FOR ENERGY

SUSTAINABLE USE OF FOREST BIOMASS

Managing Forest Ecosystems

Series Editors:

Georg-August-University,

Göttingen, Germany

Timo Pukkala

University of Joensuu,

Joensuu, Finland

and

Margarida Tomé

Instituto Superior de Agronomía,

Lisbon, Portugal

Aims & Scope:

Well-managed forests and woodlands are a renewable resource, producing essential raw material

with minimum waste and energy use. Rich in habitat and species diversity, forests may contribute to

increased ecosystem stability. They can absorb the effects of unwanted deposition and other

disturbances and protect neighbouring ecosystems by maintaining stable nutrient and energy cycles

and by preventing soil degradation and erosion. They provide much-needed recreation and their

continued existence contributes to stabilizing rural communities.

Forests are managed for timber production and species, habitat and process conservation. A subtle

shift from multiple-use management to ecosystems management is being observed and the new

ecological perspective of multi-functional forest management is based on the principles of ecosystem

diversity, stability and elasticity, and the dynamic equilibrium of primary and secondary production.

Making full use of new technology is one of the challenges facing forest management today.

Resource information must be obtained with a limited budget. This requires better timing of resource

assessment activities and improved use of multiple data sources. Sound ecosystems management,

like any other management activity, relies on effective forecasting and operational control.

The aim of the book series Managing Forest Ecosystems is to present state-of-the-art research

results relating to the practice of forest management. Contributions are solicited from prominent

authors. Each reference book, monograph or proceedings volume will be focused to deal with a

specific context. Typical issues of the series are: resource assessment techniques, evaluating

sustainability for even-aged and uneven-aged forests, multi-objective management, predicting forest

development, optimizing forest management, biodiversity management and monitoring, risk

assessment and economic analysis.

The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.

Klaus Gadow

Volume 12

and

Edited by

of Forest Biomass

for Energy

A Synthesis with Focus on the Balticand Nordic Region

Dominik RöserFinnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland

Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu, Finland

Inge Stupak

Sustainable Use

Antti Asikainen

Karsten Raulund-RasmussenForest & Landscape Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Horsholm, Denmark

Forest & Landscape Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Horsholm, Denmark

Published by Springer,

P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

www.springer.com

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form

or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise,

use by the purchaser of the work.

and executed on a computer system, for exclusive specifically for the purpose of being entered

without writte n permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied

ISBN 978-1-4020-5053-4 (HB)

ISBN 978-1-4020-5054-1 (e-book)

© 2008 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2008921734

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ....................................................................................... xi

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS....................................................... xiii

1. INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABLE UTILISATION OF FOREST ENERGY ...................................................................1 Anders Lunnan, Inge Stupak, Antti Asikainen, Karsten Raulund-Rasmussen

1.1 Introduction............................................................................1 1.2 Energy policy ..........................................................................2 1.3 Sustainable development and forest policy..........................4 1.4 The WOOD-EN-MAN project..............................................6 1.5 References ...............................................................................7

2. FOREST ENERGY RESOURCES AND POTENTIALS ........9 Dominik Röser, Antti Asikainen, Inge Stupak, Karri Pasanen

2.1 Introduction............................................................................9 2.2 Natural conditions................................................................11 2.3 Types of forest bioenergy ....................................................12

2.3.1 Forest types ....................................................................... 15 2.3.2 Differences among tree species ........................................ 16 2.3.3 Physical properties............................................................ 17

2.4 Present use of forest biomass for energy............................18 2.4.1 Firewood ........................................................................... 18 2.4.2 Primary residues ............................................................... 19 2.4.3 Secondary residues ........................................................... 20

2.5 Estimation of woodfuel potential ........................................21 2.5.1 Net annual increment, fellings, and roundwood balance.. 21 2.5.2 Residues from fellings and roundwood balance ............... 23

2.6 References .............................................................................26

Table of Contents

vi

3. EFFECTS OF VERY INTENSIVE FOREST BIOMASS HARVESTING ON SHORT AND LONG TERM SITE PRODUCTIVITY.......................................................................... 29 Karsten Raulund-Rasmussen, Inge Stupak, Nicholas Clarke, Ingeborg Callesen, Heljä-Sisko Helmisaari, Erik Karltun, Iveta Varnagiryte-Kabasinskiene

