T Water Cycle Water C - epa.gov

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THE WATER WE’VE GOT IS THE WATERWE’VE GOT

The water available to planet Earth is the samewater that has always been available and the onlywater that ever will be available. Because watercovers three-quarters of the earth’s surface, itmight appear that there is plenty to go around. Inreality, however, we have a limited amount ofusable fresh water.

Over 97 percent of the earth’s water is found inthe oceans as salt water. About two percent of theearth’s water is stored in glaciers, ice caps, andsnowy mountain ranges. That leaves only 1 per-cent of fresh water that is readily available to usfor our daily water supply needs. Our fresh watersupplies are stored either beneath the ground, insoil or fractured bedrock, or in surface waters,such as lakes, rivers, and streams.

We use fresh water for a variety of purposes.Nationally, agricultural uses represent the largestconsumer of fresh water, about 42 percent.Approximately 39 percent of our fresh water isused for the production of electricity; 11 percentis used in urban and rural homes, offices, andhotels; and the remaining 8 percent is used inmanufacturing and mining activities.*

THE NEVER-ENDING JOURNEY

If you think about it, water never stays in oneplace for too long. Water is always on the move,traveling on a never-ending, cyclical journeybetween earth and sky. This journey is referred toas the water cycle, or hydrologic cycle. During its

journey, water is continuously reused and recy-cled. It also changes form. It falls to the earth asrain, snow, sleet, or hail and evaporates from theearth back into the atmosphere as water vapor.

What form water takes and where it goes once itreaches the earth depends on where it lands. Itmight seep into the ground and move along slow-ly with the ground water to a nearby lake, stream,or estuary. It might sink into the ground, be takenup by a plant, move through the plant to itsleaves, and evaporate back into the atmosphere(transpiration). It might land on a lake or pondand spend a season or two freezing and thaw-ing—that is, changing from liquid to solid, andvice versa. It might land on a river or stream andcontinue on to the ocean. It might be heated bythe sun, evaporate into the atmosphere, condenseinto tiny droplets, and become part of a cloud for-mation. Eventually, the water in the cloud fallsback to the earth, and the journey begins again.

THE PEOPLE CONNECTION

While the total amount of water on earth remainsconstant, the availability of that water changeswith weather (for example, drought or flooding),season, and human use. This problem is madeworse in situations where communities use waterfrom one location but release it into another placeafter it is used. In Massachusetts, for example,many communities in the Boston metropolitanarea drink water from the Wachusett, Ware, andQuabbin Reservoirs located in central and westernMassachusetts, but discharge that water as waste-water into Boston Harbor.

* Water use statistics from the “National Water Summary 1987—Hydrologic Events and Water Supply and Use.” U.S. GeologicalSurvey Water Supply Paper 2350.

The Water Cycle and Water Conservation

➤A •2 •

If we understand that we have all the water thatwe will ever have, we can better appreciate why itis so important that we keep our water clean. Thefresh water that is available for use by people,plants, and animals must be clean. And to thisend, nature is very accommodating. The waterthat circulates between the earth and the atmos-phere is continually restored and recycled thanksto Mother Nature’s impressive bag of biological,chemical, and mechanical tricks.

But sometimes human carelessness bogs down thesystem, loading harmful and unhealthy substancesinto the system at a rate that exceeds its naturalrestorative capabilities. When harmful substancesare discarded into the environment, they may verywell end up as part of the water cycle. Nature canalso stir up some environmental problems as aresult of natural events such as volcanoes, earth-quakes, and tornadoes.

When chemicals are released into the air fromsmokestacks, for example, they might well returnto the earth with rain and snow or by simply set-tling. When harmful substances are discardedonto the land or buried in the ground, they mightwell find their way into ground water or surfacewater, which may, in turn, be someone’s or somecommunity’s drinking water. In nature’s watercycle, all things are connected.

In many ways, we, as a society, have had to learnabout managing and caring for our waterresources the hard way. By the early 1970s, manyof our nation’s water supplies had become foul-smelling and unhealthful. In 1972, recognizingthat we could no longer turn our collective backson the problem, Congress passed the Clean WaterAct, thereby setting in motion the beginning of aconcerted effort to rehabilitate the nation’sdegraded waters. Taking our cues from MotherNature, we have over relatively few years devel-oped biological, chemical, and mechanical tech-nologies that effectively clean wastewater before itis discharged into waterbodies.

Keeping water clean is not just our nation’s prob-lem; it is a worldwide problem. Many othernations are trying to manage their waterresources. Preventing water quality degradationfrom occurring in the first place is certainly themost cost-effective approach to water qualitymanagement. The water quality in some areas ofthe world has deteriorated to such an extent thatthe cost of turning the problem around hasbecome prohibitive.

WHY CONSERVE WATER?The issue of water conservation is not about“saving” water—it is about having enough cleanwater at any given time and place to meet ourneeds. Gifford Pinchot, an American conservation-ist and politician who served as chief of the U.S.Forest Service between 1898 and 1910, referred toconservation as “The wise use of the earth and itsresources for the lasting good of men.” The con-servation of our water resources depends on ourwise use of these resources. Such wise use, without a doubt, begins at home and in ourcommunity.

As we attempt to meet the water use needs of agrowing population, issues of water quality andquantity will gain increasing significance in yearsto come. We cannot afford to take our waterresources for granted—not even here in the water-rich Northeast. Droughts, for example, are natur-al occurrences that can cause water shortages.

But human activities can cause water availabilityproblems as well. In some instances, communitieshave had to seek other sources of drinking waterbecause their water supply well had been contami-nated. For example, infiltration of gasoline from aleaking underground storage tank into a groundwater supply well is all it can take to render awell field unusable. Once ground water becomescontaminated, it can take years or decades for itto clean itself naturally.

Getting Up to Speed: The Water Cycle and Water Conservation

THE WATER CYCLE AND WATER CONSERVATION

A •3 •

To some extent, we all share responsibility forensuring the availability of a clean and healthywater supply. We can try to reduce contaminationby keeping the water, the ground, and the air freeof pollutants as much as possible. We can use justthe amount of water that we need.

Industries can recycle their process water or pre-treat their wastewater so that it is easier to purifyfor drinking water and other purposes.Communities can educate residents about localwater resources and work together to implementland use strategies that will protect and sustainwater supplies into the future. They can developplans to handle water shortages without waitingfor a water emergency and can help residents dis-pose of harmful products properly by offering haz-ardous waste collection days. By behaving respon-sibly in our use of water, we can be sure that therewill be enough clean water when we need it.

It is only recently that environmental issues andour interrelationship with the natural world havebeen integrated into school curricula. In thissense, teachers and students have become ourenvironmental educators, getting the word out tofamilies and friends that we all share the responsi-bility for protecting and maintaining our earth forcurrent and future generations. This resourcebook is designed to help students recognize theirown ability to make a difference in conservingand protecting our water resources.

KEY TERMS

• Clean Water Act

• Conservation

• Evaporation

• Hydrologic Cycle

• Transpiration

• Water Cycle

Getting Up to Speed: The Water Cycle and Water Conservation

➤A •5 •

TEACHING STRATEGY

Part A - Aquarium Demonstration:As you do this experiment, stress that the amounts represent relativequantities of different types of water, not actual amounts.

1. Put 5 gallons of water in an aquarium. Tell students to imaginethat the container represents all the water in the world.

2. Ask students to guesstimate what proportion of this waterexists on the earth as:

• ocean• ground water• rivers• ice caps/glaciers• freshwater lakes• inland seas/salt lakes• atmosphere

3. Remove 18 ounces of the water from the aquarium with a mea-suring cup. Using green food coloring, color the remainingwater in the aquarium. Tell the students that this water repre-sents all the water on earth held in oceans. The water in themeasuring cup represents all the water in the world that is notocean water.

4. Pour 15 ounces of the water from the measuring cup into anice cube tray. This water represents all the water held in glaciersand ice caps. This water is not readily available for our use.

Since the amount of water held in the ice cubetray is comparable to that of an ice pack,place the ice pack in the aquarium to repre-sent the total amount of water held in glaciersand ice caps.

5. The remaining 3 ounces represent theworld’s available fresh water. Of thisamount, a fraction of an ounce is held inthe world’s fresh water lakes and rivers.Place this water (approximately one drop-per of water) into a student’s hand.

Grades 7-9

➤ OBJECTIVES

• Recognize that there isa lot of water in theworld, but that notvery much of it can beused for our drinkingwater and other watersupply needs.

• Recognize that groundwater is a very smallpercentage of theearth’s water.

• Understand howimportant it is that wetake care of ourground water.

➤ INTERDISCIPLINARY

SKILLS

Science, Math

➤ ESTIMATED

TIME

45 minutes

➤ MATERIALS

❏ 5 gallons of water

❏ 5-gallon aquarium

❏ Measuring cup (24-ounce size would be best)

❏ Green food coloring

❏ Ice cube tray

❏ Ice pak

❏ Dropper

❏ 6-ounce see-through container

❏ Sand

❏ Activity handout

THE WATER CYCLE AND WATER CONSERVATIONTHE WATER CYCLE AND WATER CONSERVATIONAll The Water in the World

➤A •6 •

All the water in the world

6. The remaining water (approximately 2.5 ounces) is groundwater. Pouring this remaining water into a cup of sand, explainthat this is what is referred to as ground water and that thiswater is held in pore spaces of soil and fractures of bedrock.About one-third of New England’s drinking water comes fromground water.

This Aquarium Demonstration was developed by Paul Susca, NewHampshire Department of Environmental Services, Water SupplyEngineering Bureau.

Part B - Activity Handout: All the Water in the World

1. Ask students to complete the activity worksheet.

2. The answers to the drinking water percentages: O.419% totaland 2.799% grand total.

3. Ask students if the numbers surprised them. Did they realizethat such a small percentage of the water in the world is fresh?

Follow-up Questions

1. Why isn’t all fresh water usable? Some is not easy to get at; itmay be frozen or trapped in unyielding soils or bedrock frac-tures. Some water is too polluted to use.

2. Why do we need to take care of the surface water/groundwater? Water is very important for humans, plants/crops, andanimals. If we waste water or pollute it, we may find that thereis less and less of it available for us to use.

NOTES

Activity Handout: All the Water in the World

A •7 •

Did you know...?

þ Earth is called the water planet.

þ ApProximately three-fourths (3/4) of the earth’s surfaceis covered with water.

þ The earth has different types of water:

Oceans 97.2% of total waterIce caps/glaciers 2.38%Ground water 0.397%Surface water 0.022%(e.g., lakes, rivers, streams, ponds)Atmosphere 0.001%

Add up the percentages for water available for drinking water.

Ground water ___________

Surface water _____________

Total _____________

Now add ice caps/glaciers _____________

Grand Total _____________

Remember: Only a small percentage of water is suitable for humans to drink. Notall of the water in the ground and in lakes and rivers is easy to reach or clean enoughto drink. Ice caps and glaciers are certainly hard to use for humans, plants, and ani-mals. Some work is being done to take the salt out of ocean water (desalinate thewater), but that is an expensive process.

This activity is adapted from Water: The Resource That Gets Used and Used and Used for Everything. Poster: Middle SchoolVersion. United States Geological Survey, Reston,Virginia. 1993.

ASSIGNMENT

➤A •21 •

TEACHING STRATEGY

Part A - Detective Work

1. Tell students that today’s activity is designed to make themaware of how much water individuals and families use on aweekly basis.

2. Distribute the copies of the story, “The Case of the MysteriousRenters,” and the survey. (Note: The story is designed to “livenup” the exercise. Teachers who feel that their students are tooadvanced for this story may choose to distribute just the watersurvey.)

3. Have students conduct the survey at home for a full week. Besure students write down their hypotheses before completingtheir surveys.

