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Objectives Know breeding information and discuss common
reproductive problems Understand nutritional needs Restraint Performing diagnostic sampling and medication procedures. Administer medications by oral, nasal, and parenteral
routes. Properly insert and maintain an intravenous catheter, and
monitor the catheter for complications. Set up materials and equipment, and prepare the patient Provide assistance to the veterinarian Perform or assist with necropsy
Breeding Data Type of estrus cycle: Polyestrous Age of female puberty (gilts): 4 to 8 months Age of male puberty : 6 to 8 months Time of first breeding: 7 to 9 months Estrous cycle length: 18 to 24 days
Duration of estrus: 2 to 3 days Time of ovulation: 40 to 46 hours after the
beginning of estrus Optimal time of breeding (fresh/frozen)
24 to 36 hours after the onset of estrus 12 to 24 hours in gilts
Breeding Data (cont’d) Gestation period : 114
days (3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days)
Birth weight : 4 to 4.5 lb
Litter size : 8-14 Weaning age : 3 to 6
weeks
Heat Detection
Strive to wean 21 to 22 pigs per year Average 2.57 litters per year Goal should be to wean nine piglets per
litter or more Boar effect Sow to return to cycle: after piglets are
removed – 4-10 days Birth to weaning < 10% mortality
Gilt exposure to a mature boar
Gilts reach puberty 5-8 months
Boar has pheromone secreting salivary gland that sexually stimulates female pigs
Heat Detection Signs of estrus in swine include
Frequent mounting by other sows Restless activity Swelling of the vulva Discharge from the vulva Frequent urination Decreased appetite; occasional
loud grunting Lordosis response during male
mounting or when back pressure is applied resulting in a rigid stance and erect ears
Checked twice daily
Physical signs to consider for mating
Too earlyToo early Vulva heavily red and swollenVulva heavily red and swollenHardly any mucus on vaginal mucosaHardly any mucus on vaginal mucosaNegative back pressure test, only standing Negative back pressure test, only standing reflex in presence of a boarreflex in presence of a boar
In timeIn time Vulva moderately red and swollenVulva moderately red and swollen Vaginal mucosa with mucusVaginal mucosa with mucus Positive back pressure testPositive back pressure test
Too lateToo late No redness or swelling of vulvaNo redness or swelling of vulva Sticky vaginal mucosaSticky vaginal mucosa Negative back pressure test, only Negative back pressure test, only standing reflex in presence of a boarstanding reflex in presence of a boar
Gilt "in heat", immobile Gilt with swollen
vulva, secondary sign of estrus
Gilt with swollen vulva,
secondary sign of estrus
Boars Best environment to
enhance their breeding performance
Thermal stress should be prevented
Expose to females : (20:1) Avoid slippery floors Breeding records should
be maintained
Semen Collection Corkscrew penis Pressure sensitive Electroejaculation not
recommended Mounting dummy
Don’t touch shaft/body of penis
3 – 7 minutes Ejaculate – 30 ⁰C Rest boars every 2-3 days SOW BOAR
Semen Processing The sperm-rich fraction is filtered from the gel
fraction of the ejaculate Evaluated Diluted with semen extender Fresh and cooled semen are more effective
than cryopreserved High quality ejaculate: 8 – 10 inseminations (each
has 1-2 billion sperm)
Artificial Insemination 2 – 3 breedings per estrus
Middle of 2-3 days of estrus 12 hours after standing
heat and another one 12 hours later
3 inseminations/ estrus Heterospermic
insemination Semen from 2 boars better
Parturition - Preparation Deworm 10 days before
farrowing Ectoparasite control before
putting in farrowing house Wash throughly Tx for mange and lice
Light bedding: 1-2 inch. Worn shavings, corn cobs, straw or stalks
125 W infra red light: neonates need: 90-95 ⁰F; mum need: 60 – 65 ⁰F
Clinical Signs of Impending Parturition
Vulva swelling Labial mucosa
hyperemic Mammary gland
enlargement Milk: 12 to 24 hours Respiratory rates
increase: Several hours Restless and nesting
Parturition Stage 1: nesting
Vocalization Lateral recumbency
Stage 2 Farrowing interval: 16 minutes Stillbirth: 30 minutes or longer Vocalization All delivered in 4 to 6 hours
Stage 3; placenta (RP are uncommon): Complete within 4 hours
• Mostly at night• Legs are flexed and
breech can be normal ~ 45%
