t************The thorny question of software, by Louise Dubuc. 57. Planning for technological...

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 323 986 IR 014 631

AUTHOR Tobin, Judith, Ed.; Sharon, Donna, Ed.

TITLE New Technologies in Education in Canada: Issues andConcerns. New Technologies in Canadian EducationSeries. Paper 17.

INSTITUTION TliOntario, Toronto.

PUB DATE Aug 84

NOTE 96p.; For other papers in this series, see IR 014

615-630.

PUB TYPE Viewpointe (120)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Computer Assisted Instruction; Computer Software

Development; Computer Uses in Education; DistanceEducation; *Educational Change; Educational Planning;xEducational Technology; Elementary SecondaryEducation; Equal Education; Foreign Countries;*Futures (of Society); *Instructional Improvement;Opinions; *Policy Formation; Postsecondary Education;School Business Relationship; Social Values

IDENTIFIERS *Canada

ABSTRACTThe final paper in a series of 17 studies on new

technologies in Canadian education, this report focuses on the issuesraised throughout the earlier papers. It begins with a summary of theeducational activities in the use of each technology in education,i.e., film, television, and videotape; radio and audiotape; computertechnology; teleconferencing; videotex/Telidon; satellite technology;and videodisc technology. The statements and conclusions in thissummary are based on information, examples, and comments contained inthe first 16 papers. Also discussed are issues and concerns relatingto the use of technology in teaching and learning; planning for thedevelopment of technology in education; and changes in education.Essays written by nine representatives from educational institutionsto present a cross-section of issues, opinions, and research on howlearning can be enhanced through the use of technology are thenpresented: (1) "Views on Technology in Canadian Education" (JosephKoenig); (2) "Technology in Education for the Future" (Catherine AnnCameron); (3) "Policy Issues Relating to Computer Use in Education"

(Tom Rich); (4) "The CAI Dilemma" (Robert J. D. Jones); (5) "TheThorny Question of Software" (Louise Dubuc); (6) "Planning forTechnological Changes in Postsecoudary Institutions" (James A.Humphries); (7) "Educational Technology" (Denis Hlynka); (8)"Integration and Intelligence" (Michel Umbriaco); and (9) "NewConnections between Technology and Education" (Sylvia Gold). Shortbiographies of the nine contributors are included. (DB)

***** *********** ************ * ***** ******** ***** ***********t************Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made

from the original document.

TVOntario

UAL DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONOffice of Educational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFGIMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

*This document hes been reproduced asretanid from the person or organizahonoriginating it

0 Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction (Nighty

Points of view or opinions stated in this domement do not necimaanly represent officialOERI position or policy

Office of Development ResearchBureau de recherche pour le developpement

NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN CANADIAN EDUCATION

PAPER 17

NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN EDUCATION IN CANADA: ISSUES AND CONCERNS

Edited by Judith Tobin and Donna Sharon

Study CoordinatorIgnacy Waniewicz

August 1984

0 Copyright 1984 by The Ontario Educational CommunicationsAuthority

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A

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

Judith Tobin

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

Papers in the Series


Paper 1 An overview of the educational system in Canada

Paper 2 Communications and information technologies inCanadian elementary and secondary schools

Paper 3 Communications and information technologies incommunity colleges in Canada 41"

Paper 4 Communications and information technologies inCanadian universities

Paper 5 Communications and information technologies anddistance education in Canada

Paper 6 Communications and information technologies andthe education of Canadals native peoples

Paper 7 The proVincial educational communicationsorganizations in Canada

Paper 8 Educative activities of the Canadian BroadcastingCorporation and the National Film Board of Canada

Paper 9 Applications of new technologies in nonformal adulteducation in Canada: Two examples

Paper 10 Canadian cable television and education

Paper 11 Educational applications of videotex/Telidon in Canada

Paper 12 Educational applications of communications satellitesin Canada

Paper 13 Educational videodisc in Canada

Paper 14 Educational teleconferencing in Canada

Paper 15 Telehealth: Telecommunications technology in healthcare and health education in Canada

Paper 16 The high technology industry and education la Canada

Paper 17 New technologies in education in Canada: Issues andconcerns

Copies of these papers can be purchased from TVOntario, Box 200,Station Q, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4T 2T1.

FOREWORD

We dedicate this series to its designer and director,Ignacy Waniewicz. His death on February 21, 1984, has leftus with a feeling of immeasurable loss.

With uncanny intelligence, instinct, and energy, Ignacyintroduced the first educational television programs in hisnative Poland in 1957 and rose to the position of Director ofEducational Broadcasting. During the mid-1960s, he served asa Paris-based program specialist in the educational use of

radio and television, working for UNESCO in Chile, Cuba,Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Mexico, Egypt, Nigeria, Senegal,Ghana, Great Britain, United States, Switzerland, and Israel.Ignacy shared the experience and insight he gained from thiswork by teaching and writing in Polish, German, Russian,Hebrew, Spanish, French, and English. His achievements arewidely recognized in the broadcasting and academiccommunities on four continents.

As Director of the Office of Development Research at

TVOntario, Ignacy explored his farsighted and consuminginterests in adult education, media literacy, television as aprimary tool for lifelong learning, and most recently, the

educational uses of new technologies. His work did much to

shape and guide TVOntario's progress over the last 15 years.

It is with love and respect that we dedicate this seriesto Ignacy Waniewicz. In its enormous scope, its thorough

documentation, its emphasis on concrete results, and its

concern with educational issues, this series reflects bothIgnacy's vision and his intellectual legacy.

Donna Sharonfor the Office of Development Research

(1)

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Preface to the Series


These papers in the series "New Technologies in

Canadian Education" are the result of an internationalcommitment. In June 1980, the -Third Conference ofMinisters of Education of Member States of the EuropeanRegion of UNESCO adopted a recommendation requesting themember states to carry out joint cbmparative studies onwell-defined problems of common interest in education. Ata subsequent meeting of the EUropean Region NationalCommissions for UNESCO, 14 subjects were agreed on forjoint studies.

The theme "New Technologies in Education" was selectedas study #11. The 17 countries participating in the studyare Austria, Belgium, Dermark, Finland, France, Hungary,Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, SWeden, UkrainianSSR, USSR, United Aingdam, as well as Canada, Israel, andthe U.S.A. who are also members of the UNESCO EuropeanRegion. At the first meeting of the national coordinatorsfrom these countries, held in October, 1982, at theUniversity of South Carolina in Columbia, South Carolina,U.S.A., a plan was adopted for the study. In the firstphase of this plan, the individual countries are to reporton the ways in which the new technologies are being usedin education. (4 brief outline of the international designis available on request.)

The Canadian Commission for UNESCO was requested tocoordinate, on an international level, the first year ofthe study. We are grateful to the Canadian Commission forselecting TVOntario, and the Office of DevelopmentResearch (ODR) to be in charge of this task. The ODR wasalso asked to coordinate the Canadian contribution to thestudy, with financial support from the Department of theSecretary of State. We gratefully acknowledge their

assistance.

In preparing the Canadian review of the use oftechnology in education, the ODR contacted a number ofeducators, academics, government officials, administratorsin educational communications organizations, and others,across the country. It became apparent that there was astrong need for a well-documented account of the uses ofboth the "older" technologies (e.g., film, audio,television) and the newer technologies (e.g., computers,videodiscs, videotex) in the complex Canadian educational

system.

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Early in 1983, several types of research activitiesbegan simultaneously: designing instruments to gatherinformation from each type of institution or interestgroup, identifying uses and usirs of each type oftechnology, and exploring the areas where Canada'sdistinctive features predispose toward technologIcaldevelopments. The 17 papers listed on the back of thetitle page emerged as a result.

Information for these papers was provided by hunchiedeof individuals expressing their own views or reporting onbehalf of educational institutions and organizations,government departments, public and private corporations.We extend to them our sincere thanks.

I would like to acknowledge the contribution made byThelma Rosen who assisted in the development of theinquiry instruments and played a major role in the

gathering of this information. The task of supervising thefinal editing, production, and distribution of the paperswas assigned to Donna Sharon. Her rescurcefianess andpersistence have contributed greatly to the completion ofthis series. Sharon Parker typed most of the papers fromthe initial drafts to their final versions. Her dedicationmade it possible to complete the studY in such arelatively short period.

While the preparation of these papers has beensupported by the Canadian Commission for UNESCO and theDepartment of the Secretary of State, the papers' contentsdo not necessarily reflect the official views of eitherparty on issues related to technology in education.

Ignacy WaniewiczStudy CoordinatorDirectorOffice of Development ResearchTVOntario

January 1984

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It is impossible to list all the people who havecontributed to the comigetion of this series - thecontributors, the writers, the reviewers, the editors.However, I would like to express gratitude to them all fortheir work, which has made this series as comprehensive,current, accurate, and readable as possible.

The Canadian CommissiOn for UNESCO asked the Office ofDevelopment Research at TVOntario to undertake this study,and I would like to thank the staff at the commission,particularly Marietta Hogue, for their assistance andenthusiasm. The Department of the Secretary of State and IBMCanada Ltd. also supported the study through the donation offunds.

Many departments at TVOntario played important roles inthe preparation and distribution of the study: Informationand Publications, Project Development, Revenue Development,Marketing, Graphics, Customer Service, and Printing Services.To all of them, I express thanks for their help.

For the project team ir the Cffice of DevelopmentResearch, the completion of this study has been achallenging, demanding, and rewarding task.. The dedication,abilities, and energy of Sharon Parker, Thelma Rosen, DonnaSharon, and Audrey Mehler are most gratefully acknowledged.

Judith TobinStudy CoordinatorOffice of Development Research

August 1984

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CONTENTS

Foreword (i)

Preface (ii)

Acknowledgments (iv)

Introduction 1

The use of technology in Canadian education 2

Issues and concerns 17

Introduction to the essays 28

The essays

Views on techntdogy in Canadian education, byJoseph Koenig 30

Technology in education for the future, byCatheriae Ann Cameron 37

Policy isses relating to computer use ineducation, by Tan Rich 42

The CAI dilemma, by Robert J.D. Jones 49

The thorny question of software, by Louise Dubuc. 57

Planning for technological changes in postsecondaryinstitutions, by James A. Humphries 64

Educational technology, by Denis Hlynka 68

Integration and intelligence, by Michel Umbriaco. 74

New connections between technology and education,by Sylvia Gold 80

The contributors 86

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INTRODUCTION

This series of papers originated as part of an

international commitment by the Canadian Commission forUNESCO to describe the ways in which communications andinformation technologies are being developed and used inCanadian education. TVOntario and its Office of DevelopmentResearch were asked to conduct this study. The interestexpressed by Canadian educators encouraged us to undertake anextensive nationwide exploration of technology in education.The resulting series of 17 papars describes the applicationsof technologies in a variety of educational settings in allparts of Canada. Several hundred people across the country,working in education, government, and industry, provided theinformation included in the series. These people cooperatedin all phases of the study by assisting in the collection ofdata, providing information about their activities, andreviewing drafts of the papers.

The first 16 papers centre on applications of technologyin education, and include brief discussions on the issues andconcerns expressed by people working in each area. In tilts

final paper, the emphasis is reversed. The major part ofthis paper examines the issues raised throughout the earlierpapers. Tb encourage national discussion, educators fromacross the country were invited to comment on the issues andoffer recommendations. These educators were chosen to

represent views from all parts of the country and fromvarying perspectives in education, government, and industry.Together their essays offer many insights and optionsconcerning the continuing development of links betweeneducational activity and technology.

As'background to the discussion, this paper begins with asummary of the educational activities in the use of eachtechnology in education. The statements and conclusions inthis summary are based on information, examples, and commentscontained in the first 16 papers.

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THE USE OF TECHNOLOGY IN CANADIAN EDUCATION

Canada's large land mass contains vast areas with fewresidents as well as a more densely populated corridor alongthe southern border. In this environment, the use ofcommunicatioas technologies has always been important. From .

the world's first use of the telephune in Ontario toMarconi's first transatlantic radio broadcast to NOVA Scotia,from the introduction of public broadcasting in the 1930s toan international acceptance of Telidon as a videotex formatin 1980, Canada has been in the forefront of interaationalcommunications developments.

Initially, communications technologies were used toconvey information.from a source to a receiver, as in radioor television broadcasting, film, and later videotape oraudiocassette. Information technologies were defined ascomputer-based systems by which information could be found,delivered, and used. With more recent developments incomputer technology and new technologies such as videodiscand Telidon, the distinotions between communications andinformation technologies are dissolving.

In Canada, policies concerning the use of thesetechnologies in education are developed at the nrovinciallevel. There is no federal department of education, althoughin some areas of federal responsibility, such as employmentor communications, the federal government develops and fundsprograms of an educational nature. Ten provincial and twoterritorial departments or ministries are responsible withintheir own regions for legislation, policies, organization,and administration at the elementary, secondary, andpostsecondary levels.

Film, television, and videotape

The use of film, television, and videotape is wellestablished in Canadian education. Films and film projectorsare widely available in elementary and secoadary schools,colleges, and universities. In schools, films produced bythe National Film Board make up over one-quarter ofeducational film inventories; the balance comprises filmspurchased from commercial producers primarily in the United

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States and in Canada, England, and Europe. Films are usuallydistributed to teachers and instructors from educationalmedia oentres or film libraries in their institution, schoolboard, or region. Approximately ope-half of Canada'selementary and secondary teachers use film in the classroom.

The production of television programs for use ineducation began in the 1960s. In the larger provinces -

British Columbia, Alberta, Ontario, &nd Quebec - provincialeducational communications authorities produce and/orbroadcast educational programs for elementary and secondaryschools. In most parts of the country, some educationalprograms are televised by the Canadian BroadcastingCorporation (CBC). At the postsecondary level, programs arebroadcast by provincial networks or private stations as acomponent of college or university courses (telecourses)designed for students registered in distance educationprograms. A wide selection of educational programs aimed atgeneral interest audiences are widely offered by provincialeducational authorities.

Direct broadcast television is not commonly used in

classroom teaching because of the widespread availability ofmedia centres and distribution systems for equipment andvideotapes. Many media centres do record programs off-air asa means of acquiring videotape programs.

Videotapes and video equipment are available in mosteducational institutions. The educational communicationsauthorities in the larger provinces distribute or makeavailable videotapes of their broadcast programs fordistribution to schools in their own province. Thesevideotapes are also sold to institutions or ministries of

education in other provinces for use in colleges,universities, schools, and organizations outside the formaleducation system. Several of the smaller provinces alsoproduce some programs to meet specific regional or localneeds. Videotapes are now available in most subject areasand grade levels, and demand continues for new programs thatare closely linked to the curriculum.

In colleges and universities, videotape viewing is

increasing. In some courses, video equipment is also used torecord individual efforts or events, and the videotapes areused to give feedback to students about their performances inpublic speaking or counselling, to study behavioral analysis

EP

in .family or child studies, and to analyze movement inkinetics.

From most teachers' and instructors' point of view, filmand videotape are seen as interchangeable. In most places,the purchase of videotapes is increasing more rapidly thanfilm acquisitions. Reasons for this include the Dowerproduction and duplication costs of videotape, the ease ofselecting and repeating sequences within programs, and theavailability of systems for projecting large televisionimages in lecture hells.

Elementary and secondary teachers usually receive only afnw hours of training in operating equipment and inintegrating the use of film, television, and videotape intheir teaching. Further training is available for thoseteachers interested in the characteristics and educationaluses of different media. In postsecondary institutions, sometraining is generally available to their instructors,.Individual institutions have policies or expectations thattheir staff members become familiar with the use of film andvideo in instruction.

Students are instructed in the characteristics, use, andproduction of film and television in only a few .elementaryand secondary school programs, usually in language, socialscience, or technical courses.. In colleges, approximately 10to 20 per cent of f'21-time students examine pertinentaspects of media, primarily in communications courses or inbusiness, psychology, health, or library courses. Someuniversities offer degree programs in communications studies.ProducUon, repair, and maintenance courses are offered inseveral colleges.

In general, film and videotape are used as a supplementto instruction in many schools, colleges,. and universities.While early predictions that they would supersede traditionalmethods of instruction have not been fulfilled, film andtelevision have been incorporated into the teaching resourcesused by many teachers and instructors.

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Radio and audiotape

Educational radio broadcasts, aimed primarily at seniorelementary school students, were begun in 1936 by the

Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in cooperation withprovincial departments or ministries of education. With thegrowth of television during the 1960s, the appeal of radiolessened. National educational .zadio broadcasts wereterminated by the CBC French network in the mid-1970s and bythe English network in 1981. At present, educational radiobroadcasting is found in three Ercovinces. A radio network,CKUA, operated by ACCESS Alberta, offers 151 hours weekly ofeducational broadcasts for students at all levels, as well aseducational programming of a more general nature; InOntario, Open College/Ryerson uses broadcast radio inoffering credit and noncredit university level courses tostudents in its distance education program. In Manitoba,audiotapes of university lectures are broadcast for generalaudiences on rural radio stations throughout the province.

Although educational radio broadcasting today is limited,the production and use of educational audiocassettes areincreasing. In some provinces, large numbers ofaudiocassettes are available for elementary and secondaryschool use; these are distributed by the CBC in Newfoundland,and by provincial educational communications authorities inQuebec and British Columbia. In other provinces, someaudiocassettes are available from local or regional mediacentres. Audiocassettes are also used in combination with35mm filmstrips or slides in many schools, especially inelementary schools.

