Sustainable Land UseKey Planning Movements and

Lessons Learned

Neil Weinstein, P.E., ASLA, AICP, MASCE, ENV SPThe Low Impact Development Center, Inc.nweinstein@lowimpactdevelopment.org

Emily Clifton, AICPeclifton@lowimpactdevelopment.org

Learning Outcomes

Achieve a historical perspective of land use planning in the United States

Know the most common land use planning tools that drive where and how development and redevelopment occur

Be able to integrate sustainable development and infrastructure with community planning

2.3

Module Two – Outline

2.4

1. Infrastructure, Land Use, and Human Settlements

2. Livability of Cities and Other Human Settlements

3. Mitigating the Impact of Development

4. Sustainable Development and Land Use Planning

US settlement, from Shores to Interior

Infrastructure, Land Use, and Human Settlements

2.5

Earliest Arrivals: Ports as Nuclei of Early English Settlements

Links between Milled Lumber, Navigable Rivers and Coastal Port Cities

Cumberland Road / National Road Construction began in 1811 on the first major

federal highway Helped open the Ohio Valley to settlers

Erie Canal First transport route between New York and

the Great Lakes, completed in 1825 Facilitated economic development of both

Northeastern states and the West

Early 1800s: Emergence of Major Transportation Networks

2.6

Three Major Railroad Corporations Form (1820s – 1850s) Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (1826)

Opens routes to the western states

New York Central Railroad (1831) Serviced most of the Northeast

Pennsylvania Railroad (1846) Expansion parallels westward movement to growing mid-west population

centers

Homestead Act of 1862 160 acres of land to any head of a household

Early-Mid 1800s: Major Railroad Expansion

2.7

Shift in the perception of nature Consensus emerges on the need to

exploit and manipulate water for economic gain

Needs based on Location Waterpower development and canal

building framed water law in the East 1820s: Dams to improve navigation of the Ohio

River

Mining activity and agriculture framed water law in the West 1910: Buffalo Bill Dam in Wyoming built for

irrigation, power

Early-Mid 1800s Onward: Emergence of Dams

2.8

Buffalo Bill Dam, Bureau of Reclamation

Interstate and Defense Highways Act of 1956 Moving beyond local settlements into era of Metropolitan

America

Getting There Faster!

2.9

System of modern freeways connects metropolitan areas

Airports and Airway Development Act of 1970s

Texas Department of Transportation

1990s Onward: Dedicated Taxes and Fees to Meet Infrastructure Needs Lose Buying Power and Political Favor Funding lags behind needs Resources necessary to meet demands for new capacity

and maintenance become uncertain Tolls, loans, and public-private partnerships emerge to try

to bridge gap Stable funding increasingly elusive

Infrastructure Finance and Sustainability

2.10

What might be some of the unintended consequences of this expansion of infrastructure?

2.11

Study Question

See: Reference #10 (end slide)

Course Outline

2.12

1. Infrastructure, Land Use, and Human Settlements

2. Livability of Cities and Other Human Settlements

3. Mitigating the Impact of Development

4. Sustainable Development and Land Use Planning

Need to create a good fit among inhabitants, natural environment, and built environment

Industrialization unprecedented density From 1830 to 1860, urban populations grew 552 percent (from

1.1 million to 6.2 million) In 1859, there were 140,000 industrial establishments. Forty

years later, there were 207,000 industrial plants, excluding hand and neighborhood industries

Industrialization mechanization of agriculture, stimulates national market for products

Livability of Cities and Other Human Settlements

2.13

1860s Sanitary Reform as a result of many infectious diseases due to overcrowding, poor sanitation, and large pop. growth

First tenement housing law 1867 - beginning of land use zoning in the US Wide light and air courts between

structures Toilet and running water in ea. apartment

First urban park Central Park (1858) in New York City by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux

1840-1914: Rise of City Planning

2.14

City Beautiful Movement

McMillan Plan of 1901 1st Attempt at City Planning

Garden Cities of Tomorrow in 1902 Self contained cities surrounded by “greenbelts”