• Stillborn common: 5-7%• Induction:
– PG after 112days – parturition in 20-30 hrs
– Add oxytocin or xylazine
Maternal behavior
If savaging is observed remove other piglets
They do not vigorously lick their young
Mortality of neonate Don’t nurse Crushing by sow hypothermia
Dystocia Intervene after 45 – 60 min
with no progress Seek assistance after 45 to 60
minutes without progress Traction
Go in with pointed hand Mild traction with
malposition pig pullers, lambing
snares, nylon cord End of parturition –
retained fetus? Manual palp. / ultrasound
C-section
Less than 1%• uterine inertia: oxytocin (not if
piglet is stuck) and calcium• obstruction of birth canal: gilts
Neonatal Care Oxygenation/pulse
assessment Hold downward and pump
HL Temperature regulation
high risk day 2-3 90 - 95⁰F
Umbilical cord 4-5 cm from umbilicus Dip 2% providone iodine Ligate: suture/string
Neonatal Care (cont’d) Nutrition (nursing)
Within minutes Like front teats “Bump weaning”: from large to small
litter: fall backs Once/ hr Note different milk replacer options in
book: runts Bonding Meconium Passive transfer of antibodies: within 12
hr Physical examination
Swine DentitionDeciduous Permanent
Swine 2(I 3/3 C 1/1 PM 3/3) = 28
2(I 3/3 C 1/1 PM 4/4 M3/3) = 44
Know table 22 – 3: Eruptions
Ages of pigs are important Neonates 0-3 weeks
<4 kg (8.8 lbs)
Weanlings/nursery 3-10 weeks 4-25 kg (8.8 – 55 lbs)
Growers/finisher 10-26 weeks 25-120 kg (55 – 264 lbs)
Breeders/adults >6-8 months >120 kg (> 264 lbs)
These piglets have approximately 6 months ahead of them before they go to market. (3 weeks nursing, 7 weeks in the nursery, and 16 weeks of grow-finish)
NUTRITION OMNIVORES Growth is depended on
Genetic inheritance Nutrition Care
Clean comfortable environment, deworming, vaccination
Average daily gain: 1.4 – 1.8 lb./day ~ 2 – 2.5 lb. feed/ 1 lb. pork
NUTRITION Purchased or farm raised feeds
Fiber Corn, oats, wheat, barley, sorghum
Medium – fine particle Too fine: GI problems
Protein Essential AA: Arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine
Water ad lib
NUTRITION – BY AGE
Breeding Sows and Litters Limit fed for 1st two trimesters
4 – 6 lb. – 6-7000 kcal ME/ day Last trimester
9 – 10, 000 kcal ME/ day Lactation
15 – 20, 000 kcal ME/ day Fat: palatibility
NUTRITION – BY AGE
Starter/ Nursery diet Weaned 3 – 5 weeks
of age fed starter until 40 – 50 lb.
Ad lib Commercial pellet
high protein 20 – 24%
In the end transition to ground feed
Growing and Finishing Market Hogs
High protein and less energy Soybean meal, meat,
bone meal and synthetic amino acids (lysine, methionine, threonine, tryptophan)
Ground cereal grains: 85% of ration
Corn, wheat, sorghum and barley
Minerals and vitamins: Ca: P
NUTRITION - VITAMINS A: stabilized form D: bone growth and ossification
Direct sunlight for short period of time, Irradiated yeast, Sun cured hay, animal sterols, fish oils, vitamin A and D concentrate
E: with selenium: green forage, legume hays, cereal grains K Riboflavin: breeding stock and light weight pigs – green forage, milk
byproducts, brewer’s yeast Pantothenic acid: females, in crystalline within premixes, legume
meals, milk products, brewer’s yeast Choline: liver and kidneys, good for litter size, fish solubles, fish meal,
soybean meal B12: young pigs for growth and normal hemopoiesis, animal, marine
and milk products
NUTRITION - MINERALS Ca: P – skeletal growth
metabolism, gestation, lactation Tankage, meat meal, meat, bone, fish meal, limestone, oyster shells
NaCl: 0.25% of total diet, animal and fish by products Iodine: thyroid gland, iodized salt Fe and Cu: hemoglobin formation
Anemia: “baby thumps” sow milk lacks Fe Cobalt: with vitamin B12 Manganese: reproduction and growth K: feedstuffs Mg: growth Zn: prevent parakeratosis Selenium: soil , with vitamin E
The Swine Industry Phases
Farrowing Breeding, gestation
and farrowing Growing or nursery
Here for 8 – 10 wk. 40-60 lb 1.4 – 1.8 lb/day
Finishing Reach market weight 220-260 lb
Farrow to finish: 5- 6 months
All in one facility
Growing and Finishing
Nursery 8 to 10 weeks 40 to 60 lb
Finishing Market weight: 220 to 260 lb ADG of 1.4 to 1.8 lb per day Breeding to market is 9 to 10 months Farrowing to market is 5 to 6 months
Slaughter Marketed
Auction Contract
Price Weight Carcass merit
USDA Grading System Barrow and gilt grades are No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No.4, and U.S.
