Syntax III

Syntax III

Jack & Ivy

2012.9.25

5.1 English Verbs• 5.1.1 Verb forms• 5.1.2 The syntactic environment• 5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence: the

perfect construction• 5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases• 5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs• 5.1.6 Structure of tensed clauses• 5.1.7The position of main verbs and auxiliaries

in the clausal structure• 5.1.8 Summary of verbs distribution

Verbs function as the head of Verb Phrases(P.258)

VP

V

laugh kiss

V DP

Juliet

Juliet

VP

V DP PP

P DPgiveflowers

to

VP

5.1 English Verbs5.1.1 Verb Forms

Non-finite verb forms

Infinitive to use to show

Participles: past participle used shown

passive participle used shown

present participle using showing

Finite verb forms

Past tense used showed

Present tense uses shows

• Verbs inflected for past or present tense and agreement are often referred to as finite verbs.

• The other verb forms as non-finite verbs.

5.1.2 The syntactic environment

The perfect auxiliary have co-occurs with a past participle.

a. Many students have liked Romeo and Juliet.

The passive auxiliary be co-occurs with a passive participle.

a. Juliet was loved by Romeo.

5.1.2 The syntactic environment

• Progressive be co-occurs with a present participle.

a. Many students are reading Romeo and Juliet.

Infinitives

As the complement of a modal

a. Many students could read Romeo and Juliet.

As the complement of a causative verb or a verb of perception.

a. They let Romeo and Juliet die.b. They saw Juliet kiss Romeo.

InfinitivesIn different types of infinitival complements

to-infinitivals

a. Many student try to read Romeo and Juliet.

for-to infinitivals

a. Many professors want very much for their students to read Romeo and Juliet.

Tensed clauses require tensed verbs inflected for past or present tense.

main clause

a. Romeo loved Juliet.b.*Romeo loving/to love Juliet.

embedded clause

a. I believe that Romeo loved Juliet.b. I don’t know if Romeo loved Juliet.

• Particular verbal forms co-occur with particular auxiliaries.

• Particular verbal forms co-occur with particular types of clauses.

Generalizations

5.1.3 The properties of co-occurrence : the perfect construction

R1 (first version)

A sentence containing the perfect auxiliary have must contain a past participle.

Is this

hypothesis

correct ?


Checka. *Many students seen have Juliet.b. *Seen many students have Juliet.c. *Many students have see +V Juliet died+pp.

The past participles must

stay close to auxiliaries’ right

side.


read

have VP2

V [+past participle] DP

Hamlet

VP1


R2 (second version)

Have requires or demands a complement which contains a past participle.

Is it the precise

characterization to say a

complement which

contains a past

participle?


Bad case

have VP

= complement of have

V VP

V +past part

Good case

have VP

= complement of have

V +past part

Too Far


VP

VP

This part of the structure must

contain the past participle

In other words, it needs a

immediate complement

.


R3 (third version)

Have requires or demands a past participle in its “immediate” complement.

Then, Why must have

contain the past

participle and the

label of constituent ?

5.1.4 Projections: heads and phrases

Heads determine the category of their projection in syntax.

VP

V

PP

P

AP

A


• Heads in morphology– Suffixes c-select the morpheme that they

attach to.

-ize c-selcets N change N to V symbol-ize

-ment c-selcets V change V to N establish-ment

The category of the newly formed word is determined by the right most suffix


• Compound have heads• In English, compounds are head-final.

V

N V

baby sit

N

A N

green house

A

AN

nation wide


have VP [+past part]

V[v see +past part]

Since the past participle is the head of the VP complement, the VP projection is

marked +past participle.


R4 (final)

Have requires or demands (=selects) a past participle complement.

Building Larger Structures

a. (Passive) be requires a [+passive participle] complement.

b. (Progressive) be requires a [+present participle] complement.

Example:

This play should have been being read by the students.

(perfect have, progressive be, passive be, main V)

DP

V

have

VP + past part

V [+en] VP + present part

been V [+ing]

being

VP + passive part

V [+ed]

VP

read [e] this play

5.1.5 Infinitives and tensed verbs

For Kate to defy Petruccio takes courage.

The for DP to VP stringacts as a single constituent.

This constituent is

called infinitive CP


to VP

To always combines with an infinitival VP

to its right.

To is a realization of the category

T (tense)


• Conclude that TP contains two layers of structure:

a. one layer in which the head combines with a complement to its right, forming a constituent T’.

b. a higher layer where T’ combines with a specifier forming TP


CP

For TP

DP T’

to VP


Accusative subject pronouns can only appear if for is present.

a. For her (*she) to be loved.