Plan of Chicago in 1909 First comprehensive plan

New York City’s Zoning Resolution in 1916 First comprehensive zoning resolution

Early 1900s: Modern-day Community Planning Concepts Emerge

2.15

Topics covered more than 100 yrs. ago still covered today (blight, (congestion, affordable housing, transit, zoning)

Transition to Planning professionals hired by municipal governments

Congestion and “Evils of density” topics of discussion

First National City Planning Conference

2.16

Standard State Zoning Enabling Act of 1920 (SZEA) Allowed the legislative body to subdivide the local

government’s territory into districts

Standard State City Planning Enabling Act of 1924 (SCPEA) Planning Commission to prepare a Master Plan Focused on large public works Control of the private subdivision of land

1920s: Zoning-enabling Model Legislation Developed and Adopted

2.17

Initially Minimized the Role of Long-term Planning SZEA and SCPEA written in era where Land Use Issues = Urban

Issues

Led to Haphazard Planning Efforts: Planning was defined but not required under the SCPEA No fundamental planning elements defined

1960s: Process to Prepare, Adopt, and Update Comprehensive Plans Emerges

1970s: Strong Case for Mandatory, Binding Comprehensive Plans Made

1920s: Zoning-enabling Legislation Enacted (cont.)

2.18

National Housing Act of 1934 + Depression Pushes Government into Arena of Public Housing Two-tiered housing policy:

Top tier: mortgage insurance and other governmental subsidies providing low-cost capital to market supplied housing

Bottom tier: United States Housing Act of 1937 to ensure progress in terms of slum clearance, providing housing for the poor, and promoting industrial recovery

Idea that Slum Clearance + New, Publicly-owned Housing = Solution to City Slums

1930s – 1950s: Slums in the City

2.19

Urban Renewal Programs of 1950s Refers primarily to public efforts to revitalize aging and decaying

inner cities Pittsburgh’s downtown revitalization considered a major success;

other neighborhoods subject to mixed results

Environmental Programs of late-1960s Major new programs enacted for water pollution control,

improved air quality, wetlands protection, and broad-scale environmental impact analysis for federal projects, some states

Later efforts merge indicators like air quality with infrastructure planning, setting the stage for sustainable planning

1950s -1960s: Urban Renewal and the Environment

2.20

Changes in the planning process often occur as a result of new challenges. What are some of the most critical challenges facing communities today?

Study Question

2.21

See: References #7 and 9 (end slide)

Course Outline

1. Infrastructure, Land Use, and Human Settlements

2. Livability of Cities and Other Human Settlements

3. Mitigating the Impact of Development

4. Sustainable Development and Land Use Planning

2.22

Planning Today

2.23

Underlying Premise of Community Planning Evolution from focus on community building to balancing

many interests and competing priorities Still influenced heavily by economic drivers (real estate,

infrastructure) Growing recognition of the importance of social equity and

the environment

Key Events: 1963 – Publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson 1969 – Publication of Design with Nature by Ian McHarg 1970 – Enactment of the Clean Air Act and the National

Environmental Policy Act (US Council on Environ. Quality, EPA established)

1972 – Enactment of the Clean Water Act 1976 – Resources Conservation Recovery Act Contemporaneous establishment of the Endangered Species Act,

Coastal Management Act, and a variety of land conservation, outdoor recreation, and open space programs

Current issues: Renewable energy, climate change

Mitigating Environmental Impacts

2.24

Land Use Implications: Over expansion is stressing infrastructure, leading to

energy shortages, transportation problems, deficient city services, and other economic and environmental problems

Over expansion is degrading ecosystem processes and services, with wide–ranging and long–term consequences

Increased emphasis on multi-purpose planning and management approaches such as collaborative environmental management, land conservation, natural hazard mitigation, and ecosystem and watershed management

Environment – Implications for Land Use

2.25

Public Works and Economic Development Act of 1965

Economically Distressed Communities

2.26

Est. the Economic Development Administration to provide grants to economically distressed communities