Audiocassettes are used by some postsecondaryinstitutions, most often in language instruction. They areusually produced in the individual institutions, often in

conjunction with slides. On occasion, audiocassettes areobtained from the CBC or from other educational institutions.In Quebec, the Ministry of Education is involved in theproduction of audiocassettes for colleges. In some

universities, lectures are taped for students who miss themor who would like to review the material.

Postsecondary distance education programs useaudiocassettes in many of their courses. For example, theUniversity of Waterloo, which offers degree programs bycorrespondence, uses audiocassettes as the central learning

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resource in most distance courses. Audiocassettes are usedby other postsecondary institutions as a supplement to printmaterial in both credit and noncredit courses.

Audio recordings alone are used less often thanaudiovisual materials, film, or videotape. The lower costsof production and equipment have made the use ofaudiocassettes appealing in specific circumstances,particularly distance education and language instruction, andsome feel that their potential as educational resources hasnot been fully tapped.

Computer technology

During the 1960s and 1970s, computers were acquired bylarge educational institutions for use in administrative andresearch activities. Today, relatively inexpensivemicrocomputers have been introduced into most educationalinstitutionz to perform a variety of functions. Inelementary schools, they are used to give students anopportunity to learn about computers. In many elementaryschools, computers are also used for instruction inmathematics and, less frequently, for instruction in languageskills, science, social studies, music, and other subjects.In some schools, computers are used to encourage creativewriting or to develop skills in problem-solving andreasoning. Computers are also used to provide remedialexercises for students having difficulty with basic conceptsor to offer enrichment activities for gifted students.

In secondary schools, computers are used in computerawareness and programming courses, and in teaching businessprinciples and practices, including data processing andaccounting methods. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) ismost often used in mathematics coursc 3 and less frequently inscience, geography, music, and Language classes.

In both elementary and secondary schools, the use ofcomputers for school, library, and classroom record-keepingis growing. An increase in the use of CAI is seen asdesirable, but is hampered by the scarcity of high-qualitysoftware and by the small number of computers available inmost institutions. Major efforts to develop satisfactorysoftware, and to increase the number of computers areunderway in several provinces. Additional teacher training

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is also needed to enable the best use of computers in

offering educational activities for students.

In response to marketplace demands for employees skilled

in the new technologies, more than two-thirds of the

community colleges in Canada offer courses in computerscience and computer technology, including programming,operating, systems analysis, repair, and maintenance. In

some lolleges, specialized courses in computer-assisteddesign (CAD) and computer-assisted manufacturing (CAM) arebeing introduced into the curriculum. In addition, studentsi. many college programs receive instruction in the uses ofcomputers and in the latest industrial and scientificapplications of technology. Most colleges share a belief inthe need to provide computer literacy for all students andstaff. Although many colleges are interested in usingcomputers for instruction in non-computer subjects, this typeof use is being introduced slowly; budgetary restraints andthe scarcity of high quality software limit the use of CA/ inthe colleges. Some colleges do uhe comt'ater-managed learning(CML) to keep records, monitor the use of coursewitre, developtest item banking and test oreparation, manage and prescribecourse materials, and to monitor students' progress.

All colleges indicate.a desire for mOre hardware as wellas software. Because of the costs involved, colleges are

considering how best to provide for these needs. In

addition, consideration is being given to changes in collegestructures and in the roles of faculty members in order to

gain maximum benefit from the introduction of computertechnology into the curriculum and into teaching andadministrative functions.

Universities :re using computer technologies in

instruction, research, library services, and communications.Computers are used to support classroom instruction in a

number of ways, including computation in math and sciences,compiling and analyzi.ng data in the sciences, social

sciences, and humanities, word processing, creation of

graphics for various engineering and other design courses,and simulations in math and physics. As in the colleges, CAIand CML are seen as desirable, but impaementation is limitedby the scarcity of appropriate software.

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Computers were first used to record and analyze researchdata in the 1960s by universities able to afford mainframecomputers. As smaller computers and new database managementsystems appear, computer use in research is increasing.Researchers also use library data retrieval systems to locatepertinent information.

The organization and services of university libraries canbe substantially improved by the introduction of computers,resulting in enhanced access to library materials by usersand more efficient use of resources. Most universitylibraries have introduced or are considering the use ofcomputers in purchasing, cataloguing, and circulating librarymaterials. On-line searching and information retrieval fromvarious databases outside the library and on-line publicaccess to a catalogue of university holdings are also beingintroduced in many university libraries.

Computer networks are part of the communicatcss systemsat some universities. On-campus computer networks and, insome regions, local area networks linking several nearbyinstitutions are being established. Electroniccommunications among faculty and departments, includinglibraries, is a useful result of this networking capability.Networks can be used to administer and manage coursematerials and activities, and can allow computer conferencingamong groups of instructors and students. The use ofcomputer conferencing capabilities for enhancing distanceeducation programs is being studied. As funding permits,universities are eager to use communications and informationtechnologies to facilitate interaction among faculty, localuniversities, students, and databases.

Overall, computer use in storing, handling, andretrieving information for administrative, research, andinstructional purposes is growing. Using computers toprovide educational and instructional experiences forstudents is seen as desirable, but more difficult to achieve.Software development efforts are now underway on a smallscale in many locations, and on a larger scale whereresources permit. In this new field, opinions are variedabout the most desirable, potentially successful routes totake in the development of computer applications ineducation. The potential benefits of CML, CAI, and computernetworking are assessed differently in differentinstitutions.

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At all levels, educational institutions are developingprograms for teachers and instructors to teach about the

capabilities and operation of the technology and to point out

the potential benefits and difficulties of using technologyin teaching and learning.

Teleconferencing

At present, approximately 20 of Canada's 71 universitiesand 30 of the 196 Canadian colleges use teleconferencing in

their credit and noncredit programs. The use of educationalteleconferencing networks is most highly developed in

Newfoundland, Quebec, Alberta, and British Columbia.

Audio-teleconferencing enables three or more people in

different locations to participate simultaneously in a

telephone conversation. When used as part of a distancelearning program, audio-teleconferencing is especiallyvaluable in extending learning opportunitias to people wholive in communities far from a college or university.

Experiences with educational teleconferencing indicate thatlive discussion and interaction among the participants andinstructor can create a classroom-like learning situation.In more heavily populated areas, audio-teleconferencing caneliminate the need for instructors or students to travel andlessen the need for instructors to repeat material in severallocations.

Teleconfere=ing can be ,'sed to offer continuing

professional education programs to small communities, or toenable people in several locations to participate in the sameprogram. Some regional teleconference sessions forprofessionals in law and medicine have been established on a

regular basis. Occasional teleconferences have also beenorganized .:or elucatora, veterinarians, science writers, andother groups.

The format and content of teleconference courses vary

greatly among institutions. Typically, however, textbooks

and print materials are a major component of coursematerials. In some instances, slides or videotapes areprovided for use during teleconference sessions or for later

reference. Some institutions are examining the use of visualsupport via electronic technologies such as slow-scantelevision, electronic blackboarda, or a videotex system.

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Some experimentation has been done (nvost often usingsatellite transmission) with the use of two-way, full-motionvideo communications. Although pilot projects using visualas well as audio interaction have . an very successful, costsprohibit extensive use. A more affordable intermediate step,using a combination of one-way, full-motion video and two-wayaudio, has been introduced in British ColuMbia. The use ofcomputer conferencing as an educational communications systemis also being developed on an experimental basis.

The addition of visual communication and the developmentof teaching techniques appropriate to the teleconferencingexperience present challenges in designing effectiveprograms. The costs of teleconferencing equipment andlearning materials can be prohibitive, especially for smallinstitutions. To keep costs at a minimum, equipment andresources can be shared among several institutions. Forexample, the Atlantic Provinces Association of ContinuingUniversity Bducation, a new association in eastern Canada,facilitates the sharing of resources among institutions andminimizes overlap among their programs. Such activities willencourage the development and success of teleconferencing ineducation.

Videotex/Telidon

Over the past five years, private industry and thefederal Department of Communications have sponsored severalresearch projects and field trials to encourage thedevelopment of commercially viable or self-supportingapplications for Canada's videotex system, Telidon. Atpresent, some educational services based on Telidontechnology are becoming established; others are still in thedevelopment stage.

Few Telidon applications have been instituted at theelementary and secondary school levels. In Ontario, aTelidon network links 75 secondary schools, 15 youthemployment centres, and 10 public libraries around theprovince. Career guidance information and an assortment ofsmall-scale learning materials are available on this Tendonnetwork.

Some colleges are introducing courses in Telidon page

creation, marketing, and equipment repair; and someuniversities are participating in content development forTelidon databases. For example, the University of WesternOntario journalism program provide news reports to

subscribers via a Telidon network, and the University ofGuelph prepares Telidon pages containing agriculturalinformation for farmers.

Distance education programs at the University of Calgaryand Athabasca University in Alberta and at Tele-universite inQuebec find Telidon's graphics useful in supplementingteleconference with visual material. The integration ofTelidon graphics and PLATO (Programmed Logic for AutomatedTeaching Operations) software is a major component of adistance education service now being introduced by theUniversite du Quebec. The networking capabilities of Telidoncan also be used in making available a database ofeducational materials to distance students.

Closed Telidon networks for local use are beingintroduced in a few postsecondary institutions, primarily inOntario. Such on-campus networks carry information aboutcourses and about the institution in general. Networks anddatabases for special interest users, linking sites viatelephone lines, are being developed or considered in severalplaces. Two examples in Quebec related to health careinclude an information journal for the disabled and a healthmanagement information service for the gereral public. Anational network is being developed by the Canadian HospitalAssociation to distribute instructional training materialsand other information to its offices across the country.

Further efforts are now underway to develop TelidonadaptatLons to be used by people with special needs. Theseinclude the design of a Braille printer for the visuallyimpaired, a pictorial Blissymbols-based system forindividuals with no language facility, closed-captionedsystems for the hearing impaired, and hardware modificationsfor the physically disabled.

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Satellite technology

As with videotex/Tendon, several years of developmentand experimentation preceded the establishment of on-goingservices that depend on transmission of audio and videosignals via satellite. The ability to transmit signals tocommunities in the far North is an especially valuablebenefit of Canada's satellite technology.

Anik C3, a Canadian satellite launched by the UnitedStates space shuttle Columbia in 1982, is now used to receiveand tranymit educational programming in several parts of thecountry. Satellite transmission time is costly, and onlylarge organizations or cooperative groups of smallerinstitutions can afford to make use of it. In two provinces,the educational communications authorities broadcasttelevision programming. TVOntario distributes its signal viasatellite to 12 main regional transmitters and 75 low-powerrebroadcast transmitters throughout Ontario. Its usualbroadcast schedule of 16 hours a day includes educationalprograms and series for preschool children, elementary andsecondary schools, colleges, universities, and an array ofprograms and learning opportunities for the at-home viewer.The Knowledge Network in British Columbia offers a similarbroadcast service, but with greater emphasis on accreditedtelecourses and noncredit teleseries sponsored by collegesand univesities in the province. Some courses or series arepretaped, others are broadcast live. Edstance educationprograms in British Columbia are often enhamad by telephonecommunication between students and course instructors.

Early in 1985, Alberta will become the third province tobroadcast educational programming via satellite. The AlbertaEducational Communications Corporation (ACCESS) produces andacquires both radio and television programming to supportschool curricula, postsecondary distance education, and adultcontinuing education.

In the eastern provinces, the Atlantic Satellite Network(ASN) allots 20 per cent of its broadcast schedule,approximately 20 hours per week, to educational uses. TheDistance University Education via Television program (DUET)at Mount Saint Vincent University in Nova Scotia is a majoruser of ASN satellite time, transmitting to 16 centres acrossthe four Atlantic provinces. Th3 signal is distributed fromthese centres by cable companies and is available only to

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cable subscribers. In some courses, registrants use the

telephone network to participate in teleconference sessions.The satellite network is also used by the Nova ScotiaDepartmenz of Education to distribute videotape programmingto the public schools. Other educational institutions aredeveloping proposals to use the network.

In 1983, a federally funded experimental project enabledthe University of Saskatchewan to offer interactiveeducational programming to the four western provinces.Programs were distributed by the Knowledge Network in BritishColumbia and by cable companies in Alberta, Saskatchewan, andManitoba. The major series transmitted, VETNET, was designedfor practicing veterinarians in their homes. Viewers couldrespond by telephone. The system was also used to providematerial for educathrs, farmers, and animal owners. Programsfor the general public dealt with topics such as robotics,high technology, the arts, legal concerns, and health. Atpresent, funding is being sought to continue this satelfite-based service.

Satellite transmission has contributed to the expansionof distance education opportunities in several provinces byproviding a television link to wider audien.as. Considerableattention is now being paid to designing Aifferent types ofdistance learning opportunities, using satellite transmissionof video materials in combination with other technologies incost-effective as well as educationally effective ways.

Videodisc technology

A videodisc player transmits picture and sound to a

television set or monitor. Laser vide.xliscs can store stilland motion pictures on a numbered series of 54,000 frames sothat, on command, any point or sequence on the disc can bedisplayed accurately and quickly. Videodiscs have two audiochannels. A microcomputer linked to a videodisc player canoffer sophisticated computer-assisted instruction andtraining. In this interactive mode, the monitor will displayportions of the recorded material according to learners'responses or choices. This interactive capability createsinteresting possibilities for individualized learningexperiences.

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Several videodiscs designed for educational or trainingpurposes have been developed in Alberta, British Columbia,and ontario by private companies and by educationalinstitutions, often with the assistance of grants frominterested government departments. Many of the discsproduced offer instruction in work-related skills for nurses,teachers, correctional officers, foresters, automobile salesstaff, mechanics, and machinists. Some yideodiscs providestudents with information or instruction on such subjects asthe circulatory system and Indian culture. Others aredesigned for a wide range of viewers: for exampae, in oneeducational game viewers' decisions about ways of living canlengthen or shorten the life of the person shown on thetelevision screen; other videodiscs show novices how to usean IBM personal computer and explain some key programs.

Videodiscs have been considered for use in manyinstitutions, but actual experience with them id limited.The high costs of developing and producing a videotapemaster, the inability to alter recorded material, andquestions about the acceptability and availability ofvideodisc software have discouraged investments in videodisctechnology.

Conclusion

Technologies have been used in education both tosupplement classroom teaching and to provide learningmaterials for distance education programs. In the classroomor lecture hall, teachers and instructors in most educationalinstitutions have available a variety of films, videotapes,audiocassettes, and, on a smaller scale, computer software todraw upon in planning their lessons and directing students'activities.

Teachers and instructors use these technologies tointroduce, review, enrich, or summarize a lesson, and todirect students to pertinent materials, individually or insmall groups. These activities stimulate student interest,expose them to situations outside their experience, presentnew information and concepts, encourage participation inrel;-:ed activities, and foster an el:change of ideas.

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With varying amounts of assistance and encouragement fromtheir institutions, individual teachers and insty:uctors

locate available material, arrange for its use, and integrate

the material into their teaching activities. Many factors

come into play in influencing these teaching activities: the

quality of available programs and their suitability in a

particular situation are important elements, as is ease ofaccess to information about programs, to the programs.chemselves, and to the necessary equipment. Teachers'

attitudes and training, influenced in part by the approach oftheir institutions, also affect the use of technology.

Technology has played an important part in the recentexpansion of distance learning programs in Canada. Manycolleges and universities use one or more of the technologiesto support or partially replace print materials and to

provide opportunities for personal contact and discussion.

The hardware developments over the past 50 years in

communications and information technologies are impressive,but their applications in education have often producedless dramatic results than anticipated. Identifying the mostsuccessful experiences and the reasons for their success is

instructive. Both in distance education and in classroominstruction, the most exciting applications of technologyoccur when experiences are offered that attract adultlearners with new types of learning opportunities, that

foster students' development of concepts and understanding,or that tailor education to suit the needs and styles ofindividual learners. But using technology to create learningsituations like these is a challenging, time consuming,costly process.

For people in communities far from postsecondaryinstitutions or people who find traditional teaching methodsineffective or unappealing, technology holds great promise.

The ability of technology both to enhance traditionalteaching and to extend learning opportunities seems

substantial. Developments in educational technology mayeventually alter our basic approaches to education and the

organization of educational activities.

Additional developments in hardware and educationalsoftware can be expected. Combining several technologies todevelop new learning experiences is beginning - for example,in the integration of videodiscs and computers and in

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satellite transmission and telephone communication. Expecteddevelopments such as voice recognition and speech synthesis,expert systems, and artificial intelligence may pwovide newcapabilities for educational use.

A look into the future of technology iu educationsuggests that new combinations of technology-relatedexperiences can enhance the teaching/learning process,provide new learning opportunities, and lead to rest-ucturingof some educational programs and processes. However,enthusiasm &lout the possibilities for new technology-basededucational experiences is easily tempered by the practical,pedagogical, and philosophical concerns expressed in thefollowing sections.

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ISSUNS AND COhtERNS

The use of new technologies in education - computers,teleconferencing, Tendon, satellite communications, andvideodisc - suggests the possibility of fundamental changesin the structure and operation of the education systems inCanada. At preseni, however, developments are focusing onthe use of these technologies within the existing educationalsystem. This section presents an outline of the issuessurrounding the incorporati,m of communications andinformation technology in education today, followed by adiscussion of developments that may lead to fundamentalchanges in education.

The introduction of technological innovations in the

educational system raises a series of familiar educationalissues. Educators are continually concerned withfacilitating learning, improving teaching methods, anddeveloping well-designed teaching materials. Ongoingconcerns are the role of the federal government in education,teacher training, equal access to educational opportunity,and the allocation of limited resources. The use oftechnology in education adds a new dimension to these issues.

