Syntactic Structures2017-2018AdrianaBelletti

Module A of

Syntactic Structures andCompositional Semantics

Slides, hand outs, reference texts, readings

• Slides//Handouts

• Generalreference texts

• Somefurtherreadings(lateron,inviewofapresentationinthecourse,attheendofthemodule)

Calendar:Syntactic StructuresMarchMo 12Tu 13We 14

Mo 19Tu 20We 21

Mo 26Tu 27We 28

AprilMo 9Tu 10We 11Fr 13 (+3=5

hours)

Mo 16Tu 17We 18Fr 20(+3=5

hours)

Generalreferencetexts• Baker,M.TheAtomsofLanguage,BasicBooks,2001• Chomsky,N.2002OnNatureandLanguage,CUP• Chomsky,N.2016Whatkindofcreaturesarewe? ColumbiaUniversityPress

• Baltin,M.&C.Collinseds,TheHandbookofContemporarySyntacticTheory,Blackwell,2001

• Cinque,G.&R.Kayneeds., TheOxfordHandbookofComparativeSyntax,OxfordUniversityPress,2005

• Everaert,M.&H.vanRiemsdijkeds.,2006/2017(forthcoming)TheBlackwellCompaniontoSyntax,vol.I-V(casestudies)/Updatedversioninprint

• Heine,B&H.Narrog,TheOxfordHandbookofLinguisticAnalysis,OxfordUniversityPress2009

• Roberts,I.TheOxfordHandbookofUniversalGrammar,OxfordUniversityPress,2017

• ORE,OxfordResearchEncyclopedias(Linguistics), publishedonline,http://linguistics.oxfordre.com

• Adger,D.CoreSyntax,OUP2003• Cecchetto,C.Introduzioneallasintassi,LED,2002• Haegeman, L.Manualedigrammatica generativa, Hoepli, 1994//Introduction

toGB

Moreinfo

• Coursematerialsat:• http://www.ciscl.unisi.it/master/materials.htm

• Studentreception:• Thursdayat11,room324

• Researchseminars:• Thursday12-14

checktheeventslistedontheciscl website

Gettingtoknoweachother• Provenance andpreviousdegree

• Whydidyouchoose thisMA?

• Whyareyouinterestedinhumanlanguage?

• Whatdoyouexpect youwilllearnintheMA?

• Letusfirstofallcreateacommonbackground.• Mainaimofthismodule:Being abletosee thestructureofagivensentence, i.e.itshierarchical organization, andthefundamentalprocesses thattakeplaceinit.

Warmup:Syntax

• Whatissyntax?

• Makeasentenceoutofthefollowing list/stringofwords:

• suitcaseJohn’shisfoundfriend

• vicinoportailaprìladelchiavefratellolacon

Results:Sentences

• John’sfriendfoundhissuitcase

• Ilfratellodelvicinoaprìlaportaconlachiave• Ilfratelloaprìlaportaconlachiavedelvicino• Ilvicinoaprìlaportaconlachiavedelfratello

Syntactic Structures• Sentences aremadeupoforganizedsetsofwords(andaffixes).

• Wordscombine.Thebasicoperationbuildingsentences isacombinatorialMERGE operationthatgivesriseto

• SyntacticStructures

• Wordsareorganizedin

• StructuresnotStrings• Syntaxhasafundamentallyhierarchical

organization

SyntacticStructures

• Theorganizationofsyntaxis

• hierarchical• itisnot

• linear

structures

Recursivemergeoftwoelements

• Syntactic structures emerge from the recursive application of anelementary operation which consists of combining/mergingtwo elements, thus forming another unit of a higher level

MERGE

3

α β

IterationofMERGE

• a + b 1a b

• c + [a b] 1 c 1

a b

(binary ramification: 1)

Notations:Trees(vertical).Squarebrackets(horizontal)

• q2a b

• [q a b]