Utility. Slaughter sow grades are U.S. No. 1, U.S. No. 2, U.S. No. 3,
Medium, and Cull. Feeder pigs grades are U.S. No. 1, U.S. No. 2, U.S. No. 3, U.S.
No. 4 U.S. Utility, and U.S. Cull.
Pig management
Backyard herds All in / all out SPF (Specific pathogenic free) Segregated early weaning Depop / repop
Swine Housing 99% of all swine
are housed in confinement Respiratory
disease Husbandry effects
disease
Confinement: Individual Stalls
Pros Ability to separate groups of animals
for individual care More control of environment
Cons Labor intensive Expensive to maintain
Confinement Requirements
Cement or slotted floors Easily cleaned Decrease in disease
Well ventilated Remove water vapor, contaminants, and odors Provide cooling in summer
Waste handling and holding facility Lagoons Holding tanks Prevent run-off; many laws to abide
Violations in Pig Flow
Drying off cull sows in grower/ finishing
(pen separately or remove immediately) Putting poor doer nurseries back with
younger animals (Nurseries must operate as AIAO)
Any movement of older sows through nurseries
Violations in Human Flow
Nursery or farrowing not worked first
Walking through gestation or grow/finish to get through nurseries or farrowing
Air Quality Air quality is the number one concern to swine
growers and pigs alike. Gases in swine housing
Ammonia: <10 ppm Respiratory irritant from manure
Hydrogen sulfide < 10 ppm Respiratory irritant from manure
Carbon monoxide: Not to exceed 150 ppm Caused by gas heaters; lethal to humans and pigs
Methane: Should not exceed 50,000 ppm From manure; not toxic, but explosive!
Dust Caused by movement, respiratory irritant, can be explosive!
Acclimation and Socialization
It should be remembered that pigs are social animals and have a rigid dominance hierarchy.
If animals are group housed they will generally fight to establish dominance for the first 24-48 hours.
Dominance in pigs is almost directly related to size. The largest animals are dominant and smallest are submissive
Swine Restraint Stubborn but smart Herding instinct: not strong Vocal: squeal and scream: panic, stress, fear: EAR PLUGS Easily heat stressed
dyspnea, tail twitching, reluctance to move, muscle tremors, rigidity, hyperthermia
Tapping on the back/ neck can show dominance before handling
Not athletic but fast Aggression: sows with babies and boars with tusks
Biting Barking Tusks
Animal-Human Contact
aware of your presence. startled: injury to
themselves or others in the pen.
aware of your presence: voice.
learn to recognize voices, especially if they are associated with food
Swine Restraint (cont’d)
Herding Difficult to do in open area Boards Blindfolding a pig causes it to walk
backward
Moving pigs
best moved in a metal (box style) transport designed for use with large animals.
Handheld wooden/ plastic panels: “hurdles”/ pig boards/ hog panels
remember pigs will move away from walls toward openings
Swine Restraint (cont’d)
Herding Difficult to do in open area Boards Blindfolding a pig causes it to walk
backward
Forms of swine restraint:
Hog snare Upper maxilla Minor procedures (< 20-30 mins)
Injections, blood samples Never use on piglets Boars with tusks: loop behind tusks Cyanosis: STOP Vocalize
hog snare. side of the pig and
carefully loops the snare over the upper jaw just in front of the cheek teeth or as far back in mouth as possible
snare is tightened: pig resents this and will resist by pulling back against the snare.
This allows the handler to brace against the pig and hold it steady for examination or sample collection.
V troughs feeder pig: V trough. Both hind legs are held
by an assistant and the forelegs are pulled back to allow access for blood collection.
Piglets pile up in the corner: capture one by grabbing onto the hind legs that are presented.
legs are thin and somewhat easily fractured;
catching them or tying them by the legs must be done carefully.
Piglet Restraint By back legs Gentle but firm Do not chase or
catch by ears, front legs, or tails
Squealing upsets sows
V troughs Procedures such as ear
notching and bleeding can be done with the pig in this position.