Developing the use of technology in teaching and learning

The fundamental concern is the way in which technologycan be used to facilitate learning, improve teaching, anddevelop successful learning materials. In some cases, theusefulness of technology seems clear. Teleconferencing isused to permit classroom-like exchanges between learners andinstructors in distance education prog:ams. Satellitetransmission of television programming allows educationalinstitutions to supplement print materials for distancelearners. In these situations, technology is used to meetthe need for improved communication.

In most cases, however, the utility of technology is lessobvious. The questionable quality of most educationalsoftware, for example, illustrates the inadequacy of manyefforts to use the computer's capability to enhance learning.Most applications are designed to substitute for teachingactivities by providing instruction, practise exercises, and

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testing. It may be that attempts to U53 technology ineducation results in no substantial improvement over presentteaching methods and do not warrant the costs of softwaredevelopment and hardware acquisition. It is true, however,that some computer-assisted instruction has proven aseffective as live teaching, particularly in skills training.Research findings are inconsistent and efforts to develop andassess computer-assisted instruction continue.

Other approaches to the use of computers in education arebeing developed. Some applications enable students to directthe computer activity, for example, word processing orspreadsheets. Students can also use the computer as aresearch tool fox storing, locating, and rotrieving data.Efforts are underway to develop tools especially for use ineducation, as has been done with LOGO. Another strategyfocuses on the management of information relating students'characteristics, educational resources and activities, andstudents' academic performance.

In developing applications for technology, educators aretrying to determine sound methods for desL-ning technology-based learning materials. These efforts are hampered by alack of understanding of how people learn from technology.There are few precedents for successfully applying newelectronic capabilities in teaching and learning. Strategiesfor the development of traditional teaching aids such astextbooks, worksheets, or audiovisual materials are oftentransferred to the development of software. Although usefulin some ways, such practices can lead to a failure tomaximize the opportunities for interactivity, studentcontrol, and individualization. In developing software forcomputers, Telidon, or videodisc, designers can plan forindividual differences in learning style.

Consideration is being given to the combinations ofexpertise needed in designing educational applications ofcommunications and information technology. Finding the idealmix of visuals, text, and learner reinforcement ordetermining the effective use of structure and sequencechallenge the capabilities of educational designers.Teachers, instructors, and specialists in curriculum design,instructional materials, educational psychology, graphics,and computer systems can all contribute to softwaredevelopment. The goal of using Canadian expertise to develop

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materials appropriate to our cultural needs createsadditional interest in software development efforts.

Once a successful use of technology in education isdeveloped, further adaptation is needed to integratetechnology with other learning experiences effectively. Atpresent, it is the teachers' task to incorporate the use oftechnology with related educational activities.Teleconferencing, for example, requires teachers accustomedto the benefits of face-to-face interaction to adjust theirpresentation style to the absence of visual cues and toanticipate the need for visual materials. The use ofcomputer software requires planning to link students'activities with other learning experiences.

Despite our limited understanding of how best toincorporate technology in teaching and learning processes,educational institutions are developing ways of using variouscombinations of technologies to offer learning opportunitiesto students. Experience, evaluation, and research will helpto refine and resolve some.of the issues raised above.

Planning the development of technology in education

Planning prof_esses raise familiar questions ofjurisdictional mandates, teacher training, hardware andsoftware acquisitions, budgeting, and equitable distribution.

In Canada, where education is a provincialresponsibility, planning and decision-making are conductedindependently in each province, or with limitedinterprovincial consultation. Some programs are developed bythe federal government, at times in consultation with theprovinces, to achieve such national goals as full employmentor a bilingual society. The involvement of the federalgovernment in education is a complex issue.

From an industrial perspective, Canada's decentralizededucational system is seen as a disadvantage compared to asingle market or national English/French markets Large enoughto support the development of educational software and othereducational applications. Additional pressures for nationalcooperation come from the less wealthy provinces wbich lackthe resources necessary for the development of educationaltechnology. New types of cooperation and accommodation are

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being sought in order to benefit from the economies of scalewithout 3acrificiAg opportunities to serve provincial needs.

In areas such as communications, federal responsibilityoverlaps with the provincial responsibility for education.New developments in communications invite the development ofeducational applications of these technologies. By fundinginitial study -nd development of technical capabilities andapplications, the federal government is providing unusualopportunities that might not otherwise be affordable.Examples of these projects include satellite distribution indistance education and development of videotex databases.The stages between initial experimentation and theestablishment of an on-going educational service aredifficult and costly, however. At times, successfulexperimentation can create a demand in situations Where-continuing operation is now impractical. Another area ofoverlap between federal and provincial governments involvestraining for employment. As part of its efforts to deal withunemployment, the federal government has given grants to manyCanadian colleges for the development and use of technologyin skills training. In summary, it appears that throughincreasing participation in activities related to educationaltechnology, the role of the federal government in educationis growing.

Provincial ministries or departments of education,regional school boards, colleges, and universities areplanning programs for teacher training and for theacquisition of hardware and software. The use of technologyin education requires teachers and instructors to' become'computer literate and, where appropriate, to use technologyin their teaching activities. Por those involved in teachingcomputer literacy courses or such computer-related subjectsas business, the need for training is most urgent.Institutions are considering the extent of training fordifferent staff members, suitable methods for offeringtraining, and the kinds of programs needed. Difficultiesarise when teacher demand is greater than the capacity tooffer training or when discrepancies arise betweenadministration and staff concerning the level or quality oftraining. In some instances, teachers feel resistant to orthreatened by their institutions' efforts to encouragetraining in educational technology.

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Provincial departments or ministries of education and

educational institutions are now involved in determining the

kinds of hardware needed, the relative benefits of

centralized or decentralized decision-making and purchasingof hardware, and the need to subsidize local or departmentalpurchases. Several computer manufacturers have been activein selling V.: the education market. The hardwarecapabilities needed and the value of compatibility of

equipment among institutions are two of the issues now underconsideration. Concerns about compatibility becomeespecially important when communication networks are

developed to provide electronic mail services, or to

distribute software among institutions and educationalsystems.

Software acquisition involves similar questions of

centralization or decentralization of decision-eaking andpurchasing. Initially, both hardware and tioftware

acquisition depended on the initiative of individual teachersand instructors. As computef use increases and more softwarebecomes available, provincial ministries of education,colleges, and universities are formulating policies andprograms to evaluate software, adapt some computer programsto specific circumstances, and develop systems for softwaredistribution. The economies of a centralized approach to

such tasks are attractive, and efforts are being made to

encourage regional and national cooperation. Reluctance torelinquish control and independence will be weighed againstpotential advantages and savings. Software developmentefforts require attention to the pedagogical issues discussedearlier, the benefits of centralization or decentralization,and the uncertainties in securing copyright to software.

In planning the development of educational technology,

institutions and provincial ministries of education must be

guided by two overriding concerns: the desire to provideequal benefits to all students, and the finite budgets withwhich governments and institutions must operate. The growingvisibility of computer technology in society has created a

demand for its introduction in education and .provided a

justification for expenditures. Only a small fraction of

institutional budgets is available for learning materials of

all kinds or for research or development; demand for

technology in education often outstrips the ability to payfor it. In larger institutions or provinces, the fundingbase may allow more leeway for investment in demonstration

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projects of new applications. Planning is more likely to becautious and constrained in less wealthy jurisdictions.Determining the most effective use of funds and justifyingaxperditures are on-going issues in the use of technology ineducation.

The underlying value of providing equal opportunity ofaccess for all students is of particular concern in the useof technology. On the positive side, technology is oftenused most successfully in education to extend learningopportunities to people for whom educational programs areinaccessible or inconvenient and to people with physical orlearning disabilities. At the same time, there is concernabout the possibility that technology might become morereaiily available in wealthier communities and institutionsthan in poorer ones and that its use could be less extensivein 'have not' -situations. Differences between wealthyfamilies'able to purchase technological tools for their homesand poor families with less access to technology might not bebalanced by exposure to technology in educational settings.Reducing the disparities betvmen boys and girls in their useof technology is another area that requires attention. Inmany situations, girls choose to spend less time usingcomputers than boys do and are less likely -to selecttechnology-related courses. The consequences of thesedifferences for later employment options is of particularimportance. There is widespread recognition of the need toavoid inequities based on social class or gender, andprograms designed to lessen such inequities are beingdeveloped in some institutions.

Changes in education

New technologies are, like older technologies, beingincorporated primarily as teaching aids in a largelyunchanged educational system. However, some earlyexperiences in developing interactive learning materials, indesigning technology-based programs of study, and in usingcommunications media indicate the possibility of changes ineducation. There is considerable support for the developmentof technology-related educational resources in the hightechnology and communications industries, as well as ingovernment and educational institutions. Continuedwillingness to invest in new technologies as educationaltools may gradually lead to an accumulation of new learning

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resources. Improvements are expected in the design of

technology-based educational resources and in technological

capabilities. Although widespread success in providing highquality learning opportunities and experiences throughtechnology is some years away, potential clearly exists foran increasingly learner-centred approach to education,involving alternative approaches to learning, teaching, andorganizing educational institutions. The followingdiscussion looks at activities that suggest the beginnings ofeducational change.

Indications of change are found in the presentdevelopment of distance education programs and in

applications of technologies designed to offer an alternativeto classroom instruction. In recent years, the demand fordistance education has growm substantially in all parts ofthe country. Teleconferencing and satellite transmissioncapabilities have been marshalled td extend aLd -improvedistance programs that offer opportunities for independentlearning. However, the costs of developing and offeringdistance education programs have created a need to coordinatethe purchase and operation of communicationy equipment andservices and the development of curriculum materials.Regional and national organizations are being formed tofoster cooperation and cost sharing among institutions.Jurisdictional concerns such as regional boundaries for

learner markets and reluctance to transfer credits amonginstitutions are beginning to diminish.

The use of computer-assisted instruction is beingintroduced as an alternative to classroom instruction in somesubject areas. Development of computer-managed learningsystems in postsecondary institutions, particularly forvocational educational and training, offers another approachto using computews as a substitute for traditional teachingactivities. The current use of Telidon and videodisc ineducation may also indicate ways to employ technology to

provide individualized educational experiences.

Combinations of technologies for C'stance education andfor on-campus or in-school teaching are also being used.Interactive video technology, linking computer technologywith videotape or videodisc, is used effectively in skillstraining, and similar applications are being implemented in

other educational areas. Teleconferencing is beingsupplemented with electronic visual material delivered via

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several media, including Telidon, slow-scan television, andsatellite broadcast. Combining the capabilities of severaltechnologies can result in increasingly sophisticatededucational resources and programs.

Programs that employ technologies singly or incombination are designed to produce individualized learningexperiences, to increase the ability of such learningexperiences to match individual learning styles, and to

develop curricula for technology-based learning. Studentscan proceed at their odn pace, and can sometimes hasten thelearning process. The kinds of hums interaction amongteachers and students, and the proportion of learning that ismediated by technology, vary among the different programs.The experience gained through these programs, accompanied byresearch and evaluation studies, may lead to a greaterunderstanding of the conditions necessary.for the emccessfuluse of technology in education and may suggest ways toimprove the design of technology-based educational resources.

The commercial sector, including publishing companies,pri:-.7te educational institutions, professional associations,and large industrial enterprises is becoming interested inoffering technology-related learning opportunities. Newtypes of learning materials are beginning to appear for useoutside as well as within traditional educationalinstitutions - in homes, libraries, community organizations,workplaces, special interest organizations, and social clubsThe growing role of industry in providing training forempaoyees, particularly in the technology industry, is

evident today. Increasing educational opportunities outsidethe educational system will offer learners greater choiceamong the educational resources, times, and locationsavailable to them.

Future developments may lead to an increase in newtechnology-based educational resources. Lower prices forequipment would encourage extensive experimentation, speeddevelopment, and foster new activity. For example,widespread availability of inexpensive communication channelswould enable communications among widely scattered groups ofpeople. Ready access to experts, peers, and information maysupport and encourage greater independence in learning.Increasing compatibility in operating systems, programminglanguages, and authoring systems may result in substantialcost savings. Expected developments in voice recognition and

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speech synthesis, in expert systems, and artificialintelligence would open up new possibilities for educational

applications, although these developments could also increasecosts.

The remaining discussion considers changes in educationthat might result from the development of technology ineducatiun. If the efforts described earlier meet withsuccess, the result could be a growing understanding offundamental learning and teaching processes. Educators coulddefine new guidelines for using the capabilities oftechnology to provide effective individualized learningexperiences. In such a situation, we might expect to see anincreasing availability of high quality educatimal resourcesfor individualized learning and a reconsideration of thecentral role of classroom instruction. A willingness to usetechnology in education on the part of learners, teazhers,and institutions would be necessary. At this point, ideasabout educational activities and system.of the future arevery speculative. Substantial changes would seem most likelyto begin at the postsecondary level, although some newapproaches could be introduced in elementary and secondaryschools.

Changes in the responsibilities and expectations ofteachers, learners, and educational institutions may beconsidered. Learners would develop greater awareness oftheir learning styles and needs, and the development oflearning skills would receive greater emphasis. Learnerswould have the opportunity to select from an array ofeducational resources developed and distributed by a largenumber of educational institutions and private producers. In

order to benefit from these resources, learners would requireconsiderable familiarity and experience with technology.Increasing flexibility would free educational activities fromthe constraints of time and place. Learners would becomesophisticated consumers, Skilled in identifying their needsand selecting from among the types of learning programsavailable.

Teachers would spend less time in presenting informationto groups of students and become more involved in tutoringindividuals, guiding discussion among students, providingopportunites for the integration of learning and experience,and developing abilities not well served by alternativeresources. In a context of technology-based learning

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programs, teachers would play an important role in guidingindividual students toward appropriate learning resources,helpdng to resolve difficulties, and supplementing availablelearning materialso Teachers would also be involved inpreparing and evaluating technology-based learning materialsthat incorporate information-giving, administrative, andinstructional features. In assessing students' progress,teachers would be less concerned with students' mastery ofcontent and more concerned with their ability to integrateand apply learning.

Institutions would focus more directly on the developmentof learning opportunities and flexible systems for delivery.In scheduling and locating activities, institutions couldbecome increasingly responsive to the needs of interestedlearners. Study at home or at work would likely increase asthe role of classroom teaching declined. . New methods forrecognizing educational achieVement and offeringaccreditation or certification may allow students maximumaccess to the offerings of various institutions.

Economic and cultural influences, as well as developmentsin education and technology, will undoubtedly play a majorpart in determining the scope of change in education.Visions of education that incorporate extensive use oftechnology raise concerns about the decline of personalcontact among students and teachers, and about the emphasison technology-related skills and vocational education at theexpense of the 'liberal arts' approach to education. Newtechnological capabilities offer the potential toindividualize and expand educational opportunity; at the sametime, they raise the possibility of confining us in aneducational environment dominated by those very capabilities.

An expanded role for technology in education is onlypossible with the convergence of a number of factors.Growing understanding of how people can learn through the useof technology, the design of educational resources thatreflect learners' needs, learning styles and responses,falling costs, acceptability of and demand for technology-based resources by the learner, and increasing flexibility onthe part of institutions and learners in moving towardlearner-centred educatioa are all indispensable. The absenceof any one will limit the use of technology and relatedchanges in the organization of education. One can imaginelearner-centred education made possible through the use of

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technology, but the extent to which such development willprove desirable, possible, practical, and affordable remainsto be seen.

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A nuMber of representatives from educationalinstitutions, associations, government ministries, andindustry were invited to contribute short essays on issuesand concerns about technology in Canadian education. Eachwas asXed to consider a number of themes - the values andpolitics of technology in education; the impact of technologyon educational programs and processes; software development;and the availability of education and access to it - and tooffer his or her views and recommendations. Through thiscollection of papers a number of topics are reintroduced andreconsidered from a variety of perspectrives. This diversityof opinion demonstrates the comigemity of theinterrelationship between technology and education. Theessays contain some recurring themes: the impact oftechnology on society and especially on education; the policyissues and external pressures related to the use oftechnology in education; the appropriate role of technologyin education; software development; and the need forplanning. Each paper offers explicit and implicitrecommendations for the integration of technology intoeducation.

The potential of technology to change radically theeducational system, the'curricula, the delivery methods, andthe roles of teacher and learner is the central thesis of theessay by Joseph Koenig. He discusses the obstacles toachieving these changes and the ideal learning situation thatcould be available if th, obstacles are overcome.

In her essay, Catherine Ann Cameron raises a number ofquestions about the social implicatione of technology. Shepresents ideas for the socially and educationally appropriateapplications of technology in schools. Tom Rich alsoconsiders the introduction of technology into schools, buthis attention is focused on the policy issues that arise fromthe widespread use of technology in education.

Two essays are specifically concerned with software.Robert Jones considers the role that computer-assistedinstruction could play in education, why it is not yetfilling this role, and how the potential and the realitymight be reconciled. Louise Dubuc discusses the limitations

of developing software from a theoretical base of content,

teaching, or learning. She calls for action-baseddevelopment to increase the supply of effective software.Turning to the issue of hardware acquisition in postsecondaryinstitutions, James Humphries describes the commonproblems of ad hoc purchasing and offers suggestions foravoiding them.

Educational technology is not limited to the computer.

Denis Hlynka reviews some of the literature on the variety oftechnologies and their implications for learning. MichelUmbriaco considers the integration of technologies a majorstep in their effective use. This theme is developed throughthe examination of the socio-economic context of Canadianeducation and the consequent impact of technology on

education.