3.1 Introduction......................................................................... 29 3.2 Nutrient fluxes to and from forest ecosystems ................. 32

3.2.1 Deposition......................................................................... 33 3.2.2 Leaching............................................................................ 38 3.2.3 Nutrient removals in forest biomass harvesting ............... 40 3.2.4 The soil as a source and a store of nutrients ..................... 47

3.3 Assessment of long term productivity consequences of very intensive harvesting................................................ 53

3.4 Case studies – examples of assessments of vulnerability and compensation recommendations ................................ 57

3.5 Synthesis and nutrient compensation recommendations 65 3.6 References ............................................................................ 70

4. WOOD ASH RECYCLING – POSSIBILITIES AND RISKS ................................................................................... 79 Erik Karltun, Anna Saarsalmi, Morten Ingerslev, Malle Mandre, Stefan Andersson, Talis Gaitnieks, Remigijus Ozolinčius, Iveta Varnagiryte-Kabasinskiene

4.1 Introduction......................................................................... 79 4.2 Wood ash properties ........................................................... 80

4.2.1 Wood ash composition and quality................................... 80 4.2.2 Contamination risks .......................................................... 83 4.2.3 Pre-conditioning before recycling .................................... 85

4.3 Effects of wood ash application on soils ............................ 86 4.3.1 Soil acidity changes .......................................................... 86 4.3.2 Effects on microbiological processes in the soil............... 88

4.4 Effects of wood ash application on trees ........................... 91 4.4.1 Mineral soils ..................................................................... 91 4.4.2 Peat soils ........................................................................... 92 4.4.3 Tree physiology, morphology and biochemical status ..... 93

Table of Contents

vii

4.4.4 Effects on fine root growth, mycorrhiza and vitality........ 94 4.5 Effects of wood ash application on ground

4.5.1 Species composition ......................................................... 95 4.6 History, current use and regulation of ash recycling...... 97 4.7 Recommended doses and regulations...............................100 4.8 References ...........................................................................101

5. INSECT PESTS AND FOREST BIOMASS FOR ENERGY .............................................................................109 Leif Martin Schroeder

5.1 Introduction........................................................................109 5.2 Pest species..........................................................................110

5.2.1 The spruce bark beetle .................................................... 111 5.2.2 Pityogenes chalcographus............................................... 112 5.2.3 The pine shoot beetles .................................................... 112 5.2.4 The pine weevil............................................................... 114

5.3 Risk for tree mortality in relation to insect density

5.4 Insect reproduction in forest fuel .....................................116 5.5 Influence on regional population densities ......................118 5.6 Risk for damage close to forest fuel piles.........................119 5.7 Legislation...........................................................................121 5.8 Conclusions .........................................................................122 5.9 Management recommendations from an insect

pest perspective ..................................................................123 5.10 References ...........................................................................124

6. THE EFFECTS OF FOREST BIOMASS HARVESTING ON BIODIVERSITY ...................................................................129 Mats Jonsell

6.1 Introduction........................................................................129 6.2 Potential problems for biodiversity due to forest

biomass harvesting.............................................................130 6.3 Organisms that may be affected by bioenergy use..........131

6.3.1 Wood living organisms................................................... 131

and understorey vegetation ............................................... 95

and tree vigour ...................................................................114

Table of Contents

viii

6.3.2 Organisms dependent on piles of logging residue .......... 132 6.4 Associations with different types of wood....................... 133

6.4.1 Tree species..................................................................... 133 6.4.2 Sun exposure................................................................... 134 6.4.3 Diameters ........................................................................ 135 6.4.4 Decay stages ................................................................... 137 6.4.5 Tree part .......................................................................... 137

6.5 Dispersal of saproxylic organisms ................................... 138 6.6 Risks for species loss ......................................................... 140

6.6.1 Processes that create dead wood in natural and managed forests........................................................ 141

6.6.2 Risks of species loss due to degree of sun exposure....... 143 6.6.3 Risk of species loss due to tree species associations ...... 145

6.7 Trapping of insects in piles of logging residues.............. 145 6.8 Management recommendations....................................... 147

