Syntax Guide “A good writer chooses to do something (to choose a word, to begin a sentence adverbially, to punctuate). In choosing to do there is a positive, a constructive, a meaning-creating approach to writing; in contrast, in a obeying a negatively worded rule, there comes a negative attitude, a negative approach to the process, for the student is punctuating to avoid error rather than to create meaning.”

- John Dawkins, “Teaching Punctuation as a Rhetorical Tool”

I have a dirty little English teacher secret for you. Are you ready to hear it? Really? You’re sure? Okay, here it goes: the best writers know the “rules” of syntax but they often bend them, break them, or ignore them altogether. Why? Because strategically breaking bending the rules allows them to make meaning and show emphasis in ways the rules don’t normally allow. Strong writers are rebels!

Whew! I feel better now that I got that off my chest. Moving on.

The Rules of Syntax

An independent clause (AKA Simple Sentence) consists of three things: a subject, a verb, and a complete thought. Independent clauses are the foundation for writing; every sentence must have an independent clause. Strong writers build upon independent clauses with words, phrases, dependent clauses, and other independent clauses.

Sammy likes to run.

A dependent clause is actually an independent clause with a subordinate conjunction attached to it. They are generally used to show how two different ideas are related to each other and which is more important; the independent clause communicates the primary or more important idea, and the dependent clause communicates the secondary or less important idea. Dependent clauses cannot stand alone, and must be attached to an independent clause in order to be grammatically correct.

Because Sammy likes to run

A compound sentence is a sentence which connects two independent clauses with either a comma and a coordinating conjunction, or with a semicolon. The two independent clauses must contain ideas that are heavily connected to each other.

Sammy likes to run, and Jenny likes to walk.Sammy likes to run; Jenny likes to walk.

A complex sentence is a sentence which connects one independent clause to one or more dependent clauses. Because dependent clauses are created with subordinate conjunctions, complex sentences show how two or more ideas are related to each other, and which of the two ideas is the most important.

Because Sammy likes to run, he is in great shape.Sammy is in great shape because he likes to run.

A compound-complex sentence is exactly what it sounds like: a sentence with qualities of compound sentences and complex sentences. In other words, compound-complex sentences connect two or more independent clauses to one or more dependent clauses. They allow writers to connect ideas of equal importance to each other while also showing how they’re related to ideas of lesser importance.

Sammy likes to run, but Jenny likes to walk because she isn’t used to the altitude.

Jenny likes to walk because she isn’t used to the altitude, but Sammy likes to run. Because Jenny isn’t used to the altitude, she likes to walk, yet Sammy likes to run.

Phrases are different from clauses because they do not contain their own subject or meaning, but they are still a group of words that form a unit of meaning. While there are many types of phrases, the four that add the most detail to your writing are appositive phrases, participial phrases, and absolute phrases. While using phrases in your writing, it is helpful to remember that there are three different patterns for attaching phrases to a clause: pre-clausal, medial, and post-clausal.

Pre-clausal placement describes phrases that precede the clause. These are usually followed by a comma to set them apart from the independent clause.

Lip quivering, Sally picked herself up and brushed the dirt off her knees.

Medial placement describes phrases placed in the middle of the clause. These are usually set apart from the clause they’re interrupting by a pair of commas or dashes.

The flowers, roses and carnations, made Sally smile.

Post-clausal placement describes phrases that are attached to the end of the clause. These are usually set apart from the clause they’re attached to with a comma or a dash.

My favorite teacher is Mr. Nye, the science teacher.

Appositive phrases use nouns to zoom in on details. They consist of a word or group of words that rename a noun in the same sentence, acting like a second noun. Appositive phrases allow writers to add more detail and specificity to sentences by providing additional information about nouns.

Dash, a fast runner, helped save his family from the evil scientist. Sally, a sweet girl, always forgets her homework.My best friend, Billy, is great at parkour. My favorite teacher is Mr. Nye, the science teacher.The flowers, roses and carnations, made Sally smile.

Appositive phrases can be either medial, meaning they interrupt the clause, or post-clausal, meaning they are attached to the end of a clause (but always next to the noun they are modifying). They are never pre-clausal, meaning they are never attached to the beginning of the clause.

Participial phrases use verbs to zoom in on details — specifically past or present participles — and to modify an entire sentence. Unlike appositive phrases, participial phrases can be pre-clausal, medial, or post-clausal.

The dog, growling and barking, approached the stranger in the driveway. Trembling, Sally walked onto the stage to begin her audition. As the students tried to explain themselves, the teacher shook her head, smiling and laughing.