Supports employment and industrial and commercial growth

Thrust many local, regional, and state planning offices into economic development planning more directly than before Economic Development Administration

Allocate sufficient land to accommodate new jobs, as well as production and trade facilities

Provide land for nearby housing to reduce length of home-to-work trips

Provide effective, efficient infrastructure

Avoid unnecessary disruption of agricultural, forest, natural habitat, and other lands that are negatively impacted from disturbance

Provide balanced mix of land uses in each jurisdiction to enable diversified tax base that supports infrastructure and other public services

Land Uses for Mitigation of Economic Distress

2.27

1970s – Lawsuit contesting the use of federal transit funds to expand services disproportionately to benefit wealthier neighborhoods

Social and Environmental Equity

2.28

1994 – Presidential Executive Order requiring each Federal agency to achieve environmental justice as part of its mission

US EPA

Definition (US EPA): The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of

race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.

Environmental Justice

2.29

US EPA

Principles (US DOT): Avoid/ minimize/ mitigate human health,

environmental, social and economic effects on minority and low-income populations

Ensure full and fair participation by all potentially affected communities

Prevent the denial of, reduction in, or delay in the receipt of benefits by minority and low-income populations

Minorities and low-income populations are more likely to be displaced by urban redevelopment, urban highways, and market forces (e.g., relocating to neighborhoods with fewer, less convenient transit)

Affected groups are also more likely to live near toxic, noxious, or otherwise unhealthy land sites. Schools may be inferior, with fewer recreation, health, and public service options

Also likely to have less access to and influence in the land use decision-making process, with possible language or other barriers impacting effective participation

Land Use Implications for Environmental Justice

2.30

Seven common elements that connect environmental, social, and economic equity: Facilitate meaningful community engagement in planning and

land use decisions Promote public health and a clean, safe environment Strengthen existing communities Provide housing choices Provide transportation choices Improve access to opportunities and daily necessities Preserve and build on the features that make a community

distinctive

Overall Land Use Implications

2.31

Course Outline

1. Infrastructure, Land Use, and Human Settlements

2. Livability of Cities and Other Human Settlements

3. Mitigating the Impact of Development

4. Sustainable Development and Land Use Planning

2.32

Term “Sustainability" First Used in the 1970s

Popular Meaning from 1987 Brundtland Commission Report Call for sustainable development that “meets the

needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

Multiple Definitions Arise Most prevalent consider economic, environ-

mental, and social

What is Sustainability?

2.33

Sustainability is a set of environmental, economic and social conditions in which all of society has the capacity and opportunity to maintain and improve its quality of life indefinitely without degrading

the quantity, quality or availability of natural, eco- nomic and social resources.

ASCE Sustainability Definition

2.34

Human uses of the land often have adverse health and environmental impacts, some of which have become unsustainable: Cause human health problems, such as: stress of traffic

congestion, obesity, and diabetes Unsustainable economic and social aspects Destroy wetlands and wildlife habitats Over-allocate water resources Pollute water bodies, destroy aquatic life, and damage recreational

and fishing industries Pollute the air Cause climate change, desertification, and altered weather

What is Not Sustainable?

2.35

Goes far beyond the built environment

Concerned with issues such as climate change, flooding, and resiliency

Emphasizes measurable thresholds for performance

Has expanded to emphasize emotional as well as physical well-being

What is Sustainable Development?

2.36

2.37

What is Sustainable Development?

2011 Human Development Index v. Human Sustainable Development Index

Uses less land per person

Reduces vehicular travel

Reduces energy and water demands of buildings

Reduces the amount of impervious surfaces

What is Sustainable Development (cont.)?

2.38

Source: Jane Thomas, IAN/UMCES

Reduces the amount of land and infrastructure needed for: Transportation, water systems, energy systems, waste management,

flood control

Protects, restores, and enhances natural habitats as well as natural and scenic features

Defends against natural hazards

Defends against manmade hazards

What is Sustainable Development (cont.)?

