Synthetic Diamonds: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

Synthetic Diamonds:

Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

Presented by:

Mark Angelo A. Ordonio

BS Chemical Engineering

Presented to:

Prof. Ma. Sheila M. Simat

University of the Philippines Los Baños

October 2010

http___scribd.com_mathematicko

Synthetic Diamonds: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

Thesis Statement: Synthetic diamonds, upon differentiating them with natural diamonds

based on their discovery and synthesis, examination of their properties, advantages, and

the efficiency of their applications, exceed the value of the latter, making the former more

chosen by most consumers.

I. The diamond, being one of the world’s most important mineral resources, is the

hardest substance known by man on earth.

II. Today's diamonds can be classified in two general kinds: the real, natural

diamonds and the man-made synthetic diamonds.

A. Formed 100-200 km under the earth's surface about at most 3.2 billion years

ago, a natural diamond is the hardest natural material known to man.

1. Among the four polymorphs of carbon, it is the diamond which has the

most compact and strongly bonded structure.

2. The natural diamond possesses several exceptional qualities.

a. It is the only precious stone composed of a single chemical element.

b. Its extreme hardness is of great industrial importance.

c. The colored and pure ones are suitable for jewelry use.

d. In a brilliant cut gemstone, it exhibits strong dispersion and high

refractive index

e. It is not easily affected by strongest acids and bases.


B. A synthetic diamond, as opposed to a natural diamond, is produced in a

technological process.

1. Synthetic diamonds are named depending on the production method: high

pressure-high temperature (HPHT) diamonds and chemical vapor

deposition (CVD) diamonds are among the few.

2. A synthetic diamond's properties may be inferior or superior to those of

natural ones, depending on the manufacturing process and its usage.

III.The discovery of the synthetic diamond industry started with numerous attempts

to convert cheap forms of carbon into diamonds.

A. The basic principle behind the carbon-diamond conversion involves extremely

high temperatures.

1. Hannay and Moissan heated charcoal up to 3500 °C with iron inside a

carbon crucible.

a. Hannay used a flame-heated tube.

b. Moissan used an electric arc furnace.

2. Ruff and Hershey succeeded after replicating the experiment.

3. The General Electric (GE) Company was able to heat carbon to about

3000 °C under a pressure of 3.5 gigapascals for a few seconds.

B. After the use of high temperatures for synthetic diamond production, other

methods were also discovered.

1. Being the most common and ancient method, the HPHT method involves

three main press designs to supply the necessary pressure and temperature.


a. The belt press supplies pressure load to a cylindrical inner cell.

b. The cubic press supplies pressure simultaneously onto all faces of a

cube-shaped volume.

c. The split-sphere press involves ceramics for a more compact, efficient,

and economical press.

2. CVD is a method of growing a diamond from a hydrocarbon gas mixture.

3. Explosive detonation is a process of detonating certain carbon-containing

explosives in a metal chamber.

4. Ultrasound cavitation forms diamonds upon suspension of graphite in an

organic liquid.

C. Current development in synthesizing diamonds involves a combination of two

or more manufacturing techniques or another contemporary research.

IV. The synthetic diamond industry has various ecological, economical, and

technical advantages.

A. Ecological gains include the negligibility of the environment as a primary

resource for production and the minimal effect of pollution dispersal.

1. Synthetic diamond industry needs no deep excavations and wide land area

manipulation.

2. Synthetic diamond industry minimizes its output pollution.

B. Economical gains include the reduced minimalism of financial resources and

the reduced market price of the product.

1. Manpower would not be costly since the industries are small-scale.


2. Most resources are available in the laboratory.

C. Technical gains include all industrial applications of the diamond.

1. Most industrial functions of synthetic diamonds are associated with

hardness, making them an ideal tool for machining and cutting.

2. Synthetic diamonds have both excellent thermal conductivity and

negligible electrical conductivity.

3. Synthetic diamonds make a good optical material.

4. In electronics, synthetic diamonds can serve as semiconductors,

transistors, electrodes, radiation detection devices, and redox reaction

detectors.