Absolute phrases use nouns, adverbs, participles, prepositions, or adjectives to modify a sentence — but they almost always start with a noun. They can also be pre-clausal, medial, or post-clausal.

Lip quivering, Sally picked herself up and brushed the dirt off her knees.Billy walked into the room, head bowed, and sat down in the chair closest to the door. Sammy sat straight in his chair, pen in hand.

Loose Sentences are sentences that are grammatically complete, and usually stating its main idea, before the end. For example,

The child ran as if being chased by demons.

Periodic Sentences are sentences which is not grammatically complete until the end.

The child, who looked as if she were being chased by demons, ran.

Bending the Rules of Syntax

Hierarchy of Functional Punctuation Marks The table below outlines what each punctuation mark indicates to the reader in terms of separation/connection of ideas and the length of pause the mark typically indicates to the reader. When used effectively, these marks can add meaning, affect pacing, and increase — or decrease — emphasis of your ideas in your writing.

Raising and Lowering PunctuationWhen you “raise” the punctuation in a sentence, you are intentionally choosing to use a punctuation mark that indicates a longer pause than the mark indicated in the rule.

Punctuation Mark

Degree of Separation of Ideas

Degree of Connection of Ideas

Length of Pause Indicated to the Reader

Period . Maximum separation No connection a full pause between independent clauses

Question Mark ? Maximum separation No connection a full pause between independent clauses

Explanation Mark ! Maximum separation No connection a full pause between independent clauses

Semicolon ; Medium separation Slight connection a short pause between clauses

Colon : Medium separation Anticipatory connection a short pause between clauses, phrases, or words

Dash — Medium separation Emphatic connection a short pause between clauses, phrases, or words

Comma , Minimum separation Heavy connection a slight (barely noticeable) pause between clauses, phrases, or words

No Mark No separation Complete connection No pauses

Raisi

ngLo

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ing

Standard (according to

the “rule”)

When you “lower” the punctuation in a sentence, you are intentionally choosing to use a punctuation mark that indicates a shorter pause than the mark indicated in the rule.

Take a look at the hierarchy of functional punctuation marks above. As you can see, the most you can raise the punctuation in a sentence is up to a full stop (a period, question mark, or explanation point). The most you can lower the punctuation in a sentence is to use no mark at all. Take a look at the examples below. Consider how the meaning and emphasis changes when authors intentionally bend the punctuation rules.

Following the Rules (“corrected” by Mrs. Dutro) Bending the Rules (original text)

“Well, the sun will be up in a few minutes, and I haven’t even begun to make coffee.”

- Edward Abbey (edited)

“Well — the sun will be up in a few minutes and I haven’t even begun to make coffee.”

- Edward Abbey

“He told them very badly, but you could see there was something there if he could get it out.”

- Ernest Hemingway (edited)

“He told them very badly but you could see there was something there if he could get it out.”

- Ernest Hemingway

“I could write a syndicated column for teenagers under the name ‘Debbie Lynn,’ or I could smuggle gold into India, or I could become a $100 call girl, and none of it would matter.”

- Joan Didion (edited)

“I could write a syndicated column for teenagers under the name ‘Debbie Lynn’ or I could smuggle gold into India or I could become a $100 call girl, and none of it would matter.”

- Joan Didion

“Find them, and clone them, but there is no end to the protocol.”

- E. B. White (edited)

“Find them, and clone them. But there is no end to the protocol.”

- E. B. White

“Whether or not our old drainboard was a guardian of our health, I will never know, but neither my wife nor I have enjoyed as good health since the back kitchen got renovated.”

- E. B. White (edited)

“Whether or not our old drainboard was a guardian of our health I will never know: but neither my wife nor I have enjoyed as good health since the back kitchen got renovated.”

- E. B. White

“But all I could do was to try to rein him out of it or hug his back.”

- Alice Walker (edited)

“But all I could do was to try to rein him out of it. Or hug his back.”

- Alice Walker (edited)

“It is made, not described.”- Ernest Hemingway (edited)

“It is made; not described.”- Ernest Hemingway

“They float on the landscape like pyramids to the boom years, all those plazas and malls and esplanades, all those squares and fairs, all those towns and dales…”

- Joan Didion (edited)

“They float on the landscape like pyramids to the boom years, all those Plazas and Malls and Esplanades. All those squares and Fairs. All those Towns and Dales…”

- Joan Didion

“He searches for the lamppost with his cane, like a tennis player swinging backhand, and, if he loses his bearings and bumps against something, he jerks abruptly back, like a cavalier insulted, looking gaunt and fierce.”