• heads demand certain types of complements.

• the complement is the sister of the head.

Tensed clauses

A tensed clause demands a finite verb.- main clause

a. Katherina defied (*defy/*to defy) Petruccio.

-embedded clausea. Many students concluded that katherina defied

(*defy/*to defy) Petruccio.

Tensed clausesCP

that VP [+T]

Katherina defied Petruccio

What does this reveal about the

mental grammar?

Main clauses require tensed verbs

CP

C + decl, +main VP [+T]

DP

V+T DPKatherina

defied Petruccio

The C node happens to be silent

in main tensed clause

A silent head exists in English

C [+decl, +main], c-selects +Tense, C is not pronounced.

C[+decl, +embedded], c-selects +Tense, C is pronounced as that.

Languages with an overt complementizer in all declarative clauses

Korean (nom= nominative, dec= declarative)

romio-ka culiet-kwa kicaŋ-e ka-ss-taRomeo-nom Juliet-with theater-to go-past-decl (matrix)

‘Romeo went with Juliet to the theater.’

The building blocks of syntax are heads which can be either silent or overt.

Comparing infinitives and tensed clauses

CP

TP[cfor]

DP

Katherina[+to] VP

V DPdefy P

CP

[cthat] VP[+T]

DP V’

V+T DPKatherina

defies P

Comparing infinitives and tensed clauses

a. Infinitive to is a free standing morpheme in T.

b. Finite tense is expressed as a suffix on the verb.

c. The subject in the infinitival is located in a different structural position than the subject of a tensed clause.

Enriching the structure of tensed complements

CP

TP[+T]for

DP

Katherina[Tto] VP[+inf]

V DPdefy P

CP

that TP[+T]

DP T’

R+Tense VP[+T]Katherina

V+T DP

T’

defies P

5.1.6 on the structure of tensed clauses

Auxiliaries:a. Juliet has gone to the nunnery.b. Juliet is sad.

Modalsa. Juliet will go to the garden.

Main verbsa. Juliet wrote to Romeo.

5.1.6 on the structure of tensed clauses

Auxiliaries and modals can precede the subject in yes-no questions.

a. Is she going to the garden?b. Should she go the garden?c. Has she gone to the garden?

VP ellipsis

Although Regan has not been a good daughter to Lear, Cordelia has. (been a good daughter to Lear)

This process that allows the VP to be silent

is referred as VP ellipsis

VP ellipsis

Although Regan has not been a good daughter to Lear, Cordelia has. (been a good daughter to Lear)

The pronounce part is referred as the remnant

of VP ellipsis

VP ellipsis

TP [+tense]

DP T’

VP [+T-ed]

DPVdefy P

VP ellipsis

This is incorrect

It needs support

!!

Do-support

TP [+tense]

DP T’

VP [ do+ [t-ed] ]

DPVdefy P

VP ellipsis

Insert do to support (=save) a stranded suffix

in T.

Affix-hoping

Input

T VP

-edV

defy

Affix-hoping Output

T VP

V

defy +ed

Head movement

T VP

Vdefy

-ed

VP ellipsis for VP2

• [TPEmilia [[T-s] [VP1 be [VP2 listening to Iago]] too]]

VP ellipsis of VP2

It is impossible to

ellipsis of VP1

a. Finite forms of HAVE and BE are in tensed T.

b. Finite forms of MAIN VERBS are in VP.

5.1.7 The position of main verbs and auxiliaries in the clausal structure

• Not – not/n’t – finite forms of the auxiliaries have, be, and do

must precede not (and n’t)– non-finite forms of the auxiliaries follow not

5.1.7 The position of main verbs and auxiliaries in the clausal structure

He won’t have climbed the mountain yet

The Finite auxiliary (will) precedes not

Non-finite form auxiliary (have)

follow not

Distribution of adverbials

• certain adverbials intervene between T and the main V in English:

a. Olivia will probably leave tomorrow. T Adv V(inf)b. You must recently have read Macbeth. T Adv V (pp)

Distribution of adverbials

• When the main verb is inflected, these adverbs precede the main verb:

a. Olivia probably left yesterday. Adv V+Tb. You recently read Macbeth. Adv V+T

Yes-no questions: Subject-Aux Inversion

matrix yes-no questions start with either a modal, or a finite auxiliary (have, be or do)

a. Has Othello died?b. Is Othello dying?c. Did Othello die?


embedded yes-no questions start with a particular C (complementizer), either if or whether:

(89)a. I wonder if Othello died quickly.b. I wonder whether Othello died quickly.


