Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach

Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species ApproachChapter 91Core Case Study: The Passenger Pigeon: Gone ForeverOnce the most numerous bird on earth.In 1858, Passenger Pigeon hunting became a big business.By 1900 they became extinct from over-harvest and habitat loss.

Figure 9.1Lost natural capital: passenger pigeons have been extinct in the wild since 1900 because of human activities. The last known passenger pigeon died in the U.S. state of Ohios Cincinnati Zoo in 1914.

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Core Case Study: The Passenger Pigeon: Gone ForeverPassenger pigeon hunted to extinction by 1900

Commercial hunters used a "stool pigeon

Geological record shows five mass extinctions

Human activities: hastening more extinctions?

59-1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Premature Extinction of Species?Concept 9-1A We are degrading and destroying biodiversity in many parts of the world, and these threats are increasing.

Concept 9-1B Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times faster than they were before modern humans arrived on the earth (the background rate), and by the end of this century, the extinction rate is expected to be 10,000 times the background rate.6Human Activities Are Destroying and Degrading BiodiversityHuman activity has disturbed at least half of the earths land surfaceFills in wetlandsConverts grasslands and forests to crop fields and urban areas

Degraded aquatic biodiversity7Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase SharplyBackground extinction

Extinction rate

Mass extinction: causes?Poorly understood, but involve global changes in environmental conditions.

Levels of species extinctionLocal extinction, or extirpationEcological extinctionBiological extinction

8Extinction: The disappearance of an entire species from the face of the Earth.

Extinction Rate: % or # of species that go extinct per unit time. i.e. 0.00001 species/year

Extirpation: The disappearance of a particular population from a given area, but not the entire species globally.

Mass Extinction: The extinction of a large portion of the worlds species in a very short time period due to some extreme and rapid change or catastrophic event. The Earth has seen five mass extinction events in the past half-billon years.Define the terms extinction, extirpation and mass extinction. 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.9Extinctions Are Natural But Sometimes They Increase SharplyBackground extinction and Mass extinctionDiscussed in Chapter 4

Extinction rate the percent of species that go extinct in a given time period.

Background extinction1/1,000,000 per year = 0.00001%

Mass extinction50 95% of all living things on the planet10Species can become extinct in three ways:

Local Extinction: A species is no longer found in an area it once inhabited but is still found elsewhere in the world.Typically the result of habitat destruction and affects more than one species.

Ecological Extinction: Occurs when so few members of a species are left they no longer play its ecological role.

Biological Extinction (Global Extinction): Species is no longer found on the earth.Biological extinction is FOREVER.Extinctions Are Natural But Sometimes They Increase SharplyEstimates of current annual extinction rate:0.01-1.0%100 to 1,000 times greater than the background extinction rate of 0.0001%

Experts predict extinction rates will increase over the next 50-100 years.

Reason = US!!Some Human Activities Cause Premature Extinctions; the Pace Is Speeding Up

12Animal Species Prematurely Extinct Due to Human Activities

Many animals have become prematurely extinct because of human activities.Development, habitat destructions, hunting, etc.13The first animal species to go are the big, the slow, the tasty, and those with valuable parts Edward O. Wilson (biodiversity expert)

Animal Species Prematurely Extinct Due to Human ActivitiesSome Human Activities Cause Premature Extinctions; the Pace Is Speeding Up (2)Conservative estimates of extinction = 0.01-0.1%Growth of human population will increase this loss to 10 000 times (to 1%)Rates are higher where there are more endangered speciesTropical forests and coral reefs, wetlands and estuariessites of new speciesbeing destroyed

Speciation crisis

15Threatened (vulnerable) species: Still abundant in its natural range but is likely to become endangered in the near future.

Endangered species: So few individual survivors that it could soon become extinct.

Endangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with Premature Extinction

Extinct Ex.: Dodo, Passenger Pigeon

Extinct in the wild Ex.: Alagoas Curassow Captive individuals survive, but there is no free-living, natural population

Critically endangered Ex.: Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Javan Rhino Faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future

Endangered Ex.: Cheetah, Blue Whale, Snow Leopard

Vulnerable Ex.: Lion, Wolverine

Conservation Dependent Ex.: Leopard Shark, Bristlecone Fir Would be threatened without active conservation programs.

