H i e r a r c H i c a l s y s t e m o f s p e c i e s o r g a n i z at i o n : Created by Carl Linnaeus. Each level of structure is based on the visible characteristics of plants observed by him and others. From The Universal Herbal, Thomas Green. 1816.

Every Vegetable is supposed to have a flower which is; Visible; Stamina and pistilla in the same flower; Male and female organs distinct; Stamina not united above or below; Of equal length; CLASSES. EXAMPLES.

I. Monandria ...One Stamen or Husband; as in ......................................... Ginger, Indian arrow root. II. Diandria ......Two Stamina ...................do .............................................. Jessamine, privet, olive. III. Triandria .....Three ............do .............do .............................................. Valerian, tamarind, iris. IV. Teirandria ....Four ..............do .............do .............................................. Scabious, teazel, madder. V. Pentandria ...Five ...............do .............do .............................................. Bell-flower, bindweed, rose. VI. Hexandria ...Six ................do .............do .............................................. Snow-drop, narcissus, tulip. VII Heptandria ..Seven ............do .............do .............................................. Horse-chestnut. VIII. Octandria ....Eight .............do .............do .............................................. Indian-cress, heath, willow. IX. Enneandria ..Nine ..............do .............do .............................................. Bay-rhubarb. X. Decandria ....Ten ................do .............do .............................................. Fraximella, rue, rhodedendron. XI. Dodecandria Twelve ...........do .............do .............................................. Purslane, houseleek. XII. Icosandria ....Many Stamina, frequently 20, attached to the calix,

and called twenty husbands; XIII. Polyandria ...Many Stamina, generally more than 20, not attached

to the calix, called many husbands;OR, OF UNEQUAL LENGTH,

XIV. Didynamia ...Two long and two short stamina, called the superiority of two;

XV. Tetradynamia .....................Four long ant two short ditto, called the superiority of four;

OR, STAMINA UNITED

XVI. Monadelphia by the filaments into one body, the stamina, joining at the base called a brotherhood;

XVII. Diadelphia ...by the filaments of two bodis or sets of stamina united, unlimited in the number, called two brotherhoods;

XVIII. Polyadelphia by the filaments into many bodies or sets, called many brotherhoods;

XIX. Syngenesia ...by the antherae or tips into acylinder, with the stamina separate; called generating together;

XX. Gynamdria ...or male organis or stamina joined to and the standing upon the female organs or pistilla, called wife and husband;

OR, STAMINA AND PISTILLA IN DIFFERENT FLOWERS,

XXI. Monoecia ......the same plant having male and female flowers, called a single house;

XXII. Dioecia ........males and femalse on separate plants, called the two houses;

XXIII. Polygamia ....males, females, or hermaphrodies, found upon the same or different plants, called many marriages;

XXIV. Cryptogamia, or concealed and cannot be described, called concealed marriages;

Peach, mdlar, apple.

Herb christopher, poppy.

Savory, hyssop, bear’s breech.

Scurvy grass, candy-tuft, water-cress.

Geranium, and the mallow tribe.

Fumitory, milk wort.

Orange, chocolate nut, St. Johns wort.

Violet, balsam, cardinal flower, dandelion.

Orchis, ladie’s slipper, arum.

Mulberry, nettle, oak, cypress.

Willow, hop, spinach, poplar.

White hellebore.

Ferns, mosses, mushrooms.

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p H y lo g e n e t i c t r e e or e v o lu t i o n a ry t r e e : A tree showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities that are believed to have a common ancestor. In a phylogenetic tree, each node with descendants represents the most recent common ancestor of the

descendants, and the edge lengths in some trees correspond to time estimates. Each node is called a taxonomic unit. Internal nodes are generally called hypothetical taxonomic units (HTUs) as they cannot be directly observed.

t H e s p e c i e s p r o b l e m : one common but sometimes difficult question is how best to decide just which particular species an organism belongs to. Another challenge is deciding when to recognize a new species. A related question arises when new data indicate that one previously described species actually may

include two or more separately evolving groups, each of which could possibly be recognized as a separate species. Many of the debates on species touch on philosophical issues, such as nominalism and realism, as well as on issues of language and cognition.

new species?

new species?

new species?

p H y l lo ta x i s : The beautiful arrangement of leaves in some plants obeys a number of subtle mathematical relationships. For instance, the florets in the head of a sunflower form two oppositely directed spirals: 55 of them clockwise and 34 counterclockwise. New pattern elements appear in a narrow zone

that shifts in the course of time due to growth. The tip of the shoot, the meristem, consists of undifferentiated, rapidly dividing cells. Only cells just leaving this zone are able to form new leaves. According to classical models, the initiation of a new leaf is inhibited by existing leaves. Therefore,

a new leaf can be initiated only at a certain distance from the last formed leaf. In this way, a certain distance is maintained between the sites of leaf initiation.

p l a n t c lo c k : Linnaeus observed over a number of years that certain plants constantly opened and closed their flowers at particular times of the day, these times varying from species to species. Hence one could deduce the approximate time of day according to which species had opened or closed

their flowers. Arranged in sequence of flowering over the day they constituted a kind of floral clock or horologium florae, as Linnaeus called it in his Philosophia Botanica (1751, pages 274-276).