6.9 References .......................................................................... 148

7. REVIEW OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FOREST ENERGY HARVESTING AND WOOD ASH RECYCLING............................................................................... 155

7.1 Introduction....................................................................... 155 7.2 Environmental aspects...................................................... 157

7.2.1 Soil nutrient fertility........................................................ 157 7.2.2 Soil organic matter and carbon storage........................... 164 7.2.3 Wood ash recycling and other nutrient compensation.... 165 7.2.4 Hydrology and water ...................................................... 171 7.2.5 Biodiversity..................................................................... 171 7.2.6 Insect pests and fungal diseases...................................... 174 7.2.7 Harvesting damages........................................................ 176

7.3 Silvicultural aspects .......................................................... 178 7.3.1 Woodfuel from early thinnings ....................................... 178 7.3.2 Logging residues from forest regeneration..................... 179 7.3.3 Stump harvesting ............................................................ 180 7.3.4 Storage ............................................................................ 181

6.8.1 Extraction of logging residues ........................................ 147

Inge Stupak, Antti Asikainen, Dominik Röser, Karri Pasanen

6.8.2 Storage of logging residues in the forest......................... 148

Table of Contents

ix

7.4 Costs, technical, and logistic aspects ................................181 7.4.1 Existing recommendations and guidelines ..................... 182

7.4.3 Accessibility ................................................................... 183 7.4.4 Density, amount of harvestable fuel, and forwarding

7.4.5 Quality of chips............................................................... 185 7.4.6 Storage of harvested material to buffer demand............. 185 7.4.7 Harvesting methods ........................................................ 186

7.5 Economic aspects................................................................186 7.6 Social and health aspects ...................................................188 7.7 Landscape, archaeology, culture, non-wood goods.........188 7.8 Benefit and drawback trade-offs ......................................189 7.9 Conclusions .........................................................................191 7.10 References ...........................................................................191

8. POLICY AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF FOREST ENERGY UTILISATION ...........................................................197 Anders Lunnan, Lelde Vilkriste, Gunnar Wilhelmsen, Diana Mizaraite, Antti Asikainen, Dominik Röser

8.1 Introduction........................................................................197 8.2 Sustainability from an economic point of view ...............199

8.2.1 Sustainable production of woody biomass ..................... 200 8.2.2 Sustainable use of woody biomass ................................. 203

8.3 Constraints and measures of bioenergy utilisation.........205 8.4 Supply of wood-based biomass for energy.......................209 8.5 The market for wood for energy.......................................218 8.6 Regional co-operation and impacts ..................................225 8.7 External effects – economic and regulatory aspects .......228

8.7.1 Investment programmes.................................................. 228 8.7.2 Joint implementation ...................................................... 229

8.7.4 Bioenergy-based thermal production.............................. 231 8.7.5 Promotion and use of biofuel for transport..................... 231

8.8 Conclusions .........................................................................231 8.9 References ...........................................................................232

8.7.3 Green electricity - Green Certificates ............................ 230

7.4.2 Harvesting of forest fuel - overview of cost factors........ 183

distance ............................................................................ 183

Table of Contents

x

9. ENERTREE – DECISION SUPPORT TOOL TO ANALYSE FOREST BIOMASS EXTRACTION SCENARIOS................................................................................ 235 Karri Pasanen, Inge Stupak, Dominik Röser, Antti Asikainen, Karsten Raulund-Rasmussen

9.1 Introduction....................................................................... 235 9.2 Decision making on forest energy by forest owners....... 237 9.3 EnerTree ............................................................................ 239

9.3.1 Model structure ............................................................... 240 9.3.2 Decision environment ..................................................... 240 9.3.3 Input variables................................................................. 243 9.3.4 Stand characteristics ....................................................... 245 9.3.5 Growth and harvesting simulations ................................ 245 9.3.6 Decision criteria and alternative scenarios ..................... 246

9.4 EnerTree example calculation ......................................... 250 9.5 Evaluation and future developments............................... 252 9.6 References .......................................................................... 254

INDEX .......................................................................................... 257

PREFACE

From time immemorial, firewood has been a very important source of energy for mankind. Later in history, wood for energy decreased its importance because of other more convenient and cheaper sources, mainly fossil fuels. Today, focus is again on use of forests as a producer of energy with main drivers being climate change, shortage and increasing prices of fossil fuel sources, and safety in energy supplies. However, intensive use of forest biomass is ques-tioned since fundamental ecological processes may be influenced negatively thus making up a trade-off with the benefits of using an otherwise sustainable source of energy.