Near Threatened Ex.: California Red-legged Frog, Silvery Woolly Monkey Likely to qualify as threatened soon.

Least Concern Ex.:Brown Rat, Rock Pigeon, Common Juniper No immediate threat to the survival of the species. Endangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with Premature ExtinctionEndangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with Premature Extinction

18Endangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with Premature Extinction

19Some Human Activities Cause Premature Extinctions; the Pace Is Speeding Up (1)Premature extinctions due toHabitat destructionOverhunting, or overexploitation20Animal Species Prematurely Extinct Due to Human Activities

21Figure 9.3Effects of a 0.1% extinction rate.

22Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke AlarmsEndangered speciesInternational Union for the for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), or the World Conservation Union.Since 1960, published Red ListIn 2007, listed 16, 306 animals and plants that are in danger of extinction60% higher than in 1995.

Threatened species, vulnerable speciesCharacteristics of such species

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Grizzly bearKirklands warblerKnowlton cactusFlorida manateeAfrican elephantUtah prairie dogSwallowtail butterflyHumpback chubGolden lion tamarinSiberian tigerGiant pandaBlack-footed ferretWhooping craneNorthern spotted owlBlue whaleMountain gorillaFlorida pantherCalifornia condorHawksbill sea turtleBlack rhinocerosFigure 9.4Endangered natural capital. Some species that are endangered or threatened with premature extinction largely because of human activities.

Almost 30,000 of the worlds species and roughly 1,300 of those in the United States are officially listed as being in danger of becoming extinct.

Most biologists believe the actual number of species at risk is much larger.Fixed migratory patternsBlue whale, whooping crane, sea turtle

Feeds at high trophic levelBengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear

Narrow distributionElephant seal, desert pupfish

Commercially valuableSnow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds

Low reproductive rate (K-strategist)Blue whale, giant panda, rhinocerosCharacteristicExamples

RareAfrican violet, some orchids

Large territoriesCalifornia condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther

Specialized nicheBlue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite

Figure 9.5Characteristics of species that are prone to ecological and biological extinction. Question: Which of these characteristics helped lead to the premature extinction of the passenger pigeon within a single human lifetime?

Figure 9.6Endangered natural capital: percentage of various types of species threatened with premature extinction because of human activities26Science Focus: Estimating Extinction Rates Is Not EasyThree problemsHard to document due to length of timeOnly 1.8 million species identifiedLittle known about nature and ecological roles of species identified

Document little changes in DNASuggests species survive for 1 to 10 million years before going extinct.

Use speciesarea relationshipOn average, 90% loss of habitat results in a 50% loss of species living in that habitat.

Mathematical models

279-2 Why Should We Care about Preventing Premature Species Extinction?Concept 9-2 We should prevent the premature extinction of wild species because of the economic and ecological services they provide and because they have a right to exist regardless of their usefulness to us.

It will take 5-10 million years for natural speciation to rebuild the biodiversity we are likely to destroy during your lifetime.28Species Are a Vital Part of the Earths Natural CapitalInstrumental value usefulness to us in providing ecological and economic services.

29Species Are a Vital Part of the Earths Natural CapitalEcotourism: wildlife tourism

Species Are a Vital Part of the Earths Natural CapitalUse valueGenetic information Loss in diversity of crop species is cause for concern.http://www.ted.com/talks/cary_fowler_one_seed_at_a_time_protecting_the_future_of_food.html

Extrinsic ValueFood crops, recreation, scientific information, lumber, paper, etc.

Aesthetic value

Ecological value

Energy flow, nutrient cycling, and population controlthe scientific principles of sustainability that sustain and support life on earth.

Intrinsic ValuePlants and animals have a right to exist!

Figure 9.7Natural capital degradation: endangered orangutans in a tropical forest. In 1900, there were over 315,000 wild orangutans. Now there are less than 20,000 and they are disappearing at a rate of over 2,000 per year because of illegal smuggling and clearing of their forest habitat in Indonesia and Malaysia to make way for oil palm plantations. An illegally smuggled orangutan typically sells for a street price of $10,000. According to 2007 study by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), projected climate change will further devastate remaining orangutan populations in Indonesia and Malaysia. Question: How would you go about trying to set a price on the ecological value of an orangutan?36Figure 9.8Natural capital: natures pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plant and animal species (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the worlds 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.