Towardsyntacticstructures: someterminology

• Head = Word (or less than a word, such as e.g. an affix) thatdrives the operation Merge (External Merge)

• Phrase = The unit created by Merge; hence typically more thanone word (sometimes referred to as projection of the head)

• Complement = Position of the phrase (typically) that combineswith the head in the first application of Merge

• Specifier = Position of the phrase that combines in a furtherapplication of Merge

• Given two applications of Merge driven by the same head X thefollowing general schema of a phrase is obtained (for a head-initiallanguage such as e.g. English or Italian)

Thephrase:XP- Traditional standard schema of a phrase (so called X’-

schema) XP

2ZP (Spec) 2

X YP (Complement)

- The label of the phrase is given by the head driving the Merge operation. The label is XP in the phrase above.

- When two heads are merged the label (i.e. what is the head of the phrase?) is provided by one of them according to some guiding principle: in a nutshell if one of the heads could also be a phrase in the same merge operation, this is not the head of the newly constituted phrase.

Theheadofthephrase

• E.g.• D+N>>theboy

?3

D N

• D +(A)+N>> thetallboy

D(P)3

D3

ANSelection:D+nominal>>(A+)N=NP

Theheadofthephrase

• Label of the phrase is provided by the closest head:X(P)

2X YP

2

Y WP

• When two phrases are merged together the issue of labeling the resultingphrase may arise (Chomsky 2013, 2015; Rizzi 2013). This is a topic of ongoingresearch. We will assume the standard schema presented earlier.

XP2

ZP (Spec) 2X YP (Complement)

Headsandphrases

• TheHead-Complement relation:

• OVvsVO

VO>>X YP OV>>YPX

Where thetwo linearorders arenot simply themirror imageofeachother (Kayne 2018,recent discussion)

SomeGeneralBackgroundconsiderationsThelanguagefaculty:The I-languageperspectiveUG:UniversalGrammar

• Thelanguage facultyisahumancognitivecapacitywhichismadevisiblebythenaturalinstinctive capacitytoacquireanylanguage byanychild

• CallUGtheexplicitmodelofthehumanlanguage capacity,internaltomind/brain.

• Invariableandvariableproperties• AccesstoUGisindirect:

- throughlanguagedescription- throughlanguage comparison- throughthestudyofformsofdifferent typesof

linguisticdata:fromlanguage acquisitiontolanguagepathology

Thefundamental empiricalobservation:Language acquisition

LAD

• DataCompetence

UG=modelofLAD(LanguageAcquisitionDevice)

NaturalLanguageLanguageFaculty• Acombinationofsoundandmeaning(Aristotle)

• Acomputationalmechanism/agenerativeprocedure thatsendsinstructionsfortheinterpretationtotheinterfacesystems,systemsthatarealsointernaltothemind/brain,butexternal tothefacultyoflanguageinanarrowsense(Chomsky):

• Sensorymotorsystem(sounds,butalsosignsasinsignlanguages*)

• Conceptual- Intentionalsystem(meaning*)

*Meaningexpressedandexternalizedthroughsigns

Thebasicpropertyofhumanlanguage

• “...a finite computational system yielding an infinity ofexpressions, each of which has a definite interpretation insemantic-pragmatic and sensorimotor systems (informally,thought and sound)” (Berwick & Chomsky, 2016)

• We typically both produce and comprehend expressions that wehave probably never said or heard before. We make - in theformal sense above – a creative use of our faculty of language.

• Infinity and the recursive nature of merge.

• Universal Grammar/UG: The theory of this biologically givensystem.

UG:Theinternalandtheexternaldimension

• UGisformulatedintermsofrulesandprinciplesasamodelofthe

Invariable commonpropertiesofhuman languages

• Howcanlanguage variationbeaccountedfor?