One of Linneaus’ favorite quotes.

God( n o t H i n g ) ( m i s H m a s H ) ( o r D e r )

Linneaus

p l a n t a s a s y s t e m : A plant has two organ systems: 1) the shoot system, and 2) the root system. The shoot system is above ground and includes the organs such as leaves, buds, stems, flowers (if the plant has any), and fruits (if the plant has any). The root system includes those parts of the plant

below ground, such as the roots, tubers, and rhizomes.

s u n l i g H t

ox yg e n

ox yg e n

wat e r

wat e r

c a r b o n D i ox i D e

c a r b o n D i ox i D e

b r a n c H i n g : In angiosperms branching may be dichotomous or axillary. In dichotomous branching, the branches form as a result of an equal division of a terminal bud (i.e., a bud formed at the apex of a stem) into two equal branches that are not derived from axillary buds, although axillary buds are

present elsewhere on the plant body.

D i s t i n c t i o n : A distinction is drawn by arranging a boundary with separate sides so that a point on one side cannot reach the other side without crossing the boundary. For example, in a plane space a circle draws a distinction. Once a distinction is drawn, the spaces, states, or contents on each side of the

boundary, being distinct, can be indicated. There can be no distinction without motive, and there can be no motive unless contents are seen to differ in value.

thing other

other thing

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thing other

thing other

thing other

thing other

D n a s e Q u e n c i n g : Sequencing methods for determining the order of the nucleotide bases—adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine—in a molecule of DNA.

b i n a ry t r e e : A binary tree is a tree-like structure that is rooted and in which each vertex has at most two children and each child of a vertex is designated as its left or right child. In other words, unlike a proper tree, the relative positions of the children is significant.

c H lo r o p H y l l : Chlorophyll serves two primary functions. The function of the vast majority of chlorophyll (up to several hundred molecules per photosystem) is to absorb light and transfer that light energy by resonance energy transfer to a specific chlorophyll pair in the reaction center

of the photosystems. Because of chlorophyll’s selectivity regarding the wavelength of light it absorbs, areas of a leaf containing the molecule will appear green.

c l a D o g r a m : Cladistics is a form of biological systematics that classifies organisms into hierarchical monophyletic groups. It can be distinguished from other taxonomic systems, such as phenetics, by its focus on shared derived characters. Previous systems usually employed overall morphological

similarity to group species into genera, families and other higher level classification; cladistic classifications (usually trees called cladograms) are intended to reflect the relative recency of common ancestry or the sharing of homologous features.

t H e f lo w e r : A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants. The biological function of a flower is to mediate the union of male sperm with female ovum in order to produce seeds. The process begins with pollination, is followed by fertilization,

leading to the formation and dispersal of the seeds. For the higher plants, seeds are the next generation, and serve as the primary means by which individuals of a species are dispersed across the landscape. The grouping of flowers on a plant is called the inflorescence.

c e l l D i v i s i o n : As cells divide over time, they tend to converge on a hexagonal pattern.

f r a c ta l m o D e l s o f p l a n t g r o w t H : An L-system or Lindenmayer system is a parallel rewriting system, namely a variant of a formal grammar, most famously used to model the growth processes of plant development, but also able to model the morphology of a variety of organisms.

t y p o g r a p H i c b r a c e s : Flower brackets (also called braces, curly brackets, chicken lips or squiggly brackets) are sometimes used in prose to indicate a series of equal choices: “Select your animal {goat, sheep, cow, horse} and follow me”. They are used in specialized ways in poetry and music

(to mark repeats or joined lines).

r i b c a g e : The human rib cage is a component of the human respiratory system. It encloses the thoracic cavity, which contains the lungs. An inhalation is accomplished when the muscular diaphragm, at the floor of the thoracic cavity, contracts and flattens, while contraction of intercostal muscles lift the

rib cage up and out. These actions produce an increase in volume, and a resulting partial vacuum, or negative pressure, in the thoracic cavity, resulting in atmospheric pressure pushing air into the lungs, inflating them. An exhalation results when the diaphragm and intercostal

muscles relax, and elastic recoil of the rib cage and lungs expels the air.

p H o to i D e n t i f i c at i o n : Old family photographs are a treasured part of any family history. Many of them, unfortunately, do not come neatly labeled on the back with names, dates, people or places. The photographs have a story to tell...but about whom?

l i b r a ry c l a ss i f i c at i o n : Libraries use classification systems to organize the books on the shelves. A classification system uses letters and/or numbers (call numbers) to arrange the books so that books on the same topic are together. This arrangement results in “serendipitous browsing:” you find

one book in the catalog, go to the shelf, and, an even better book is sitting right next to it.

b r i t i s H m o n a r c H y: Until 1603 the English and Scottish Crowns were separate, although links between the two were always close - members of the two Royal families intermarried on many occasions. Following the Accession of King James VI of Scotland (I of England) to the English Throne,

a single monarch reigned in the United Kingdom.