37Figure 9.9Many species of wildlife, such as this endangered scarlet macaw in Brazils Amazon rain forest, are a source of beauty and pleasure. These and other colorful species of parrots can become endangered when they are removed from the wild and sold (sometimes illegally) as pets.

38Are We Ethically Obligated to Prevent Premature Extinction?Intrinsic value, or existence value Species have an inherent right to exist and play their ecological roles, regardless of their usefulness to us.

Edward O. Wilson: biophilia phenomenon

Biophobia

39Science Focus: Why Should We Care about Bats?Vulnerable to extinctionSlow to reproduceHuman destruction of habitats

Important ecological rolesFeed on crop-damaging nocturnal insectsPollen-eatersFruit-eaters

Unwarranted fears of bats409-3 How do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction?Concept 9-3 The greatest threats to any species are (in order) loss or degradation of its habitat, harmful invasive species, human population growth, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation. 41Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO (1)Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentationInvasive (nonnative) speciesPopulation and resource use growthPollutionClimate changeOverexploitation

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NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATIONUnderlying Causes Population growth Rising resource use Undervaluing natural capital PovertyDirect Causes Habitat loss Pollution Commercial hunting and poaching Habitat degradation and fragmentation Climate change Sale of exotic pets and decorative plants Introduction of nonnative species Overfishing Predator and pest controlCauses of Depletion and Premature Extinction of Wild SpeciesFigure 9.10Underlying and direct causes of depletion and premature extinction of wild species (Concept 9-3). The major direct causes of wildlife depletion and premature extinction are habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation. This is followed by the deliberate or accidental introduction of harmful invasive (nonnative) species into ecosystems.

Figure 9.11Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the worlds human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades?

Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for people to grow food and live on? Explain. (Data from International Union for the Conservation of Nature and World Wildlife Fund)44Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO (2)Globally, habitat loss, greatest in temperate biomes, pace picking up in tropics.

Endemic species Habitat is restricted to one areaHawaii, the extinction capital of America63% of species at risk.

The Bali Mynah is distributed and endemic to the island of Bali, where it is the island's only surviving endemic species. This rare bird was discovered in 1910 and is one of the world's most critically endangered birds. In fact, it has been hovering immediately aboveextinctionin the wild for several years.Habitat islands

Habitat Islands

Habitat Islands - an area of habitat surrounded by an area of unsuitable habitat. Can be treated like an island.

Examples of habitat islands:

Man made: forest surrounded by area that has been converted to grassland

2. Natural: alpine habitat on mountaintops, isolated from other alpine habitat by lower land

3. Natural, very small scale: dung piles, habitat for dung beetles.

4. Islands generally hold fewer species than an area of the same size in continuous habitat.

This is true for genuine oceanic islands and for habitat islands. Habitat FragmentationHabitat fragmentationinvolves alteration ofhabitatresulting in spatial separation of habitat units from a previous state of greater continuity.

Habitat Fragmentation of Great ApesUnderlying Causes of Species ExtinctionPopulation growth

Overconsumption

Pollution

Climate change48Other Causes of Species Extinction (2)PesticidesDDT: Banned in the U.S. in 1972

Bioaccumulation

Biomagnification

49Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (1)70% of the worlds 10,000 birds are declining; 12% are threatened with extinction.

Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds breeding habitatsForests cleared for farms, lumber plantations, roads, and development

Intentional or accidental introduction of nonnative speciesEat the birds50One in every eight bird species (12%) is threatened with extinction. Three-fourths live in forests.NumbersLocationReason(s)75% of birds speciesSumatras lowland forestsLumber and palm plantations, used for biofuels115 bird speciesBrazilBurning/clearing of rainforests for farms and ranches; 93% loss of Atlantic coastal rainforest; clearing of savannah-like cerrado for soybean plantations30% of bird species, 70% of grassland speciesNorth AmericaHabitat loss and fragmentation of breeding habitat; replaced by roads and other developments.28% of speciesWorldwideIntroduction of non-native bird-eating species52 of 388 parrot speciesWorldwidePet trade23 SeabirdsWorldwideBycatch from commercial fishing; pollution40% of waterbirdsWorldwideLoss of wetlandsCase Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (2)Seabirds caught and drown in fishing equipment

Migrating birds fly into power lines, communication towers, and skyscrapers

Other threatsOil spillsPesticidesHerbicidesIngestion of toxic lead shotgun pellets

52Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (3)Greatest new threat: Climate change

Environmental indicatorsLive in every climate and biomeRespond quickly to environmental changesEasy to track

Economic and ecological services

53Figure 9.12Distribution of bird species in North America and Latin America. Question: Why do you think more bird species are found in Latin America than in North America? (Data from The Nature Conservancy, Conservation International, World Wildlife Fund, and Environment Canada).