4. Explain how to fill out the survey. Explain how to make tallymarks each time the activity takes place. (It might be interest-ing, for extra credit, to compare weekday and weekend wateruse.)

5. After students have completed the survey, discuss the results.

Part B - Brainstorming About Water Conservation

1. Have students look at their water use surveys. Ask them toconsider what their families could do to reduce the amount ofwater they use. How much water would that conserve? Ifeveryone in the class followed that practice, how much waterwould it save in a year?

2. Give each student a copy of the “Water Conservation Tips.”Look it over as a group to see how it compares with your list.Suggest that students take it home and post it in the bathroomor kitchen.

Grades 7-12

➤ MATERIALS


➤ OBJECTIVES

• Identify ways in whichwater is used.

• Analyse a family’swater use with a focuson ways to reducewater consumption.


SKILLS

Science, Mathematics,Critical Thinking

➤ ESTIMATED

TIME

• Part A - 10 minutes toexplain the chart; 30minutes for follow-updiscussion after thesurvey has been com-pleted.

• Part B - 20 minutes

THE WATER CYCLE AND WATER CONSERVATIONTHE WATER CYCLE AND WATER CONSERVATION

How Much Water Do You Use?

➤A •22 •

How much water do you use?

Supplementary Activities

• Have students write an article for the school newspaper describingways people can conserve water and why it is important.

• Have students write a brief newsletter for their parents reportingon the results of the survey. Honor those who used the leastamount of water. Include water conservation suggestions.

• Have students conduct a survey of water conservation devices intheir homes.

NOTES

➤A •23 •

Activity Handout: How Much Water Do You Use?

The Case of the MysteriousRentersþ SCENARIO

Mrs. Jackson has called the water detectives to help her solve a serious problem. Shehas heard that the detectives have an excellent record for solving mysteries.

“What seems to be the problem?” asked one of the water detectives.

“Well,” said Mrs. Jackson, “as you know, I rent out several apartments to collegestudents. I never allow more than four students to stay in one apartment. But, inApartment 319, I just know that there are more than four people. I just can’t prove it.”

One of the water detectives interrupted her with a question, “Have you ever triedmaking surprise visits?”

“Yes,” she answered, “but every time I go there, four people or less are at home.Those college students come and go at all hours of the day and night. There is no wayfor me to keep track of how many students actually share the apartment.”

“Very interesting,” said one of the detectives. “I think we can help you, but firstwe’ll need to see last month’s water bill for the apartment.”

“How will that help?” asked Mrs. Jackson.

“We’ll be able to see how many gallons of water were used last month,” saidanother water detective.

Mrs. Jackson found the bill. It revealed that last month the occupants used15,000 gallons.

“Let’s see,” said one of the detectives. “Last month was September, which has 30days. If we divide 15,000 gallons by 30 days, we know that they used 500 gallons aday.”

“Yes,” said Mrs. Jackson, “but is that a little or a lot?”

“We’ll have to investigate and get back to you. We’ll do a survey to find out howmuch the average person uses,” said the detective.

With that, the water detectives left Mrs. Jackson with a promise to return soonwith an estimate of how many people were sharing the apartment. The water detectivesdecided that they needed to do some research to determine how much water people usein one day. In order to come up with an estimate, they decided to find out how muchwater their own families use in one day. Here’s how:

➤A •24 •

Activity Handout: How Much Water Do you use?

1. Record the facts of the case.

a. The people in the apartment used _______________ gallons of water in September.

b. September has ________ days.

c. The average number of gallons of water used per day was

______________ gallons.

2. Form a hypothesis.

a. How many gallons of water a day do you think a person uses?

______________ gallons

3. Fill out the water survey.

4. Record your conclusions.

a. How many total gallons of water did your family use in one day?

______________ gallons

b. What is the average number of gallons of water used per person perday in your family?

______________ gallons

c. Based on your results, how many people do you think are living inMrs. Jackson’s apartment?

______________

d. Compare your answer with the answers of others in your class.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

ASSIGNMENT

Toilet Flushing ________ x 5 gallons = ____________

Short Shower ________ x 25 gallons = ___________(5-10 minutes)

Long Shower ________ x 35 gallons = ___________(>10 minutes)

Tub Bath ________ x 35 gallons = ___________

Teeth Brushing ________ x 2 gallons = ____________

Washing Dishes with ________ x 30 gallons = ___________Running Water

Washing Dishes ________ x 10 gallons = ___________Filling a Basin

Using Dishwasher ________ x 20 gallons = ___________

Washing Clothes ________ x 40 gallons = ___________

Grand Total = __________

Activity Handout: How Much Water Do YOu Use?

➤A •25 •

NOTE: Another significant seasonal water use is lawn and garden watering. This survey dealswith daily water use in the home, but most of us use additional amounts of water at school, atwork, and other places throughout the day.

* These are estimated values.

Survey:How Much Water Do You Use?þ DIRECTIONS This is a survey to find how much water you use in your home dur-ing one full week. Place a tally mark in the Times Per Day column every time someonein your family does the activity.

Sun Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat

+ + + + + + =

+ + + + + + =

+ + + + + + =

+ + + + + + =

+ + + + + + =

+ + + + + + =

+ + + + + + =

+ + + + + + =

+ + + + + + =

WEEKLY WATER PER TOTALACTIVITY TIMES PER DAY TOTAL ACTIVITY* WATER USED

➤A •26 •


To find average use per person in your family, divide the grand total by thenumber of people in your family.

The answer is: _______________

þ FOLLOW-UP QUESTIONS

1. In your home, which activity happened most often?

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

2. Which activities use the most water each time they occur?

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

3. What other activities at homeconsume large amounts ofwater?

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

4. Why might your answer dif-fer from that of your class-mates?

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

SHOWER

TUBSINK TOILET

DRAINAGE

Most water is used inthe bathroom

WATER USE IN THE BATHROOM

©, 1993,1994, National Energy Foundation. All Rights Reserved.Used by Permission.

ASSIGNMENT


all water is recycled...We drink the same water that Brontosaurus, Cleopatra, and George Washington did,and future generations will drink that same water. That’s why it’s important that weuse water wisely and protect water supplies whenever and wherever possible. If weeach save a small amount of water each day, our combined savings will add up tomillions of gallons each year.

Water saved is money saved! Water conservation can save on water and sewer fees.Also, when you use less water, your fuel bills are lower. Even if you use wellwater, saving water reduces both electric costs and the waste load goinginto your septic system. Each day, as you drink water and use water, thinkof things you could do to help conserve and protect it. For starters, here is

a list of household water conservation tips. What other tips would you add?

Water Conservation TipsBathroomTwo-thirds of the water used in the average home is used in the bathroom, mostly for flushing toilets,showering, and bathing.

❏✔ Turn off the water when you are not using it. Don’t let it run while you brush your teeth orshave.

❏✔ Flush the toilet less often. Put used tissues, trash, hair, paper towels, etc. in the wastebasketinstead of flushing them.

❏✔ Fix leaks and drips. This is often simply a matter of changing a washer.❏✔ Retrofit older plumbing fixtures with flow-reducing devices.❏✔ Take shorter showers. Less than 5 minutes is adequate; any longer is recreation.❏✔ Take baths. If you like to linger, a partially filled tub uses less water than a shower.

Kitchen and Laundry❏✔ Use appliances efficiently. Run full loads in the dish or clothes washer or, if your appliance has

one, use a load selector.❏✔ Buy a water saver. Select new appliances that are designed to minimize water use.❏✔ Clean vegetables and fruit efficiently. Use a vegetable brush to expedite cleaning.❏✔ Use garbage grinders as little as possible . Start a compost pile or give leftovers to a dog, cat,

chicken, horse, etc.❏✔ Keep a bottle of drinking water in the refrigerator. Avoid running the tap just to cool water

for drinking.

Lawn and Garden❏✔ Water the lawn and garden only when necessary. Early morning or evening are the best

times. Let grass grow higher in dry weather. Mulch your trees and plants. Avoid watering drive-ways and sidewalks.

❏✔ Deep-soak your lawn. Allow the moisture to soak down to the roots where it does the mostgood. A light sprinkling evaporates quickly.

❏✔ Plant drought-resistant trees and plants. Many beautiful trees and plants thrive with lesswatering, particularly native species.

❏✔ Wash your car sensibly. Clean the car with a pail of soapy water and use the hose only for aquick rinse.

A •27 •

➤B •1 •

THE ZONES

Water that falls to the earth in the form of rain,snow, sleet, or hail continues its journey in one offour ways: It might land on a water body and,essentially, go with the flow; it might run off theland into a nearby water body or storm drain; itmight evaporate from a water body or land sur-face; or it might seep into the ground. Water thatseeps into the ground moves in a downward direc-tion, passing through the pore spaces between therock and soil particles in what is known as thezone of aeration, or unsaturated zone.

Eventually the water reaches a depth where thepore spaces are already filled, or saturated, withwater. When water enters this saturated zone, itbecomes part of the ground water. Ground wateris essentially everywhere at varying distancesbelow the surface of the earth, wherever there arespaces, pores, or cracks in the soil or rock for it tofill. The process whereby precipitation or surfacewater infiltrates the soil and replenishes theground water is called ground water recharge.

The top of the saturat-ed zone is called thewater table. The watertable may be very closeto the ground surface,which is often the casein New England whenit is next to a surfacewater body, or it maybe as much as 200 to600 feet deep, which isthe case in many areasof the southwesternUnited States.

The saturated zone is underlain by impermeablerock or soil (e.g., a clay layer), which preventsfurther downward movement of water. When thewater reaches this impermeable area, it begins tocollect in the overlying soil pore spaces or rockfractures, thereby creating the saturated zone, orground water area.

GROUND WATER DYNAMICS

Ground water is very much a part of nature’shydrologic cycle. Like water on the earth’s sur-face, ground water tends to flow downhill underthe influence of gravity and eventually discharges,or flows out of the ground, into streams or othersurface water-dependent areas, such as wetlands.In New England, it is common to see groundwater emerging from a hillside as a spring or seep-ing out of a road cut. During winter months, theground water often freezes into long icicles as itseeps out of the rocks.

In such discharge areas (see Figure 1), the watertable is at or near the land surface. In fact, most

New England’s GroundWater Resources

Figure 1 GROUND WATER DISCHARGE AREA

Source: Lyle S. Raymond Jr. What is Groundwater? Bulletin #1. Cornell University. July 1988

➤B •2 •

streams in New England keep flowing during thedry summer months because ground water dis-charges into them from the saturated zone. It isonly when the water table falls below the level ofthe stream bed that a stream may dry up com-pletely. Under certain conditions the flow may bereversed and the surface water may recharge theground water.

Compared with water in rivers and streams,ground water moves very, very slowly—from aslittle as a fraction of a foot per day in clay, to asmuch as 3-4 feet per day in sand and gravel, totens of feet per day in bedrock formations.

The speed at which ground water moves is deter-mined by the types of material it must flowthrough and the steepness of the gradient from therecharge area to discharge area. Water movesmore easily through the large pores of sand andgravel, for example, than through material thatcontains fine silt and clay.

The water table doesn’t remain at the same level,or depth, all the time. The rise and fall, or fluctua-tion, of the water table occurs seasonally and is anatural part of the ground water system. In latewinter and early spring, melting snow and raininfiltrate the soil, causing ground water levels torise. The water table typically reaches its annual

high level at this time. By late spring and into thesummer months, when water is typically taken upby growing vegetation, little ground waterrecharge occurs, and the water table lowers.Ground water is recharged again during the fallrains after the growing season. In the winter, theground is frozen and very little precipitationenters the ground water. In the spring, the snowmelts, the rain falls, and the cycle begins anew.