The changes in' Society that have been triggered bytechnology are placing new pressures on the educationalsystem. In the final essay, Sylvia Gold considers the causesand nature of these pressures and offers recommendations onresponding to them.

These essays represent a cross-section of issues,

opinions, and research regarding the central question of howlearning can be enhanced through the use of technology.Experiments and applications are numerous, but results are

inconclusive. The sharing of our endeavors, our successes,and our problems is a crucial step toward resolving the

issues that surround the use of technology in education.

The opinions expressed in these essays are solely thoseof the authors and do not necessarily reflect the opinions ofTVOntario.

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VIEWS OM TYCBMOLOGY IN CANADIAN BDUCATICNI

By Joseph KoenigInteractive Images Technologies Inc.

The value and politics of technology in education

Technology as such is not central to the future well-being of western society; perhaps it was during theindustrial age but today it does not give one society anedge over any other. If there is any one thing that is vitalto western society (or human society in general); it is theability to think imaginatively and innovatively, to be ableto focus one's creative imagination and to redefine realityin an unending series of inquiries, using technology as atool. This is the way in which we must earn our bread andbutter in a world where virtually everyone has (or soonhave) all the technical Skills and motivations to makeproducts ihat are cheaper and better than the ones we madeyesterday.

This emphasis on using our minds constantly to redefinereality comes with great difficulty to many. TO master thisuse of the mind requires practice. Lack of practice and Lackof confidence can stifle the imaginative and creative process.

In Canada, for example, a strong colonial tradition, anabundance of natural resources, and a variety of cultural andpolitical factors have tended to discourage development ofthe ability to think through many issues with clarity or tosee innovative human thought as the chief requirement forsurvival and growtn. We have tended to assume that Canada'srole is to provide resources, while the "motherland" or headoffice - first Britain, now the United States - provides theintellect and direction.

Our cultural and political realities have led us toemphasize compromise as an essential part of our survivalprocess. This is laudable, but it does cause a certain biasin our thinking. Tb Canadians, important issues are thosethat respond to legal processes - redefining what is ratherthan exploring what may be. Perhaps as a result of definingreality in legal terms, our education system is fragmentedand seems to emphasize the provincial control of education -

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even in the very smallest and poorest provinces - at the

expense of intellectual excellence and the training ofimaginations.

In Canadian education, too many interests are vested inretaining the status quo to put much stock in energetic,enlightened cooperation. Many people are paid very well tomaintain distinct educational enclaves. Naturally, theyjustify their actions without great difficulty. Right now,computer and communications technologies permit high schoolstudents studying microbiology or Canadian literature or pre -European history to talk to each other and to work on jointprojects, even if they live as far apart as Whitehorse,Halifax, and Toronto. However, I believe that such directcontact between learners will be a long time coming in theschool system because it may undermine existing educationalstructures; for &any educational bureaucrats, survival is atleast as important as learning.

To overcome the limitations to creative learning causedby this bureaucratic fragmentation, a new national curriculumcould be developed and implemented in a matter of a few yearsvia the marvelous "electronic highway" that is now in place.However, provincial boundaries and old mind-sets erect tollgates acrbss the highway, impeding those educational changesthat are perceived as threats to established positions. Atthe same time, ironically, no attempt is made to provideconstraints on the wall-to-wall deluge of often mindlesselectronic trivia from the United States.

Those who work in our educational system will have to

refine and develop their intellectual abilities. Teachersmust become better informed about the world in general andmore inclined to encourage or at least recognize creativethinking in their classroom. Creative thought should beencouraged in the sciences, mathematics, and the arts.Encouraging young people to be risk-takers in business shouldbe part of it too.

The notion that our technological world requires a strongfocus on technology in schools is an attractive one becauseit permits educators and political leaders to "do something"that appears responsive. Of course, it is true we need manycompetent technical people, but even more than that, we needpeople who will know how to devise, adapt and utilizetechnology. We need to recognize that our new kind of world,

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where abundant natural resources are no longer a sure mealticket, is one in which an ability to cope successfully withchange is essential.

Learning about a particular form of technology is oflittle value in itself; nor is emphasis on technology at theexpense of the arts or social sciences useful. Understandingand enjoying music, literature, and poetry may well beessential to understanding and mastering science andtechnology.

Tliteimctofchteleducationalroamsand processes.

Until quite recently, most children left school betweenthe ages of 14 and 16; they worked until the age of 65, ifthey lived that long. They dealt with changes in the natureof work in a variety of ways, and few involved formaleducation. In fact, the formal education of children hadlittle to do with preparing youngsters for their adult lives.Schools placed emphasis on transmitting information about afinite world, not on developing an ability to tackledifficult problems in a dynamic one. Today, machines handlemany of the routine tasks in our society. It is the morechallenging tasks that require human thought and action. Aneducation that prepares the student to deal with specialchallenges is no longer for the elite alone - the officerclass. It is an ability we all need.

Conventionally, subjects are tau4ht as if they were aseries of separate packages of knowledge. Relatively littleemphasis is placed on acquiring an integrated body ofknowledge to use in making effective decisions. Exam resultscontinue to be mistakenly thought to demonstrate an abilityto apply what one has learned, and students have fewopportunities to practice decision-making in the classroom.This situation can now be changed dramatically for the betterthrough the use of available new technologies such ascomputers, laser videodisc systems and telecommunications.These technologies can be used to create a learningenvironment that is responsive to the needs of the individualstudents.

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The opportunity exists to provide interactive educationalprograms that stimulate the acvisition of km- 'ledge abouthow thinga relate to each other, and an ability Ppply suchknowledge in a problemr-solving context. For 4xample, acomputer and videodisc simulation on a theme such as Canadianhistory becomes a vehicle for dealina with issues central toalmost every subject on the curs;., aum. InternationalCinemedia Centre Ltd. set this goal in a recent historysimulation developed on behalf of the Ontario Ministry ofEducation, The Bartlett Family. This project represents afirst step toward well-designed programs that make full useof the extended memory, graphics and networking capabilitiesof the ICON (the new Ontario educational microcomputer) orsimilar equipment. A program that permits students to makedecisions affecting the lives of a fictional pdoneer familyin Ontario can be adaptad for subjects otter than Canadianhistory; it could be used, for example, in projects dealingwith world history, geometry, composition, or literature.

Thus, it is possible to develop a few major units ofstudy that integrate subjects and give them structure. Thevarious assignments in ear...h thematic unit can be designed sothat individuals or groups of students can tackle the work.The material covered will be suitable for students with a

range of skill levels, perceptual styles, and interests. Themore capable students will be challenged ;:lo their limit,while the less skilled will proceed as their ability permits.Add to this integration the ability to "network" students atvarious locations, and we see the great potential that is nowavailable to Canadian education - if the opportunity isseized.

How should curriculum design proceed? It seems that a

school year could be centred on a number of major projects orunits that combine traditional research and essay elementswith computer-based simulations in which students workindividually, in face-to-face teams, or with others atdistant locations. Various traditional subjects and avariety of learning styles would be thoroughly explored overthe course of a few school years. The design of theseintegrated projects should involve leading scholars andcreative people, as well as teachers and others. In manycases the students' work will probably be good enough to

become a permanent part of the course material.

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The teacher's role becomes much more demanding in such anenvironment; he or she helpe the student to see the interplayof events and ideas, and encourages students who may beinclined to take a particular point of view to shift andexplore the subject from another perspective. Traditionaltextbooks art probably not appropriate for this kind oflearning.

For students, the result of the approach suggested herewould be a better understanding of how things connect - howmath and pioneer barn building go together in the pioneerhistory unit, for example. They will be able to draw ontheir own knowledge to achieve results in other areas, andthey will be more motivated to learn When they see how theirknowledge can be applied.

Two important ideas arise out of technologicaldevelopments:

New interactive technologies make it possible for thestudent rather than the teacher to be at the centre ofhis or her own learning process. It is necessary tothink through the ramificatiois of this statementcarefully. So far, we have made.little effort to do so.

The task is no longer to make sure that the student takesin all the necessary information required; it is toensure that he or she learns to pick and choose what isrelevant from the mass of data available. Today, schoolsstill tend to function as if they were teaching from afinite body of knowledge.

The educational system will also have to better serve theneeds of adult learners. In my view, much of the escapip'television watching now going on is not a sign that peopioaare nappy being passive viewers, but rather is an indicationthat they are looking to television for something and notfinding it. Television in the home could become an extensionof the interactive learning environment in the formaleducation system. Continual learning for virtually everyadult will become essential. Schools will have to rethinktheir role and open their doors to mature students. Theywill need to encourage their young students to enjoy learningso that they will want to keep coming back as long as theylive.

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An increased emphasis on subject integration, self-directed learning, research skills, and continuing educationare only some of the ways schools can cope with new changesin learning needs. HOwever, these are practical approachesthat can be worked on now to help bring about the series oftransitions that schools will have to go through if they areto remain relevant.

I believe that these approaches will open upopportunities for students in remote locations and lessadvantaged schools everywhere, allowing them to be in touchwith their peers across (and even beyond) Canada. Computers,laser discs, and satellite linkage are the relevanttechnologies for the present, although not all of these needto be used simultaneously to create an interactive learningenvironment.

Software development

Probably the only way to get better at developing,recognizing, and using good software is to become activelyinvolved with it. Just as people who cannot read cannotjudge writing style or literary forms, so educational systemsthat try to define the role of the computer without somefirst-hand exposure will not be very successful. An active,open-minded investigation of what can be done is required,and it must involve the brightest, most capable people, thosevex) are not afraid of change where change is appropriate.However, if one keeps in mind that the printing of books ishalf a milleniui old, yet there are many school systems whichcontinue to function as if printing had never been invented,one should not assume too much about the certainty of change.

The cost of educational software is cheap or expensive,depending on what criteria one uses. It is not expensivewhen compared to television productions, or even toeducational television or to the production of a textbook; itis expensive when development costs must be borne by a schoolor school board. One needs to look at the cost/benefitequation - not always easy to do, of course - to get somesense of what the real cost is. If one does, cheap softwaremay turn out to be quite expensive, and vice versa.

There is probably no one right way to develop educationalsoftware. Teachers may develop some of it, as may authors,

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students, or teams of people from other disciplines. Again,there is a need to explore the possibilities in order toencourage excellence, and, at the same time, economy. TheOntario Ministry of Education has taken a leadership role inthis regard, a role that few other jurisdictions have had theenergy, courage, or funding to try.

Generally speaking, it is a useial idea to begin bydeciding whdt one wants students to learn, what students finddifficult to learu at present, and what teachers finddifficult to teach, and then examining the ways in whichsoftware can meet those needs.

The availability of education and access to it

The rich may not have exclusive access to computers, butthose who have access to computers will, in a sense, becomerich because such access gives them power, which translatesinto wealth.

Many students now considered to be poor learners areexperiencing difficulty with the current communicationstechnolagy, which is heavily print-oriented. Certainly theselearners can and should have access to computer-based and/orLaser disc materials that can help them deal with theirproblems. Ideally, programs should be designed so that alllearners cnn find the material that is right for them, findtheir level of difficulty, and work from there.

Women and girls should be considered carefully indesigning the new materials for learning. There is noinherent reason that women should not be as successful as menin the use of the computer. If the new technology does notattract as many female students as males, something is wrongwith the way the technology is being applied, not with thetechnology itself.

The goal of education should be to make learningopportunities universal, inside and outside school buildings,for males and females, for young and old. Learning should besufficiently exciting, challenging - and successful - thateveryone would want to be a non-stop learner. To be deniedthe opportunity to learn should be viewed as a form of crueland unusual punishment to be prohibited by law.

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TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION FOR THE FUTURE

By Catherine Ann CameronUniversity of New Brunswick

The societal impacts of the microprocessor are onlybeginning to be envisioned. The one thing that is clear isthat our children will inhabit a radically different worldfrom the one in which their parents live. How are we to

prepare them for this new age, one commonly referred to as aninformation age, but one that may better be thought of as aknowledge age? Educators are on the front line of thischange.

In an information age, the distinction betweeninformation and knowledge may be more important than everbefore. If we see data, information, knowledge, and wisdomon a continuum, an understanding of the differentiation ofeach of these sources of hurl:an choice will be crucial. It isalso important to differentiate between education andtraining. "Education" means the development of a generalknowledge base out of which can spring the wisdom of educatedchoices. "Training" focuses on the transfer of data andinformation so that appropriate action may be taken.Traditionally, the nominal emphasis in schools has been oneducation, but in reality much tine has been spent ontraining. Increasingly, schools may focus on education inthe broader sense of the word, as other institutions andautomation begin to take on the task of training.

In contrast, the distinction between work and play maydiminish. As the microprclessor penetrates the workplace,work as we currently know it will change dramatically. lhasechanges will force us to re-examine our notions of the natureof work and its place in our lives. The work-play dichotomywill dissolve into a work-Learning-recreation continuum. Manyof our activities will end up at surprising new points on thecontinuum, and perhaps few or none of them will be undertakenfor pay. The place of education may be located at all pointsalong the continuum: the workplace, the learning place, andthe home may all occupy the same physical space.

The emergence of an information society has many socialimplications. Equality of access to the sources and productsof information technology is of central importance. Although

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hardware costs are rapidly diminishing, they are still highenough to raise the spectre of a class of "information poor."This impoverishment could add one more major source ofdifferential access to social opportunity. For instance, itis already the case that wealthier provinces have madecommitments to introduce tectnologies that poorer provinceshave not yet considered. Further, in some communities,students of lesser ability are restricted to drill andpractice computer usage, whilst more able children aretreated to the luxuries of solving problems using computerprogramming and the like. Such discrimination could createan unfortunate new dichotomy in educational wealth whichcould contribute to one of the less desirable scenarios foran information society, one in which there will be twoclasses of citizens: the very small pilot (or programmer)class, and the much,larger cabin crew (or user) class, andbetween these classes there would be no opportunities forupward mobility. The special needs of specific subgroups .1the community will require a concerted effort on the part ofhardware and software developers if the benefits ofmainstream resources are to be equitably distributed. Thehandicapped and the elderly, for example, can benefit fromharctiare designed to.meet their needs. Ignoring their needsfor adaptation could increase the alienation, alreadyexpurienced by many of them.

As the nature of the workplace changes, new employmentissuca will have to be dealt with by government, industry,and the educational community, as well as the individualworker. The issues are related not so much in the increaseor decrease in empaoyment opportunities triggered byinformation technology as to the examination of the very

4nature of work, training, and lifelong education.

Given the questions raised, what might the responses ofthe educational community be?

When does one introduce microcomputers, for example, intothe classroom? How many computers are appropriate, and inwhat areas of the curriculum will they be most beneficial?These questioni have yet to be answered, but in my opinionthe introduction of computers is most creatively effectedwhen children are just starting to become literate andnumerate, that is, in the primary classroom.

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Introducing children to computers at the time they startschool has a number of advantages. First, young children arequite likely to be free of sex-stereotypical responses to thetechnology. Second, their reactions to errors are not asdeeply entrenched as they will later become. Becausecoeputer programming provides an environment in which errorsare a challenge for improvement, young children are presentedwith an extraordinary opportunity for cognitive growth.

The computer should not be employed as a separate entitywith a contentless program; rather, it should be integratedwith all subject matter in the curriculum. The child wouldlearn to read and write using a word processor as one of manytools available to assist in developing skills. By learningto program in a computer language specifically designed tocreate a facilitative mathematical enviroftent, such as LOGO,the child begins to work with numbers and spatial concepts.The computer will not replace effective traditional means ofteaching literacy and numeracy, but will be an addition tothe stock-in-trade of a creative learning environment.

To date, there is no evidence to show that young peopleworking with computers in schools become more isolated orsocially restricted than other children. /n fact, thcopposite seems to be true. An increase in communicativenessand cooperation of students using computers, however, may bea function of the scarcity of hardware; the sharing ofmicrocomputers is the norm in many schools.

The impoverished quality of the currently availablesoftware may make it appropriate for schools to wait untilthere axe richer program resources before purchasinghardware. This is logical if the students are seen only asusers of externally created software. Many educators,however, see learners as active agents in their ownintellectual development and envision the greatest potentialof the microcomputer in the interactivity possible whenstudents are programming or using software to assist in the

creation of written text. This is possible now.

The absence of appropriate software may be a blessing indisguise. While the poverty of content may create moreeducational technological agnostics than one might hope for,it also provides the necessary time to acclimatize ourselvesto the possibilities at hand, and may result in materialsthat will be needs-driven rather than imposed from outside

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the educational community. Software development cannot beleft to the software developers. Educators must have thelion's share of responsibility indevelopment if thematerials are to be useful to students. Some observersbelieve that the potential for software development will notbe realized until the childrewwhe have been exp2sed tocomputers at an early age reach maturity. If this predictionis correct, we have a decade or two to go before we will betreated to the potentials now hinted at.

This brings us to the teacher and the curriculum. /t hasbeen feared that the computer would make inroads on thetraditional content areas of curricula and on the need forteachers. Although it is true that our view of what is"core" to a curriculum is subject to societal changes inconsensus, it is crucial that young people be exposed to thehumanities and the social sciences if they are to place inperspective the wonders that science and technology havewrought. Further, the science and art of exEert systems andintelligent computer-assisted instruction have a long way togo before they wilt replace an experienced teacher. Ofcourse, there may be times when the explorations of a childare best monitored by a sensitive, intelligent resourceperson, but there ere many other times when a cceputer coulddo a.more accurate, consistent, and patient job.. The day maybe near at hand when the first-class teacher will participateonly in high-level teaching interactions, with the aid of abank of automated asaistants. Teachers must be educated todo what they do well better, in consort with the high-technology communications media.