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Cerulean warblerSpragues pipitBichnells thrushBlack-capped vireoGolden-cheeked warblerFlorida scrub jayCalifornia gnatcatcherKirtland's warblerHenslow's sparrowBachman's warblerFigure 9.13The 10 most threatened species of U.S. songbirds. Most of these species are vulnerable because of habitat loss and fragmentation from human activities. An estimated 12% of the worlds known bird species may face premature extinction due mostly to human activities during this century. (Data from National Audubon Society)Science Focus: Vultures, Wild Dogs, and Rabies: Unexpected Scientific ConnectionsVultures poisoned from diclofenac in cow carcasses

More wild dogs eating the cow carcasses

More rabies spreading to people

56Some Deliberately Introduced Species Can Disrupt EcosystemsMost species introductions are beneficial.FoodShelterMedicineAesthetic enjoyment

Nonnative species may have no natural enemies.PredatorsCompetitorsParasitesPathogens

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Figure 9.14Some of the more than 7,100 harmful invasive (nonnative) species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States.

Case Study: The Kudzu VineImported from Japan in the 1930s to control soil erosion.

The vine that ate the South

Could there be benefits of kudzu? 60Kudzu Taking Over an Abandoned House in Mississippi, U.S.

61Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can Also Disrupt EcosystemsArgentina fire ant: 1930sPesticide spraying in 1950s and 1960s worsened conditions Wiped out competitor ant species and made them more pesticide resistant.

Burmese python 62Figure 9.16The Argentina fire ant, introduced accidentally into Mobile, Alabama, in the 1930s from South America (green area), has spread over much of the southern United States (red area). This invader is also found in Puerto Rico, New Mexico, and California. Question: How might this accidental introduction of fire ants have been prevented? (Data from S. D. Porter, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture)

63Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce Threats from Invasive SpeciesPrevent them from becoming established

Learn the characteristics of the successful invader species and the types of ecosystems that are vulnerable to invasion.

Inspection of imports.

Ballast water from cargo ships.

Set up research programs to try to find natural ways to control them: predators, parasites, bacteria and viruses.

Ground surveys and satellite observations to detect and monitor invasions to develop better models for predicting spread.64Figure 9.17Some general characteristics of successful invader species and ecosystems vulnerable to invading species. Question: Which, if any, of the characteristics on the right-hand side could humans influence?

65Figure 9.18Individuals Matter: ways to prevent or slow the spread of harmful invasive species. Questions: Which two of these actions do you think are the most important? Why? Which of these actions do you plan to take?

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DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys) 25 ppmDDT in large fish (needle fish) 2 ppmDDT in small fish (minnows) 0.5 ppmDDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppmDDT in water 0.000003 ppm, or 3 pptFigure 9.19Bioaccumulation and biomagnification. DDT is a fat-soluble chemical that can accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. In a food chain or web, the accumulated DDT can be biologically magnified in the bodies of animals at each higher trophic level. The concentration of DDT in the fatty tissues of organisms was biomagnified about 10 million times in this food chain in an estuary near Long Island Sound in the U.S. state of New York. If each phytoplankton organism takes up from the water and retains one unit of DDT, a small fish eating thousands of zooplankton (which feed on the phytoplankton) will store thousands of units of DDT in its fatty tissue. Each large fish that eats 10 of the smaller fish will ingest and store tens of thousands of units, and each bird (or human) that eats several large fish will ingest hundreds of thousands of units. Dots represent DDT. Question: How does this story demonstrate the value of pollution prevention?Case Study: Where Have All the Honeybees Gone?Honeybees responsible for 80% of insect-pollinated plants

Dying due to?PesticidesParasitesBee colony collapse syndrome

68Case Study: Polar Bears and Global WarmingEnvironmental impact on polar bearsLess summer sea icePCBs and DDTCan adversely affect their development, behavior, and reproduction.