- Edward Hoagland (edited)

“He searches for the lamppost with his cane like a tennis player swinging backhand, and if he loses his bearings and bumps against something, he jerks abruptly back like a cavalier insulted, looking gaunt and fierce.”

- Edward Hoagland

“They asked it in New York, Los Angeles, Boston, Washington, Dallas, Huston, Chicago, and San Francisco.”

- Joan Didion (edited)

“They asked it in New York and Los Angeles and they asked it in Boston and Washington and they asked it in Dallas and Huston and Chicago and San Francisco.”

- Joan Didion

Fun with Syntax

Some of the best authors use multiple syntactical tricks to write engaging and memorable prose. Consider this famous opening line of A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens. Which of the techniques listed did he use to begin his novel?

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.

Parallelism is the use of similar forms in writing for nouns, verbs, phrases, or thoughts; for example, “Jane likes reading, writing, and skiing.” Good writers rely on parallel structure to maintain balance and symmetry. For instance, if you say, “Martha takes notes quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner,” the sentence doesn’t feel right. The parallel presentation would be, “Martha takes notes quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.”

• Whether in class, at work, or at home, Shasta was always busy. • Flying is fast, comfortable, and safe. • “I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: ‘We

hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal.’ I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today.” - Martin Luther King Jr. “I Have a Dream”

Anaphora is the regular repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases or clauses.

• Every day, every night, in every way, I am getting better and better. • My life is my purpose. My life is my goal. My life is my inspiration. • Tell them to be good, tell them to follow their elders, and tell them to mind their manners. • “We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the

seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender.” - Winston Churchill’s WWII speech

Chiasmus is a figure of speech by which the order of the terms in the first of two parallel clauses is reversed in the second. This may involve a repetition of the same words: “Pleasure’s a sin, and sometimes sin’s a pleasure” – Byron.

• “Do I love you because you’re beautiful, or are you beautiful because I love you?” - Oscar Hammerstein, Do I Love You Because You’re Beautiful?

• “Some have an idea that the reason we in this country discard things so readily is because we have so much. The facts are exactly the opposite — the reason we have so much is simply because we discard things so readily.” - Alfred P. Solan

• “In the blue grass region, / a paradox was born: / the corn was full of kernels / and the colonels full of corn.” - John Marshall

• “The instinct of man is / to pursue everything that flies from him, and / to fly from all that pursues him.” - Voltaire

Polysyndeton is a stylistic in which several conjunctions are added to slow down the rhythm of speech and create an artistic effect. For example, “He eats and sleeps and drinks.”

• “Let the white folks have their money and power and segregation and sarcasm and big houses and schools and lawns like carpets, and books, and mostly — mostly — let them have their whiteness.” - Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings

• “And Joshua, and all of Israel with him, took Achan the son of Zerah, and the silver, and the garment, and the wedge of gold, and his sons, and his daughters, and his oxen, and his asses, and his sheep, and his tent, and all that he had: and they brought them unto the valley of Achor.” Joshua 7:24, King James Bible

Asyndeton is a style in which conjunctions are omitted, usually producing a fast-paced, more rapid prose. For example, Caesar’s famous lines, “I came, I saw, I conquered” are asyndeton.

• “Call up her father. / Rouse him. Make after him, Poison his delight, / Proclaim him in the streets.” - William Shakespeare, Othello

• “This is the villain among you who deceived you, who cheated you, who meant to betray you completely…” - Aristotle, Rhetoric

• “‘Even as I stand here’ he bellowed, ‘crippled, hobbled, sickened — I am a greater ruler than any man who ever lived!’” - Kurt Vonnegut Jr., “Harrison Bergeron”

Juxtaposition is the location of one thing as being adjacent or juxtaposed with another. This placing of two items side by side creates a certain effect, reveals an attitude or accomplishes some purpose of the writer.

• “Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray. / Do not go gentle into that good night. / Rage, rate against the dying of the light. - Dylan Thomas, “Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night”

• “You will soon be asked to do great violence in the cause of good.” - Kevin Powers, “The Yellow Birds

Antithesis is the juxtaposition of sharply contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel words, phrases, grammatical structure, or ideas. For example, Alexander Pope reminds us that “To err is human, to forgive define.”

• “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.” - Neil Armstrong• “The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they

did here.” - Abraham Lincoln, “The Gettysburg Address”• “Patience is bitter, but it has sweet fruit.” - Aristotle• “It has been my experience that folks who have no vices have very few virtues.” - Abraham Lincoln