The water table also responds to cyclical periodsof drought and heavy precipitation that can lastfor several years (see Figure 2). For example, from1979 to 1981, much of New England experienceda drought. The water table dropped steadily dur-ing those years. By the end of that period, thewater table in many places was several feet lowerthan normal. In 1982, the drought ended whenheavy rains fell and the ground water levels beganto rise again. By early 1983, the water table wasso high that many cellars that had never been wetbefore were flooded with ground water.

Surface waters also have a very dynamic relation-ship with ground water. Depending on the level ofthe ground water table, streams either receiveground water discharges, called gaining streams,or lose water to the adjacent ground water, calledlosing streams. In New England, where groundwater levels are often relatively close to the

Getting Up to Speed: New England’s ground water resources

Figure 2 WATER TABLE LEVELS

Source: Massachusetts Audubon Society. An Introduction to Groundwater and Aquifers. Groundwater Information Flyer #1. January 1993.

NEW ENGLAND’S GROUND WATER RESOURCES

B •3 •

ground surface, streams tend to receive groundwater discharges. In this situation, the level ofwater in the stream is the same as that of thewater table. This is true for wetlands, ponds, andlakes as well. More than half of the total flow ofsome streams during dry periods may derive fromground water discharge.

Ignoring the natural fluctuations in ground waterlevels can lead to expensive problems. For exam-ple, septic systems, drainage systems, and founda-tions designed and built for ground water condi-tions during drought conditions, when the watertable is very low, can be flooded when the watertable returns to more normal levels. In NewEngland, the average depth to ground waterranges from 8 to 20 feet.

OUR WATER BUDGET

A water budget, similar to a household financialbudget, can be developed to track water move-ment through the hydrologic cycle. The “receipts”are the water coming into the drainage basin, orwatershed, and consist of the precipitation thatfalls within the basin as rain or snow. The “dis-bursements” consist of water vapor released byevaporation or by transpiration from green plants(collectively called evapotranspiration) and thewater that is carried away into streams and riversas runoff. Finally, the “savings” consist of surfacewater stored in lakes, ponds, and other waterbodies, and ground water stored beneath theearth’s surface. Water is continually withdrawn(discharged) from these storage areas and deposit-ed (recharged).

The water budget within a drainage area dependsnot only on the water received as rain and snow,but also on how rapidly water leaves the basin.Topography, geology, soils, vegetation, and landuse can all affect the rate of water storage andloss. Much of the precipitation that falls on steepslopes or on impervious surfaces, such as roofsand pavement, flows over the surface of theground as runoff to streams that eventually carryit out of the basin. Rain falling on flatter, unpaved

areas, however, can infiltrate into the soil.Vegetation can intercept precipitation as it falls tothe earth and slow runoff so the water has achance to infiltrate. the water budget is alsoaffected when water is withdrawn from one basinand then discharged into another basin after it isused (e.g., when water is piped out of one basinto a wastewater facility, where it is treated andthen discharged into a different basin.)

DRAWING WATER FROM A WELL

When people use ground water as a water supplysource, the water is withdrawn from the groundby way of a well. Wells tap ground water as itflows through surficial deposits or cracks andfractures in bedrock. In almost all wells, the watermust be pumped from the ground water to thesurface.

Pumping depresses the water table around thewell, forming a cone of depression (a low-pressurezone in the shape of an inverted cone), causingwater to flow toward the well from all directions.The cone of depression can range from tens orhundreds of feet in radius for small bedrock wellsto several thousand feet for high-volume publicwells that draw water from sand and gravelaquifers. (See Figure 3.)

Not all ground water can be drawn into wells. Toyield significant quantities of water, wells must belocated in aquifers. An aquifer is a water-bearingsoil or rock formation that is capable of yieldingenough water for human use. All the spaces andcracks, or pores, between particles of rock andother materials in an aquifer are saturated withwater. In bedrock aquifers, water moves throughcracks, or fractures. Some types of bedrock—suchas sandstone—can absorb water like a sponge;other types of bedrock—such as granite—do not.They hold water only in their fractures. The partof the aquifer that contributes recharge to a wellis called the zone of contribution.

As wells pump out ground water, they reduce theamount of water in the ground water system,

➤


causing the water table to fluctuate over time.Ideally, the amount of water withdrawn from awell will be balanced by the amount of rechargeentering the system by way of rain, snow melt, orsurface water body.

The porosity of a material determines how muchwater it will hold—the more pore space, the morewater. Porosity is expressed as a percentage of thetotal volume of a material. For example, theporosity of a certain sand might be 30 percent;that is, 30 percent of the total volume of the sandis pore space and 70 percent is solid material. Itmeans that 30 percent can be filled with water, ormore than 2 gallons of water per cubic foot!

The ability of a material to transmit water is calledit’s permeability (See Figure 4). Permeability is afunction of the size and shape of the soil particles,the amount of pore space between the particles,and whether or not the pore spaces interconnect.In consolidated rock, such as granite, permeabilitydepends on how well the fractures in the rock areinterconnected. In an unconsolidated material,such as sand and gravel, permeability depends on

the size of the porespaces between thegrains of material.

Porosity and perme-ability are related, butthey are not the samething. A material canbe very porous andhold a large volume ofwater but not be verypermeable. For exam-ple, clay may be twiceas porous as sand, buta pumping well willnot be able to pull thewater from the poresbetween clay particlesfast enough to supplythe well. Very smallpore spaces create aresistance to flow that

reduces permeability. The best aquifers are bothporous and permeable.

When evaluating a ground water system in termsof its suitability as a water supply aquifer, hydro-geologists commonly use the term hydraulic con-ductivity, which is a function of permeability. It isimportant to understand the concept of perme-

➤B •4 •


Figure 4 PERMEABILITY:Water Moving Through Pores

Source: Massachusetts Audubon Society. An Introduction to Groundwaterand Aquifers. Groundwater Information Flyer #1. January 1993.

Figure 3 WELLFIELD RECHARGE AREA

Source: Hust, R. and J. Murphy. Protecting Connecticut’s Groundwater: A Guide for Local Officials. CTDEP. Hartford. 1997

➤B •5 •

ability/hydraulic conductivity because it is one ofthe key factors used to determine whether groundwater can actually be drawn into a pumping well.The three primary factors that determine howmuch water can be withdrawn by a well are thesteepness of the slope of the water table, thehydraulic conductivity, and the thickness andextent of the aquifer.

WHERE ARE OUR AQUIFERS?

■ In BedrockSolid rock can’t yield water. Ground water in rockis mostly found in cracks, fractures, or in channelscreated when water enlarges the fractures in cer-tain carbonate rocks (such as limestone).

Bedrock (see Figure 5) is the rock that liesbeneath all the unconsolidated materials (soil andloose rocks) on the surface of the earth. It is theearth’s crust. (In New England, bedrock is com-monly called ledge.) If a well is drilled intobedrock fractures that are saturated with water,bedrock can serve as an aquifer.

In most of New England, however, bedrock is nothighly fractured. Fractures generally occur withinthe first 100 to 150 feet of the surface, and theytend to be rather small, with few interconnections.Consequently, wells that intercept rock fracturescan usually yield only enough water for private,domestic supplies. However, there are some highlyfractured zones known as faults, where yields in therange of 200,000 to 400,000 gallons per day (gpd)have been developed, primarily for industrial use.

In western Massachusetts and parts of Maine,there are a few areas where bedrock is composedof limestone, a soft carbonate rock. Over time,water can form solution channels in this rock bydissolving the surface of the fractures along whichit flows. The solution channels can become verylarge. They can hold and transmit enough waterto provide a sustained yield to large wells. Forinstance, ground water found in solution channelsin limestone is the major source of drinking waterin other parts of the country (e.g., Florida).

■ In Surficial DepositsMost people would refer to surficial deposits assoil, but geologists call the sand, gravel, soils,rocks, and other loose material that lie on top ofbedrock surficial deposits. Porous, permeable sur-ficial deposits make good aquifers. Some surficialdeposits are porous and permeable. Most are not.What makes the difference?

Most surficial deposits are heterogeneous. Theyconsist of a wide variety of material types andsizes. In these deposits, almost all of the spacesbetween the large material are filled with smallerparticles. For example, the spaces between pebblesand large stones may be filled with sand, and thespaces between the grains of sand may be filledwith clay. This leaves few pore spaces for groundwater storage and makes it difficult for water tomove through the pores. Thus, deposits that are amixture of types and sizes of materials are notusually porous and permeable enough to serve asaquifers.

In other surficial deposits, particles are similar insize and do not fit closely together. This createsmany interconnecting pore spaces that can holdwater. Some of these deposits contain very fine-grained silt and clay. They are porous but not per-meable because the pores are too small to trans-


Figure 5 BEDROCK AS AN AQUIFER

Source: Massachusetts Audubon Society. An Introduction to Groundwater andAquifers. Groundwater Information Flyer #1. January 1993.

mit water easily. In some surficial deposits of simi-lar-sized particles such as coarse sand, the poresare large and water can flow through them easily.These deposits are both porous and permeableand are excellent aquifers.

LARGE-VOLUME WELLS NEED LARGESOURCES OF WATER

The capacity of an aquifer to produce water isdetermined by the amount of porous, permeablematerials that are present and the quantity ofwater that is available in that material. These fac-tors can be determined for specific aquifers bygeologic studies and pumping tests.

To supply a large public well, there must beenough water in storage in the aquifer or a nearbysource such as a river or a lake that is connectedhydrologically with the aquifer. Often, severalwells are needed to supply all the water requiredby a municipality, but even small public wells areconsiderably larger than private wells serving sin-gle households. A small public well might yield100,000 gpd, while a private well serving a singlehome might yield only 500 to 1,000 gpd.

Though most areas contain aquifers that are ade-quate for private, domestic wells, public wellsmust be located in aquifers that are large enoughto sustain a consistently high yield over a longperiod of time. Aquifers that are large enough tosupply public wells are found only in locationswith certain geologic and hydrologic conditions.Protecting them for future use is of great impor-tance.

YOUR WATER SOURCE?Water supplies are derived from either private orpublic water systems. A private water system isdefined by the federal Safe Drinking Water Act as awell that provides water for less than 15 serviceconnections or a well that serves less than 25 peo-ple. Private water systems are not regulated by theSafe Drinking Water Act. These systems includerural homeowners and farms.

A public water system is one that has 15 or moreservice connections or that regularly serves at least25 people for 60 or more days per year. Publicwater systems can be either publicly or privatelyowned and are subject to minimum water qualitystandards specified by the Safe Drinking Water Act.Common examples of public water systems includecommunity wells, a well serving a school (withmore than 25 students and employees), and wellsused by trailer parks. Public water systems derivetheir water from either surface water (e.g., reser-voirs or rivers) or ground water sources.

GLACIERS CREATED OUR AQUIFERS

In New England, porous, permeable surficialdeposits were created by melting glaciers. Most ofNew England was covered by continental glaciersa number of times in the past 2 million years.Each glacier moved down over the region fromthe north, carrying with it large quantities ofrocks and soil that it had scraped and pluckedfrom the bedrock as it moved across the land sur-face. When the last glacier finally melted about11,000 to 13,000 years ago, it redeposited thismaterial as glacial debris. The region’s surficialdeposits are mostly glacial debris, topped with athin layer of soil that has formed since the lastglacier melted.

■ Stratified Drift: A Good Aquifer MaterialSome glacial debris was carried away by torrentsof water that flowed off the melting ice in melt-water streams. At the front of the glacier, thesestreams flowed so fast that they could transportglacial debris of all sizes except large boulders. Asthe meltwater moved further away from the glaci-er, it slowed down. The slower-moving watercould no longer carry pebbles and gravel, so thatdebris settled out. Further along, when the waterslowed more, sand grains settled out. Still furtherdownstream, the water reached a lake or theocean, and slowed completely. By this time, onlyvery small particles remained suspended in themoving meltwater stream (see Figure 6). When the water stopped flowing after it entered

➤B •6 •


➤B •7 •

the lake or ocean, the small particles settled out toform very fine deposits of silt and clay on the bot-tom of the lake. Thus, as they moved away fromthe glacier, the meltwater streams sorted the rockfragments they carried into separate layers ofgravel, sand, and fine sand. These sorted depositsare called stratified drift (see Figure 7).