• Subject-Aux-Inversion:– Subject-Aux-Inversion must apply in matrix yes-

no questions.

– Subject-Aux-Inversion cannot apply when there is an overt complementizer present in the C node.


a. *I wonder if did Othello die quickly.

Incorrect !!C selects values

of T

No Need !!!


• The lexical complementizer if/whether and the inverted T are in complementary distribution

The C level: properties of individual complementizers

a. Othello thought THAT Desdemona lied.b. Othello wondered IF Desdemona lied.

C+QIt is overt

C –QIt can be

silent

Why main Vs fail to move to +Q

a. Main verbs cannot appear in T[+T].b. Main verbs cannot appear in C[+Q].

•main V to T is a prerequisite for further movement to C

5.1.8 Summary of distribution of English verbs

• the distribution of verbs• C is a zero morpheme in main clause

declaratives and questions.• C is that in embedded declaratives.• C is whether or if in embedded yes-no

questions.

5.2 Cross-Linguistic Variation: Beyond English

• 5.2.1 The nature of linguistic variation• 5.2.2 Language variation and parameters• 5.2.3 C, T, and V across languages• 5.2.4 Other languages• 5.2.5 Languages with no visible change in

word order: VP ellipsis• 5.2.6 Further extensions: The noun

system: DP

5.2.1 The nature of linguistic variation

• Heads ( = morphemes)– the building blocks of syntactic structures– pronounced (overt material) silent

– lexical categories (N, V, A, P)

functional categories (T, C, Q, …)

• Structure– local head-complement relations– Spec-head relations

• Movement– co-courrence restrictions between positions

(102)

- the VP level- the T level- the CP level

iDPtvTTTi e][ said e][ e][Juliet has What

• head-initial languages– ordering the head before the complement– VSO / SVO

• head-final languages– ordering the head after the complement– SOV

• parameters – options available to the language learners

• Movement

• Japanese: wh-in-situ• English: wh to Spec, CP

• wh-in-situwh-phrases occur in the same positions where DPs appear

• Chinese have in situ wh-elements• "John bought what?" "John bought bread"• with what in the same position in the

sentence as the grammatical object would be in its affirmative counterpart

5.2.3 C, T, and V across languages

English (E) and French (F)

• the ordering of pre-VP adverbials and finite verbs(109)a. Romeo carefully words his lettersb. *Roméo soigneusement formule ses lettres

(110)a.*Romeo words carefully his lettersb.Roméo formule soigneusement ses lettres

• E: Adv-finite main V• F: Finite main V- Adv


(111)• English: Finite main V in VP

• French: Finite main V in tensed T

] T][V [ Adv e]DP[[ VPTTP

] e][[ Adv T]V NP[[ vVPTTP


When the sentence contains a finite auxiliary, they show the same order:(112)

a. Romeo has carefully worded his letters.b. Roméo a soigneusement formulé ses lettres.

English: Finite-AUX-Adv-ParticipleFrench: Finite-AUX-Adv-Participle

English (E) and French (F)(113)• a. Romeo is often sick.• b. Jean est souvent malade.

(114)• a. In French, finite auxiliaries and main vs are in [+T]• b. (i) In English, finite auxiliaries are in [+T] (ii) In English, finite main verbs are in [+T]


• verb in different positions: • ( indicates the original position of V)

(115)• a. Roméo • b. Romeo

e][v

voisins]ses e][ vsisite][ v T

neighbors] his [visits e][T


negative sentences

• (116)• c. Roméo ne visite pas

• the V raises to T over negation pas

voisins]ses e][ [ v


• the differences in word-order patterns result from the position finite verbs occupy; they are in +T in French, but in T in English.

• (117) The position a particular head occupies is one source of language variation.

English and Germanic languages

(118)matrix: [ [ CVf] [DP …embedded: [ [ CC [DP Vf

• In matrix clauses, all finite verbs would raise to the C position.

• Embedded clauses always have an overt C, with the finite verb remaining in T.

Dutch

– verb-second: the finite verb always follows a constituent in

first position (the finite verb therefore is in second position in this clause type)

– (119)a. Morgen goat Juliet met Romeo naar de film Tomorrow goes Juliet with Romeo to the movies

Dutch– XP first in matrix clauses: the initial position of certain types of root

clauses in Dutch (say, Spec, CP) must always be filled with some constituent (otherwise the verb would be first!)