V. Various properties can be compared to differentiate a natural diamond with the

synthetic one.

A. The easiest way to differentiate diamonds is by performing simple physical

test or by observation.

1. A diamond's four C's (color, clarity, cut, and carat) are the main things to

consider when buying a diamond as a gemstone.

2. Natural diamonds can be colorless, yellow, or brown, while synthetic

diamonds usually give a tinge of blue or green.

3. Cubic faces are rarely seen in natural diamonds, while are often seen in

synthetic diamonds.

4. Depressions are easily seen with magnification in natural diamonds, not in

synthetics.


B. A diamond can be also subjected to chemical experimentation.

1. Nitrogen-related defects are present in natural diamonds, while these are

present in substitutional sites in synthetic diamonds.

2. Most impurities are visible in natural diamonds, and a lesser amount in

synthetics.

C. The optical properties of a natural diamond are almost similar with that of a

synthetic.

D. The thermal and electric properties between the two diamonds provide less

differentiation.

VI. Synthetic diamonds, surpass the worth of natural diamonds with the latter's close

similarities with the former.


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The diamond, the gem every woman would desire to have, is the hardest

known substance on earth. From the Greek word adamas which means

―invincible‖ or ―unconquerable,‖ its extreme hardness made it one of the world's

most important mineral resources, even in antiquity. The name itself describes a

nonmetallic mineral considered as one preeminent gem stone occurring in various

crystal forms, having the octahedron as its common shape, as well as the

dodecahedron and the cube. According to Holden (1994), a diamond was thought

to make its wearer invincible in battle as it fosters courage and it protects the

wearer from various maladies.

With the progress of the advancement of technology, diamonds can be

cultivated in the laboratory in contrast to what man had known with the geological

occurrence of diamonds. With this, today's diamonds can be classified in two

general kinds: the real, natural diamonds and the man-made synthetic diamonds.

Formed 100-200 km under the earth's surface about at most 3.2 billion years

ago, a natural diamond is the hardest natural material known to man since

synthetics were discovered. Carbon as diamond has been known as agemstone for

centuries, and as the archetypal covalent solid for many decades. Carbon in its

other traditional forms such as coal has been familiar since the discovery of fire

(Field, 1992). Diamonds occur in two general deposits: volcanic pipes through

which igneous rock masses of kimberlite rose up deep within the Earth, and

alluvial deposits, both inland and marine, which were formed by the erosion of


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pipes over millions of years (Desautels, 1994). Formed at great depths at very high

temperatures and high pressures, these stones come to the earth‘s surface upon a

volcanic eruption, gradual erosion, or large-scale mining processes.

Among the four polymorphs of carbon, it is the diamond which has the most

compact and strongly bonded structure; its atoms are organized in a close -packed

cubic arrangement that gives the stone its hardness (Dana, 1949). The natural

diamond possesses several exceptional qualities. First, it is the only precious stone

composed of a single chemical element, since it is basically made of pure natural

carbon—similar to that one seen in pencil leads, only in crystal form (Wallis,

2006). Second, its extreme hardness is of great industrial importance. Its

withstanding hardness has a cutting resistance of 140 times greater than that of

ruby and sapphire. Its hardness, though different in each crystal face, enables it to

cut another diamond (Schumann, 1965). Third, the colored and pure ones are

suitable for jewelry use. Fourth, in a brilliant cut gemstone, it exhibits strong

dispersion or the ability to separate the various colors of the spectrum, which then

causes the gem to throw back the bright lashes of separated colors (Desautels,

1994) as well as high refractive index which gives its striking diamong luster

(Holden, 1991). Lastly, it is not easily affected by strongest acids and bases. A

real, natural diamond is capable of withstanding chemical reactions with the

strongest acids, e.g. hydrochloric acid, and the strongest bases, e.g. ammonia, but

will be synthesized to gaseous carbon dioxides if it is undergone to oxidation with


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air at temperatures as high as 900 C (Szenberg, 1973). With these outstanding

features, the diamond has been commonly labeled as the king of gemstones.