TLe values of personal autonomy, flexibility, andcreativity, if they are high on our list of educationalgoals, are certainly within the grasp of a 'knowledge-agecurriculum. Those involved in the socialization of our younghave a challenging task before them. Questions must beraised regarding the priorities in a creatiVe 'curriculum forthe future education of our children. If ioriority is givento the opportunity for every child to be challenged to his orher full potential, an information age offere'some uniquepossibilities. For example, job differentiation based ondifferences in physical strength is obsolete. Of course,questions emerge as to whether verbal and quantitative skillsare distributed differentially between the sexes. With thedevelopment of -new technologies, howe73ri especially assoftware proliferates and as new high-level Languages emerge,

sex differences will increasingly become irrelevant. Ourchildren will be able to fulfill their potential in wayspreviously unanticipated.

At present, however, women must guard against"disfranchisement" with respect to the new technologies.Women are significant users of word rtocessors, and whilethere is nothing inherent in the technology to exclude women,they must focus on attaining greater familiarity with thedesign and development of software and hardware. Withoutthese skills, they will be haapered in their participation inthe decision-making regarding the application of technologyin the home, the workplace, and the school.

I have written this essay primarily from the perspectiveof an educator. Hut as a researcher I must qualify many ofmy assertions by emphasizing that in many areas we lack thedata upon which to base our actions or policy proposals. Ifwe fail to evaluate carefully the variety of applicationscurrently available and their attendant outcomes, we do so ata great personal and cultural risk.

ROTE: Much of this paper is derived from studies conductedby the Social Impacts Subcommittee of the federal Departmentof Communications Canadian Videotex Consultative Committee.The consideration of microcomputers in education wassupported by the Social Sciences and Humanities ResearchCouncil of Canada.

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,444 '4.44 _,Kett.."44;r44 -

POLICY ISSUES RELATING TO COMPUTER USE IM EDUCATION

By Tom RichPrince Edward Island Department of Education

Today we are in the midst of a revolution brought aboutby the advent of what is often called the "new informationtechnologies" - the marriage of computers withcommunications.

The introduction of computer technology to eduzation hasbeen considerably different from that of other technologiesadopted by educators. This is apparently due to fourfactors. The first, of course, is the radical impact ofcomputers on the workforce. It has been estimated that inthe next several years between 50 and 70 per cent of all jobswill be computer related.. Thus, there is tremendous pressurefrom employers to ensure that the schools prepere students todeal with the use of the new technology in the. workplace.Second, the pressure to teach about and to use computerscomes as much from outside the educational system as fromwithin. Never before have parents and the media called uponschools to adopt a particular "machine" for use in teaching.Nor have we ever seen so much direct involvement of home -and-school associations and parent groups in purchasing computersfor schools. The third factor is the reaction of students tocomputers. A significant number seem excited and eager tobecome involved with computers. Computers appear to beunique in their ability to motivate and captivate students.Finally, those promoting the computer have stressed itspotential to change radically the educational system and theway we learn. Perhaps fuelled by the obvious interest ofyoung people in computers, a common assumption has arisenthat computers can and will change the structure ofeducation. This belief is complemented by the first factormentioned - the obvious effect of computers on the workplace.

Business and industry, and more recently.governments andparents, apparently have accepted the inevitability of thesepredictions, and are now calling for the educational systemto make use of and teach about computer technology.

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4--,44,Y444.44a= 44.44.41.4444.6.11

Policy issues

The present and potential applications of computers in

education raise a number of important issues. Some resultfrom the nature of the societal changes attributable to thewidespread use of computers, and some from their specificapplication in schools. The following is not an attempt to

provide answers, but rather b3 raise questions. In mostcases the answers will be neither simple nor readilyapparent. Only after we have more fully explored the uses ofcomputers and observ#,J their effects on society will theanswers become clear.

Work and school. The most significant use of computers in

schools to date is based on the assumption that a 'highpercnntage of jobs will be computer related. This is a

misleading idea. Although U.S, estimates have suggested upto 30 million people will engage in.computer related jobs,the vast majority of workers will require no formal trainingabout computers. Rather, it appears that the actual numberof jobs requiring specific "high-technology" training will besmall. In fact, the new technologies may cause structuralunemployment and create more low skilled jobs. Of the 20

occupations generating the most new jobs not one is in high-technology. The largest increases will come in occupationssuch as janitors, nurses' aides, sales clerks, and waitressesand waiters.

Thus, the effects of computers in and on the workplacemay be more complex than many realize. It is too simplisticto suggest that knowing how to operate or program a computeris a guarantee of future employment as the need for computer-related skills may be significantly less than anticipated,In particular, the ability to program will probably be of useto comparatively few workers; computera are rapidly learningto program themselves, and new generations of computersrequire less and less specialized knowledge. For the averagebusiness computer user, the emphasis will be on knowing howto apply the power of a computer, not on knowing how toprogram it.

There is no denying the pressing need to train andretrain Forkers and managers in order to develop the varietyof new skills required in the information society. But, asLarkin Kerwin, president of the National Research Council of

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Canada, suggests, it may be more important for schools toturn out graduates adaptable to change than ones with over-specialized skills.1 AS a result, the need for lifelongaccess to education and training opportunities will assumeincreasing importance.

Curriculum changes. . The now commonplace study of oomputer-related courses in our schools should not lead us to adopt anunnecessarily narrow approach to computer education. Thereis a real danger that our schools can become over-specialized, particularly in relation to education abouttechnology. Becker cautions that the primary purpose ofvocational education is not to fit the individual into asingle job opening, but to help the student grow as a personand develop self-confidence, standards of excelZonce, aspirit of cooperation, and a love for work.2 Vocationalprograms involving computer technology are falling short ofthe mark if their emphasis is on developing specific skills.The rapid advances in technology, ever-changing skill needs,and new job requirements demand that we produce students whoare both adaptable to change and knowledgeable about theimpact of technology on business and industry.

Instructional uses. The use of any technology must be judgedby its appropriateness. The critical standards used inevaluating other educational materials must be used toguarantee that computer software is suitable, free of bias,end high quality. By the same token, the use of the computerItself should encourage student growth and individuality andmo simply be based on rigid performance objectives? Caremust also be taken to ensure that skills being learned at thecomputer are or can be generalized to other areas.

For example, LOGO is used so that the student w411 havecontrol over the computer. Papert contends that this controlwill dramatically increase the student's reasoning ability,atan early age.4 Unfortunately, the supposed benefits fromusing techniques such as LOGO are based almost entirely onanecdotal evidence and on Papert's writing. There is no hardevidence that problem-solving learned in connection with thecomputer translates to other tasks.

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The results of computer-assisted learning are more

apparent but, to date, are hardly revolutionary. This mayreflect both the software being used and the tendency to use

it in a traditional IL:ear fashion. This is not to suggestthat the computer does not offer potential for improving somefacets of teaching and learning. Computers may beparticularly useful when combined with other presentationdevices such as videodiscs or videotape recorders andsoftware responsive to learner needs and styles. Thecomputer may also serve as a tool to assist in managinginstruction, a role for which it seems well suited.

It is necessary for educational policy-makers to adoptspecific strategies and guidelines to determine theinstructional uses of technology. TO do this, the followingissues should be addressed:

1. Does the use of computers otfer a unique educationaladvantage?

4. Is the use of computers financially possible?

3. Are interested and trained teachers available?

4. Is the comput3r's role in the program well plannedand well defined?

5. Is relevant and good-quality software available?

Equality of access. There already exists strong evidencethat sex bias in the use of computers arises early.5 In manyinstances this seems to result from unconscious reinforcementof male uses of the computer and from software that

emphasizes games and rewards that appeal ta boys. There is

also a growing concern that childrer from economicallydisadvantaged families may not have access to computers, in

either the home or the school. It is important to make

certain that these children are given equal opportunitieslearn to use computers and other technological devices. Theuse of computers in education should not result in thecreation of an elite because of the cost of the technologyor the type of student that is encouraged to use it.

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Teacher trainin . Probably the most important factor in theuse of a technology in education is the pmesence of teacherswho are trained and comfortable with that technology.Computers are currently being used by the committed few;widespread use in schools mill not take paace until themajority of teachers have had training in the use ofcomputers in education.

Change, particularly for adults, is a highly personalexperience that may require attitude change as well as skillchange. Thus, it is vitally important that staff-developmentprograms address attitudes as well as skills training.Simply mandating in-service training for all teachers in theuse of computers in education is not the answer. Resistanceto change may be centred on the way in which new programs areadministered. In fact, this may increase the fear oftechnology. Programs designed to upgrade teachers' computerskills and change attitudes toward technology must be plannedwith great care. A recent survey shows that four factorsplay a large part in determining teacher receptivity towardin-service training: teachers should be part of thedecisionmaking and planning; the programs should be well-structured and sdbstantive; they should relate directly toclassroom use; and they should be ongoing and based on localneeds. Programs designed to increase teachers' knowledge ofand willingness to use the new information technology willonly succeed if these factors are taken into consideration.8

Costs of technolota. The costs of introducing new technologyto the classroom can be high. According to most estimates,half an hour a day of computer time should be available tostudents. To meet this recommendation, about two per cent ofa school district's total educational budget or about $50 perstudent per year would have to be allocated.7 This does notseem like much until one considers that the expenditures onall instructional supplies used in education - books, films,and other matrials - amount to only 2.5 per cent of thebudget.8 There is caready sorm: evidence that expenditures oncomputers and comouter software are diverting funds frompurchases of more traditional materials. This would poselittle difficulty if these were one-time expenditures;however, the rapid Jevelopments in computer technology andthe continuing need for new computer software mean that theexpenses are ongoing. The need for a more rational approachto funding the introduction of technology into education is

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evident. Current funding programs are almost exclusivelyshort-term. A way must be found to determine effectively thecost and benefits of new technology and to budgetrealistically for the required h-rdware and software.

Conclusion

The advent of the new technologies in education has hadthe beneficial effect of forcing us to analyze both theentire educational process and the ways we are dealing withthe process. The computer undoUbtedly has a tole to play ineducation, but it cannot do the job alone. Our task is tofind appropriate uses for the computer and to help prepareour students, not just for jobs, but for the prospect oflifelong learning. The relationship between the world ofwork and education and the impact on curriclum must beclarified. Appropriate instructional uses of the computermust be determined and the problems of equality of accessdealt with. Finally, in order to implement desired changes,massive teacher in-service training may be necessary alongwith a reorganization of funding priorities.

Computers in the school may be used Zo change the way welearn, and they may become a personal learning tool forstudents. The challerge for us is to discover how to makethe marriFge between the new technologies and the school onethat will endure and produce a better system.

NOTES

1. Matas, R. "Schools Turning Out Too Many Specialists, NRCPresident Says." The Globe and Mail. 20 April 1983.

2. Becker, H.J. "How Schools Use Microcomputers."Classroom Computer Learning. September, 1983, pp. 41-44.

3. Smith, S. Address to the Conference on Computers inEducation. Ottawa: Science Council of Canada, 1983.

4. Papert, S. Mindstorms. New York: Basic Books, 1980.

5. Fisher, G. "Access to Computers." The ComputingJournal. April, 1984, pp. 24-27.

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6. Mohan, E.H. An Overview of 1n-service Education andTraining of Teachers in tho Provinces of Canada. TOronto:Council of Ministers of Education, 1982.

7. Moursund, D. "The Two-Percent Solution." TheComputing Teacher, March, 19846 pp. 3-5.

8. "Education Statistics." Service Bulletin. Vol. 4,No. 9, December, 1982, pp. 1-6.

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V14

THE CAI DILEMMA

By Robert J.D. JonSheridan College of Applied Arts and Techology

If computer-assisted learning is as good as its

proponents claim, why is there not more of it? Expectationsthat computer-assisted learning should by now be playing animportant role in education remain unfulfilled. Computershave entered every sector of our society, including ourschools, but the computer applicatim that is mostappropriate to education is the one that is least evidentthere. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is not a newphenomenon; educational technologists have / en conductingresearch and developing CAI since the mid-19( s. When CAIdid not live up .to its earlier promises, its failure could beconveniently blamed on the high cost of computar hardware.But we are entering the second decade of the microcomputerrevolution, and lack of access to computers is no longer a

valid excuse: there is hardly a school in North America thatdoes not have at least one microcomputer, and there are morecomputers in people's homes than in schools. Where is the

educational software that p;:omises to individualizeinstruction, that allows students to advance at their ownpace, that reduces the time and effort needed to acquirebasic skills, that involves the learner in engagingsimulations, and that can bring the world's store ofinformation into the classroom?

This essay examines some of the reasons for CAI's lack ofprogress and suggests some solutions to the dilemma. I willargue that the heart of the problem has little to do withcomputers, programming, or even cost. The CAI dilemma is aneducational one: we are ambivalent about the place einstructional technology in education. Our means o.1

communication shape our institutions and our relationshipswith one another. The dominant instructional communicationform, teacher-led classroom instruction, has produced aninstitution that serves many other social needs besideseducation. CAI and other twentieth-century instructionaltechnologies, if exploited to their full potential, wouldproduce an institution where LLaditional classroominstruction, if not replaced, would be largely re-placed.Why has this not happened? It is not that educators resist

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innovation; in fact, we are sometimes too quick to jump onbandwagons. The problem is that in Absorbing innovations andadapting them to fit into existing institutional structures,innovations are often stripped of their uniquecharacteristics. Added to this problem is the educator'stendency to abandon innovations before they have had a chanceto mature. As a consequence of our ambivalence, we know toolittle about the design and delivery of instructionalcommunications, even in the more mature technologies such astelevision. These arguments will be developed furtherfollowing a brief description of the current state of CAI.

The focus here will be on one application of the computerin education: computer-assisted instruction. The computerhas many other roles to play in education. It is used togenerate report cards, balance budgets, and write letters.It is an object of study in computer literacy courses. Itcan be a problem-solving tool for students calculatingstatistics, searching databases, or writing essays. Allthese are valid and thriving applications of computers ineducation. But they are not examples of CAI. In computer-assisted instruction, the student interacts with a computerprogram designed to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudesin some specific subject ares. Thl interaction is not withthe computer so much as through the computer. Just as aperson reading a book is in communication with an author, notwith the paper or the printing press, in CAI the learner'sinteraction is with the person or group of people who developinstructional programs. The range of topics and methods isas wide as the curriculum itself. Wherever teaching ortextbooks or other media are used to deliver instructionalmessages, the computer could be used to deliver the samemessage.

What is the CAI dilemma? First, is there a shortage ofeducational software? The answer is both yes and no.Because most brands of microcomputers are incompatible withone another, the selection of educational programs variesconsiderably from brand to brand. Even among the softwareofferings for popular computers, the range of educationalsoftware is very uneven. There is an abundance of simplemathematics drill and practice programs, but a dearth ofprograms using other techniques such as tutorials andsimulations. Despite the number of educational programsavailable commercially, it would be almost impossible for ateacher to find any program or series of programs whose scope

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and sequence matched the curriculum. As a result, the

computer cannot be used on a daily basis to provideindividualized instruction. The few exceptions to thisstatement are some college level courses developed on largecomputers in the 1970s, but these are found in only a fewinstitutions.

A second aspect of the problem relates to the quality ofthe available software. Often, the public-domain materialsdonated by dealers and user groups are the first pieces ofsoftware that teachers and learners use. These are almostalways of poor educational quality. Unfortunately, manyeducators derive their first impressions of CAI from theseproducts. Some of these programs don't operate in a user-friendly manner, and some don't operate at all. Few of themcome with printed support materials summarizing the contentand instructional method used in the program and suggestinghow the program could be integrated into the class. Untilrecently, few software packages were written by educators ordesigned to use systematic instructional procedures.

Fortunately, an active educational software industry hasdeveloped in the last five years. The technical quality ofthe software ilas improved, although this improvement :Ls

sometimes limited to flashy graphics and arcade games used tocamouflage and sugar-coat unimaginative lower-level drills.Nevertheless, some innovative and educationally validsoftware is emerging from small companies, many of themformed by educators. The image of the learner impaicit inthese new programs is one of a self-directed, problem-solvingperson. These developments are promising, but their effectsare still only sparsely dispersed across the curriculum.

The source of the CAI dilemma is our poor understandingof the role and effect of instructional communications ineducation. Of all forms of human communication,instructional communication is perhaps the most complex. Itis the act of extracting the essential elements from auniverse of knowledge, representing these elements as a

message in some communication medium, delivering this messageto another person, and determining whether that person notonly received the message but somehow changed as a result ofreceiving it. That change is what we call learning.Learning involves the assimilation of the message intoexisting cognitive structures and the reorganization of thecognitive structures to accommodate the new information.

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,

This definition of instructional communication does notrefer specifically to CAI, nor does it refer specifically toclassroom instruction. It is a description of the teachingact. But because it is the most visible and dominant form ofinstructional communication in our present educationalsystem, we tend to equate classroom instruction with teachingto the exclusion of other modes of instructionalcommunication. Classroom instruction was not always the mostvisible or dominant form, however, and it will notnecessarily remain so.

