "JWPVKPI" OKIJV UGGO FKUVCPV CPF [QW OKIJV IKXG VJGO C 4. 6Q WUG CP GZCORNG HTQO JGCNVJ YG OKIJV HKPF VJG HQNNQYKPI FKUVCPEGU *GCNVJ - )QQF FKGV 2 *GCNVJ - .KUVGPKPI VQ VJG TCFKQ HQT 10 OKPU C FC[ 3 *GCNVJ - 5OQMKPI 100 EKICTGVVGU C FC[ 4 *GCNVJ - &TKPMKPI UGXGTCN DQVVNGU QH URKTKVU C FC[ 4 4GOGODGT VJGTG CTG PQ TKIJV CPF YTQPI CPUYGTU, YG CTG XGT[ KPVGTGUVGF KP [QWT VJQWIJVU CPF XKGYU CPF VJG FKUVCPEG [QW FGEKFG DGVYGGP VJG YQTFU QP VJKU HQTO &Q [QW WPFGTUVCPF YJCV KU TGSWKTGF (TGRGCV KH PQV) 6JCPM [QW


#RRGPFKZ 2 (QTGUV 8CNWG 5ECNKPI


#22’0&+: 2D: (14’56 8#.7’/6*’/’ 5%#.+0) (%JKPGUG)

环境认识调查环境认识调查环境认识调查环境认识调查我们想知道你是怎样理解和感知你生存的自然环境的，特别是对于森林的认识。在这里给出了一些对这个地区来说很重要词句，我们想知道村民对这些词句所涉及到的问题和现象是怎样认识的、是怎样看这些问题和现象的。回答这些问题不存在对与错。我们想让你们设想在白与黑之间相隔 5格的距离概念。因此我们想让你把这个距离的概念看成一把尺子，并且来思考 "森林" 与 "林副产品"、"森林" 与"水资源" 的规定之间的距离等问题。 (1=接近 5=距离)

1 2 3 4 5

比如像 "森林" 与 "林副产品" 十分接近(几乎 2格内) ，有的像 "森林" 与 "水资源保护" 看上去不那么接近，(大概是 4格) 。下面我们以健康为例，我们可能会找到如下的距离： 1) 健康 2) 好的饮食 --2-- 3) 每天听 10 分钟的收音机 --3-- 4) 一天抽 100 支烟 --4-- 5) 一天喝许多瓶饮料 --4-- 请记住我们只是想知道你的想法、观点和你对所给词句所作出的距离上的判断，对问题的回答没有对与错。


#RRGPFKZ 3 %QIPKVKXG /CRRKPI 5WTXG[


#22’0&+: 3 : %1)0+6+8’ /#22+0) 5748’;

+&

(14’56 森林森林森林森林 [QWTUGNH 自己 48

0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN (WPEVKQP 森林的自然功效 95

YKNFNKHG 野生动物 1 VKD DWFFJKUO 藏传佛教 49 HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 96

EQPUGTXCVKQP 人类自然保护 2 VJKU RNCEG 这个地方 50

0CVWTCN *[FTQNQIKECN (WPEVKQP 水力的自然功效 97

DNGUUKPI 天赐 3 [WN-NJC 神山 51 KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 98

OGP 男人 4 JWPVKPI 狩猎 52 UQEKCNKUO 社会主义 99

YQOGP 女人 5

0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN (WPEVKQP 森林的自然功效 53 )CP\K 甘孜市 100

[QWTUGNH 自己 6 HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 54 6*+5 2.#%’ 这这这这个地方个地方个地方个地方

VKD DWFFJKUO 藏传佛教 7

0CVWTCN *[FTQNQIKECN (WPEVKQP 水力的自然功效 55 [WN-NJC 神山 101

VJKU RNCEG 这个地方 8 KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 56 JWPVKPI 狩猎 102

[WN-NJC 神山 9 UQEKCNKUO 社会主义 57


JWPVKPI 狩猎 10 )CP\K 甘孜市 58 HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 104 0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN (WPEVKQP 森林的自然功效 11 /’0 男人男人男人男人


HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 12 91/’0 女人 59 KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 106 0CVWTCN *[FTQNQIKECN (WPEVKQP 水力的自然功效 13 [QWTUGNH 自己 60 UQEKCNKUO 社会主义 107

KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 14 VKD DWFFJKUO 藏传佛教 61 )CP\K 甘孜市 108

UQEKCNKUO 社会主义 15 VJKU RNCEG 这个地方 62 ;7.-.*# 神山神山神山神山

)CP\K 甘孜市 16 [WN-NJC 神山 63 JWPVKPI 狩猎 109

9+.&.+(’ 野生动物野生动物野生动物野生动物 JWPVKPI 狩猎 64


EQPUGTXCVKQP人类自然保护 17

0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN (WPEVKQP 森林的自然功效 65 HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 111

DNGUUKPI 天赐 18 HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 66


OGP 男人 19

0CVWTCN *[FTQNQIKECN (WPEVKQP 水力的自然功效 67 KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 113

YQOGP 女人 20 KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 68 UQEKCNKUO 社会主义 114

[QWTUGNH 自己 21 UQEKCNKUO 社会主义 69 )CP\K 甘孜市 115

VKD DWF 藏传佛教 22 )CP\K 甘孜市 70 *706+0) 狩猎狩猎狩猎狩猎

VJKU RNCEG 这个地方 23 91/’0 女人女人女人女人


[WN-NJC 神山 24 [QWTUGNH 自己 71 HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 117

JWPVKPI 狩猎 25 VKD DWFFJKUO 藏传佛教 72


0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN (WPEVKQP 森林的自然功效 26 VJKU RNCEG 这个地方 73 KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 119

HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 27 [WN-NJC 神山 74 UQEKCNKUO 社会主义 120 0CVWTCN *[FTQNQIKECN (WPEVKQP 水力的自然功效 28 JWPVKPI 狩猎 75 )CP\K 甘孜市 121


#RRGPFKZ 3 %QIPKVKXG /CRRKPI 5WTXG[


KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 29


0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN

(WPEVKQP 森林的自然功森林的自然功森林的自然功森林的自然功效效效效

UQEKCNKUO 社会主义 30 HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 77 HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 122

)CP\K 甘孜市 31



%105’48#6+10人类自然保护 KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 79 KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 124

DNGUUKPI 天赐 32 UQEKCNKUO 社会主义 80 UQEKCNKUO 社会主义 125

OGP 男人 33 )CP\K 甘孜市 81 )CP\K 甘孜市 126

YQOGP 女人 34 ;1745’.( 自己自己自己自己

(14’56 241& 森林产品

[QWTUGNH 自己 35 VKD DWFFJKUO 藏传佛教 82


VKD DWFFJKUO 藏传佛教 36 VJKU RNCEG 这个地方 83 KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 128

VJKU RNCEG 这个地方 37 [WN-NJC 神山 84 UQEKCNKUO 社会主义 129

[WN-NJC 神山 38 JWPVKPI 狩猎 85 )CP\K 甘孜市 130

JWPVKPI 狩猎 39


0CVWTCN *[FTQNQIKECN

(WPEVKQP 水力的自然功水力的自然功水力的自然功水力的自然功效效效效 0CVWTCN ’PXKTQPOGPVCN (WPEVKQP 森林的自然功效 40 HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 87 KPF HQTGUVCVKQP 经济造林 131

HQTGUV RTQFWEVU 森林产品 41

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Page 451






























4[C

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#RRGPFKZ 4 %QPVCEVU

Page 452






























5RGT

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KDGV

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U, 5

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4+5

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UG C

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#RRGPFKZ 4 %QPVCEVU

Page 453































9

%/

% (

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[ *

CTTK

UQP)

LGTT

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TKUQ

P"

YEO

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CRU

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PXKT

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GPV

CPF $

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KQWT

9

KGTU

WO

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TGGT

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KGTU

WO

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WT.

PN

0

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#RRGPFKZ 4 %QPVCEVU

Page 454



















Date post:	12-Mar-2016
Category:	Documents
Upload:	john-studley
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