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Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity by the Ecosystem ApproachSustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity by the Ecosystem Approach
ConceptsConcepts
Biodiversity Biodiversity
US public lands US public lands
Forest Management Forest Management
Deforestation Deforestation
Park Management Park Management
Establishment and management of nature preserves
Establishment and management of nature preserves
Ecological restoration Ecological restoration
Factors Increasing BiodiversityFactors Increasing Biodiversity
Moderate environmental disturbance Moderate environmental disturbance
Middle stage of succession Middle stage of succession
Small changes in environmental conditions Small changes in environmental conditions
Physically diverse habitat Physically diverse habitat
Evolution Evolution
Factors Decreasing BiodiversityFactors Decreasing Biodiversity
Large environmental disturbance Large environmental disturbance
Extreme environmental conditions Extreme environmental conditions
Intense environmental stress Intense environmental stress
Severe shortages of resources Severe shortages of resources
Nonnative species introduction Nonnative species introduction
Geographic isolation Geographic isolation
HumanActivitiesandBiodiversity
HumanActivitiesandBiodiversity
Human PopulationSize and resource use
Human ActivitiesAgriculture, industry, economic
production and consumption, recreation
Indirect Effects
Direct Effects
Degradation and destruction of natural ecosystems
Alteration of natural chemicalcycles and energy flows
Changes in number and distribution of species
Pollution of air, water, and soil
Climate change
Loss of biodiversity
Importance of BiodiversityImportance of Biodiversity
Intrinsic value Intrinsic value
Instrumental value Instrumental value
Existence value Existence value
Aesthetic value Aesthetic value
Bequest value Bequest value
Solutions for Protecting Biodiversity
Solutions for Protecting Biodiversity
The Species Approach The Ecosystem Approach
Goal
Protect species frompremature extinction
Strategies• Identify
endangered species
• Protect their critical habitats
Tactics
• Legally protect endangered species
• Manage habitat
• Propagate endangered species in captivity
• Reintroduce species into suitable habitats
Goal
Protect populations ofspecies in their naturalhabitats
Strategy
Preserve sufficient areasof habitats in differentbiomes and aquaticsystems
Tactics• Protect habitat areas
through private purchase or government action
• Eliminate or reduce populations of alien species from protected areas
• Manage protected areas to sustain native species
• Restore degraded ecosystems
Conservation BiologyConservation Biology
Multidisciplinary science Multidisciplinary science
Emergency response Emergency response
Identify “hot spots” Identify “hot spots”
Based on Leopold’s ethics Based on Leopold’s ethics
Rapid Assessment Teams Rapid Assessment Teams
US Public LandsUS Public Lands
Multiple-use lands: National Forests National Resource Lands
Multiple-use lands: National Forests National Resource Lands
Moderately-restricted use lands:National Wildlife Refuges
Moderately-restricted use lands:National Wildlife Refuges
Restricted-use lands:National Park System National Wilderness Preservation System
Restricted-use lands:National Park System National Wilderness Preservation System
Old Faithful Geyser Old Faithful Geyser
Yellowstone National Park WyomingYellowstone National Park Wyoming
Managing US Public LandManaging US Public Land
Biodiversity and ecological functionBiodiversity and ecological function
No subsidies or tax breaks for useNo subsidies or tax breaks for use
Public should get fair compensationPublic should get fair compensation
Users held responsible for actionsUsers held responsible for actions
Managing and Sustaining National ParksManaging and Sustaining National Parks
Inadequate protection Inadequate protection
Often too small to sustain biodiversity Often too small to sustain biodiversity
Too many human visitors Too many human visitors Traffic jams and air pollution Traffic jams and air pollution
Better pay for park staff Better pay for park staff
Invasions by nonnative species Invasions by nonnative species
Solutions
National Parks
•Integrate plans for managing parks and nearby federal lands
•Add new parkland near threatened parks
•Buy private land inside parks
•Locate visitor paring outside parks and use shuttle buses for entering and touring heavily used parks
•Increase funds for park maintenance and repairs
•Survey wildlife in parks
•Raise entry fees for visitors and use funds for park management and maintenance
•Limit number of visitors to crowded park rangers
•Increase number and pay of park rangers
•Encourage volunteers to give visitor lectures and tours
•Seek private donations for park maintenance and repairs
ForestsForests
Old-growth (frontier) forestsOld-growth (frontier) forests
Second-growth forestsSecond-growth forests
Tree farms/plantationTree farms/plantation
Managing and Sustaining ForestsManaging and Sustaining Forests
Ecological Importance of ForestsEcological Importance of Forests
Food webs and energy flow Food webs and energy flow
Protect soils from erosion Protect soils from erosion
Local and regional climate Local and regional climate
Numerous habitats and niches Numerous habitats and niches
Air purification Air purification
Trade-Offs
Clear-Cutting Forests
Advantages Disadvantages
Higher timber yields
Maximum economic returnin shortest time
Can reforest with genetically improved fast-growing trees
Short time to establish newstand of trees
Needs less skill and planning
Best way to harvest treeplantations
Good for tree species needing full or moderate sunlightfor growth
Reduces biodiversity
Disrupts ecosystem processes
Destroys and fragments some wildlife habitats
Leaves moderate to large openings
Increases soil erosion
Increases sediment water pollution and flooding when done on steep slopes
Eliminates most recreational value for several decades