Theparametric approach

UGandParameters

• Parameters:+

P_

• PropertieswithrespecttowhichUGisflexible

• Ex: - Theorderparameter/headparameter- Thenullsubjectparameter

Theheadparameter

• TheHeadParameter:

VOHeadinitial(e.g.English,Italian,…)

OVHeadfinal(e.g.ClassicalLatin,Japanese,Turkish…)(….Germaninsubordinateclauses;mixeddeterminedheadbyhead)

Some examples(a) Caesar [omnem agrum Picenum] percurrit

O V(b) Cesare percorre [tutto il territorio dei Piceni]

V OCesar goes through the entire land of the Piceni

(c) …dass Peter [das Buch] gelesen hatO V

(d) … che Pietro ha letto [il libro]V O

(f) … that Peter has read [the book]V O

(g) John-ga Mary-o butta(John Mary hit)

O V(h) John-ga Mary-ni hon-o yatta

(John to Mary book gave)

(i) Mit Peter (P-initial)(with Peter)

P O

UGandParameters• ParameterstobestatedinthevocabularyofUG/LinguisticTheory, i.e.intermsoftheprimitiveingredients ofthecomputationalsystemofthelanguage faculty.

• Language variation occurswithinlimits:ThelimitsarefoundinthemechanismsandprinciplesthroughwhichUGisputintowork(whereUGisinfacttheinternalgrammarofanyspeaker).Variationdoesnot/cannot exceedthelimitsofUG.

• Forinstance:nohuman languagehasnohierarchicalorganization oftheunitscomposing itssentences.

• Parametersarenotphenomena, butformalproperties thatmanifestthemselvesinlinguistic phenomena.Theirvaluemaydifferindifferent languages (whencevalues:+or-).

Parameters• We recognizeanareaofparametricvariationthroughobservationofsyntacticphenomena.

• Detouronnull-subjectparameter.

• Taketwolanguages. Keeptherelevantstructuresasminimallydifferentaspossible.Check thebehaviorofthetwolanguagesinvestigated.(Experimental approach).

• E.g.:MinimalpairsEnglishvs Italian(Exercise)

Null-subject• English• Q:DidMarygoout?• A:No, shejustcameback

• Marysaysthatshe wantstototalkwithJohn

• MarysaysthatshewantstototalkwithJohn,butothersdon’t

• Italian• Q:Mariaèuscita?• A:No,pro èappenatornata

• Mariadicechepro vuoleparlareconGianni

• Mariadicechelei vuoleparlareconGianni,maaltrinonvogliono

Lexicalvs FunctionalHeads

• Parameters:differentvalues/properties ofthesocalledfunctional lexicon.

• Afundamentaldistinction:

• Lexicalheads(descriptive content):

N V A

• Functional heads(grammatical content):

D P CT…...

(thedistinctionmaynotalwaysbeclearcut,fundamentalnevertheless)

FunctionalvsLexicalIlLonfoThefunctional architectureoftheclause

Il Lonfo non vaterca né gluiscee molto raramente barigatta,ma quando soffia il bego a bisce biscesdilenca un poco e gnagio s'archipatta.E' frusco il Lonfo! E' pieno di lupignaarrafferia malversa e sofolenta!Se cionfi ti sbiduglia e ti arrupignase lugri ti botalla e ti criventa.Eppure il vecchio Lonfo ammargellutoche bete e zugghia e fonca nei trombazzifa lègica busìa, fa gisbuto;e quasi quasi in segno di sberdazzigli affarferesti un gniffo. Ma lui zutot' alloppa, ti sbernecchia; e tu l'accazzi

Fosco Maraini (La Gnosi delle Fanfole, 1994)

Functional vsLexicalTwas brillig,andtheslithy tovesDidgyreandgimble inthewabe;Allmimsy weretheborogoves,Andthemome raths outgrabe.

BewaretheJabberwock,myson!Thejawsthatbite,theclawsthatcatch!BewaretheJubjub bird,andshunThefrumious Bandersnatch!