In this book, selected aspects of intensive use of forest bio-mass for energy is treated with main focus on ecological aspects like maintenance of soil fertility, recycling of the combustion ash, influ-ence on biodiversity and pests, and economical aspects both at forest owners level and for society. Another focus point is the implementa-tion of this knowledge into decision support, recommendations and guidelines. The geographical scope is mainly the Nordic and Baltic region.

The EU-financed project “Wood for Energy, - a contribution to the development of sustainable forest Management” (WOOD-EN-MAN)1, make up the frame for the book. Seven partners participated in the project: Forest & Landscape Denmark, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Finnish Forest Research Institute, Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute, Lithuanian Forest Research Institute, Latvian State Forestry Research Institute, and Estonian University of Life Sciences with Forest & Landscape Denmark as coordinator. The work was financed by EU and the seven partners, and Nicholas Clarke made the linguistic revisions. All contributors are gratefully thanked.

1 Contract No QLK5-CT-2001-00527, EU FP5 Quality of Life.

xi

It is our hope that the book can contribute to the debate and further development of using forest biomass as an energy source in a sustainable way.

Karsten Raulund-Rasmussen and Inge Stupak Coordinator team of WOOD-EN-MAN

Forest & Landscape Denmark

xii Preface

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Stefan Andersson Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Box 7014 75007 SE-Uppsala Sweden

Antti Asikainen Finnish Forest Research Institute Box 68 FIN-80101 Joensuu Finland

Ingeborg Callesen Risoe National Laboratory P.O. 49 DK-4000 Roskilde Denmark

Nicholas Clarke Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute Postboks 115 N-1431 Ås Norway

Helja-Sisko Helmisaari Finnish Forest Research Institute PL 18 FI-01301 Vantaa Finland

Morten Ingerslev Forest & Landscape Denmark

Denmark

Mats Jonsell Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Box 7044 75007 SE-Uppsala Sweden

Erik Karltun Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Box 7001 75007 SE-Uppsala Sweden

Anders Lunnan Norwegian Forest and Landscape Institute Norwegian University of Life Sciences Postboks 115 N-1431 Ås Norway

Malle Mandre Estonian University of Life Sciences Viljandi mnt. 18b EE-112 Tallinn Estonia

xiii

University of CopenhagenHoersholm Kongevej 11DK-2970 Hoersholm

List of Contributors xiv

Diana Mizaraite Lithuanian Forest Research Institute Liepu 1 4312 LT-Girionys Lithuania

Remigijus Ozolinčius Lithuanian Forest Research Institute Liepu 1 4312 LT-Girionys Lithuania

Karri Pasanen Finnish Forest Research Institute Box 68 FIN-80101 Joensuu Finland

Karsten Raulund-Rasmussen

Hoersholm Kongevej 11

Denmark

Dominik Röser Finnish Forest Research Institute Box 68 FIN-80101 Joensuu Finland

Anna Saarsalmi Finnish Forest Research Institute PL 18 FI-01301 Vantaa Finland

Leif Martin Schroeder Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Box 7044 75007 SE-Uppsala Sweden

Inge Stupak Forest & Landscape Denmark

Hoersholm Kongevej 11

Denmark

Latvian State Forestry Research Institute Riga str. 111 LV-2169 Salaspils Latvia

Kabasinskiene Lithuanian Forest Research Institute Liepu 1 4312 LT-Girionys Lithuania

Lelde Vilkriste Latvian State Forestry Research Institute Riga str. 111 LV-2169 Salaspils Latvia

Gunnar Wilhelmsen

Institute

N-1431 Ås

Forest & Landscape Denmark University of Copenhagen

Talis Gaitnieks Iveta Varnagiryte-

Norwegian Forest and Landscape

University of Copenhagen

DK-2970 Hoersholm

DK-2970 Hoersholm

Postboks 115

Norway