Managing and Sustaining ForestsManaging and Sustaining Forests
Economic Importance of ForestsEconomic Importance of Forests
Fuelwood Fuelwood
Lumber Lumber
Paper Paper
Livestock grazing Livestock grazing
Mineral extraction and recreation Mineral extraction and recreation
Forest ManagementForest Management
Even-aged managementEven-aged management
Uneven-aged managementUneven-aged management
Improved diversityImproved diversity
Sustainable productionSustainable production
Multiple-useMultiple-use
Rotation cycleRotation cycle
Roads Lead to Forest DegradationRoads Lead to Forest Degradation
Increased erosion and runoffIncreased erosion and runoffHabitat fragmentationHabitat fragmentationPathways for exotic speciesPathways for exotic speciesAccessibility to humansAccessibility to humans
Harvesting TreesHarvesting Trees
Selective cutting Selective cutting
High-grading High-grading
Shelterwood cutting Shelterwood cutting
Seed-tree cutting Seed-tree cutting
Clear-cutting Clear-cutting
Strip cutting Strip cutting
Sustainable ForestrySustainable Forestry
Longer rotationsLonger rotations
Selective or strip cuttingSelective or strip cutting
Minimize fragmentationMinimize fragmentation
Improved road building techniquesImproved road building techniques
Certify sustainable grownCertify sustainable grown
Solutions
Sustainable Forestry
•Grow more timber on long rotations
•Rely more on selective cutting and strip cutting
•No clear-cutting, seed-tree, or shelter-wood cuttingon steeply sloped land
•No fragmentation of remaining large blocks of forest
•Sharply reduce road building into uncut forest areas
•Leave most standing dead trees and fallen timber for wildlife habitat and nutrient recycling
•Certify timber grown by sustainable methods
•Include ecological services of trees and forests inestimating economic value
Insect and Pathogen Threats to U.S. ForestsInsect and Pathogen Threats to U.S. Forests
Pine shoot beetlePine shoot beetle
Sudden oak deathSudden oak death
White pine blister rustWhite pine blister rust
Insect and Pathogen Threats to U.S. ForestsInsect and Pathogen Threats to U.S. Forests
Asian Long Horned Beetle
Hemlock woolly adelgid
Hemlock woolly adelgid
Beech bark diseaseBeech bark disease
Logging in U.S. National ForestsLogging in U.S. National Forests
Provides local jobsProvides local jobs
Hinders recreation incomeHinders recreation income
Provides only 3% of timberProvides only 3% of timber
Increases environmental damageIncreases environmental damage
Trade-Offs
Advantages Disadvantages
Logging in U.S. National Forests
Helps meet country’s timber needs
Cut areas grow back
Keeps lumber and paper pricesdown
Provides jobs in nearby communities
Promotes economic growth in nearby communities
Provides only 4% of timber needs
Ample private forest land to meet timber needs
Has little effect on timber and paper prices
Damages nearby rivers and fisheries
Recreation in national forestsprovides more localjobs and incomefor local communities thanlogging
Decreasesrecreationalopportunities
Tropical Deforestation: ConsequencesTropical Deforestation: Consequences
Rapid and increasing Rapid and increasing
Loss of biodiversity Loss of biodiversity
Loss of resources (e.g., medicines) Loss of resources (e.g., medicines)
Contributes to global warming Contributes to global warming
Causes of Tropical DeforestationCauses of Tropical Deforestation
Basic Basic
Secondary Secondary
•Oil drilling•Mining•Flooding from dams•Tree plantations•Cattle ranching•Cash crops•Settler farming•Fires•Logging•Roads
•Not valuing ecological services•Exports•Government policies•Poverty•Population growth•Roads
Secondary Causes
Basic Causes
Reducing Tropical DeforestationReducing Tropical Deforestation
Reducing poverty and population growth Reducing poverty and population growth
Sustainable tropical agriculture Sustainable tropical agriculture
Encourage protection of large tracts Encourage protection of large tracts
Debt-for-nature swaps Debt-for-nature swaps
Reduce illegal cutting Reduce illegal cutting
Protect most diverse andendangered areas
Educate settlers about sustainableagriculture and forestry
Phase out subsidies that encourageunsustainable forest use
Add subsidies that encouragesustainable forest use
Protect forests with debt-for-natureswaps, conservation easements,and conservation concessions
Certify sustainably grown timber
Reduce illegal cutting
Reduce poverty
Slow population growth
Reforestation
Rehabilitation of degradedareas
Concentrate farming andranching on already-clearedareas
RestorationPrevention
Solutions
Sustaining Tropical Forests
Establishing, Designing, and Managing Nature Reserves Establishing, Designing, and Managing Nature Reserves
Include moderate to large tracts of land Include moderate to large tracts of land
Involve government, private sector and citizens Involve government, private sector and citizens
Protect most important areas (“hot spots”) Protect most important areas (“hot spots”)
Biosphere reserves Biosphere reserves
Adaptive ecosystem management Adaptive ecosystem management
Wilderness areas Wilderness areas
Ecological RestorationEcological Restoration
Restoration Restoration
Rehabilitation Rehabilitation
Replacement Replacement
Creating artificial ecosystemsCreating artificial ecosystems
Remediation Remediation
Ecological Restoration: Basic PrinciplesEcological Restoration: Basic Principles
Mimic nature Mimic nature
Recreate lost niches Recreate lost niches
Control nonnative species Control nonnative species
Reconnect small patchesReconnect small patches
Rely on pioneer species Rely on pioneer species
What Can You Do?
Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity
•Plant trees and take care of them.
•Recycle paper and buy recycled paper products.
•Buy wood and wood products made from trees thathave been grown sustainably.
•Help rehabilitate or restore a degraded area of forest or grassland near your home.
•When building a home, save all the trees and as muchnatural vegetation and soil as possible.
•Landscape your yard with a diversity of plants naturalto the area instead of having a monoculture lawn.