In appearance, the fact that the diamond can be confused with many

gemstones, can lead to fraud, although not in the legitimate retail trade. A

colorless diamond may similarly look to various crystals like beryl, sapphire,

topaz, and zircon, among the few. Synthetic diamonds may also give the buyer a

second look. A synthetic diamond, as opposed to a natural diamond created in a

geological process, is produced in a technological process. It should be

differentiated from a stimulant, a stone that assumes the imagery of a real diamond

with its different chemical composition and is made of glass or plastic, while a

synthetic is the same imitating stone but has the same chemical composition with

that of a real chemical equivalent of it (Wallis, 2006). Synthetic diamonds are

named depending on the production method: high pressure-high temperature

(HPHT) diamonds and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) diamonds are among the

few. A synthetic diamond's properties may be inferior or superior to those of

natural ones, depending on the manufacturing process and its usage. According to

Wallis (2006), ―a synthetic has to possess all the chemical features of a natural

stone. In fact, it is identical to the gem that was created over millions of years

under the earth. Synthetics allow the person who cannot afford that beautiful ruby,

sapphire or emerald etc., to wear one at a fraction of the price.‖ Gemstone

counterfeiting, a more vulgar term for the synthesis of gemstones, is not generally


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intended for fraud but to supplement the relatively small supply of naturally

obtained gemstones. For authenticity‘s sake, buyers are advised for a gemologist‘s

consultation then (Desautels, 1994).

The discovery of the synthetic diamond industry started with numerous

attempts to convert cheap forms of carbon into diamonds. Lavoisier‘s discovery that

diamond was simply carbon brought the scientific community to synthesize diamonds.

The basic principle behind the carbon-diamond conversion involves extremely

high temperatures. The earliest successes were reported by James Hannay and

Henri Moissan, wherein they heated charcoal up to 3500 °C with iron inside a

carbon crucible: Hannay used a flame-heated tube from hydrocarbons, bone oil, and

lithium whereas Moissan used an electric arc furnace from hot molten mixtures of

iron and carbon (Wentorf, 2001). The cooling iron exerted tremendous pressure on

the dissolved charcoal which is mostly carbon, forming tiny diamonds (Keen,

1987). Otto Ruff and Williard Hershey followed succeeded after replicating the

experiment, and after them, no one was unable to repeat the experiment. However,

the General Electric (GE) Company devised a new strategy by heating carbon to

about 3000 °C under a pressure of 3.5 gigapascals for a few seconds. Effective

catalysts used to hasten the procedure were the molten forms of chromium,

manganese, iron, cobalt, and all that, including their alloys and compounds

(Wentorf, 2001).


5

After the use of high temperatures for synthetic diamond production, other

methods were also discovered. Being the most common and ancient method, the

HPHT method subjects graphite to conditions similar to those which natural

diamonds undergo (Portsmouth, 1995). It involves three main press designs to

supply the necessary pressure and temperature: the belt press which supplies

pressure load to a cylindrical inner cell; the cubic press supplies pressure

simultaneously onto all faces of a cube-shaped volume; and the split-sphere press

involves ceramics for a more compact, efficient, and economical press. Small and

industry-suitable diamonds are synthesized from graphite after subjecting it to a

temperature of 1400 C and pressures up to 60,000 atm. As a result, more carbon

atoms are dissolved from the carbon source located at the hotter region and transported to

the cooler region that then precipitates on the seed crystal — located at the bottom of the

vessel — to form a new synthetic diamond crystal. Larger diamonds were also

synthesized but are done expensively (Holden, 1991). Another scheme is the CVD

method, which is the growing a diamond from a hydrocarbon gas mixture. In

contrast to the conventional HPHT synthetic process, CVD synthetic diamonds are

produced at much lower pressure, typically in the region of one-tenth of atmospheric

pressure from carbon-bearing gases such as CH4. It considers the following for

synthesizing single-crystal diamonds: temperature, pressure, and gas composition;

otherwise, small innumerable diamond crystals will grow (Davis, 2003). Physical

and chemical analysis of the composition of stones would ratify this claim since both