Note that pigs will squeal the entire time they are restrained in this fashion, and all handlers should wear ear protection as demonstrated by the individual performing the blood collection.
Physiological Data Temperature
101º to 103.5º F Pulse rate
60 to 90 per minute; 200 to 280 per minute in newborns
Respiration rate 10 to 24 per minute; up to 50 in very young swine
Adult weight Varies by breed
Blood collection Jugular vein / anterior vena cava Cephalic Vein Orbital Sinus Tail Vein
IV injection Auricular vein Rubberband
Pig medicine: chapter 23
Maximum safe blood drawAge & weight Total blood
volume, mLMaximum draw, mL
Newborn, 3 lb 110 10
Nursery pig, 35 lb
1,280 120
Sow, 440 lb 16,000 1,600
Selected normal blood values: Table 23-1
Measure Value
Blood volumePCV%: 32 – 50 (42)
8 %
WBC count (x 106 / ul) 11 – 22 (16)
Seg. Neutrophils (%)Bands: 0-2%
28 - 47
Lymphocytes (%) 39 - 62
Gamma globulin 25-30 mg/mL
Venous Blood Sampling Lateral auricular vein
<5 ml After weaning age: 4-5 wks age, 25 lbs Butterfly catheter A 20-gauge × 1-in needle Large adults 18- to 20-gauge × 1-in needle Vacutainers are not recommended (collapse vein in
small animals) Coccygeal vein
Infrequently used
Infusion sets are also commercially available, consisting of a tube connected to a needle. These 'butterfly needles' must be fastened to the skin using adhesive tape or a louse.
Their great advantage is the flexibility of the tubing. These sets are available in a variety of sizes, such as 19 and 21 gauge
Use for larger volumes of solutions
Pigs cannot sweat and blood circulation through the ears is important for temperature regulation. In a warm environment the veins are more dilated and blood collection is facilitated.
When the vein has been punctured, the emerging blood can be collected directly by capillary action into appropriate tubes. This technique is suitable for measurement of haematocrit and haemoglobin levels, and for making blood smears.
I.V. injections It is possible to
undertake intravenous injections using the ear veins even on newborn piglets.
The needle and ear are fixed between the operator's thumb and forefinger. When this has been done, the assistant can stop raising the vein and the injection can begin
Intravenous injections and solutions for fluid therapy are most often given in the lateral auricular (ear) vein
This picture shows the central ear vein (the intermediate auricular vein) on a young sow.
The animal has been given azaperone as a sedative. This compound has the added advantage of causing peripheral vasodilatation, making the vein more readily accessible.
A venous catheter equipped with a stiletto (Braunule, 18 gauge) has been inserted into the vein.
Rubber band on the ear
Bleeding sows
Large animals are restrained standing usually with long snare, the head should be raised slightly
Pigs weighing between 20 and 50 kg can either be held on their backs in a 'trough' or immobilized with a snout rope
The external jugular vein
Most common for adult pigs
The animal must be held using a snout rope and the neck must be stretched well upwards. This is best achieved if the pig stands on all four legs.
The rope is placed behind the canine teeth so that it does not slip off so easily or move rostrally towards the nasal cartilage
Venous Blood Sampling (cont’d)
Jugular vein: L phrenic nerve is parallel to left jugular vein Safer to access as not so deep but
smaller so may be hard to hit in small animals
Difficult to find Piglets: 20-gauge × 1 1/2-in needle Mature: 16-gauge × 3- to 3 1/2-in needle Right jugular: Avoid phrenic nerve
The correct point of venipuncture is illustrated in this picture.
The needle should be directed caudo-dorsally, in this case perpendicular to the skin.
The correct puncture site is in the deepest point of the jugular groove formed between the medial sternocephalic and lateral brachiocephalic muscles
A vacuum tube has been connected, and the needle inserted in its full length. This is important, since these needles are really slightly too short for large sows.
It is vital that the needle holder is held firmly if the operator wishes to change vacuum tubes
Perpendicular, and dorsocaudal
Venous Blood Sampling (cont’d) Cranial vena cava: gives rise to both R and L
jugular vein Useful for large blood volumes Right side: Avoid phrenic nerve Piglets: 20-gauge × 1 1/2-in needle Small pigs up to 50 pounds: 18- to 20-gauge × 1 to 1
1/2-in needle Dorsal recumbency Needle directed at opposite shoulder Caution: R vagus nerve affect parasym. to the heart
and R phrenic nerve affect diaphragm
Cranial vena cava Lies in the thoracic
inlet between the first pair of ribs
Lateral to manubrium
R side: avoid damage to the phrenic nerve.