– XP first in matrix clauses:Spec, CP (Matrix) must contain an overt

constituent

5.2.4 Other languages

• language variation is due to variation in movement

– Vata in Vata, V movement is quite transparent,

because it results in word-order differences.

5.2.5 Languages with no visible change in word order: VP ellipsis

• the strict head-final nature of the projections in strictly head-final languages, like Japanese or Korean for example, no material can intervene between C, T, and V positions

Irish

• Irish shows VSO order in both matrix and embedded tensed sentences

Dúirt sé go dtiocfadh sé say(past) he C come(condit) he ‘He said that he would come’

Irish• VSO order is a characteristic property of finite clauses: non-

finite clauses show either SVO order(125) or even SOV order(126)

• (125) SVO order

Bhreathnaigh mé uirthi agus í ag imeacht uaimlooked I on-her and her leave(prog) from-me‘I watched her as she was leaving me.

• (126) SOV order

Níor mhaith liom iad a chéile a phósadhI-would-not-like them each-other marry(inf)‘I would not like them to marry each other.’

Irish• This suggests that the word order in tenses

clauses is derived, with the verb in finite clauses moving out of the VP, to some position higher than the subject. As a result of this movement, the subject intervenes between the finite verb and its object.

• The finite verb cannot be in C, since it co-occurs with the finite complementizer: VSO order is a property of all tensed clauses, main or embedded. Therefore it is in T.

Irish

• (127) The finite verb in Irish is in T.

Irish• Support for V being outside VP comes from the process

of VP ellipsis in Irish. Irish has no words for yes, or no.• (128)Question:Ar chuir tú isteach air?InterC put[PAST] you in on-it‘Did you apply for it?’

Answer:Chuir Níor chuirput[PAST] NEG put[PAST]‘Yes’ ’No’

Irish

• The part that disappeared is understood in the answer. Elliptical sentences occur in roughly the same range of contexts as English VP ellipsis:

• (129)Dúirt mé go gceannóinn é agus cheannaighsaid I C buy [Condit:S1] it and bought‘I said that I would buy it and I did.’

• (130)A: Chennaigh siad teach buy[PAST] they house ‘They bought a house.’

B: Níor cheannaigh NEG[PAST] bought ‘They did not.’

• Tag questions• (131) Chennaigh siad teach, nár

cheannaighbought they house NEG INTERR C

buy[PAST]‘They bought a house, didn’t they?’

• Thus, this looks like VP ellipsis, except for the fact that the remnant contains the finite main V! This situation can arise if the V is outside of the constituent on which silence is imposed.

• Since the V is not within the VP, but in T, it must be pronounced.

• The subjects in Irish must be silent as well.

English VS. Irish

English: they did!

CP

C TP

DP

T VP

V DP

They

(do) -ed

buy the house

Irish : bought

English VS. Irish

CP

C TP

DP

T VP

DP

V DP

buyi -ed

they

[e]i the house

• VP ellipsis thus provides an excellent argument for V to T movement in Irish!

DP occurs in different positionTP

DP

T VP

DP

English subjects

Irish subjects

5.2.6 Further extensions: The noun system: DP

• Just like clauses, DPs come in different kinds as well:– as definite (or specific) DPs (the men, these

women)– quantified DPs (two men, every man)– generic DPs (people)

• We can consider D as being the head of an NP

• (140) a. the frequent visits to his parents

(E)b. les visites fréquentes á ses parents

(F)

The N moves to Num in French, but not in English

DP

D NumP

Num

visites

NP

APfrequent

NPNPvisits

French Nouns

English Nouns

The Hebrew nouns move to D

DP

D NumP

Num

visites

NP

APfrequent

NPNPvisits

French Nouns

English Nounsbeyt

Hebrew Nouns

5.3 Summary

• the syntactic input consists of words, silent morphemes, and some inflectional morphemes

• the head-complement relation regulates the distribution of verbal forms, and forms the basic backbone of a clause.

• the property that distinguishes declarative clauses, questions, etc, is located at the C level

• TPs fall into different types depending on properties of the T head (-T=to, +T=tense)

• in English, tensed main verbs occur in VP, tensed auxiliaries and modals in +T, or, in certain contexts, in C

• languages have quite similar structures, with differences arising from ordering parameters, and lexical parameters

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Syntax III

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