■ Glacial Till:A Poor Aquifer MaterialMost glacial debris was plastered onto the land-

scape as the last glacier advanced. Some slumpedoff the glacier into piles, was left up against thesides of valleys, or was formed into spoon-shapedhills called drumlins, when the glaciers movedover the debris. These types of glacial debris arecalled glacial till. They consist of an unsorted mix-ture of all sizes of soil and rock fragments and areusually not very porous or permeable. Therefore,public supply wells are not located in glacial till(see Figure 8).


Figure 7 STRATIFIED DRIFT Figure 8 GLACIAL TILL



Figure 6 GLACIAL MELTWATER STREAMS


WHERE ARE THE GOOD PUBLICWELL SITES?

■ Ancient River ValleysIn much of New England, meltwater moving awayfrom the front of the glaciers flowed into existingriver valleys. These valleys had been carved intothe bedrock over millions of years by the riversthat drained the continent. In these ancientstreambeds, the glacial debris settled out of themeltwater as stratified drift in the processdescribed previously. Some of these ancientstreambeds contain more than 200 feet ofporous, permeable stratified drift. These buriedvalley aquifers (see Figure 9) are the sites of themajority of the larger public supply wellsthroughout New England.

Most public wells are located in buried valleyaquifers that are connected hydrologically witha nearby river or stream. The pumping well maylower the water table below the level of theriver, drawing water from the river into the

well. This phenomenon is called induced recharge(see Figure 10). If this action takes place, however,it is important that wetlands and endangeredplants and animals are not compromised and thatsurface water being withdrawn into the well is ofadequate quality.

➤B •8 •


Figure 9 BURIED VALLEY AQUIFER


Figure 10 INDUCED RECHARGE

Source: Massachusetts Audubon Society. An Introduction to Groundwater andAquifers. Groundwater Information Flyer #2. January 1993.

➤B •9 •

Most ancient streambeds correspond to present-day river and stream valleys, but the courses of afew rivers have changed since the glaciers melted.In those places, the aquifer is not located underand alongside the present river. Other small tribu-tary streams have completely disappeared, leavingbehind valleys filled with stratified drift. Geologicinvestigations can locate these ancient buried val-leys, and the aquifers can be tapped for watersupply.

■ Outwash PlainsIn southern New England, glacial meltwater alsoformed excellent aquifers, but not in ancient rivervalleys. The last ice sheets to cover Massachusettsended there. When they melted, the meltwater car-ried glacial debris from the front of the ice in amyriad of small parallel streams. Eventually, thestratified drift from the meltwater streams formedbroad surfaces called outwash plains. These excel-lent aquifers differ from valley aquifers in that theyare generally spread out over a larger area, butusually have no large sources of induced recharge.

Outwash plains and many valley aquifers arelarge enough to supply public wells. Smaller,coarse-grained stratified drift deposits can beaquifers for private domestic wells. Coarse-

grained stratified drift deposits also readily absorbprecipitation and thus commonly serve as impor-tant recharge areas.

■ Confined AquifersThe aquifers described so far are unconfined, orwater table, aquifers. The top of this type ofaquifer is identified by the water table. Above thewater table, in the zone of aeration (or unsaturat-ed zone) interconnected pore spaces are open tothe atmosphere. Precipitation recharges theground water by soaking into the ground and per-colating down to the water table. The majority ofthe public wells in New England, and many pri-vate wells, tap unconfined aquifers.

Some wells in New England, however, are locatedin confined aquifers. These aquifers (see Figure11) are found between layers of clay, solid rock,or other materials of very low permeability. Littleor no water seeps through these confining layers.Recharge occurs where the aquifer intersects theland surface. This recharge area may be a consid-erable distance from the well.

In confined aquifers, often called artesian aquifers,water is under pressure because the aquifer is con-fined between impermeable layers and is usually


Figure 11 CONFINED VALLEY AQUIFER


recharged at a higher elevation than the top con-fining layer. When a well is drilled through thetop impermeable layer, the artesian pressure willcause the water in the well to rise above the levelof the aquifer. If the top of the well is lower thanthe recharge zone of the aquifer, water will flowfreely from the well until the pressure is equalized.

HOW DO YOU FIND AN AQUIFER?Since aquifers are tucked away beneath the surfaceof the ground, how do we figure out where theyare located? Historically, many people used waterdowsers—people who use divining rods—to locateunderground water supplies. Today, we haveacquired the scientific and technical wherewithalto more accurately locate ground water supplies.

In New England, soils were often laid down inseveral layers over time. Therefore, surface soilsare not always good indicators. It helps to useseveral sources of information to identify aquifers.The best place to begin is by finding out what nat-ural resource maps—local soils maps, topographicmaps, surficial geology maps, bedrock geologymaps—are available for the area in question. (Seethe “Revealing Stories—Resource Maps Tell All”activity and the “Resource File” for more infor-mation about map availability.)

To better understand regional soils, local healthdepartments usually require that well logs be com-pleted and submitted when drinking water wellsare installed. In this case, well drillers (expertshired by local landowners or a community toinstall a well) must describe changes in the soilprofile as they drill beneath the ground. Thisinformation is recorded in a document called a“well log.” This information is useful because itallows hydrogeologists to better understandchanges in the surficial deposits below the ground.

Another clue to consider is whether bedrock out-crops or ledge are common in the area. This mayindicate shallow soils in the region.

B •10 •


KEY TERMS• Aquifer• Bedrock• Cone of Depression• Confined Aquifer• Discharge Area• Evapotranspiration• Fluctuation• Fractures• Gaining Stream• Ground Water • Ground Water Recharge• Heterogeneous• Hydraulic Conductivity• Impermeable• Impervious• Induced Recharge• Infiltration• Losing Stream• Permeability• Pore Spaces• Porosity• Precipitation• Private Water System• Public Water System• Runoff• Safe Drinking Water Act• Saturated Zone • Soil• Stratified Drift• Surficial Deposits• Unconsolidated Materials• Unsaturated Zone• Water Budget• Water Table• Watershed• Well• Zone of Aeration• Zone of Contribution“Getting Up to Speed” for section B,“New England’s Ground Water

Resources” is adapted from Massachusetts Audubon Society’s GroundWater Information Flyers #1 and #2.

➤B •107 •

TEACHING STRATEGY

Through the handout, students will learn how to draw ground watercontours and will understand how ground water flow may be predict-ed. A teacher’s copy of the correct ground water contour map isincluded with this activity. Be sure students have read “Getting Up toSpeed” for this section and are familiar with the material in the activi-ty “Revealing Stories—Resource Maps Tell All.”

1. Distribute copies of the handout to each student.

2. Either lead students through the exercise as a class activity, ordivide the students into teams to complete the assignment.

Follow-up Questions

1. Why should communities be aware of the direction of groundwater flow? By knowing the direction of ground water flow, com-munities can map out the land area that recharges their publicwater supply wells, streams, rivers, lakes, or estuaries and therebytake steps to ensure that land use activities in the recharge areawill not pose a threat to the quality of the ground water and theresources dependent on it. Since contaminants generally move inthe direction of ground water flow, communities can also predicthow contaminants might move through the local ground watersystem.

2. Why is it important to know if a stream in your community is a“gaining” stream or a “losing” stream? Gaining streams receivemuch of their water from ground water, and the water level in thestream is generally at the same elevation as the water table in theadjacent aquifer. Water quality in the stream will be affected bythe quality of ground water entering the stream. Because the watertable elevation is approximately the same as the gaining streamsurface elevation, both elevations may be used to construct watertable maps and to predict ground water flow direction.

Losing streams lose water to the adjacent aquifer because thewater table has dropped below the stream level. If there is nomajor source of upstream flow, the stream may dry up betweenstorm events.

Grades 9-11

➤ MATERIALS


➤ OBJECTIVES

• Be able to draw aground water contourmap.

• Have a basic under-standing of how to pre-dict the direction ofground water flow.

• Understand the interre-lated nature of groundwater and surfacewater flow.


SKILLS

Science, Math

➤ ESTIMATED

TIME

45 minutes

NEW ENGLAND’S GROUND WATER RESOURCESNEW ENGLAND’S GROUND WATER RESOURCESPredicting Ground Water Flow

Contouring the Water Table

MEAN SEA LEVEL

Ocean

RIVER - Number is river surface elevation, in feet, above mean sea level

Direction of Ground Water

WELL - Number is water table elevation, in feet, above mean sea level

100

150

B •108 • ➤

Teacher’s Reference: Predicting Ground Water Flow

➤B •109 •

Predicting Ground Water FlowNote: Read this entire handout before beginning the activity.

þ BACKGROUNDThe water table is the surface of the saturated zone, below which all soil pores or rockfractures are filled with water. Ground water moves through the subsurface much likewater on the ground surface, except that it travels a great deal more slowly. If the soilis mostly sand and gravel, ground water can move as much as five feet per day. But,more often than not, ground water moves at speeds of a few inches per day (or less).

Like streams and rivers, ground water moves from high areas to low areas. In thisexercise, you will draw the contours of the water table to show how ground watermoves beneath the ground, down the sides of a valley, to a river that flows to the sea.Before you begin this exercise, however, it is important that you understand threemain principles.

First, ground water and surface water share a strong connection in New England.Have you ever noticed that streams continue to flow even when it hasn’t rained fordays? Where does the water come from? In most areas of New England, water is dis-charged to surface waters from ground water at the point where the water table inter-sects the surface of the land. In this situation, the surface water is called a gainingstream or gaining pond.

Second, because the water table is at the land surface adjacent to “gaining” surfacewaters, the elevation of ground water is generally the same as that of the river, espe-cially between rain storms.

Third, ground water is assumed to flow at right angles to water table contours. This isbecause ground water moves downhill in the path of least resistance due to gravity. Inthis exercise, you’ll use all three of these principles.

During this activity you will learn how to draw a water table contour map. Watertable measurements that are taken at the same time of year can be used to develop awater table contour map to show the direction of ground water flow. Monitoringwells are typically used to determine the elevation of the water table. The elevation ofthe water table is determined at several locations throughout the area of interest. Liketopographic map contours, water table contours represent lines of equal elevation.The difference between the maps is that water table elevations are measured in wellsand at the river channel, not on the ground surface. Thus, just as surface water flow isdownhill and perpendicular to topographic contours, the direction of ground waterflow is also downhill and perpendicular to the water table contours.

Don’t worry—drawing contours is easier than you think. Just follow these simplesteps:

Activity Handout: Predicting Ground Water Flow


þ DIRECTIONS

1. Using the “Contouring the Water Table” worksheet, take a pencil (in caseyou make mistakes), and lightly draw in 3 or 4 arrows to show your pre-diction for the direction(s) of ground water flow.

2. Draw contours at 50-foot intervals. The pencil lines can always be inked-inlater. Begin at 50 feet (the shoreline along the ocean will be sea level), thendraw the other contours for 100, 150, 200, and 250 feet.

3. To get started, draw the 50-foot contour. Find the 50-foot elevation on theriver. Draw a line from that point through the 50-foot elevation at the welljust southwest of the river. Don’t go much past the well, because there areno more data to tell you where to go!

4. Draw the contour on the other side of the river. When locating a contourbetween two points, you will have to interpolate—that is, figure out theproportional distance between the points.The 50-foot contour between the30- and 80-foot elevations should be drawn closer to the 30-foot value (20feet difference) than the 80-foot value (30 feet difference). You can do thisby hand after a little practice, or measure it precisely with a ruler and cal-culator. For the other two wells, draw the contour exactly between the 30-and 70-foot elevations, because they are both 20 feet different from the 50-foot contour’s value.