IUCN2006 Study: Population projected to decline by 30-35%, and may be found only in zoos by end of century.2007 listed as threatened species

2008 listed as threatened species under US ESA.69Figure 9.20Polar bear with seal prey on floating ice in Svalbard, Norway. Polar bears in the Arctic are likely to become extinct sometime during this century because global warming is melting the floating sea ice on which they hunt seals.

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Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild Species Threatens BiodiversityPoaching and smuggling of animals and plantsAnimal partsPetsPlants for landscaping and enjoyment

When commercially valuable species become endangered, black market prices soar.

Prevention: research and education71Figure 9.21White rhinoceros killed by a poacher for its horn in South Africa. Question: What would you say if you could talk to the poacher of this animal?

72The hyacinth macaw, Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus, may be worth $10 000 to an exotic bird collector, but worth $165 00 in tourist revenues left in the wild.

Individuals Matter: Jane GoodallPrimatologist and anthropologist

45 years understanding and protecting chimpanzeesChimps have tool-making skills74Rising Demand for Bush Meat Threatens Some African SpeciesIndigenous people sustained by bush meat

More hunters leading to local extinction of some wild animals

US Agency for International Development, trying to introduce alternatives in some areas.Fish farmsBreeding large rodents, like cane rats. 75Figure 9.22Bush meat, such as this severed head of a lowland gorilla in the Congo, is consumed as a source of protein by local people in parts of West Africa and sold in the national and international marketplace. You can find bush meat on the menu in Cameroon and the Congo in West Africa as well as in Paris, London, Toronto, New York, and Washington, D.C. It is often supplied by poaching. Wealthy patrons of some restaurants regard gorilla meat as a source of status and power. Question: How, if at all, is this different from killing a cow for food?

769-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Premature Extinction? (1)Concept 9-4A We can use existing environmental laws and treaties and work to enact new laws designed to prevent species extinction and protect overall biodiversity.

Concept 9-4B We can help to prevent species extinction by creating and maintaining wildlife refuges, gene banks, botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums. 779-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Premature Extinction? (2)Concept 9-4C According to the precautionary principle, we should take measures to prevent or reduce harm to the environment and to human health, even if some of the cause-and-effect relationships have not been fully established, scientifically. 78International Treaties Help to Protect Species1975: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)Signed by 172 countries

Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD)Focuses on ecosystemsRatified by 190 countries (not the U.S.)

79Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (1)Endangered Species Act (ESA): 1973 and later amended in 1982, 1983, and 1985

Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad

Hot Spots

Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP) colony

80Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (2)Mixed reviews of the ESAWeaken itRepeal itModify itStrengthen itSimplify itStreamline it

81Confiscated Products Made from Endangered Species

82Science Focus: Accomplishments of the Endangered Species Act (1)Species listed only when serious danger of extinction

Takes decades for most species to become endangered or extinct

More than half of the species listed are stable or improving

Budget has been small

83Science Focus: Accomplishments of the Endangered Species Act (2)Suggested changes to ESAIncrease the budgetDevelop recovery plans more quicklyEstablish a core of the endangered organisms survival habitat84We Can Establish Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas1903: Theodore Roosevelt

Wildlife refugesMost are wetland sanctuariesMore needed for endangered plantsCould abandoned military lands be used for wildlife habitats?

85Gene Banks, Botanical Gardens, and Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect SpeciesGene or seed banksPreserve genetic material of endangered plants

Botanical gardens and arboretaLiving plants

Farms to raise organisms for commercial sale

86Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species (1)Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial speciesEgg pullingCaptive breedingArtificial inseminationEmbryo transferUse of incubatorsCross-fostering

87Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species (2)Limited space and funds

Critics say these facilities are prisons for the organisms88What Can You Do? Protecting Species

89Case Study: Trying to Save the California CondorLargest North American bird

Nearly extinctBirds captured and breed in captivity

By 2007, 135 released into the wildThreatened by lead poisoning

90The Precautionary PrincipleSpecies: primary components of biodiversity

Preservation of species

Preservation of ecosystems91