6

stones are basically made of the same element, carbon, only that the former is laboratory-

made, has undergone a different environment to achieve ideality, and the latter is

naturally granted from the earth. The activation of methane in CVD, as well as a vast

option of precursor gases containing carbon such as alcohols and halides yields to

the diamond mineral (Spear and Frenklanch, 1994). Contrary to HPHT researches,

CVD diamond researches are more open and encourage systems development, as

research and development is done at low costs, has highly diversified systems

development efforts, and will infuse substantial knowledge into the industry

(Russell, 1994). These characteristics require a lesser economic subsidy as

compared to naturally-obtained diamond industry.

Other methods considered rare include explosive detonation and ultrasound

cavitation. Explosive detonation is a process of detonating certain carbon-

containing explosives in a metal chamber, wherein during the explosion, the

temperature and pressure inside the chamber elevates, converting carbon to

diamond. On the other hand, ultrasound cavitation forms diamonds upon

suspension of graphite in an organic liquid. Following atmospheric pressure and

room temperature, this technique may require minimal equipment and procedures

but has not had industrial use at present. However, a combination of two or more

manufacturing techniques or another contemporary research has been utilized for

the current development in synthesizing diamonds. As methods for growing diamond,

both at high pressure and by chemical vapor deposition, improve, and as science finds


7

ways to take advantage of diamond's properties, the potential applications of diamond's

superlative properties appear boundless. From super electronics, to indomitable optical

windows, to unscratchable surfaces - maybe the next watch bezel - diamond is an obvious

choice.

Generally, an object‘s imitation has always had a lesser value in comparison

with the real one. By analysis, the function and purpose of existence of these

imitations are not as much as what the imitated objects are, or are as satisfying as

the latter are. However, these idealities do not hold true for some gemstones, more

specifically, synthetic diamonds, whose characteristics are more than what is

expected with the natural ones. The rise of the number of researches intended for

studying the synthesis of these laboratory-made diamonds has, in fact, disturbingly

increasing as technology and development is concerned. This ascend lead the

scientific community to choose the synthetic diamond over its mimicked

counterpart, the real diamond.

The synthesis of such diamonds has emerged basically for the need of the

diamond market to sell diamonds at a reduced price without reducing the quality.

For an economic thought, laboratory-made diamonds may require the latest

technology to make such but it is not as expensive as extracting diamonds from the

earth considering the equipment, manpower, market trade, and the like. The

winning of diamonds from the host rock is done today with a great deal of

machinery. Around 90% of industrial diamonds are synthesized at high pressures


8

because its price is relatively low, and can be tailor-made for efficiency in each

application (Wentorf, 2001). De Beers Diamond Trading Company, the world‘s

largest company in industrial diamond mining: open-pit, underground, large-scale

alluvial, coastal and deep sea, maintains huge stockpiles of mined stones and

strongly controls supply (Davis, 2003), as well as influences the prices of the

brokers through its selling scheme (Schumann, 1965). This is to keep the value of

the diamond high and to stop the hesitant exercises in the diamond trade. By Law

of Supply and Demand, a decrease in supply would give the lower level producers

an option to increase their products prices since the market is very competitive,

and manufacturers are reluctant to disclose detailed sales information. There has

never been a fixed and reliable supply of large and pure diamonds. However, there

has been a situation which focused on finding new sources of supply for gems for

which demand is increasing, and on finding new uses for the industrials whose

supplies are growing (Suits, 1960). Nevertheless, diamonds has been a dependable

investment through all political and economical inconsistencies.