5. When you are finished, you will notice that the contours form V’s with theriver and its tributaries. That’s because the river is a “gaining” river. It isreceiving recharge from the aquifer. The contours show that ground wateris moving down the sides of the valley and into the river channel. Theopposite of a gaining stream is a “losing” stream. It arises when the watertable at the stream channel is lower than the stream’s elevation, or stage,and stream water flows downward through the channel to the water table.This is very common in dryer regions of the Southwest. In the case of a los-ing stream, the V will point downstream, instead of upstream.

Note: When making a water table map, it’s important that your well and streamelevations are accurate. All elevations should be referenced to a standard datum, suchas mean sea level. This means that all elevations are either above or below the stan-dard datum (e.g., 50 feet above mean sea level datum). It’s also very important tomeasure all of the water table elevations within a short period of time, such as oneday, so that you have a “snapshot” of what’s going on. Because the water table risesand falls over time, your map will be more accurate if readings are made before thesechanges occur.

Understanding how ground water flows is important when you want to know whereto drill a well for a water supply, to estimate a well’s recharge area, or to predict thedirection contamination is likely to take once it reaches the water table. Water tablecontouring can help you do all these things!

➤B •110 •

ASSIGNMENT

➤B •111 •



1. Why are communities interested in learning the direction of ground waterflow?

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2. Why would it be important to know if a stream in your community is a“gaining” stream or “losing” stream?

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

3. Compare and contrast your predictions for ground water flow to yourmapped ground water flow direction(s). Briefly explain and differences.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

KEY TERMS

• Gaining Stream/Pond

• Interpolate

• Losing Stream/Pond

Activity Handout: Predicting GrounD Water Flow

B •112 •

MEAN SEA LEVEL

Ocean

Contouring the Water Table

RIVER - Number is river surface elevation, in feet, above mean sea level

WELL - Number is water table elevation, in feet, above mean sea level

100

150

➤B •113 •

TEACHING STRATEGY

1. Label boxes before class begins. (Suggestion: A few weeks beforeyou begin the project, ask the students to collect cardboard tubesand boxes for the water distribution system.)

2. Distribute copies of the activity handout. Tell the students thatthey are water system designers. They have been asked to go toSmall Town, New England, to design a new public water supplysystem. They must decide how to link all the homes and businessesto the water source so that everyone can get the water they need.

3. Have the class work as a group to design the delivery system. Atrandom, give seven students the seven boxes that are labeled“school,” “business,” “industry,” and “hospital.” Wherever thestudents place the boxes will be their location in Small Town, NewEngland. Assume that the chairs or desks in the classroom repre-sent homes. (Reserve the 3 boxes that represent new buildings.)

4. Randomly select a location for the well. (This will be the startingpoint for the model.)

5. To avoid chaos, provide a large pipe that leads from the well.Have students begin building the distribution system from thatpoint.

6. After the system is designed, have students determine the cost ofthe entire delivery system.

7. Have students scrutinize the design tosee if any changes can be made toreduce the cost. Ask students to cal-culate the amount of money saved asa result of any design changes.

8. Randomly distribute the boxesmarked “new school,” “new busi-ness,” and “new industry.” If neces-sary, redesign the water system, anddetermine the cost of adding in thesenew users. Tell students that before alarge water user is added to the sys-tem, communities must check to besure there is adequate water to servethem.

Grades 7-12

➤ MATERIALS


❏ Large-diameter cardboard tubes (e.g., map tubes)*

❏ Medium-diameter cardboard tubes (e.g., wrapping papertubes, toilet paper tubes, paper towel tubes)*

❏ Small-diameter tubes (rolled card stock or straws)*

❏ Ten boxes labeled: school (1 box); business (3 boxes);hospital (1 box); industry (2 boxes); new school (1 box);new business (1 box); new industry (1 box)

* If tubes are unavailable, roll up poster board or constructionpaper into different sizes. Tape or staple ends together.

➤ OBJECTIVES

• Build a model of awater delivery systemfrom source to user.

• Explore factors thatneed to be consideredwhen designing a waterdistribution system.


SKILLS

Science, Social Studies,Mathematics,Economics

➤ ESTIMATED

TIME

2 hours (may be spreadover 2 days)

NEW ENGLAND’S GROUND WATER RESOURCESNEW ENGLAND’S GROUND WATER RESOURCESThe Great Water Hook-up

➤B •114 •

The Great Water Hook-up

9. After designing the water distribution system, help studentsdevelop a list of questions that community leaders should askwhen designing a system. For example: How many homes, indus-tries, schools, etc. must receive water? How much water do theyneed? How much water is available? Where will all the homes,businesses, industries, etc. be located? What will the system cost,and how will the community pay for it? How will the communi-ty change in the future? How can the community plan for thesechanges, and in the case of new industries, businesses, andschools, who should pay the costs?

10. Ask students what steps community leaders might take to reducefuture costs (e.g., group similar types of users together [zoning],limit growth of the community).

NOTE: If this activity requires more than one class period, have stu-dents sketch the system at the end of each class and reassemble itwhen the class meets again.


• Once the water distribution system is designed, discuss, as a class,how the community will pay for the system (e.g., loan, bond, one-time fee). Calculate the cost of the system for each user (assume thenumber of students in the class is the number of users), based oncurrent interest rates (if appropriate). Negotiate a payment planthat is agreeable to your “water users.” (This activity can used as amath/economics supplement.)

• If your community uses public water, have students research thewater distribution system. Obtain a copy of the community’s waterdistribution map(s) and invite your water supplier to come to classand discuss system planning, maintenance, and repair.

• Have the class add a wastewater collection system. Explain thatSmall Town is having problems with its septic systems and will soonneed to build a wastewater treatment plant so that a wastewatercollection (sewer) system can be hooked up to all the homes andbusinesses. Have students find a location where the wastewater canbe treated and then discharged into a receiving river or stream.Figure out how to accomplish this great wastewater hook-up.

• Instead of using the piping costs provided in Part 2, relate the costof the distribution system to the length of the system. To do this,have the students assign an overall scale to the piping system (forexample, 1 inch = 10 feet). Based on this scale, assign a cost perlinear foot of pipe (for example., $100 per foot (large), $50 per foot

NOTES

➤

The Great Water Hook-up

(medium), $25 per foot (small). You may even want to break itdown further into separate installation and material costs.(Installation costs will be approximately the same per foot, whereasthe larger pipe sizes will affect the materials cost per foot.) Havethe students measure their proposed distribution system and thenconvert their results into feet and then into dollars.

Explain to the students that this is how real world constructioncosts are estimated. This type of exercise will help the studentsunderstand scales and conversions and, at the same time, add aplanning component to the activity (e.g., the cost of developingaway from the town center).

NOTES

B •115 •

This activity is adapted from Massachusetts Water Resource Authority. Water Wizards. Boston:Massachusetts Water Resource Authority.

➤B •116 •

The Great Water Hook-Upþ BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Our drinking water comes from either ground water wells or surface water (e.g., river,lake, man-made reservoir). Ground water supplies are usually extracted by a pump,treated and disinfected when necessary, and delivered to homes and businessesthrough a network of pipes called a distribution system. Many people who live inrural areas have individual, on-site ground water wells with very simple piping sys-tems; many other people who depend on ground water, but live in more populatedareas, receive their water from large water supply wells through more complicated dis-tribution systems.

Surface water supplies are withdrawn from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs through largeintake structures. The water is disinfected and often treated or filtered to removeimpurities before entering the distribution system. Surface water supplies often travelthrough many miles of underground pipes before reaching the faucets of people’shomes and businesses.

In the water distribution system, the size of the pipe is a function of the amount ofwater that will typically pass through it. Thus, the largest pipe hooks into the sourcewater supply (e.g., ground water well, reservoir, river); middle-size pipes serve largerwater users (e.g., office buildings, hospitals, apartment buildings); and the smallestpipes serve individual residences.

PART 1þ SCENARIO

Small Town, New England needshelp in designing a new waterdelivery system. It has askedyour firm, Water Hook-Ups,Inc., to do the design work.

þ JOB SPECIFICATIONS

• The community relies ona large well to providewater to its residents,businesses, and institu-tions and needs a systemto pump and deliverwater from the wellthroughout the community.

• Each home, business, industry, orinstitution requires varying amountsof water. Therefore, the size of the pipes needed toprovide water also varies. (Larger pipes provide more water.)

Activity Handout: The Great Water Hook-up

B •117 • ➤


• You must follow these rules when laying pipes:

1. Large pipes must hook up to the well. Large pipes will be used for themajor water lines running through the community.

2. The hospital and the industry use a very large amount of water andmust be connected to a large water pipe or be served by a couple ofmedium-size pipes.

3. The businesses and school use a lot of water but not as much as thehospital and industry. They must be connected to a medium-size pipe.

4. Homes use less water than businesses and require a small pipe.

5. Pipes can be connected only in descending order. That is, from thewell, large pipes are connected to medium-size pipes, which are con-nected to small pipes. Also, from the well, large pipes can be connect-ed to small pipes. However, once you lay a small pipe, you cannot adda medium-size pipe or large pipe on the end. That would cause a bot-tleneck.

6. A large pipe can serve 3 medium-size pipes or 15 small pipes. Eachmedium-size pipe can serve 5 small pipes.

7. Consider the need for future maintenance and repairs. If a section ofpipe must be closed for maintenance, consider how you will providewater to the affected users (e.g., a loop versus a dead-end system).

Part 2:Your Job

1. Connect the pipes! Be sure that every home, business, industry, school, andhospital will receive water.

2. When you are done laying pipes, determine the cost of the project based onthe following cost figures:

Large pipe = $15,000 eachMedium pipe = $ 5,000 eachSmall pipe = $ 1,000 each


• How much did the whole delivery system cost?

$ __________________________________________________________

ASSIGNMENT

B •118•


Part 3: Delivery System Changes

1. Look at the delivery system you designed. Can you make any designchanges to reduce the cost?

a. If so, briefly list those changes.

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

b. What is the cost of the redesigned system?

$ __________________________________________________________

c. How much did you save

$ __________________________________________________________

2. Help! Small Town is growing rapidly. The town wants to build a newschool, a new business, and a new industry. (Your teacher will tell youwhere they are located.) Make changes in your design to serve these newneeds.

a. How much did the changes cost?

$ __________________________________________________________

b. Who do you think should pay for those changes? Support yourreasoning.

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

KEY TERMS

• Distribution System

• Drinking Water

This activity is adapted from Massachusetts Water Resource Authority. Water Wizards. Boston: MassachusettsWater Resource Authority

➤C •1 •

round water contamination is nearlyalways the result of human activity. In

areas where population density is high and humanuse of the land is intensive, ground water is espe-cially vulnerable. Virtually any activity wherebychemicals or wastes may be released to the envi-ronment, either intentionally or accidentally, hasthe potential to pollute ground water. Whenground water becomes contaminated, it is difficultand expensive to clean up.

To begin to address pollution prevention or reme-diation, we must understand how surface watersand ground waters interrelate. Ground water andsurface water are interconnected and can be fullyunderstood and intelligently managed only whenthat fact is acknowledged. If there is a water sup-ply well near a source of contamination, that wellruns the risk of becoming contaminated. If there isa nearby river or stream, that water body mayalso become pollutedby the ground water.

HOW DOESGROUND WATERBECOMECONTAMINATED?Depending on itsphysical, chemical,and biological prop-erties, a contaminantthat has been releasedinto the environmentmay move within anaquifer in the samemanner that groundwater moves. (Somecontaminants,because of their phys-

ical or chemical properties, do not always followground water flow.) It is possible to predict, tosome degree, the transport within an aquifer ofthose substances that move along with groundwater flow. For example, both water and certaincontaminants flow in the direction of the topogra-phy from recharge areas to discharge areas. Soilsthat are porous and permeable tend to transmitwater and certain types of contaminants with rela-tive ease to an aquifer below.