Hetookhisvorpal swordinhand:Longtimethemanxome foehesoughtSorestedhebytheTumtum tree,Andstoodawhileinthought.

Andasinuffish thoughthestood,TheJabberwock,witheyesofflame,Camewhifflingthroughthetulgey wood,Andburbledasitcame!

One,two!One,two!AndthroughandthroughThevorpal bladewentsnicker-snack!Heleftitdead,andwithitsheadHewentgalumphingback.

AndhastthouslaintheJabberwock?Cometomyarms,mybeamishboy!Ofrabjous day!Callooh!Callay!Hechortledinhisjoy.

Twas brillig,andtheslithy tovesDidgyreandgimble inthewabe;Allmimsy weretheborogoves,Andthemome raths outgrabe. Jabberwocky,LewisCarroll(Throughthelookingglass)

Backtothehierarchical organization ofsyntax:TheStructuredependencyofsyntacticprocesses

• Syntacticprocessesarestructuredependent

• Syntacticcomputationsapplyonstructures,notonthelinearsequenceofelements

• Theelements thatareinvolvedinsyntacticcomputationsarealwaysconstituents inthesyntactictree,i.e.theyareeitherheadsorphrases.

Structuredependency

• The man who is here is a doctor• Is the man who is here – a doctor?• *Is the man who – here is a doctor?

• Are eagles that fly – swimming?• [Eagles [that fly]] are swimming

• [Eagles [that are swimming]] fly • *Are eagles that – swimming fly?• (Do eagles that are swimming fly?)

• The relevant distance is not linear but structural (Chomsky 2013)

Structuredependency

36 3Theman5 is 4

whoishereadoctor

Structuredependency

Probably the man who will talk to the girl will go out of the room

*

Phrases• EachphrasehasaHEAD:

NP VP PPAPDP

N V P AD

• Theheadiseither alexicalword(e.g.N),orafunctionalword(e.g.D),oranaffix/feature (expressing somegrammaticalvalue,e.g. Tense,Number…)

D• IfX=Vinthegeneralschemaofaphrase,anargumentstructureisattributedtoit,composedofroles/interpretationsthatareassociatedwithnominalargumentsinthesyntacticstructure(Th-roles,[θ1,θ2,θ3])

• InlanguageswithDeterminers,anounphrasecanappearinasentenceonlyifitisintroducedbyadeterminer(genericpluralsandmassnounsaside):

• La/una/quellaragazzacompròil/un/quellibro• The/una/thatgirlboughtthe/a/thatbook• *Ragazzacompròlibro• *Girlboughtbook• Anothercrucialparameter:Thelanguagehas(overt)determiners/D,ornot.

• D:headofaphrasewhosecomplementisanNP(simplifying;otherfunctionalheadsarealsopresentwithintheDP)

TheNP

NP3

A(P)34 NPP

g 6(very)interesting approachtotheproblem

TheDP

DP3DNP# 3

AP 3the4 NPP

# 5interesting approachtotheproblem

Thestructures• Labellavistadellacasa nelbosco //Thebeautiful viewofthehouseinthewood

• DP• 2 • DNP• # 2 • laA(P) 2• the # NPP• bella# 2• beautiful vistaPDP• viewdi2• of DNP• la 2• the NPP• casa 2• house PDP• in 2• in DN(P)• ilbosco• thewood

C-command:Acrucialrelationinthesyntactichierarchy

• C-command:• αc-commandsβiffβiscontainedwithinthesister*nodeofα•• A A• 3 3α β αB

• 3• β•• A• 3

BC• 3 3• α γ β••• Thereisnodominancebetweenαandβandαishigherthandiβ•• *Twonodesimmediatelydominatedbythesamenode

C-commandandBasicBindingparadigmsandprinciples.