For a social side, another is to lessen, or at its maximum, to avoid cases of

insurrection (in particular, African rebellion, giving the famous name ‗blood

diamonds‘) and exploitation of mining workers (Davis, 2003). For example, the

use of artisanal mining, a small-scale type of mining which involves manual

digging and sifting through mud or gravel river-bank alluvial deposits with bare

hands or small tools, is essentially a misuse of manpower. However, according to


9

Jewelers Circular Keystone magazine senior editor Rob Bates, diamond mining

can be neglected as one human rights issue since the diamond industry has been

discovering innovations of its practices of geodetic searching of stones with the

Kimberly process. ―When you‘re buying mined diamonds, you‘re helping

communities in Africa. When you‘re buying them from a machine, you‘re helping

20 guys in Florida,‖ he added (Wenzel, 2007).

Another is the continuous desecration of the environment since real diamonds

are obtained via extraction. Mining is one of the main causes of deforestation;

trees and vegetation are to be cleared and burned. With the ground completely

bare, large scale mining operations use bulldozers and excavators to extract the

metals and minerals from the soil. In order to amalgamate the extractions,

chemicals such as cyanide, mercury, or methyl mercury are used. These chemicals

go through pipes and are often discharged into bodies of water, which

contaminates all living organisms within it and ultimately the people who depend

on the marine animals for source of food and economic livelihood.

Various properties can be compared to differentiate a natural diamond with the

synthetic one. The easiest way to differentiate diamonds is by performing simple

physical test or by observation. One way of distinguishing a diamond as a gem

from another is by observing its four C‘s: color, clarity, cut, and carat; these four

general categories decide the value of a diamond and usually vary between the

same size diamonds. Grading a diamond upon its color is based on how colorless it


10

is: natural diamonds can be colorless, yellow, or light brown, whereas synthetic

diamonds usually give a tinge of blue or green. Brown and black diamonds may

also occur. Due to the fact that terms and definitions in grading for color were not

uniform and often confusing, experts had arrived with the use of a standard sample

collection for consistency in color grading. Clarity then refers to the amount, size,

type and location of internal flaws or surface imperfections visible in a diamond

via magnification; the ―cleaner‖ a diamond is, the higher the value. Enclosed

minerals, cleavages, and growth lines affect clarity; they are collectively called

inclusions, but formerly were called ―flaws‖ or ―carbon spots‘ (Schumann, 1965).

Depressions are easily seen with magnification in natural diamonds, not in

synthetics, as cubic faces are rarely seen in natural diamonds, while are often seen

in synthetic diamonds. Next, cut or proportion, being the only property that is

dependent on human involvement, is highly considered since it gives the gem‘s

brilliance. To grade for it, the type and shape of cut, proportions, symmetry, and

outer marks are taken into consideration; the best proportioned ones throw back

the most light. The first and simplest cut of the crystal is referred as ‗point cut,‘

which is basically the octahedral shape with all eight facets polished. Lastly, the

carat determines the relative size and weight of the diamond. Carat is recognized

international standard for weighing gems other than pearls, wherein a gram is

equivalent to 5 carats (Wallis, 2006). The more a stone weighs the more valuable it

will be. It does not apply to gems as their weight varies with their density.


11

A diamond can be also subjected to chemical experimentation. Nitrogen-

related defects are present in natural diamonds, while these are present in

substitutional sites in synthetic diamonds. In addition, most impurities are visible

in natural diamonds, and a lesser amount in synthetics (Portsmouth, 1995).

However, the optical, thermal and electric properties of the two diamonds provide

less information since these quantities are almost the same in both diamonds.

Upon observing the thermal and electrical conductivities at room temperature,

diamonds synthesized in the laboratory can acquire the thermo-electrical

properties of a natural diamond via ion implantation (Portsmouth, 1995).

A synthetic diamond's usage is comparatively similar with that of a natural

one, not before that they only serve scientific purposes. One commonly known

application is for gem production. Gem-quality diamonds grown in a laboratory

are identical to naturally-occurring ones, for both satisfies the diamond being a

‗girl‘s best friend.‘ Generally, diamonds of good color and perfection are used for

gem purposes. Again, a diamond's four C's are the main things to consider when

buying a diamond as a gemstone. Various grades and criteria were tabulated and

are to be satisfied for a diamond to pass a gemstone level. A set of distinguishing

tips are presented by Wallis (2006):

1. Place an unmounted stone, table up on a piece of printed paper. A print

seen through the table is not a diamond.