2.39

APA releases Policy Guide on Planning for Sustainability (in 2000) Identifies US measures of “un-sustainability”

Suburban sprawl, loss of farmland and open space, water resources depletion and degradation, wetland loss, traffic congestion, air pollution

Followed by Policy Guides on Smart Growth (2002, updated 2012), Water Resources Management (2002), Energy (2004), Climate Change (2008, updated 2011), and Transportation (2010)

APA Sustaining Places Initiative announced in 2010

Sustainable Land Use Planning

2.40

Comprehensive Planning Moves to the Front Focus on the comprehensive community plan as the lead policy

document and tool to help communities achieve sustainability

Concepts of New Urbanism, Smart Growth, Green Building, and Renewable Energy take hold

Emphasis, too, on Regional Planning Focuses on broad-based “outcome” results� � Creates need to ensure coordinated actions

Sustainable Land Use Planning (cont.)

2.41

Focus on Sustainable, Green Infrastructure Goal to provide and maintain physical and

natural infrastructure to enable communities to function into the foreseeable future

Places emphasis on: Serving a growing population Meeting identified public sector

needs Having a continuous, reliable source of

funding

Sustainable Land Use Planning (cont.)

2.42US EPA

APA Definition: A Flexible, Three-tiered System1. Natural systems (e.g., protected lands, open areas…, parks,

natural corridors and estuaries), acting alone, to provide ecosystem services performing as infrastructure;

2. Human technologies, such as permeable pavements, cisterns and other rain harvesting apparatus… that increase capacity and heighten performance; and

3. A merger of natural systems and human technologies (e.g., green roofs…, green walls, bioswales…, and low-impact development design techniques) that elevate the performance of conventional infrastructure and offer economic efficiencies.

Green Infrastructure Defined

2.43

Emphasis on supporting community infrastructure systems that lie lightly on the land

Focus on ensuring that the land (and related air, mate- rials and water resources) can accommodate human habitats, support natural ecosystems, and adapt to climate change

Green Infrastructure and Sustainable Land Use Planning

2.44

ASLA Green Infrastructure Resource Guide

Smart Growth is achieved through: Providing a mix of land uses Locating public investments

in existing communities Offering a range of housing

options Fostering walkable, close knit

neighborhoods Promoting a strong sense of

place, taking advantage of existing historic buildings

Smart Growth

2.45

Tyson’s Corner

Achieved through: Preserving open space Strengthening and

encouraging growth in existing communities

Providing a variety of transportation choices

Making development decisions predictable, fair and cost- effective

Encouraging citizen and stakeholder participation

Smart Growth (cont)

2.46

Providing a variety of transportation choices: King Farm, Rockville, MD

Smart Growth Example: King Farm

2.47

• High-density, walkable, mixed-use community

• Near transit• Connected street network,

which diffuses congestion and make walking, biking and even driving safer and easier

• No cul-de-sacs• Preserved open space…

Not a development in an existing community

US EPA

Smart Growth Example: Highlands’ Garden Village

2.48

27-acre amusement park turned compact, mixed-use, urban infill in Highlands’ Garden Village in Denver, CO

Incr

easi

ng

Den

sity 20%

Affordable Housing

10 min. bus ride downtown Senior

Housing

Notable environmental features: Concrete from site recycled into street

network Largest commercial building certified LEED-

gold, and all single-family homes exceed Energy Star requirements

Public buildings and infrastructure powered by renewable energy

Xeriscape sidewalk plantings Community lawn planted with native buffalo

grass, requiring much less water Site’s mature trees were preserved.

Smart Growth Example: Highlands’ Garden Village (cont)

2.49

Sidewalk - Xeriscape

Room for improvement?

Smart Growth Example: Highlands’ Garden Village (cont.)

2.50

• Commercial parking

• Developer successful at reducing required ratio to 1 space per 350 square feet commercial

• Retailers wanted more. Final design included 1 space per 200 square feet

• Street widths

• Developer wanted 28-foot street widths, while the fire department wanted 36. The City eventually permitted 32-foot widths.