Classroom instruction developed in the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries, when the most efficient means ofdelivering instruction involved the grouping of a nuMber oflearners around a teacher. The size of the group wasdictated by the constraints of two-way oral communication.When the industrial revolution, urbanization, and universaleducation led to larger groups of students, they weresubdivided and placed in separate rooms so as to reduce thenoise from other groups. Chronological age was used as thebasis for forming the groups, and progress through thecurriculum became group-dependent. These obviouscharacteristice of claserolm instruction are described simplyto point out that they 4re not innate properties of learningor instruction; they are the historical product of one meansof instructional communication. Another form ofcommunication, given two centuries, undoubtedly wouldgenerate different structures. That classroom instructionstill thrives is an indication of its resilience and of theother non-instructional functions that e7hools provide.

Computer-assisted instruction is not something that isseparate from teaching: it is one form of teaching. Thepeople who write CAI programs are also teachers. They aresuccessful teachers if the intended learning takes place as aresult of the student's interaction with them through theprogram. Other forms of instructional communication, such astelevision, textbooks, and classroom instruction share thesame criteria and goals. They are all embodiments of theteaching act. CAI can be compared and contrasted to otherforms of teaching; in fact, it could replace or accompanythose other forms. If it were fully developed, CAI couldconceivably replace classroom instruction. But, when facedwith alternate forms of instructional communication in thepast, the educational system has rarely adopted them; moreoften, it has altered or ignored innovations that implied a

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substantial move away from classroom instruction. Thus,

film, radio, and television, which revolutionizedcommunications in the rest of society, have had virtually nosignificant impact on instruction.

These observations are not intended as a criticism ofeducation. There may be positive reasons for maintainingclassroom instruction as the principal form of instructionalcommunication. The point is that the failure of CAI to havean impact on education may be due not to any inherentweaknesses in CAI but to the institutionalization anddomination of a competing communication form that hassuccessfully survived in the face of other technologies.But, some would argue, why not have both CAI and classroominstruction? The answer is that both CAI and classroominstruction are complex, labor-intensive activities.Furthermore, each requires a different institutionalstructure to support it. It would be too expensive to

maintain two systems that perform the same task. It wouldmake sense to replace the less effective and/or moreexpensive form with the more effective and/or less expensiveform. Here we arrive at the uncomfortable part of theanswer: comruter-assisted instruction can, in general, be

more effective and less costly than classroom.instruction.

CAI can be more caot-effective than classroom instructionfor the same reason that any technology can be more cost-effective: the collected labor and knowledge of many peopleare focused on the one task. The learner in a CAI lessonbenefits from the efforts of many teachers, programmers,subject experts, instructional psychologists, graphicartists, and writers. Hundreds or even thousands of hourshave gone into the preparation of the lesson. The lesson isreplicable: it can be distributed to an unlimited number oflearners. The lesson is revisable: its effectiveness can bemonitored and it can be improved until it reaches a specifiedcriterion. An individual classroom teacher may be inherentlysuperior to educational software, but that individual'sinstructional communication with 30 or so classroom studentsis not replicable; it is only repeatable and then only withinsevere limits of time and space. Because of the ephemeralnature of the spoken word, that communication is not easilyrevised. Finally, classroom instruction depends primarily onthe labor of one person, the teacher, who must exerciseabilities in a variety of areas including subject matter,teaching techniques, learning theory, classroom management,

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test construction, and oral communication. It is no wonderthat teaching is such a complex and demanding task. It isalso no wonder that the perfovma Je of the task variesconsiderably from teacher to teacher, since it is linked soclosely to the person.

There are instances where higher technologies are notmore effective. CAI is not cost-effective with a smallnuMber of learners. The hundreds of hours of developmenttime needed for one hour of instruction cannot bu- justifiedfor a handful of learners unless the computer is capable ofproviding something that other media cannot provide. Forexample, computer-based flight simulators make sense becauseof the types of experiences they can offer even if the numberof pilots trained is relatively few. CAI is also likely toprove ineffective if other components in the educationalsystem are not in place to support it. For example, becauseit is a form of individualized instruction, CAI does notsupport and is not enhanced by a system that groups learnersby chronological age beginning in September and ending inJUne. For another example, if CAI were fully implemented,the majority of learners could complete the elementary andsecondary curriculum in eight years if that curriculum didnot change, a factor that would have a serious effect on thesocial and other functions provided by the school.

It is a truism that the introduction of a new technologyhas effects that range far beyond the initial problem it wasdesigned to solve. Under its impact old institutions adoptnew procedures, take on new roles, or simply fade away.Sometimes new technologies produce new institutions.Competing technologies sometimes coexist or complement oneanother, particularly during the transition period when onetechnology is replacing the other. Wind-driven ships werenot replaced by steamships overnight; indeed, the firststeamships c4rried sails in case the new technology failed.Furthermore, sailing ships and sailors did not disappear,although their roles and functions changed dramatically. Ifshipping had been equated with wind energy and sails ratherthan with the transport of goods and people, sailing shipswould still dominate the oceans.

It can be difficult to entertain the thought of usingdifferent means to reach an end when the means for reachingit have become too closely identified with that end. The newmeans may seem threatening because the changes they imply can

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be confused with changes in the purpose or goals of thesystem itself. This is the inherent conflict in using bothCAI and classroom .nstruction. Because the educationalsystem equates classroom instruction with teaching, otherforms of instructional communication are rejected orrelegated to serving as aids to support classroom instructionrather than to carry the entire instructional process. Thereis a shortage of CAI because the institution that shouldprovide it has been shaped by the (*.fects of classroominstruction to such an extent that full implementation of CAIcould not be supported without drastically changing theinstitution itself. As a result, we see scattered uses ofsingle CAI programs designed to provide remediation,enrichment, and variety as supplements to "regular"instruction.

If this analysis is correct, the solution to the CAIdilemma is not simply a matter of placing more computers orsoftware in the schools; what is needed is a change inperspective. First, there is a need to re-emphasize that,regardless of the form instructional communication may take,communication itself is a human process involving a minimumof two people, a sender and receiver, who continuallyexchange roles while interacting. In instructionalcommunications, the sender and the receiver are the teacherand the learner. Other people may enter the process,particularly as it becomes more technologically complex; butthe teacher and learner roles remain, although they may nolonger be identified with individuals. Second, there must bea disentanglement of means and ends so that the goals ofeducation are not necessarily associated with the presentmeans of reaching them - that is, the grouping of learnersinto age groups whose size and environment is determined bythe constraints of oral communication. Third, it must berecognized that different forms of instructionalcommunication require different institutional structures andthat the cost of adopting new technologies includes the costof changing these structures. Finally, educators need tochange the image of their role in the education process. Theperson who designs a CAI lesson that results in the aesiredlearning taking place is as much a teacher as the person whodelivers that lesson in a classroom. Whether these twopeople are equally effective is another question. What ismore important is the fundamental change in perspective thatrecognizes the central place of teachers in instruction but

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that opens up the instructional process to other forms ofenacting the teaching role.

Without this change in perspective, CAI and otherinstructional 'dec.hnologies will continue to play a minor rolein schoolbased education. Meanwhile, schooling will becomemore anachronistic as the society around it continues toevolve and adapt to new technologies.

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THE THORNY QUESTION OP SOFTWARE

By Louise DubucQuebec Hinistere de l'Education

The development of the microcomputer has attractedattention because of spectacular advances in the hardwareindustry. Computers first miniaturized themselves, thenmultiplied themselves, and finally became so common as to

gain entry into the classroom.

Remarkable as these successes are, one detects a feelingof incompleteness. In spite of their increased power and thepromises of friendly dialogue with them, the computers stillstutter or maintain only limited conversations with theirhuman interlocutors.

This situation is particularly flagrant in the field of

education. One sees more and more microcomputers in the

schools of industrialized nations, but most of them arereserved almost exclusively for the teaching of computerscience and programming hecause there is so little softwareavailable in the other disciplines. This is not, however,because no one complains of the scarcity of software;everyone does so. It is as though a certain reticenceprevents program designers from venturing on to the path of

educational software. If this situation is not redressed, wemay well witness the progressive disaffection of mostteachers and the use of the computer reserved more and morefor computer specialists only.

This prospect leads us to ask how we might protectourselves from such a future. There is but one solution: wemust increase the amount and the diversity of educationalsoftware. But by what means can we arrive at this

development?

The axes of software development

The pedagogical relationship is traditionally schematizedas a triad grouping of content, teacher, and student. Let ususe this as a basis to see if these elements can be thepoints of origin of three axes of software development.

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Content

Content is the first element that comes to mind becauseit seems the simplest to study. Unlike the other two polesof the relation, it does not oblige the inquirer to envisionsimultaneously all the comnonents of Imman personality and totake into account their incessant interaction. At firstglance, content appears to form a well-defined whole ofrelative stability.

Because of these characteristics, it ought 1..a be simpleenough to develop software with respect to this pole. Itwould suffice to perceive adequately the essence of thecontent, to understand separately its minute components, andto grasp their network of relations. One could thus describea complete tree of knowledge whose branches would practicallydefine the paths of learning to be adopted.

Curiously, this axis of developsent does not reflect theanticipated simplicity. First, few of us can boast ofknowing intimately all the aspects of even one academicsubject, let alone that of a field of knowledge. Such totalcomprehension would require monumental effort. Itpresupposes that one has explored each facet of all theconcepts that constitute the field as well as every relationthat positions them, each with respect to the other.Furthermore, really understanding a field is to besufficiently permeated by it to seize at once the details anethe whole. Therefore, it is far from being a simple matter.

The premise of simplicity also becomes debatable when onestops to think about the state of science. For the majorityof disciplines, the body of knowledge constitutes an imposingedifice. That does not mean that science is stable; farfrom it. Science evolves constantly and its contours are ina flux of perpetual redefinition. Every day, new discoveriesforce investigators to rethink their practice; sometimes,brilliant discoveries are made by great thinkers and bringradical paradigm changes to the whole scientific community.Moreover, contrary to the comfynting idea of a well-constructed edifice, science is neither compaetely elaboratednor totally determined. It resembles more a moving tissue ofinnumerable certitudes and hypotheses in which holes ofignorance and of the unexplained may be discerned. Themissing link in anthropology, etiological unknowns in

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medicine, and the fragility of sociological law of human

behEmiour critically demonstrate this.

Because of the difficulty of acquiring knowledge andbecause of the imprecision of the objects of discovery, it isdifficult to develop educational software relying only oncontent. These, however, are not the oaly reasons forhesitation. The main reason for dotibting this option is thatthe content is not at all equivalent to the content-to-be-learned. It is pure rhetoric to portray science as

independent of those who communicate it and appropriate it tothemselves. Things and phenomena exist independent ofpersons, but science itself exists only through our capacityto search for explanations.

The beacher

One might suppose that the second pole of the triad - theteacher - offers a more fruitful source of inspiration forsoftware designers. Educational theorists have long analyzedteachers' behavior and abundantly described their practice.Psychologists have offet:ed numerous techniques to help themstimulate learning. Educational i:echnologists have exploredin depth the total system in which they evolve and have

brought to light the conditions their environment should meetfor their teaching to be effective.

In any case, it is not at this pole that the softwaredesigners will find an immediate model to guide their inputinto the computer. The greater part of the pedagogicalliterature is focused on human teachers and virtually ignoresthe other media that could serve as conduits of knowledge.Human intervention is profoundly distinct from mediatedtreatment.

When a teacher deals with a student, both can play on

several registers at once - the cognitive and affectiveregisters, for exampae. Moreover, each immediately perceivesthe totality of signs (oral, written, gestwal) that emanatefrom his or her interlocutor. It is thus a transaction of

maximum semantic density and complexity that teaching manualsdescribe. The computer cannot be programmed to act as a

vehicle for such a richness of concomitant signs.

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Not only does the pedagogical literature tend to blur themediation phenomenon, it often disregards the content to betransmitted. This approach has the advantage of extractingthe actions common to all teaching disciplines. COnversely,the insistence on pedagogy brings with it a disadvantage: ittends to overshadow the "didactics," the only discipline tocombine the examination of a field of knowledge with aserious study of the techniques that effectively transmit itsspecific content.

Finally, the literature on teaching often neglects thefact that teacher and student experience the pedagogicrelationship at the same time. The action of the teacher andthat of the student are singularly contemporaneous in theclassroom and do not suffer the ineluctable time Lag betweenthe programming of a course and its delivery 'by computer.There is a significant difference between deferred teachingand real-time teaching.

The effect of these last two points is that teachingmanuals never describe to the programmer the actualtransmission of specific subject matter, nor indicate how thesoftware could imitate the instantaneous contact (hic etnunc) that is established between teacher and student.

The student

It appears risky to base software development on thecontent or the teacher. The former brings with it too manyshadowy zcaes; the actions of the Latter have not yet beensufficiently elucidated to be coded into a machine. Thedanger is perhaps less great if we approach the problem fromthe direction of the third element of the triad: the student.This Last direction possibly presents more solid ground. Ifthe knowledge of the expert and the experience of the teacherare not available to each of us, we can at least all boast ofbeing perpetual students and thus of being in a position toscrutinize the way we apprehend things.

Despite a certain air of familiarity, however, the poleof the student is also surrounded by mystery, if only becausethe "student" archetype masks :eality. With respect to agiven learning task, there is never a homogeneous group butrather a plethora of individualities distinguished by theircultural and scientific backgrounds, cognitive styles,

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talents, levels of intellectual development, or anycombination of such differences. This is the first mystery.The software designer will always be confronted with a

composite public that is all the more difficult to encompassbecause no typology of learners will permit a confidentcategorization of each individual of any target population.

The diversity of students' ways of learning constitutesthe second mystery. Many theoretical approaches offer theirvarious laws of learning. The assumptions they contain areattractive enough to support a certain following. We adoptbehavioristic explanations without much hesitation because itis true that learning can be induced by operant conditioning.The discoveries of cognitive psychology are accepted withthe same ease because learning can also result from suddeninspiration (insight). But diverse demonstrations willconvince no one totally so long as no system can explain withequal power all the various forms of learning. Howeverchastning it may be felt, the best we can do is hope for theemergence of a definitive, ,Inified theory.

The system

None of the elements in the pedaaogical relationconstitutes by itself a final answer to the problem withwhich we are faced: how to approach the development ofeducational software. There is nothing surprising in this.The examination of individual elements of the triad makesanalysis possible, but remains an artifice that hides theconnections between the elements and says nothing about the

fact that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.Yielding to this approach, one abandons a holistic point ofview and drifts little by little toward a reductionist visionof things.

But if we consider the entire system - the content, theteacher, the student, and their relations - instead of theelements, can we be sure we will arrive at a solution to theproblem? Nothing is less certain. The relations among theelements are just as difficult to decipher as the elementsthemselves. Though we know they exist, we are unable to nameor characterize them. As for the totality of the system, itis composed of so many unique situations that its complexitydefies any encompassing perspective.

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Conclusion

In the face of such arguments, one might be tempted toabandon the project before it is even begun, and to concludethat it is not worth the effort and the risk to developeducational software. Such a conclusion is patentlyunacceptable.

If these thoughts seem to lead to an impasse, it isbecause the problem is badly framed. The key to softwaredevelopment is to consider the problem as one not of theorybut of action.

We need educational software. We need it dt every pointwhere schools are currently having difficulty in fulfillingtheir role. The nodal points of difficulty are many.

Certain disciplines are badly served by existing teachingmaterials. Such is the case, for exampae, in disciplines forwhich learning requires much laboratory work. A great manycomputer simulations would be appropriate here. Certainpedagogical functions demand more time than a teacher canprovide. Special education and programs for the gifted areexamples of this; drill and,practice programs, correctiveexercises, and tutorials could be extensions of the teacher.Certain learning activities are tedious in their traditionalform, while others would be considerably enriched by moreadequate tools for intellectual work. Various softwareprograms could contribute to answering this need.

It is widely observed, for example, that learning thewritten language is unpopular with students. They resistthis study so intensely that even at the university leveltheir spelling and syntactical skills are insufficient toallow them to communicate properly. To overcome thisobstacle, more and more teachers are using word processingsoftware to help students improve their writing. If placedin group projects that motivate them (classroom journals,school plays, or adventure stories), students soon discoverthe benefits of a language properly mastered. Teachers ofmathematics apply the sane reasoning when they use electronicspreadsheets to help students realize the necessity of usingbasic mathematical concepts correctly.

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Research projects provide another example of an areawhere powerful software has a role to play. Data-gathering,filing, and retrieval are activities that have traditionallydiscouraged students. Given software capable of accessingdata banks, data manipulation becomes an opportunity for

discovery that students will no longer shy away from.

Overcrowding is perhaps the greatest problem encounteredin the classroom. Confronted by classroom sizes that varyfrom thirty students in primary grades to a hundred or morein secondary grades, the teacher is unable personally to helpor even follow with any regularity the progress of individualstudents. Computer-managed instruction programs minimizethis problem and thus render great services in the classroom.

In the context of action, therefore, useful ideas are notlacking on how to approach the scarcity of classroomsoftware. The path of development is easily outlined: it isto overcome the previous difficulties in order to give the

student the best context for learning. And if we are assailedby doubts when the problem to be analyzed leads usinsidiously toward the distressing gaps in the science ofeducation, bat us remember one important axiom: ourprogression must be, founded on empiricism and driven bycreativity. Whatever else we may think about it, leatningremains magical. Then why not wish to see programs becomethaumaturges?

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PLA/MING FOR TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGEPOSTSECCNDARY INSTITUTIONS

By James A. HumphriesGrant MacEwan Community College

Today there is virtually unanimous agreement that we areliving in an age of rapid technological change. Cars,industrial machinery, and even appliances containmicroprocessors that control processes, monitor systems, andinstantaneously provide information to the operators*Consumer electronics is a whole new industry; microprocessor-based toys and games, digital watches, wrist-radios, and evenwrist-televisions are all widely available. Businesses areusing microcomputers for financial management and wordprocessing tasks.