2. A line made with a black felt tip pen on the table of a diamond shall break


12

if the diamond is not genuine.

3. On a 10x loupe, if the facets are rounded, not sharp, and show signs of

shipping, the stone is probably not genuine.

4. A diamond is singly refractive. A careful study of the stone through the

kite facets will show a doubled image of the opposite facet edges.

5. In the absence of a thermal conductivity tester, a cheap diamond shall feel

colder upon touching it with the tip of the tongue as well as a breath on its

face will clear slower than that of a diamond.

Experimental techniques were also presented by Portsmouth (1995):

1. Absorption spectrometry – White light is shone on a diamond and certain

frequencies in the infrared region of the spectrum excite impurities in the

lattice, causing vibration of inter-atomic bonds.

2. Cathodo-luminescence – A vacuum is used to impose electrons on a

diamond crystal, exciting the atoms to higher energy states, causing an

emission of monochromatic radiation.

3. Ultraviolet fluorescence – Higher energy photons are imposed rather than

electrons to excite the atoms.

4. Microscopy – An optical technique that aids the use of a microscope to

provide surface features of the crystal.

5. Magnetic tests – The test of responsiveness of a diamond to a very powerful

magnet or any magnetic field.


13

Treatments on the diamond shall be also observed or noted. These shall be

declared on the sales receipt or certificate upon the issuance of the stone. On the

other hand, various names for synthetic stones were also developed for ease in

distinguishing, based on the gem‘s composition.

A more productive way of synthesizing diamonds is for industrial use.

Diamonds for industrial applications, in contrast to gemstones, are off -color and

flaw- and inclusion-dominant that disables them to be used as jewelry. Most

industrial applications of synthetic diamonds are associated with hardness, making

them an ideal tool for machining and cutting. Nonetheless, their extreme hardness

offers them a vast stage of applications in the industry (Kraus, et al., 1959).

Diamond-studded rotary bits for drilling oil wells and boring tunnels, abrasive

powder for grinding wheels and cutting and polishing gems, diamond-tipped glass

cutters, glass-etching pencils, and other similar tools are among the few

(Desautels, 1994). In addition, synthetic diamonds have both excellent thermal

conductivity and negligible electrical conductivity. The diamond itself as an

electronic material observes a material‘s electrical and thermal properties to note

their relative capability at the limits to handle speed and power. Its basic

properties encompass an electronic potential‘s characteristics (Davidson, 1994). In

electronics, synthetic diamonds can also serve as semiconductors, transistors,

electrodes, radiation detection devices, and redox reaction detectors, but to obtain

a semi-conducting diamond, the addition of boron, beryllium, and aluminum are


14

employed (Wentorf, 2001). One example is an electricity-conducting device for

microchip circuits: real diamonds are intrinsic insulators, but an injection of boron and

similar elements upon the carbon‘s lattice gives it a positive charge, and most probably, a

semiconducting apparatus. Lastly, synthetic diamonds make a good optical material.

Its optical transparency is one property that makes it valuable for a gem, but is

also of great importance for the science and technology community as a good

material for optical components, largely as windows for infrared instrumentation

(Seal, 1994). Consequently, the thermal conductivity, stiffness, and transparency

of diamonds attract experts for the next-generation optics, digital data storage, and

in nanotechnology-inspired medical devices (Wenzel, 2007).

Yoder (1994) concluded: ―Choose virtually any characteristic property of a

material—structural, electrical or optical—and the value associated with a

diamond will almost always represent an extremist position among all materials

considered for that property. The driver of the diamond vision is the combination

of its superlative properties.‖ No matter what a diamond‘s classification maybe,

real or synthetic, does not affect a consumer‘s preference on what to use as gem or

for industrial application, since both types have undeniably almost the same

characteristics ranging from the tiniest atom existing on every facet of the stone to

the genuine appearance of the gem. Thus, synthetic diamonds do surpass the worth

of natural diamonds with the latter's close similarities with the former. ―Man-made

diamonds will be with us in many different ways we can only begin to imagine


15

right now that will materially affect everybody on the planet,‖ Apollo Diamond‘s

chief executive Bryant Linares stated.