Just as ground water generally moves slowly, sodo contaminants in ground water. Because of thisslow movement, contaminants tend to remainconcentrated in the form of a plume (see Figure 1)that flows along the same path as the groundwater. The size and speed of the plume depend onthe amount and type of contaminant, its solubilityand density, and the velocity of the surroundingground water.

Ground WaterContamination

GG

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Water Table

Direction of Ground Water Flow

Figure 1 CONTAMINANT PLUME

Ground water and contaminants can move rapidlythrough fractures in rocks. Fractured rock pre-sents a unique problem in locating and controllingcontaminants because the fractures are generallyrandomly spaced and do not follow the contoursof the land surface or the hydraulic gradient.Contaminants can also move into the groundwater system through macropores—root systems,animal burrows, abandoned wells, and other sys-tems of holes and cracks that supply pathways forcontaminants.

In areas surrounding pumping wells, the potentialfor contamination increases because water fromthe zone of contribution, a land area larger thanthe original recharge area, is drawn into the welland the surrounding aquifer. Some drinking waterwells actually draw water from nearby streams,lakes, or rivers. Contaminants present in thesesurface waters can contribute contamination tothe ground water system. Some wells rely on arti-ficial recharge to increase the amount of waterinfiltrating an aquifer, often using water fromstorm runoff, irrigation, industrial processes, ortreated sewage. In several cases, this practice hasresulted in increased concentrations of nitrates,metals, microbes, or synthetic chemicals in thewater.

Under certain conditions, pumping can also causethe ground water (and associated contaminants)from another aquifer to enter the one beingpumped. This phenomenon is called interaquiferleakage. Thus, properly identifying and protectingthe areas affected by well pumping is important tomaintain ground water quality.

Generally, the greater the distance between asource of contamination and a ground watersource, the more likely that natural processes willreduce the impacts of contamination. Processessuch as oxidation, biological degradation (whichsometimes renders contaminants less toxic), andadsorption (binding of materials to soil particles)may take place in the soil layers of the unsaturat-ed zone and reduce the concentration of a con-taminant before it reaches ground water. Even

contaminants that reach ground water directly,without passing through the unsaturated zone,can become less concentrated by dilution (mixing)with the ground water. However, because groundwater usually moves slowly, contaminants general-ly undergo less dilution than when in surfacewater.

SOURCES OF GROUND WATERCONTAMINATION

Ground water can become contaminated fromnatural sources or numerous types of humanactivities. (See Tables 1 and 2 and Figure 1.)Residential, municipal, commercial, industrial,and agricultural activities can all affect groundwater quality. Contaminants may reach groundwater from activities on the land surface, such asreleases or spills from stored industrial wastes;from sources below the land surface but above thewater table, such as septic systems or leakingunderground petroleum storage systems; fromstructures beneath the water table, such as wells;or from contaminated recharge water.

■ Natural SourcesSome substances found naturally in rocks or soils,such as iron, manganese, arsenic, chlorides, fluo-rides, sulfates, or radionuclides, can become dis-solved in ground water. Other naturally occurringsubstances, such as decaying organic matter, canmove in ground water as particles. Whether anyof these substances appears in ground waterdepends on local conditions. Some substances maypose a health threat if consumed in excessivequantities; others may produce an undesirableodor, taste, or color. Ground water that containsunacceptable concentrations of these substances isnot used for drinking water or other domesticwater uses unless it is treated to remove these con-taminants.

■ Septic SystemsOne of the main causes of ground water contami-nation in the United States is the effluent (out-flow) from septic tanks, cesspools, and privies.

➤C •2 •

Getting Up to Speed: ground water contamination

➤C •3 •

Approximately one-fourth of all homes in theUnited States rely on septic systems to dispose oftheir human wastes. Although each individual sys-tem releases a relatively small amount of wasteinto the ground, the large number and widespreaduse of these systems makes them a serious conta-mination source. Septic systems that are improper-ly sited, designed, constructed, or maintained cancontaminate ground water with bacteria, viruses,nitrates, detergents, oils, and chemicals. Alongwith these contaminants are the commerciallyavailable septic system cleaners containing syn-

thetic organic chemicals (such as 1,1,1-trichloroethane or methylene chloride). Thesecleaners can contaminate water supply wells andinterfere with natural decomposition processes inseptic systems.

Most, if not all, state and local regulations requirespecific separation distances between septic sys-tems and drinking water wells. In addition, com-puter models have been developed to calculatesuitable distances and densities.


TYPICAL SOURCES OF POTENTIAL GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION BY LAND USE CATEGORYTable 1

■ Improper Disposal of Hazardous WasteHazardous waste should always be disposed ofproperly, that is to say, by a licensed hazardouswaste handler or through municipal hazardouswaste collection days. Many chemicals should notbe disposed of in household septic systems,including oils (e.g., cooking, motor), lawn andgarden chemicals, paints and paint thinners, disin-fectants, medicines, photographic chemicals, andswimming pool chemicals. Similarly, many sub-stances used in industrial processes should not bedisposed of in drains at the workplace becausethey could contaminate a drinking water source.Companies should train employees in the properuse and disposal of all chemicals used on site. Themany different types and the large quantities ofchemicals used at industrial locations make properdisposal of wastes especially important for groundwater protection.

■ Releases and Spills from StoredChemicals and Petroleum Products

Underground and aboveground storage tanks arecommonly used to store petroleum products andother chemical substances. For example, manyhomes have underground heating oil tanks. Manybusinesses and municipal highway departmentsalso store gasoline, diesel fuel, fuel oil, or chemi-cals in on-site tanks. Industries use storage tanksto hold chemicals used in industrial processes orto store hazardous wastes for pickup by a licensedhauler. Approximately 4 million undergroundstorage tanks exist in the United States and, overthe years, the contents of many of these tankshave leaked and spilled into the environment.

If an underground storage tank develops a leak,which commonly occurs as the tank ages and cor-rodes, its contents can migrate through the soiland reach the ground water. Tanks that meet fed-eral/state standards for new and upgraded systemsare less likely to fail, but they are not foolproof.Abandoned underground tanks pose anotherproblem because their location is often unknown.Aboveground storage tanks can also pose a threatto ground water if a spill or leak occurs and ade-quate barriers are not in place.

Improper chemical storage, sloppy materials han-dling, and poor-quality containers can be majorthreats to ground water. Tanker trucks and traincars pose another chemical storage hazard. Eachyear, approximately 16,000 chemical spills occurfrom trucks, trains, and storage tanks, often whenmaterials are being transferred. At the site of anaccidental spill, the chemicals are often dilutedwith water and then washed into the soil, increas-ing the possibility of ground water contamination.

■ LandfillsSolid waste is disposed of in thousands of munici-pal and industrial landfills throughout the coun-try. Chemicals that should be disposed of in haz-ardous waste landfills sometimes end up in munic-ipal landfills. In addition, the disposal of manyhousehold wastes is not regulated.

Once in the landfill, chemicals can leach into theground water by means of precipitation and sur-face runoff. New landfills are required to haveclay or synthetic liners and leachate (liquid from alandfill containing contaminants) collection sys-tems to protect ground water. Most older land-fills, however, do not have these safeguards. Olderlandfills were often sited over aquifers or close tosurface waters and in permeable soils with shal-low water tables, enhancing the potential forleachate to contaminate ground water. Closedlandfills can continue to pose a ground water con-tamination threat if they are not capped with animpermeable material (such as clay) before closureto prevent the leaching of contaminants by precip-itation.

■ Surface ImpoundmentsSurface impoundments are relatively shallowponds or lagoons used by industries and munici-palities to store, treat, and dispose of liquidwastes. As many as 180,000 surface impound-ments exist in the United States. Like landfills,new surface impoundment facilities are requiredto have liners, but even these liners sometimesleak.

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➤C •5 •


POTENTIAL HARMFUL COMPONENTS OF COMMON HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTSTable 2

■ Sewers and Other PipelinesSewer pipes carrying wastes sometimes leak fluidsinto the surrounding soil and ground water.Sewage consists of organic matter, inorganic salts,heavy metals, bacteria, viruses, and nitrogen.Other pipelines carrying industrial chemicals andoil brine have also been known to leak, especiallywhen the materials transported through the pipesare corrosive.

■ Pesticide and Fertilizer UseMillions of tons of fertilizers and pesticides (e.g.,herbicides, insecticides, rodenticides, fungicides,avicides) are used annually in the United States forcrop production. In addition to farmers, home-owners, businesses (e.g., golf courses), utilities,and municipalities use these chemicals. A numberof these pesticides and fertilizers (some highlytoxic) have entered and contaminated groundwater following normal, registered use. Some pes-ticides remain in soil and water for many monthsto many years. Another potential source ofground water contamination is animal wastes thatpercolate into the ground from farm feedlots.Feedlots should be properly sited and wastesshould be removed at regular intervals.

Between 1985 and 1992, EPA’s Office ofPesticides and Toxic Substances and Office ofWater conducted a National Pesticide Survey todetermine the number of drinking water wellsnationwide that contain pesticides and nitratesand the concentration of these substances. Thesurvey also analyzed the factors associated withcontamination of drinking water wells by pesti-cides and nitrates. The survey, which includedsamples from more than 1,300 public communityand rural domestic water supply wells, found thatapproximately 3.6 percent of the wells containedconcentrations of nitrates above the federal maxi-mum contaminant level, and that over half of thewells contained nitrates above the survey’s mini-mum reporting limit for nitrate (0.15 mg/L).

The survey also reported that approximately 0.8percent of the wells tested contained pesticides at

levels higher than federal maximum contaminantlevels or health advisory levels. Only 10 percent ofthe wells classified as rural were actually locatedon farms. There is a higher incidence of contami-nation by agricultural chemicals in farm wellsused for drinking water.

After further analysis, EPA estimated that for thewells that contain pesticides, a significant percent-age probably contain chemical concentrations thatexceed the federal health-based limits (e.g., maxi-mum contaminant levels or health advisory levels).Approximately 14.6 percent of the wells testedcontained levels of one or more pesticides abovethe minimum reporting limit set in the survey. Themost common pesticides found were atrazine andmetabolites (breakdown products) of dimethyltetrachloroterephthalate (DCPA, commonly knownas Dacthal), which is used in many utility easementweed-control programs and for lawn care.

■ Drainage WellsDrainage wells are used in wet areas to help drainwater and transport it to deeper soils. These wellsmay contain agricultural chemicals and bacteria.

■ Injection Wells/Floor DrainsInjection wells are used to collect storm waterrunoff, collect spilled liquids, dispose of waste-water, and dispose of industrial, commercial, andutility wastes. These wells are regulated by the U.S.EPA’s Underground Injection Control Program. InNew England, these wells may not be used to injecthazardous wastes from industrial, commercial, andutility operations. The injection wells used in thisregion are typically shallow and include sumps anddry wells used to handle storm water.

Floor drains were historically used by businessesto handle spills. Today, if a business operates orhandles waste fluids that drain to a septic system,dry well, or floor drain, it is required to submitinformation regarding its operation to the U.S.EPA or its state environmental protection agency.Disposal wells that pose threats to drinking watersupplies are prohibited and must be closed, con-

➤C •6 •


➤C •7 •

nected to a public sewage system, or connected toa storage tank.

■ Improperly Constructed WellsProblems associated with improperly constructedwells can result in ground water contaminationwhen contaminated surface or ground water isintroduced into the well.