Educational institutions a so have acquired technology atAn unprecedented rate. Administrative personnel performscheduling tasks and access information pertaining tostudents, faculty, registration, and finance. Libraries andlearning centres offer terminal-equipped carrels andcomputerized research systems. Computer-assisted instruction(CAI) and computer-managed instruction (CMI) enhance thelearning process, and many institutions offer programs incomputer- and technology-related areas.

The most important technological issue in postsecondaryeducation is institutional planning. Failure to coordinatethe acquisition and USG of automated instructional andsupport media can result in chaos. This paper examines someof the problems resulting from unplanned acquisition, andoffers some concrete suggestions for avoiding these problems.

One major problem that arises from lack of planning isthe proliferation of hardware systems, especially computers.If different departments in an institution obtain differenttypes of computer equipment, the risk of incompatibility is aserious one. Software programs that run on one system oftencannot be run on anothe:. without great difficulty. Indeed,it may not even be possible to share information of interestto two users because of data-storage media incompatibility.And, if hardware is not properly chosen, users will be unable

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to have their units "talk" to one another, and will be

prevented from sharing one another's computing resources.

A second potential problem is obsolescence. Rapidinnovations make systems technologically obsolete almost as

soon as they are delivered. Practically speaking, two orthree years seems to be the useful lifetime of most systems.If no plan has been developed to relocate the used systemswithin the institution to meet other needs, two alternativesare left: shelve the systems or sell them for their salvagevalue.

Under-utilization is also a concern. Once the "new toy"effect has worn off, faculty may be reluctant to continueusing new equipment if they lack technical knowledge oraccess to it. The same problem may result from failure toconsider fully the implications of curricular integration;new thchnology cannot merely be inserted into an existingcourse without prior thought having been given to whatobjectives it is meant to fulfill and how.

A final problem has to do with the determination of thereal cost and benefits of educational technology. There islittle difficulty dealing with capital acquisition costs, butwhen ii comes to demonstrating corresponding educationalgains in terms of dollars, decision makers are sometimes leftgroping.*

Within postsecondary institutions, a number of things canbe done to alleviate these four problems and to ensureefficient and effective use of instructional technology.Inherent in all of the following suggestions is the

assumption that technology is not the final solution to all

* Fielden, however, has a solution to this dilemma. Hesuggests a five-phase approach to performing a cost-benefitanalysis for educational technology. These phases includeidentification, decision, measurement, and data collection,analysis, and presentation. Fielden's thorough and flexiblemethod involves a differentiation between instructionaloutcomes and qualitative benafits, and deals with expenditurereductions, time savings, and investment appraisal techniquessuch as payback period and net present value .1

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educational problems, but rather a significant step towardsolutions. Programming, procedures, instructional sequences,and methodologies must all proceed from a clear understandingof goals and objectives. Technology will be involved, ofcourse, but not necessarily in all facets of theinstructional endeavor.

Be prepared to have some traditional assumptions Aboutlearning, instruction, curriculum, and evenadministration severely challenged. New vehicles forimparting skills and knowledge demand new approaches.

Survey the existence and use of technology within theinsitution. Is there a possibility of expanding the useof current systems?

Establish an institution-wide committee responsible tothe president for making recommendations on thecoordination, integrAtion, and compatibility of furthertechnological acquisitions and for sharing informationabout them. It is essential that an instructionalofficer be a participating member of this committee.

Identify capital-intensive instructional programs andtheir current inventories. Then, with reference to

instructional goals and obiectives, make a detailed five -year financial plan that allows for scheduled replace4entof capital items on inventory. Keep government fundingofficers aware of these plans.

Develop and implement a long-term, in-service trainingplan, especially for the computer area, that includes thepresident and executive officers. The in-servicetraining must incorporzte a significant amount of hands-on work; that is, participants must actually use thecomputer systems. Being aware of specific instructionalneeds is compaementary to, but quite different from,knowing what technology is available to meet those needs.The skills, knowledge, and attitudes developed during theinitial planning stages will form the building blocks forfuture, broader planning efforts.

Provide significant incentive funds for special faculty-initiated projects. Innovative uses of computer softwareand audiovisual instructional media will always be in

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demand, especially if they are developed in response to aspecific need.

Negotiate price reductions with hardware manufacturers.Three-for-one and two-for-one deals have been availablefor limited periods for several years. Somemanufacturers may be interested in establishing a "modelsite" within the institution to show off their softwareor hardware.

Consider requiring students to purchase microcomputersand appropriate software. Printers for producing hardcopy could be installed with strategically locatedmicrocomputers at the institution. Some manufacturers arewilling to negotiate institutional lease-purchaseagreements. In the future, governments may provideadditional money through loans and grants.

Consider installing desktop microcomputers and local areanetworks for administrators. The microc.mputers can beused for functions such as budget preparation, wordprocessing, and handling of other types of administrativedata. Local area networks enable all microcomputersystems in the network to exchange information amongthemselves or to access institutional files resident ona host minicomputer or mainframe. The local area networkcan also be used for the sharing of information thatseems to waste so much valuable time at meetings.

Undoubtedly, some of these suggestions, if implemented,will be costly. If properly planned for over a number ofyears and examined in terms of expected outcomes or futureeducational benefits, however, the expenditures will bejustified. And, to paraphrase an original technologist,Commodore Grace Hurray Hopper, the key question is not "Howmuch will it cost if we do it?" but rather "How much will itcost if we DON'T do it?"

NOTES

1. Fielden, J. "A Way of Costing Educational Technology."Journal of Educational Technology Systems. Vol. 12, No. 2,1983-84, p. 203.

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EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

By Denis HlynkaFaculty of Education, University of Manitoba

The field of educational technology has developed as aseries of movements, sometimes related, but more oftendiscrete. The evolution of educational technology in Canadacan be summarized as follows:

1920s Introduction of "visual education" and field trips

1930s Educational films; Educational radio

1950s Educational television

1960s Programmed instruction

1980s Microcomputers and new information technologies

Paul Saettler suggests that there are two distinctapproaches to the discussion of educational technologies.1The first, a physical science perspective is "essentially ahardware approach, stressing the importance of teaching aids,and its origin lies in the application of physical science tothe education and training system."2 The physical sciencedefinition, sometimes called technology in education,presents the audiovisual viewpoint. Technology is synonymouswith the machine and the value of the machine in improvinghuman efficiency. While, historically, the audiovisual fieldwas a 1940s phenomenon, there is nevertheless a strongcomponent within the contemporary computer revolution, asevidenced by those who find most interest in computerhardware, compatibility issues, and by those who look forwardto the 'bigger and better' machines.

The second, a behavioral science view, "is essentially asoftware approach, and refers to the application of learningprinciples to the direct and deliberate shaping ofbehavior."3 In this model, the focus is on a technology ofeducation. Here, the specific medium takes second place to asystematic, define-develop-evaluate paradigm. First, theneeds and audiences are defined; second, an appropriate

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medium is selected; third, the resulting product isevaluated.

Davies carries the Saettler approach one step further andsuggests a third, more systemic, gestaltic, holistic, orartistic approach which is rapidly becoming the focus of the1980s.4 The systemic view proceeds from the limitations ofthe systematic approach, so often criticized as being coldand dehumanizing, and places stress on the management oflearning within a heuristic decision-making framework. Thusthe systemic definition of educational technology containsall the systematic elements, but adds an individual - andtherefore human - dimension to what educational technology isall about.

With the introduction of each new technology, researcherswere extremely active in studying the comparativeeffectiveness of the various media: they hoped to find theone .best "master" medium. Inavitably, the studies showedthat there was no "best" way of teaching. Film was as goodas any other medium, and so was television. Today, we seemto need to repeat the exercise, substituting the Latestmedium, the microcomputer. The most appropriate summary ofthis situation is the classic understatement of WilburSchramm. He referred to the results of his work ontelevision, but any other educational medium might equallywell be substituted.

"No informed person can say simply that television is bador that it is good for children. For SOME children,under SOME conditions, SOME television is harmful. ForOTHER children under the same conditions, or for the samechildren under OTHER conditions, it may be beneficial.For MOST children, under MOST conditions, MOST televisionis probably neither particularly harmful, norparticularly beneficial."5

The 1980s saw a new technology burst forth on an

unsuspecting world with the invention of the microchip, whichchanged large, bulky, ponderous computers into small, slick,and extremely fast microcomputers. And the microcomputer wasonly the first of what became a series of new technologiesdestined to implant themselves into society and intoeducation.

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What are the new technologies and what is their impact oneducation? That question is a major concern of educators andtechnologists around the world. In the literature publishedbefore 1980, it is virtually impossible to find reference tothe keywords, commuracations and information technologies.In books and journals published after 19807 the referencescome thick and fast. Three examples are offered here:

The fourth edition of the notable De Fleur/Ball-Rokeach text, Theories of MASS Communication (1982),devotes a chapter to "emerging media systems,"described as "if not themselves candidates for massmedia of the near future, (they will) most probablylay the foundations of the emergence of new mediasystems."6 The technologies identified arecomputers, cable television, and communicationsatellites.

Probably the first book to explore the educationalimplications of the new technologies is Hawkridge'sNew Information Technology in Education,7 whichdeals with three specific technologies - computers,videotex, and videodisc.

A most useful document is the American Corporationfor Public Broadcasting's TelecommunicationsTechnologies and Public Broadcastin .15 This reportconsiders 14 technologies: teletext, videotex,specialized cable, interactive cable, video-cassettes, teleconferencing, microcomputers, high-definition television, low-power television,subscription television, multipoint distributionservices, digital audio, subsidiary communicationsauthorization, and direct broadcast satellites.

Research on the educational potential of the newtechnologies is not lagging. However, in any attempt toassess the future, the "bottom line" must be a response tothe key question of whether or not educational technologiesimprove learning.

Joseph Rakow in The Audiovisual Myth in America9identifies four myths and demonstrates theirpervasive power. These myths are: first, thattraditional methods of instruction are inherentlybad; second, that instructional media are the

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solution; third, that the content conveyed by the

media is precisely the content of greatest value;and fourth, that traditional methods of instructionand instructional technology methods are mutuallyexclusive. An exploration of these myths in

relation to the new information technologies 3hoaldbe undertaken.

Anthony Oettinger and Nikki Zapol, in WillInformation Technologies Help Learnin ? concludethat "There is a growing realization that it is hardto perceive learning needs adequately, hard to

assess the value of technology for learning, and

hard to deploy people, processes, and toolseffectively...Our analysis shows that how technologycan help learning is a far more complex questionthan most discussions of the subject have taken itto be." 10

John Lee's Mentors and Monitors: Mass Media in theCanadian Classroom offers a post-mortem of a uniqueattempt to design a complete college "for the

extensive use of television teaching in itsclassrooms and laboratories."11

Elsewhere I have described some of the other keydocuments that deal with this question.12

It is not my intention to recommend that educators shy

away from the new technologies. However, the full-scaleadoption of half-developed ideas will not further the

advancement of either education or technology. It can be

argued that none of the older technologies has had a

significant effect on education. If all film projectors or

all television sets were to be removed immediately fromclassrooms, few teachers or students would notice the

difference. And yet, both film and television have made amajor impact on society as a whole. Is the same true of thecomputer revolution? Will its societal impact be far moreprofound than its classroom impact?

Thomas Ed 1 his enthusiasm, once predicted that "Inten years, te as the principal medium of teaching willbe as obsole s the horses and carriages are now...Visualeducation, the imparting of exact information through the

motir- picture camera, will be a matter of course in all our

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schools."13 Edison was wrong about the motion picturecamera. Will computers "become a matter of course in al? ourschools?" Will the new information technologies improvelearning? As of this moment, the unsatisfactory answer isthat we simply don't know.

NOTES

1. Saettler, Paul. A History of Instructional Technology.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968, p. 1.

2. Davies, Ivor. The Management of Learning. London:McGraw-Hill, 1971, p. 5.

3. Ibid., p. 7.

4. Davies, Ivor. "Educational technology: A context fortheory-building in the 1980s." Resources in Context.Proceedings of the AMTEC '82 conference. Winnipeg:Association for Media and Technology in Education ih Canada,1982, p. 2-12.

5. Schramm, Wilber; Lyle, Jack; and Parker, Edwin,Television in the Lives of Our Children. Stanforet, Calif.:Stanford University Press, 1961, p. 1.

6. De Fleur, Melvin L. and Ball-Rokeach, Sandra. Theoriesof Mass Communication, 4th ed. New York: Longman, 1982,p. 101.

7. Hawkridge, David. New Information Technology inEducation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.

8. Corporation for Public Broadcasting. TelecommunicationsTechnologies and Public Broadcasting. Washington:Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 1984.

9. Rakow, Joseph. "The Audiovisual Myth in America: Fillingthe Cracks of Educational Technology." Journal of Education.Vol. 162, No. 8, 1980, pp. 34-54.

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10. Oettinger, Anthony, and Zapol, Nikki. °Will Information

Technologies Help Learning?" Teachers College Record.Vol. 74, No. I, 1972, pp. 5-53.

11. Lee, John. "Mentors and Monitors: Mass Media in theCanadian Classroom." Communications in Canadian Society..Toronto: Copp Clark, 1975, p. 104.

12. Hlynka, Denis, and Hurly, Paul. "CorrespondenceEducation and Mass Media: Some Issues and Concerns."Programmed Learning and Educational Technology. Vol. 19,No. 2, 1982, pp. 158-165.

Hurly, Paul, and Hlynka, Denis. "Prisoners of the Cave:Can Instructional Technology Improve Education?" Proceedingsof the Fourth Canadian Symposium on Instructional Technology.Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada, 1983, pp. 231-8.

13. Weir, H. "What Edison Would Like to Do with theMovies." Colliers. Vol. 75, No. 8, 28 February 1925,pp. 20-21.

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By Michel UmbriacoTel4-universite

Integration and intelligence, crucial themes in anyexamination of the new technologies in education, areconstantly expanding concepts. Some of the currentexperiments in the integration of technologies and in theexpansion and replication of human intelligence areindications of future reality. Using the results of theseexperiments to create a desirable scenario for the future isnot strictly an analytical exercise. Instead, it requires abalance of ethics and imagination, of valees and discourse,of present needs and future planning. In this paper, a viewof the present soeio-educational context is presented, someof the impacts of the new educational technologies areconsidered, and the desirable values connected with theintroduction of technologies in education are outlined.

Socio-educatioral context

New technologies in education have been the subject of somany reports, articles, and commentaries that a comparativeanalysis of the socio-educational context in which they areintroduced becomes hazardous if we do not first clarify ourown values. A brief discussion of some of the elements inthat context foliows.

Western economies have recently been characterized bystrong growth without corresponding job creation. Thepercentage of the population who are empaoyed has beendecreasing since World Wax II. Some authors forecast anacceleration of that decrease in the next 10 years owingto mechanization, robotics, and electronic offices.'Others even propose a new way of looking at formal paidwork versus an informal economy of creative occupations.2

The population in Western society, including Canada, hasbeen aging since the 1950s. This will continue to haveimportant effects on education, health care, and theeconomy in general.

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41) Technological progress is an evolutionary process, areconfirmation of the past rather than a revolutionarymovement. The Western and Canadian social parameterswill be little altered by the introduction of newtechnologies unless we implement purposeful changes.Some aspects of the new technologies may actuallyfacilitate changes. The current tidal wave ofinformation and knowledge is fundamentally altering the

traditional distinctions between fields of study; we evenspeak of foreseeable obsolescence in some sectors ofknowledge. This reorganiLation of knowledge encouragescontinuity Ind interrelations rather than thetraditional compartmentalization inherent in the uniquesubject approach. In addition, technological developmentis leading .t.40 the computerized integration of mediawhich, in turn, will be greatly affected by the advent offifth-generation "intelligent" computers. Thistechnological innovation may permit the creation ofexpert systems and more "natural" interfaces betweenhumans and machines.

Technological change brings with it the establishment ofa now set of values aimed ac changing some of our Westernparadigms. These new values favor humanism and an activeindividualism that may be characterized by:

(a) magnified or, alternatively, reduced confidence inlarge orcjanizations, such as corporations,governments, and unions;

(b) increased importance of small-scale work performedby the individual with a consciousness of his or herplace LI the larger community;

(c) accelerating awarenesP of the social, cultural, andbiological environment.

Education in Canada is a provincial matter. Canadianregional and provincial disparities in the 2conomic,socio-cultural, and educational sectors may complicatesome developments; from the national point of view, thosedisparities have many disadvantages. Powever, they alsohave the immense advantage of favoring democratization,decentralization, local authority and reponsibility, andthe beginning of pluridultural dialogue.

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Technology, old and new, is relatively little used in theformal educational system, which remains widelystructured around a person-to-person relationship betweena teacher and a student. An exception to this isdistance education, but even there reliance is stillplaced on the book as the primary medium for conrsedelivery.

Finally, how do we actually perceive education? Theeducational process is continuous and permanent.Teachers, technologies, and educational systems areregarded essentially as tools that can either help orhinder an individual who seeks a coherent interfacebetween himself or herself and an expanding universe ofknowledge.

Impacts of new technologies in education

Technology provides a high degree of accessibility toknowledge. This accessibility has been reinforced by thespread of microcomputers - powerful and relatively simpletools, both affordable and useful. However, accessibilityand a willingness on the part of students to use thesetechnologies are curbed by the difficulty of changingpeople's attitudes and by the disappointing quality ofavailable software. We seem to be caught in a viciouscircles there are few users because there is little relevantsoftware and there is little relevant software becauae thereare few users. None the less, technologies should and willbe progressively integrated into education, particularly indistance situations. It is important to remember that theintraction between two humans that takes place in a face-to-face learning situation has not been replaced or eliminated.