a u D i e n c e

f i t xg e r a l D

n i c k ( a s s to ry t e l l e r )

n a r r at i v e ( w i t H n i c k a s c H a r a c t e r )

n a r r at i v e s t r u c t u r e : Narrative structure is generally described as the structural framework that underlies the order and manner in which a narrative is presented to a reader, listener, or viewer.

i n c i t i n g i n c i D e n t c o n f l i c t r e s o lu t i o n / c l i m a x

excitement

a c t 1 a c t 2 a c t 3 c o D a

n a r r at i v e a r c : Q:My writers group thinks I need to strengthen the narrative arc in my novel. How can I do that? A:The “narrative arc” is a fancy way of saying that every story needs to have a beginning, middle, and end. Whether you’re writing fiction or nonfiction, you need an act one, act two,

act three, right?

a b s t r a c t i o n : Abstraction is the process or result of generalization by reducing the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, typically to retain only information which is relevant for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to a ball retains only the

information on general ball attributes and behaviour. Similarly, abstracting happiness to an emotional state reduces the amount of information conveyed about the emotional state.

s c H e D u l e : A timetable or schedule is an organized list, usually set out in tabular form, providing information about a series of arranged events: in particular, the time at which it is planned these events will take place.

“To order and name life is to have a sense of the world

around, and, as a result, what one’s place is in it.”

Carol K. YoonNaming Nature: The Clash Between Instinct and Science

“The Rofaifo people of New Guinea, excellent

natural historians, classify the cassowary, a giant bird

complete with requisite feathers and beak, as a

mammal.”Carol K. Yoon

Naming Nature: The Clash Between Instinct and Science

ya H o o v s . g o o g l e , H i e r a r c H y v s . l i n ks : The constraints in the Yahoo directory describes both a library categorization scheme and, obviously, a file system. There’s a top level, and subdirectories roll up under that. Subdirectories contain files or further subdirectories and so on, all the way down. If

you’ve got enough links, you don’t need the hierarchy anymore. There is no shelf. There is no file system. The links alone are enough. Google can decide what goes with what after hearing from the user, rather than trying to predict in advance what it is you need to know.

D N A

D n a t r a n s c r i p t i o n & t r a n s l at i o n : When replicating, the original DNA splits in two, forming two “prongs” which resemble a fork (hence the name “replication fork”). DNA has a ladder-like structure; imagine a ladder broken in half vertically, along the steps. Each half of the ladder now requires

a new half to match it. Because DNA polymerase can only synthesize a new DNA strand in a 5’ to 3’ manner, the process of replication goes differently for the two strands comprising the DNA double helix.

D N A

D N A

R N A

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D N A

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D N A

R N A

A m i N o A c i D c h A i N

p R o t e i N

b A s e

c o D o NR i b o s o m e

transcription

R N A

A m i N o A c i D c h A i N

b A s e

c o D o NR i b o s o m e

R i b o s o m e

R i b o s o m e

f lo o r p l a n : A floor plan, or floorplan, in architecture and building engineering is a diagram, usually to scale, of the relationships between rooms, spaces and other physical features at one level of a structure.

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t H e s oy u z s pa c e c r a f t: Conceived in 1960, the Soyuz spacecraft became the second-generation Soviet vehicle capable of carrying humans into space. Unlike its predecessor—a one-seat Vostok — the Soyuz would be able to conduct active maneuvering, orbital rendezvous and docking. These capabilities

were all necessary for a flight around the Moon and to support lunar landing. In the early scenario of a “circumlunar” mission, defined in 1962, the Soyuz complex would be assembled in the low-Earth orbit out of three consecutively launched elements.

a .

b .

D n a r e p l i c at i o n : The basis for biological inheritance, a fundamental process occurring in all living organisms. This process is “semiconservative” in that each strand of the original double-stranded DNA molecule serves as template for the reproduction of the complementary strand. Hence,

following DNA replication, two identical DNA molecules have been produced from a single double-stranded DNA molecule. Cellular proofreading and error-checking mechanisms ensure near

perfect fidelity for DNA replication.

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0b i n a ry s y s t e m : The binary numeral system, or base-2 number system represents numeric values using two symbols, 0 and 1. More specifically, the usual

base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Owing to its straightforward implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates, the binary system is used internally by all modern computers.

1

1

0

0

“Does the world make sense or do we make sense of the

world? If you believe the world makes sense, then anyone

who tries to make sense of the world differently than you is

presenting you with a situation that needs to be reconciled

formally, because if you get it wrong, you’re getting it wrong

about the real world.”Clay Shirky

Writings About the InternetEconomics & Culture, Media & Community, Open Source

a c ata lo go f s y s t e m s

pa r t 1 ( o f m a n y )

i n c lu D i n gdistinctionsequenceclassificationabstractionhierarchymechanism

a s w e l l a sevolutionpatterns in spacepatterns in timenarrativegrowth

a n Dmurmerationtropismbeauty

a c ata lo go f s y s t e m spa r t 1 ( o f m a n y )

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