■ Improperly Abandoned WellsThese wells can act as a conduit through whichcontaminants can reach an aquifer if the well cas-ing has been removed, as is often done, or if thecasing is corroded. In addition, some people useabandoned wells to dispose of wastes such as usedmotor oil. These wells may reach into an aquiferthat serves drinking supply wells. Abandonedexploratory wells (e.g., for gas, oil, or coal) or testhole wells are usually uncovered and are also apotential conduit for contaminants.

■ Active Drinking Water Supply WellsPoorly constructed wells can result in groundwater contamination. Construction problems,such as faulty casings, inadequate covers, or lackof concrete pads, allow outside water and anyaccompanying contaminants to flow into the well.Sources of such contaminants can be surfacerunoff or wastes from farm animals or septic sys-tems. Contaminated fill packed around a well canalso degrade well water quality. Well constructionproblems are more likely to occur in older wellsthat were in place prior to the establishment ofwell construction standards and in domestic andlivestock wells.

■ Poorly Constructed Irrigation WellsThese wells can allow contaminants to enterground water. Often pesticides and fertilizers areapplied in the immediate vicinity of wells on agri-cultural land.

■ Mining ActivitiesActive and abandoned mines can contribute toground water contamination. Precipitation canleach soluble minerals from the mine wastes

(known as spoils or tailings) into the groundwater below. These wastes often contain metals,acid, minerals, and sulfides. Abandoned mines areoften used as wells and waste pits, sometimessimultaneously. In addition, mines are sometimespumped to keep them dry; the pumping can causean upward migration of contaminated groundwater, which may be intercepted by a well.

EFFECTS OF GROUND WATERCONTAMINATION

Contamination of ground water can result in poordrinking water quality, loss of water supply,degraded surface water systems, high cleanupcosts, high costs for alternative water supplies,and/or potential health problems.

The consequences of contaminated ground wateror degraded surface water are often serious. Forexample, estuaries that have been impacted byhigh nitrogen from ground water sources havelost critical shellfish habitats. In terms of watersupply, in some instances, ground water contami-nation is so severe that the water supply must beabandoned as a source of drinking water. In othercases, the ground water can be cleaned up andused again, if the contamination is not too severeand if the municipality is willing to spend a gooddeal of money. Follow-up water quality monitor-ing is often required for many years.

Because ground water generally moves slowly,contamination often remains undetected for longperiods of time. This makes cleanup of a contami-nated water supply difficult, if not impossible. If acleanup is undertaken, it can cost thousands tomillions of dollars.

Once the contaminant source has been controlledor removed, the contaminated ground water canbe treated in one of several ways:

• Containing the contaminant to preventmigration.

• Pumping the water, treating it, and return-ing it to the aquifer.


• Leaving the ground water in place andtreating either the water or the contami-nant.

• Allowing the contaminant to attenuate(reduce) naturally (with monitoring), fol-lowing the implementation of an appropri-ate source control.

Selection of the appropriate remedial technologyis based on site-specific factors and often takesinto account cleanup goals based on potential riskthat are protective of human health and the envi-ronment. The technology selected is one that willachieve those cleanup goals. Different technolo-gies are effective for different types of contami-nants, and several technologies are often com-bined to achieve effective treatment. The effective-ness of treatment depends in part on local hydro-geological conditions, which must be evaluatedprior to selecting a treatment option.

Given the difficulty and high costs of cleaning upa contaminated aquifer, some communities chooseto abandon existing wells and use other watersources, if available. Using alternative supplies isprobably more expensive than obtaining drinkingwater from the original source. A temporary andexpensive solution is to purchase bottled water,but it is not a realistic long-term solution for acommunity’s drinking water supply problem. Acommunity might decide to install new wells in adifferent area of the aquifer. In this case, appropri-ate siting and monitoring of the new wells arecritical to ensure that contaminants do not moveinto the new water supplies.

Potential Health ProblemsA number of microorganisms and thousands ofsynthetic chemicals have the potential to contami-nate ground water. Drinking water containingbacteria and viruses can result in illnesses such ashepatitis, cholera, or giardiasis. Methemo-globinemia or “blue baby syndrome,” an illnessaffecting infants, can be caused by drinking waterthat is high in nitrates. Benzene, a component of

gasoline, is a known human carcinogen. The seri-ous health effects of lead are well known—learn-ing disabilities in children; nerve, kidney, and liverproblems; and pregnancy risks. Concentrations indrinking water of these and other substances areregulated by federal and state laws. Hundreds ofother chemicals, however, are not yet regulated,and many of their health effects are unknown ornot well understood. Preventing contaminantsfrom reaching the ground water is the best way toreduce the health risks associated with poordrinking water quality.

REGULATIONS TO PROTECTGROUND WATER

Several federal laws help protect ground waterquality. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)established three drinking water source protectionprograms: the Wellhead Protection Program, SoleSource Aquifer Program, and the Source WaterAssessment Program. It also called for regulationof the use of underground injection wells forwaste disposal and provided EPA and the stateswith the authority to ensure that drinking watersupplied by public water systems meets minimumhealth standards. The Clean Water Act regulatesground water that is shown to have a connectionwith surface water. It sets standards for allowablepollutant discharges to surface water. TheResource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)regulates treatment, storage, and disposal of haz-ardous and nonhazardous wastes. TheComprehensive Environmental Response,Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA, orSuperfund) authorizes the government to clean upcontamination or sources of potential contamina-tion from hazardous waste sites or chemical spills,including those that threaten drinking water sup-plies. CERCLA includes a “community right-to-know” provision. The Federal Insecticide,Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) regulatespesticide use. The Toxic Substances Control Act(TSCA) regulates manufactured chemicals.

➤C •8 •


C •9 •


➤

KEY TERMS

• Clean Water Act

• Comprehensive EnvironmentalResponse, Compensation, and LiabilityAct (CERCLA, or Superfund)

• Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, andRodenticide Act (FIFRA)

• Interaquifer Leakage

• Plume

• Resource Conservation and RecoveryAct (RCRA)

• Safe Drinking Water Act

• Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)

• Zone of Contribution

“Getting Up to Speed” for section C,“Ground Water Contamination” is adapted from US EPA Seminar Publication. Wellhead Protection: A Guide forSmall Communities. Chapter 3. EPA/625/R-93/002.

C •10 •


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➤C •11 •

TEACHING STRATEGY

Have students begin reading this book at the beginning of this sectionor even earlier. Ideally, they should be prepared to discuss the book asa class when they have completed the ground water contaminationactivities at the end of this section. A Civil Action ties in well with thematerial in this section and should be more and more meaningful tothe students as they learn about the fate and transport of contami-nants and the determination of responsible parties. The bookpoignantly drives home the paramount importance of clean water inour lives. This activity could be coordinated as an English class read-ing assignment.

Grades 7-12

➤ MATERIALS

❏ Copies of the book ACivil Action byJonathan Harr.Vintage Books, a divi-sion of RandomHouse, Inc., NewYork. September1996.

➤ OBJECTIVES

• Gain a new perspectivefrom a compelling real-life story about peoplein Woburn, Massa-chusetts, who seek jus-tice when their lives areturned upside-down asa result of exposure tocontaminated groundwater. Through an epiccourtroom showdown,students will find outhow the pieces cometogether (or don’t cometogether) in a casewhere two large corpo-rations are accused ofcausing the deaths ofchildren.


SKILLS

English, Earth Sciences,Social Studies

GROUND WATER CONTAMINATIONGROUND WATER CONTAMINATION

“A Civil Action”

➤C •17 •

TEACHING STRATEGY

1. To spark interest in this project, you may want to dig up copies ofold newspaper articles announcing the development of a majorlandmark in the community (e.g., shopping center, housing pro-ject) and show it to the class. Ask the students if they recall landuse changes in the community that took place as they were grow-ing up.

2. Explain that the purpose of this exercise is to explore land usechanges over time. By conducting research and interviews, the stu-dents will have an opportunity to learn about their communityand how it has changed over the years. Then they will considerhow those changes might have affected the community and itsresources.

3. Select areas for study (e.g., whole community, section of town, oneparcel of land) by the class. Preferably, select at least one area neara public well, in an area dependent on private wells, or an areanear a river, wetland lake, or coastal water. Students should workin teams, with each team investigating a different area.

4. Have the teams identify individuals in the community who wouldbe good candidates from whom to obtain information about thearea (e.g., parents, grandparents, neighbors, town officials, histori-cal society members). Once they have completed their list of possi-ble interviewees, have the students contact these individuals byphone or in person to introduce themselves and schedule inter-views.

5. Discuss interviewing skills in terms of preparing for and conduct-ing the interviews.

6. Have the students brainstorm a list of possible questions to askduring their interviews. Remind them that most of the questionsshould be directed at discovering how land use has changed overtime.

Grades 7-12

➤ OBJECTIVES

• Discover the historicaldevelopment patterns ina selected neighbor-hood, preferably onenear a public water sup-ply well or one depen-dent on private wells.

• Appreciate the cumula-tive effects of decisionsover time. Studentswill begin to realizehow decisions thatcommunities make (orfail to make) today canaffect the quality of lifein the future.


SKILLS

Social Studies,Environmental ImpactStudies, History,Communications(Interviewing Skills),Research Skills

➤ ESTIMATED

TIME

30 minutes to intro-duce assignment

15 minutes per teamfor oral reports

Allow students 2 to 3weeks to complete theassignment, includingresearch and inter-views

GROUND WATER CONTAMINATIONGROUND WATER CONTAMINATIONWhen You Were My Age, What Was This Place Like?

➤ MATERIALS

❏ Paper/pen

❏ Tape recorder (optional)

❏ Video camera/VCR (optional)

❏ Camera (optional)

❏ Maps of selected areas (e.g., topographic, land use, road)

➤C •18 •

WHen you were my age, what was thisplace like?

Possible Questions

1. How long have you lived in this community?

2. Can you describe what this area was like over time (e.g., the past50, 30, 25, 15, 10, 5 years)? How was the land used?

3. What did your parents/grandparents do for a living? Did theywork in the town or somewhere else?

4. What roads existed when you were a child? What roads have beenadded? Widened?

5. Has the water quality in your well and in the nearest river, lake, orestuary changed over time? If so, in what way?

6. Has construction in the vicinity of the community’s water supplywell increased during your lifetime? If so, where and in what way?

7. With respect to conducting the interviews: One way to help peopleremember the changes in the area is to provide them with copies ofarticles and pictures from old newspapers to spark conversation. Atopographic map of the area also provides a reference point for theinterview. By comparing older USGS topographic maps with newerones, students and interviewees will be able to note changes indevelopment density, roads, and so on. Older versions of thesemaps can sometimes be found at local planning departments,libraries, or historical societies and then copied. Town planningoffices generally have existing land use maps as well, and may alsokeep older versions. Students may want to bring tracing paper tothe interview so that they can sketch out overlays of past road pat-terns and land uses with the help of the interviewees.

8. Have each team make an oral report to the class on what waslearned through the interview. Have the students discuss how landuse changes may have affected ground water and surface waterquality in the area and how these changes may have affected thecommunity’s water supply (e.g., increased or decreased waterdemands, improved or decreased water quality, potential for cont-amination of the ground and surface water).

9. Explore this question: What can we learn from the past that couldbe applied to today’s land use decisions?

Alternate Teaching StrategyDivide the class into teams of 3-4 students. Have some teams pursueinformation about land use in the past (as described above). Have oneteam find out about local ordinances that affect land use. (See supple-mentary activity #2.) Have one team of artistic students work on themural. (See supplementary activity #3.) Have one team prepare a pop-

NOTES

C •19 •

ulation density map. (See supplementary activity #4.) Have one teamcollect current articles on land use. (See supplementary activity #5.)Assign any of the other supplementary activities as needed.


1. Record interviews on tape or video. Transcribe the interviews in abook form, including an introductory text and an evaluation ofwhat has happened in the area. Alternatively, produce a video thatdocuments the land use history of the area through interviews andnarrative. Both approaches should zero in on the effects of landuse decisions on water quality and water supplies.