Venipuncture of the cranial vena cava in a small pig restrained in dorsal recumbency
Cranial Vena Cava If the needle hits a
rib, pull backward slightly and try different angle .
Collecting blood from the cranial vena cava in a standing pig. The needle is inserted at the caudal extent of the right jugular furrow, lateral to the manubrium
Venous Blood Sampling (cont’d) Orbital sinus (medial canthus of the eye)
Use 5 to 10 ml Small pigs: Dorsal recumbency Adults: Hog snare Piglets: 20- to 20-gauge × 1-in needle Larger pigs: 16- to 20-gauge × 1 1/2-in needle
Orbital Sinus (Medial Canthus of the
Eye)
Collection of blood from the medial canthus of the eye
Venipuncture of the left orbital sinus. Note the firm manual restraint of the head.
Cephalic vein newborn piglets and
weanling animals Not as common small amounts of blood
from animals weighing less than 10-15 kg.
20-50 kg, it is possible, with some training
Milk vein The milk vein (the
subcutanous abdominal vein) is easily visible lateral to the teats on smaller pigs.
For blood sampling a vacuum tube and a 20 gauge needle is used. The needle is inserted where the vein is most visible.
The tail vein
The medial caudal vein lies in a groove under the tail, next to the artery.
The operator raises the tail with one hand and punctures the vein with the other.
Vacuum tubes and 20 gauge needles are used.
The puncture site is at the first freely movable tail joint. This is around the fifth tail vertebra.
Subcutaneous Injection Injections in small pigs (<50 lb)
Auxiliary area caudal to the elbow Inguinal region in the flank skin fold Nursery piglets: 16- to 18-gauge × 1/2-in needle Use 1 to 2 ml
In larger pigs Hog snare Loose skin behind the base of the ear Finishing hogs: 16-gauge × 3/4-in needle Breeding stock: 14- to 16-gauge × 1-in needle Up to 3 ml may be injected per site
Intramuscular Injection Dorsal neck muscle behind the ears Baby piglets: 18- to 20-gauge × 5/8- to 1/2-in needle Nursery pigs: 16- or 18-gauge × 3/4- to 5/8-in needle Finishing to breeding stock: 14- to 16-gauge × 1- to 1
1/2-in needle Do not exceed 2 ml in piglets or 3 ml in larger pigs
Intramuscular Injection IM The prime cuts of
pork come from the hams, loins, and shoulder areas.
Therefore intramuscular injections are preferably given in the dorsal neck muscle behind the ears
Euthanasia Barbiturate IV injection Carbon dioxide gas: The only chemical used for euthanasia that
does not leave tissue residues IV potassium chloride (KCl) in conjunction with general anesthesia;
anesthesia must be induced first Penetrating captive bolt Inhalant anesthetic gases (overdose) Carbon monoxide Chloral hydrate IV after sedation Gunshot Electrocution: Applied to the head Concussion (blow) to the head: Only suitable for animals younger
than 3 weeks of age; must be applied by trained personnel in order to be humane
Necropsy – Why?
To improve the herd health To contribute to the herd health
program To identify causes of illness or
death so that Effective treatments can be
applied Preventative measures can be
implemented
Necropsy – What to look for Skin condition Swollen joints Wounds or abscesses Intestinal condition (fluid-filled, bloody,
gas, etc) Lung condition (hemorrhage, non-
functional tissues, edema, etc.) Liver condition (look for milk spots;
indication of a parasitic infection) Condition of other organs (kidneys,
spleen, heart) Snout condition (condition of the
turbinates)
Necropsy -- Tools
Scalpel Probes (spatula or equivalent) Saw (hack saw or equivalent) Water Mechanism to dispose of parts
(plastic bags)
References
http://cal.vet.upenn.edu/projects/swine/7080.html
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/an051 K Holtgrew-Bohling , Large Animal
Clinical Procedures for Veterinary Technicians, 2nd Edition, Mosby, 2012, ISBN: 97803223077323
References http://www.thepigsite.com/video/single/41/ http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/an051 http://www.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/html_pubs/pigs/
pigs.htm http://www.ncsu.edu/project/swine_extension/
publications/factsheets/812s.htm http://www.ansc.purdue.edu/swine/porkpage/
repro/physiol/reppaper.htm http://www.ansc.purdue.edu/swine/porkpage/
repro/physiol/reppaper.htm http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/
vet_accreditation/nvap_modules/FIT/FIT/fit0085.htm