PrincipleA:ananaphorisbound(intherelevantdomain)•Mariai(sii)criticasestessai/*sestesso//Marycriticizesherself/*himself•*[LasorelladiGianni]criticasestesso//*[John’ssister]criticizeshimself•*[IlfratellodiMaria]criticasestessa//*[Mary’sbrother]criticizesherself• [LasorelladiGianni]i criticasestessai //[John’ssister]criticizesherself• [IlfratellodiMaria]i criticasestessoi//[Mary’sbrother]criticizeshimslef•*Mariai dice[cheGianni(sii)criticasestessai]//*Maryi says[thatJohncriticizesherselfi](domain)

PrincipleB:apronounisfree(=not bound)(intherelevantdomain)•Marioi lo*i/jconoscebene//Johni knowshim*i/j well•[LasorelladiGiannii]loi/jconoscebene//[Johni’ssister]knowshimi/j well•Mariai dice[cheGiannilai/k conoscebene]//Maryi says[thatJohnknowsheri/k well](domain)

PrincipleC:anR-expressionisfree(inanydomain)•Luii/proi conosceGianni*i //Hei knowsJohn*i•Luii/proi dice[cheMariaconosceGianni*i]//hei says[thatMaryknowsJohn*i]

Toward sentence structure:V…C…T//…V….

..….V[…..C[……..T…….

Idecided [that/ (*to)I(*to)shouldleave] Idecided [(*that) /to(-)leave]

Hodeciso[che (-)partir-ò] *Hodeciso[di partir-ò]Hodeciso[di (-) partire] *Hodeciso[che partire]

Nonso[se (-)partirò] Nonso[se (-)partire]

Thesentence• Sentences aremorethanjustasubjectandapredicate

• 2• DPvP

• Sentences aregivenbytherecursiveapplicationoftheMergeoperationincludingbothafunctionalcomponent expressedby

differentfunctional heads

• andalexicaldescriptivecomponentexpressedbytheverbphrase

Generalschemaforthestructure oftheclause

CP1

_ 1CTP

1_ 1

TvP1

(DP/EA)1v 1

V(DP/IA)

vmediatestheintroduction oftheExternalargumentasalightverb.Lightverbs areovertly visible inmany languagesmoreorlesssystematically.Farelaspesa (comprare – buy);farguarire/takecare/prendersi cura….

BacktoStructuredependency

CP3

3C TPis 3

DP 34 T DP

the man <is> 4who is here a doctor

SpecCP

CP3

what 3C TP

did 3 DP 3

4 T vPyou __ 3

V <what>

Ilragazzosalutòl’attoreconlacravattaTheboywelcomedtheactorwiththetie

CP2

()TP2

DP 22 T VPDN(P) 2

ilragazzoVDPtheboy salutò 2

welcomed DNPl’2the N PP

attore2actor PDP

con 2with DNP

lathe N

cravatta/tie

Ilragazzosalutòl’attoreconlacravattaTheboywelcomedtheactorwiththetie

CP3

()TP3

DP32 TVPDNP 3ilragazzo3 PP

VDP2salutò2 PDP

welcomed DNPcon 2l’attorewith DNPtheactorla

the Ncravatta/tie

• Aswewill seethestructure isinfactmorearticulated.Crucial point here:theambiguity isduetothedifferent levelofattachmentofthePP.Thisisacaseof“structuralambiguity”.

Themes ofthemodule- Thefunctionalstructureoftheclauseandthemorpho-syntaxoftheVhead inthesyntactichierarchy

- Localityofsyntacticcomputations- Verbclassesandargumentstructure(s).- Passive(andrelatedcomputations:Romancetype-causatives)- Ondiscourserelatedpositionsintheclause:focalizations,leftdislocationsandtheircartography

- Leftperiphery (clauseexternal) andvP periphery (clauseinternal).Aspectsofthesyntaxofpost-verbalsubjectsandthevP periphery

- Typesofsyntacticmovementsandderivations

• Studenttutor:

• StefanoFreyrCastiglione(deskat3rd floor).

• e-mail:• stefanofreyr.cast@student.unisi.it