Synthetic diamonds are as much a threat to the diamond industry as they are a

threat to the way people think about the diamond industry. As technology surges forward,

consumers all over the world will be buying synthetic diamonds, cultured diamonds or

whatever name the legal and marketing people agree upon. Ultimately, a large two-tier

market will develop; undoubtedly, natural and synthetic diamonds will equally coexist,

sharing a fast-growing market for diamond jewelry. With enough facts stated, it is, with

no uncertainty, the synthetic diamond which should be more considered whether for

consumer‘s or for a scientific community‘s use for it has surpassed even the qualities of a

real diamond without risking the social, political, economic, and environmental

considerations of the planet.


16

References Cited

Dana, E. S. (1949). Minerals and How to Study Them. (3rd

ed.). New York: John

Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Davidson, J.L. (1994). Diamond Electrical Properties and Electronic Device

Behaviour. In K. Spear & J. Dismukes (Ed.), Synthetic Diamond: Emerging CVD

Science and Technology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Davis, J. (2003, September). The New Diamond Age. Wired, pp. 35-41.

Desautels, P. (1994). Diamond. Vol. VI of Lexicon Universal Encyclopaedia. (11th

ed.). New York: Lexicon Publications, Inc.

Desautels, P. (1994). Gem. Vol. IX of Lexicon Universal Encyclopaedia. (11th

ed.).

New York: Lexicon Publications, Inc.

Field, J. E. (1992). Properties of Natural and Synthetic Diamond. San Diego,

California: Academic Press Inc.

Holden, M. (1991). The Encyclopaedia of Gemstones. New York: Michael Friedman

Publishing Group, Inc.

Keen, M. (1987). Chemistry. In P. Blackwood (Ed.), Vol. III of The Science Library.

Chicago: J.G. Ferguson Publishing Company.

Kraus, E.H., Hurt, W.F., & Camp, L.S. (1959). Mineralogy: An Introduction to the

Study of Minerals and Crystals. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.

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Retrieved on July 12, 2010 from www.dendritics.com/scales/synthetic-diamonds-

final-report.asp.

Russell, C. J. (1994). CVD Diamond Markets in the 21st Century. In K. Spear & J.

Dismukes (Ed.), Synthetic Diamond: Emerging CVD Science and Technology.

New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Schumann, W. (1965). Gemstones of the World. New York: Airmont Publishing

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Seal, M. (1994). Industrial Applications of Single-Crystal Diamond. In K. Spear &

J. Dismukes (Ed.), Synthetic Diamond: Emerging CVD Science and Technology.



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Spear, K. & Frenklach, M. (1994). Mechanics for CVD Diamond Growth. In K.

Spear & J. Dismukes (Ed.), Synthetic Diamond: Emerging CVD Science and

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Suits, C. (1960). The Synthesis of Diamond—A Case History in Modern Science.

New York: General Electric Laboratory, Schenectady.

Szenberg, M. (1973). The Economics of the Israeli Diamond Industry. New York:

Basic Books, Inc.

Wallis, K. (2006). Gemstones: Understanding, Identifying, Buying. Woodbridge,

Suffolk: Antique Collectors‘ Club Ltd.

Wentorf, R.H. Jr. (2001). Diamond, Synthetic. Vol. VIII: Kirk-Othmer

Encyclopaedia of Chemical Technology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Wenzell, E. (2007). Synthetic Diamonds Still a Rough Cut. Retrieved on July 12,

2010 from news.cnet.com/Synthetic-diamonds-still-a-rough-cut/2100-11395_3-

6159542.html.

Yoder, M. (1994). The Vision of Diamond as an Engineered Material. In K. Spear &

J. Dismukes (Ed.), Synthetic Diamond: Emerging CVD Science and Technology.



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