Technologies ale powerful tools, and their power isincreased by integrating them. Further developments can beexpected as a result of current research and development onincreased integration and the coming of the expert system,which will be able to simulate more and more closely thehuman reasoning process. In effect, the first major impactof technology in education is to stimulate furtherpossibilities for testing and potential development.

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The second major impact may be in the application of theprinciple of "more and faster." The new and very fasttechnologies are already being used as tools of intellectualproductivity for saving time in research and in the sharingof information. That impact is positive if the time savedallows individuals to enrich their face-to-face interactions.

The relative shate of financial resources for educationin Canada, as in many countries, has been stagnating ordeclining for some years. The current high costs oftechnology have an impact on the funding as it will bedifficult, in these conditions, to invest sufficiently in theproduction of necessary ricl relevant learning materials.This tightening of finances may also cause the technophilesto advance ideas of increasing productivity and cost-effectiveness through the use of these technologies. Thatkind of rationalization may cause a negative reaction,leading to rejection, on the part of the 'Alchnophobes.

Another major impact relates to the credibility that maybe attributed to the system itself. A centuries-old debateexists between the power of knowledge versus criticalintelligence. In the terms defined by Michel Serresi,3 thepurpose of intelligence is creativity, and the purpose ofknowledge is power and security. If the system indeedbecomes credible, and if it is believed when it "speaks,"then it may be useful in the imparting of knowledge, but notin the encouragement of intelligence.

Still another impact is the possible simulation ofteaching by the new technologies. This may be most useful indistance education or in training large numbers of people ina short time. Some surveys of successful distanceinstitutions demonstrate two common elements. The first isthat they do not use any one medium or technology as the solesupport for a learning activity. Instead, they rely on thesynergy of several technologies. Second, they providecontact between a tutor and small groups of students. Someresearch seems to show that only 30 per cent of the adultpopulation in universities are capable of self-teaching withonly the aid of media. The large majority of adult learnersneed a human contact whose feedback may vary from simpleencouragement to explanations that are very close totraditional teaching.

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These major impacts, present or foreseeable in the nearfuture, require us to choose whether or not we wish to act tocurb or to ampaify some consequences of the new technologies.To do this, we must define what is daeirable.

Desirable values and challenqes

When we live in a time of transformation, we must rebuildthe future. This enterprise cannot succeed unless it isconducted with serenity and without panic. Socio-culturalchanges never happen suddenly, and by developing informationtechnologies with care we will be taking into our own handsthe responsibility for our creations and our choices. Suchplanning can be baced on two values that signify the positiveand harmonious development of people and a balance betweenthe concerns of the group and those of the individual. Thefirst of these is increased autonomy in education. Theindividual should be able to use intelligence, knowledge, andimagination to assert his or her own power of learning.Second, an equilibrium between the individual's acceptance ofresponsibility for herself or himself and the acknowledgementof the group inherent in the concept of democracy should beestablished. In tarms of technology, this means movingbeyond user-friendly systems to networks and databanks thatallow participation, communication, and interrelation betweenusers. Human parameters must be taken into consideration indevelopment so that new technologies not only are user-friendly but can be adapted to human scales. They mustpromote the decentralization of knowledge creation andpropagation.

Bearing in mind these values, along with the socio-cultural context and the actual or predictable impacts of newtechnologies in education, three challenges for Canadianeducators are highlighted. The first urgent challenge is,without dodbt, the promotion of a pluricultural dialogueamong educators, students, and employers. The secondchallenge relates to integration, both social andtechnological. .The needs of people must be the priority inpromoting participation and in preserving the culturaldynamic. This priority must be established even at the riskof prejudicing technological development. Integration canenhance the reconciliation of the divided approach inherentin anthropocentrism and technocentrism.

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The third challenge is to restore intelligence as thedominant system that includes knowledge as a by-product.Doing so requires a vast process of combined research andaction, well-founded on innovation, imagination, invention,and sharing.

Conclusion

We can assume that new technologies used in educationwill either have or not have desirable impacts, according toour ability to accept the challenges of their intelligentintegration in the continuing and permanent educationalprocess. These new, powerful, and promising tools should bethe starting point of an era of incentive for pluriculturaldialogue and for an era of increasing quality of education inCanada.

NOTES

1. Valaskakis, Kimon. "L'Education: demain," Scienceet Technologie. Vol. 3, No. 1, avril 1984.

2. Berghofer, D.E. Educational Policy Development in theInformation Society. Toronto: Association of CanadianCommunity Colleges, 1982.

3. Serres, Michel. "La Haute Couture de la Connaissance,"Autrement. No. 57, fevrier 1984.

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NEW CONNECTIONS BETWEEN TECHNIMOGT AND EDUCATION

By Sylvia GoldCanadian Teachers' Federation

The new technologies run like a current throughout ourlives. We have only to think of communications (includingtelevision and satellites), of computers (in banking andother consumer-related fields), and electronic manufacturingdevices (such as robots) to get a sense of their power. Theshort-term and long-term potential of the present generationof technological development is awesome.

I propose to identify several issues that are part of thecurrent educational scene and that will, in my opinion,continue to be major concerns in the future.

The case of the school drop-out is the first issue.Current Canadian estimates indicate that between 20 and 25per cent of elementary- and secondary-school students becomedrop-outs. Formerl Y. the labor market could absorbsignificant numbers of young people who left school beforeacquiring the degree of literay required to function in thetrades or skilled occupations, but it cannot do so today.The andereducated youth of the 1980s require specializedupgrading services to help them fit successfully intnsociety. Such assistance is necessary not only to enablethem to become self-supporting but also to prevent theirrebelling against an affluent society that appears to beshutting them out. This student group - older adolescents -may be prime candidates for service from private-sectoreducational interests. "Learn-at-home" software packagesalready are being developed specifically for young people whodrop out of the formal educational system. Although schoolshave been cnncerned about the needs of the unconventionallearner, they have not done well in serving them, and theselearners may welcome private initiatives to help them.

The second significant issue is the situation of thefemale student and worker. Enrollment figures indicate thatgirls continue to select courses that prepare them fordisappearing occupations and that they are far behind boys inenrolling in future-directed science and technology courses.Yet ehey will enter into and stay in the labor market in

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greater numbers, and more women will become self-supportingor sole-support parents. Leaving aside the cogent argumentsfor utilizing the intelligence of half our population and thesatisfaction women, like men, derive from career progression,economic independence is reason enough for the educationsystem to ensure that female students are enrolled inincreasing numbers in technology-relafed courses.

A third major issue is the influence of employer groups.Historically, employers have lobbied for credentials andskill training. They were quite clear and rigorous about theskills they demanded in potential employees, from penmanshipto punctuality. The education system must decide whether itcan meet employer demands in the new context. When labormarket requirements are changing rapidly, should secondaryschools attempt to provide skill instruction leading tooccupational credentials? Can the secondary school sectorafford up-to-date equipment on which to train young people inoccupational skills?

The fourth issue is labor market conditions. These arelikely to create major planning problems for schools. Whileemerging new sectors require workers, those workers must behighly trained to engage in creating, designing, building,and operating the new technological tools. Peoole who arecasualties of declining occupations do not necessarilyqualify for the new jobs. How do schools educate futureworkers? What knowledge and skills should they teach? Dothey follow popular wisdom and put a microcomputer in everychild's hands? Will the child who does not have a computerat home be disadvantaged? Does the school dare to argue fora balanced curriculum rather than a technology- and career-dominated one?

A fifth issue is the pressure from parent groups on

ministries of education and school boards to enact schoolprogram changes. A major influence in terms of effect onmoney and staff allocations as well as program changes,organized parent groups have successfully lobbied for newinitiatives in French immersion and special education.Similar groups are now working toward getting microcomputersinto schools for student use. Often the educational value ofthese computer-related programs is assessed only after thesystems are in place. Whether this is sound practice or notis irrItlevant. The point is that parents in business, in theprofeswions, on the shop floor, and in industry feel that for

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economic and employment reasons their children need todevelop certain technological skills. The public systemstands to lose needed support if it does not acquiesce tothese demands.

These influential parent gToups, the successfullobbyists, are from ihe higher socio-economic groups. Theyknow how educational systems work and they are articulate inputting their views forward. They are likely to cause one ofthree things to happen. First, the system may respond tothem by establishing desired programs only in the schoolstheir children attend. Second, at greater cost, these sameservices may be offered to all children. Third, and this ismost likely, the public school system may not receive thefunding it needs to respond to these demands, andconsequently parents will increasingly set up and supportprivate schools. By following prescribed curriculum, theprivate schools will get some public funding; through theirown initiatives, parents will raise money for computers,software, and other electronic gear.

We can expect to see a great infusion of microcomputersand peripherals into classrooms as a political response todemand well before any research can tell us whether computersmeet expectations set for them, and regardless of majordislocations they may cause in other areas. The aspirationsparents hold for their children will be the motivating force.

The sixth and final issue is that of cultural content.Foreign cultural influences are present in our schools andhomes, most dominantly in media, more subtly in pedagogicalmaterial. One alarming example of the negative nature of theforeign cultural penetration is the prevalence ofmilitaristic and violent approaches to problem-solving incomputer software devnloped for classroom use. For manyyears, Canadian schools depended on foreign textbooks. Canwe now avoid dependence on foreign software a-1 databanks?

An important political reality must be brought into thepicture here. Computer software development and somehardware development in Canada are decentralized. It seemsthat ad hoc independent groups are our most likely source ofinitiative and progress. It is essential that these groupsreceive ripport from institutions and provincial and federalgovernments at this critical creative and developmentalstage. It is also imperative that they have the means to

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communicate with one another and exchange materials withoutthe jurisdictional jealousies that have plagued research,development, and production in Canada. If we are to have anindigenous software industry in Canada, it must be saved fromthe problems that have afflicted educational textbookpdblishers for years - the inability of Canadian firms tocompete with American publishers Nnd the consequent use ofmaterials with foreign content and cultural perspectives inCanadian classrooms.

The financial implications of Canadian softwareproduction are not clear. Today it is seen as a highlylabor-intensive, expensive proposition. With greaterintegration of technology, this will not always be the case.We already have the hardware base; over the next few years,we must greatly expand our software development anddissemination capacity. To facilitate this, public financialsupport in the form of grants or seed money is necessary.

As we move into the next decade these issues will remain.Several factors are likely to play havoc with the notion ofthe traditiunal delivery systems for education, parent groupswill push for the use of technologies in schools, labormarket changes will alter the relationship of schooling to

occupations, and Canadian content will be essential insoftware. In every instance, technology is an issue.

A final point to be made is that the new technologieswill change the nature of human interaction in the classroomand elsewhere. It is a judgment call as to whether thechanges will be for the better or for the worse; things willbe different. Working with the computer as an individual ora member of a group will change the way we think, share ideasand tasks, and respond to problems. It may create new modelsof interdependence based on equality, or it may encourageindividualism and autonomy at the expense of teamwork.Despite the difficulty, it is imperative that educationalplanners. anticipate the possible social configurations andorganize so that relationships conformiag with our socialgoals may emerge.

Recommendations

In light of the issues I have raised, I propose thefollowing recommendations:

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1. That the ideal of access to qual.Lty public education forall young people be actively supported by politicalleaders and educators.

2. That teacher groups, school boards, and ministries ofeducation work closely with parent groupe to understandtheir expectations of the school system and to educatethem regarding the present and potential capabilities ofCanadian education systems.

3. That curriculum planners protect the ideal of a balancedcurriculum for all students and see ways of servinglearnars of different interests and abilities.

4. That, to provide role models for female students, womenteachers be encouraged to prepare themselves for teachingcomputer science, mathematics, and science, and thatschool boards place such qualified people in theseteaching positions as such posts become available.

5. That schools commit themselves to increasing theparticipation of female students in math, science, andtechnology courses.

6. That those who select computer software for classroom useinclude as selection criteria the nature of the valuesimpaicit in the content and learning process, avoidingthose materials with violent or militaristic approaches.

7. That :school boards, ministries of education, andteachers' associations establish joint technologycommittees at the local and provincial/territorial levelsto oversee the purchase, introduction, and ongoing use ofthe new technologies in their systems. Each of thesecommittees should have equal numbers of teachers on theone hand and board- or ministry-appointed people on theother. The teachers should represent the variouseducation sectors, not only those currently using newtechnologies. Board and ministry appointees may includeparent and industry representatives.

8. That provincial governments promote research in the waysin which learning and teaching may be enhanced by the useof the new technologies.

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9. That all Canadian educational institutions encourage andsupport the decentralizad development of software, the

exchange of softwa:7e, and the interaction among teachers,software developers, and educational researchers.

10. That the federal government provide financial support to

groups promoting research, development and/or applicationof new technologies at all levels of education, bothformal and informal.

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Catherine Ann Cameron is associate dean in the School ofGraduate Studies and Research and professor of psychology atthe University of New Brunswick. She received her Ph.D. inpsychology from the University of London in 1967.Dr. Cameron has received numerous research grants andcontracts from the Canada Council and the Department ofCommunications, and has published extensively in the areas ofchild development, social psychology, psycholinguistics,French immersion, and the social and psychological impacts ofcomputer technology in education. She has presented paperson these and other topics at many Canadian and Britishconferences and symposia. She is currently investigating therelationship between children's cognitive styles andcomputers.

Louise Dtbuc obtained her doctorate in educationalscience in 1980; her research focused on the design andvalidation of programmed teaching products. Dr. DUbuc hasbeen working as department head of the Educational TechnologyService of the Quebec Ministry of Education since 1979. Herprincipal responsibilities lie in the pedagogicalapplications of the computer. Dr. DUbuc has presented papersat several conferences on the pedagogical applications of thecomputer. Her publications in the area of educationalsoftware have been circulated in various working groupswithin the Ministry of Education.

Sylvia Gold is director of professional developmentservices for the Canadian Teachers' Federation. She hastaught at both the elementary and secondary level. Ms. Goldhas addressed many meetings of provincial teachers'federations and national educational associations on suchtopics as women's issues, sex-role stereotyping in theschools, the education of native children, andmicroelectronic technology in the workplace. She is a memberof the Canadian Association for Curriculum Studies; theAssociation for Supervision and Curriculum Development; theBoard of Trustees of the Canada Studies Foundation; and theNational Executive of the Interprovincial Association forTelematics and Telidon.

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Denis Hlynka is currently associate professor of

educational technology at the University of Manitoba. He hasedited the Canadian Jolznal of Educational Communicationsince 1982. Dr. Hlynka has published in the field of

educational technology and has presented papers at

educational technology conferences in North America andabroad. His current research is in the area of aestheticmodels and their application to a conceptual analysis ofeducational technology. Dr. Hlynka is a coauthor of a

forthcomiag book on videotex.

Janes A. RunObries is program head of the MicrocomputerManagement Program at Grant MacHwan Community College in

Edmonton, Alberta. He holds a Ph.D. in secondary educationfrom Arizona State University. He has served as vice-chairman on the Minister of Education's Task Force on

Computers in Education. Dr. Humphries has been a consultantin computer-based education, providing assistance to teachersand administrators from the schools that comprise theInstructional Computer V. work. A naval officer,Dr. Humphries developed and taught a communications courseinvolving semaphore and Morse codes, naval procedures, andelectronics.

Robert J.D. Jones is coordinator of courseware design andproduction at Sheridan College !.1 Oakville, Ontario. He hasbeen a faculty member in the departments of education at SimonFraser University and McGill University. He holds a Masterof Arts degree in educational technology from ConcordiaUniversity in Montreal. His research and developmentinterests include the design of computer-assisted learningmaterials and the integration of interactive videotechnologies and computers.

Before establishing Interactive Images Technologies Inc.,Joseph Koenig was the executive producer of the National FilmBoard's English language science and education programs.Mr. Koenig has worked closely with educational psychologistsin the design of communications packages for young people andadults with various learning impairments. His firm hasproduced a number of innovative videodisc programs for

educational and informational purposes. Most recently,Mr. Koenig has developed computer-based learning programs forthe Ontario Ministry of Education and Science ResearchAssociates of Chicago.

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As director of educational services for the Prince EdwardIsland Department of Education, Tom Ridh is responsible formedia, special education, pupil personnel, and testing andevaluation services. He received a master's degree ineducational technology from Concordia University in 1975, andhas worked as a lecturer at the University of Prince EdwardIsland, as producer/director for Calgary and RegionEducational Television, and as senior producer/director atMcGill University's Instructional Communications Centre.Mr. Rich is a past president of the Association for Media andTechnology in Education in Canada, and was appointed to theAssociate Committee on Instructional Technology, NationalResearch Council, in 1983.

Since 1974, Nlabel Ulbriaco has been a senior executiveof Teli-universite, a constituent unit of Univeistli duQuebec, and now serves as head of communications services.He holds degrees IA educational technology' ftom theUniversite de Montreal and in philosophy from the Seminary ofSt-Jean. Mr. Umbriaco is active in many associations andcommittees related to the fields of learning, teaching, andtraining by computer, and in the wider field of educationaltechnology applied to distance education. He is currentlyvice-president of Les services mediatigues universitaires duQuebec, a telematic network between universites in Quebec,vice-chairman of the Interprovincial Association forTelematics and Telidon, and vice-president and treasurer ofGroup Quebecois de télematique et gducation.

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