Then What is New Urbanism? There’s lots of overlap, but… Whereas Smart Growth focuses on maximizing

investments into existing services (hard and soft) and minimizing the impact on the environment to lead to a more compact built form, New Urbanism is more aesthetically and design driven (i.e., policy versus design orientation)

New Urbanism does not necessarily concern itself with regional growth plans or land economics

Both result in more compact built forms

New Urbanism

2.51

Street Design Standard New UrbanismBasic layout Dendritic Interconnected grid

Alleys Often discouraged Encouraged

Design speed 25 – 30 mph 20mph

Street width Generally wider Generally narrower

Curb radii Selected to ensure in-lane turning Selected for pedestrian crossing times, vehicle types

Intersection geometry Designed for efficiency, safety, vehicular speed

Designed to discourage through traffic, for safety

Tree, landscaping Strictly controlled Encouraged

Street lights Fewer, tall, efficient luminaries More, shorter, closely spaced lamps

Sidewalks 4-ft min width, outside ROW Within 50 ft min of ROW & parallel to street

Building setbacks 15-ft minimum No minimum

Parking Off-street preferred On-street encouraged

Trip generation Developed from sum of the users Developed from reduced trip need

New Urbanism (cont.)

2.52

What are some of the greatest infrastructure challenges today?

How do the concepts of sustainable development and green infrastructure help or not help meet those challenges?

Study Questions

2.53

See: References #1 through 6 (end slide)

The practice of: Increasing efficiency with which buildings

and sites use and harvest energy, water and materials

Green Building

2.54

ReWall

Protecting and restoring human health and the environment throughout the building life-cycle (siting, design, construction operation, maintenance, renovation, and deconstruction)

US Green Building Council’s LEED and Sustainable Sites

Associated techniques include: Reducing potable water usage Rainwater harvesting Use of grey water Utilizing world class energy

efficient practices Preparing landscapes

that reduce heat Preventing soil erosion

Green Building (cont.)

2.55

EnergyFool

Local planning, zoning, and construction codes are three of the most powerful tools that communities have to shape their surroundings

Understanding the origin of these tools is important to understanding their benefits and uses

Sustainability requires an integrated approach to land use, infrastructure, and the environment

Review

2.56

Recommended Readings

2.57

1. APA, 2012 (updated), Policy Guide on Smart Growth. www.planning.org/policy/guides/adopted/smartgrowth.htm

2. APA, 2012 (updated), Policy Guide on Energy. www.planning.org/policy/guides/adopted/energy.htm

3. APA, 2011 (updated), Policy Guide on Climate Change. www.planning.org/policy/guides/pdf/climatechange.pdf

4. APA, 2010, Policy Guide on Surface Transportation. www.planning.org/policy/guides/adopted/surfacetransportation.htm

5. APA, 2002, Policy Guide on Water Resources Management. www.planning.org/policy/guides/adopted/waterresources.htm

6. APA, 2000, Policy Guide on Planning for Sustainability. www.planning.org/policy/guides/adopted/sustainability.htm

Recommended Readings

2.58

7. APA, 2010, Rebuilding America: APA National Infrastructure Investment Task Force. www.planning.org/policy/infrastructure/pdf/finalreport.pdf

8. EPA, 2013, Creating Equitable, Healthy, and Sustainable Communities: Strategies for Advancing Smart Growth, Environmental Justice, and Equitable Development. www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/equitable_development_report.htm

9. United Nations, 1987, Report of the World Commission on Environment & Development: Our Common Future. www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm

10. FHA, 2000, The Genie in the Bottle: The Interstate System and Urban Problems, 1939-1957. Public Roads magazine, Vol, 64, No. 2. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/00septoct/urban.cfm

11. Dannenberg et al., 2003. The Impact of Community Design and Land-Use Choices on Public Health: A Scientific Research Agenda. Am. Journal Public Health. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1448000/