2. Research and report on local ordinances that may have affectedlocal development (e.g., a subdivision, zoning, wetlands). Theseordinances may designate areas in a community where differentland uses (e.g., business, industry, residential) can locate. Theremay also be special regulations to protect the community’s watersupply (often called a ground water management district, wellheadprotection area district, aquifer protection district, or water supplydistrict). Are these measures adequate? Discuss current land usedecisions. (Consider interviewing your local planning office orlocal water supplier.)

3. Prepare a wall mural that shows “before” and “after” scenes asdescribed by the interviewees and as discovered through primaryresearch. (Option: Make a collage of old and current photographs.)

4. Using United States census records or local census records, preparepopulation density maps for the area 50 years ago, 25 years ago,and today.

5. Collect articles about land use issues (e.g., new businesses, malls,landfills, apartments, septic system problems) from current news-papers. Discuss how the decisions being made today may have animpact on the environment in the future.

6. Explore the impact of various land uses (e.g., landfills, highways,parking lots, agriculture) on other aspects of the environmentbesides water quality (e.g., air quality, forestry, wildlife habitats).

7. Contrast current land uses with early land uses by NativeAmericans and European settlers. How have the changes affectedthe demand for and the quality of water?

8. Attend a public meeting where land use decisions are being dis-cussed (e.g., planning board, zoning board, conservation commis-sion, wetlands board).

NOTES

WHen you were my age, what was thisplace like?

This activity is adapted fromMassachusetts Coastal ZoneManagement and MassachusettsMarine Educators.“LandUse/Oral Histories,” ChartingOur Course:The MassachusettsCoast at an EnvironmentalCrossroads. Boston:Massachusetts Coastal ZoneManagement. C-8.

➤D •1 •

s you have worked your way throughthis ground water program, we hope

that you have gained an understanding andrespect for the role that ground water plays in thisinterrelated and interwoven composition that isthe Earth. For too long, our ground waterresources have been out of sight and out of mind,and, as is often the case, our wake-up call hascome in the form of accumulated ground waterpollution crises.

Over the past few decades, we have learned someimportant lessons. We have learned, for example,that because it is located deep in the ground,ground water pollution is generally difficult andexpensive to clean up. We have learned that it ismuch easier and less expensive to protect aquifersfrom pollution and harmful development than tofind new water supplies or restore ground waterquality after it has been contaminated. We havealso learned that governments, industries, busi-nesses, and individuals can all benefit from work-ing together to protect this invaluable resource. Infact, ground water protection requires the activecooperation of all of the above.

In this final section of That Magnificent GroundWater Connection, we will zero in on what we asa society and as individuals can do to protect ourground water resources. For starters, educatingchildren and young adults, as this curriculumdoes, is a critical step in the process. Once we allunderstand the value of our water resources, howthe water resource system works, and how ouractions can affect water quality, we can begin towork together to protect these resources now andfor generations to come.

Federal and state governments play the “big pic-ture” roles in ground water protection. Federal

laws and U.S. Environmental Protection Agencyregulations authorize or mandate many programsto protect ground water and help provide funding.In general, the states have responsibility for imple-menting ground water programs that are, at aminimum, consistent with federal requirements.States also have responsibility for developingground water management plans that are basedon their hydrologic conditions and water needs.State agencies implement ground water protectionthrough permit programs, technical assistance,monitoring, and enforcement.

But the greatest means of protecting ground wateris at the local level, where potential pollutionsources must ultimately be managed, where mostland-use decisions are made, and where waterresources can benefit from community vigilanceand stewardship. At the local level, individualscan easily get involved and make a difference. Asanthropologist Margaret Mead said: “Neverdoubt that a small group of thoughtful, commit-ted citizens can change the world; indeed, it’s theonly thing that ever has.”

As high school students, it won’t be long beforeyou will assume the responsibilities that go withbeing an adult. As adult members of yourcommunity, there are many ways in which youcan make a difference on issues that matter toyou—by voting; serving on various boards, com-missions, or legislative bodies; organizing citizensgroups and volunteer efforts; or taking part in cit-izens groups and volunteer efforts. If good inten-tions are to become realities, they must be trans-lated into actions...effective actions. In the follow-ing reading you will learn about how citizens canget involved in protecting important naturalresources in their community. This reading focuseson protecting ground water resources.

Protecting Ground Water

AA

A STRATEGY FOR PROTECTINGGROUND WATER RESOURCES IN YOURCOMMUNITY

Ground water protection is a significant undertak-ing that may, indeed, affect many people for manyreasons. It pays to have a well-planned strategy!Here’s a plan of attack that has worked well inmany communities:

STEP 1. Get People InvolvedAt the local level, the first step in developing anyresource protection program is to form a communityplanning team. Since your ultimate goal is to have aground water protection program that everyone inthe community will support, it is important that theplanning team represents as many diverse interests inthe community as possible—town officials, communi-ty activists, residents, businesses, water suppliers, spe-cial interests.

STEP 2. Determine What Should BeProtected and WhyOnce the team is formed, it should set about iden-tifying its goals and objectives. The first importantquestion that must be answered is: What groundwater resources need to be protected and why?That is, is the goal to protect the drinking watersupply? Is the goal to preserve critical resourcessuch as wetlands, lakes, rivers, or coastal estuar-ies?

Communities may have varying reasons for want-ing to protect their ground water. Your team willneed to look at the local ground water resourcesin terms of identifying their functions and thenprotecting those functions based on present andfuture needs. For example, one community maywant to protect its ground water supply by delin-eating and protecting the wellhead protectionarea, (a recharge area that supplies a municipalwell(s) with water). Another community maywant to protect its surface water supply by pro-tecting all of the source water that flows into thatsurface water body, including, of course, theground water. Another community may want to

protect its estuarine areas by managing activitiesin its ground water recharge areas—the land areasthat provide ground water recharge to the estuary.

After a community decides why it is protecting itsground waters, the next and perhaps most diffi-cult task will be to identify ground waters whichmust be protected and determine what that pro-tection area encompasses. Because ground water isnot easily seen, many communities do not knowwhere their most valuable ground waters arelocated or in which land areas polluting land-useactivities will directly affect these ground waters.

Ideally, we should strive to protect all groundwater and take precautions, whenever and wher-ever, to prevent pollution. In reality, however, wemust often choose our battles, and direct ourenergies where the desired result will be mosteffective. In time, through education, our environ-mental vigilance will be enhanced. In the mean-time, we must make choices.

If the protection goal is directed at ground watersthat contribute to the community’s wetlands, theprotected area might include the land area whereground water recharges the wetland. If surfacewater protection is the goal, then the protectedarea might include the entire watershed that con-tributes to the community’s streams and rivers.Here are the major types of protection areas usedby communities:

■ Surface watersheds are best used to protectsurface waters and the ground waters that supportthem. A watershed is typically much larger thanthe area that supports a town’s aquifers or drink-ing water wells. The advantage of using a water-shed boundary to protect ground water resourcesis that it can be delineated fairly easily and at lowcost.

■ Aquifer protection areas are used to protectpotential community drinking water sources. Thecost and difficulty in identifying these areas variesaccording to the amount of available information.

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Getting Up to Speed: Protecting ground water

➤D •3 •


Communities that depend on private wells fordrinking water may wish to identify and protectall of their aquifers, inasmuch as all landownersare dependent on the water on their properties fordrinking water. In a case where a community haslarge supply wells, only a portion of an aquifermay be supplying water to the well. In this case,protection of the entire aquifer may provide moreprotection than a community feels it needs.

■ Wellhead protection areas are used to protectonly the ground water that recharges a communi-ty’s supply wells. If communities choose thismethod of protection, it is important that theydetermine their existing and future supply needswhen identifying their wellhead protection areas.

If a community does not consider its future needs,it may not protect enough of its aquifers to sup-port future development. In a case where a fairlyinexpensive and inaccurate method is used todelineate the wellhead protection areas, the com-munity may not truly understand which landareas may have an impact on its wells and maytherefore achieve incomplete protection of criticalground water resources. Figure 1 provides anexample of the different types of protection areasin a given community.

STEP 3. Collect Information About YourGround Water ResourcesThe primary goals of most ground water mappingprograms are to identify and map relevant water-sheds, aquifers, wellhead protection areas, wet-lands, and surface water areas. Much of the infor-mation you need to collect is already available inmap form, but these maps may be at many differ-ent scales, making relationships hard to see. Thebest way to display these data is to purchase atopographic base map and then map the otherinformation at the same scale on acetate overlays.The use of Geographic Information System (GIS)computer technology, if available to your commu-nity, allows you to easily view and evaluatemapped information.

Several types of maps that may be available foryour community are described in the activity,“Revealing Stories—Resource Maps Tell All,” andmay be available in GIS form. These maps includethe following:

■ Topographic MapsThese maps, prepared by the United StatesGeological Survey (USGS), use contour lines toshow the elevation of the land surface at 10-footintervals (or in newer maps, 3-meter intervals). Byobserving the contour lines closely, the map usercan learn the shape of the land surface (topogra-phy). And, by connecting the points of highest ele-vation, watershed boundaries to rivers, streams,and coastal embayments can be mapped.

Figure 1 AQUIFER VS.WELLHEAD PROTECTION AREA (WHPA)

WHPA

WHPA

AQUIFERPROTECTION

AREA

WATERSHEDBOUNDARY

CANOERIVER

Topographic maps also show the location ofmajor wetlands, rivers, roads, buildings, and otherdetails.

■ Surficial Geologic MapsThese maps, prepared by USGS for portions ofNew England, are drawn by professional geolo-gists who observe and interpret land forms andsoil profiles. Permeable soils, indicative of goodrecharge areas, are usually identified on the map.The maps show only types of surficial deposits.They do not provide numerical data on soil per-meability, nor do they identify aquifer rechargeareas.

■ National Wetland Inventory MapsNational Wetland Inventory Maps, prepared bythe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, are available atscales of 1:24,000 or 1:25,000 and show the loca-tion of medium and large-sized wetlands. Digitaldata may be available through the Internet forportions of New England.

■ Soil MapsIn communities where USGS surficial geologymaps are not yet available, soil maps from theU.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) NaturalResource Conservation Service can be used tolocate permeable soils that could be rechargeareas. Soil maps have been prepared for much ofNew England. The maps show soil types on anaerial photograph. The soil survey report, whichdescribes the soil classifications in terms of perme-ability and other characteristics, also includes ageneral soils map of the community. Both theUSGS surficial geologic maps and the USDA soilmaps show soil types within a few feet of the sur-face, but they do not contain information aboutdeeper geologic deposits. This is a problembecause one cannot assume that soils at deeperlevels will be the same as those directly above. Infact, layers of different soils are common in NewEngland.

■ Hydrologic AtlasesThese maps, published by the USGS, are availablefor portions of New England and show the loca-tion of aquifers. The location of aquifers is esti-mated by examining surficial geology, depth tobedrock, and depth of the water table. It is impor-tant to realize that these maps show only aquifersthat are considered favorable for ground waterdevelopment for drinking water based on thegeologist’s interpretation. Actual well yield maydiffer from the estimated yield. Despite these limi-tations, the hydrologic atlases identify all themajor aquifers within a given river basin. Thus,rather than hiring consultants to find an “undis-covered” aquifer, the USGS hydrologic atlas canbe used to locate aquifer areas in a community.

■ Additional Sources of InformationYour community may already have a library ofnatural resource information. If you have a plan-ning department, it would be the first place tolook. Regional planning agencies often have anextensive collection of resource information. Somestate environmental departments in New Englandhave collected extensive information about thelocation and quality of aquifers, wetlands, andcoastal recharge areas. Call your state groundwater program (usually the program that imple-ments the state’s wellhead protection program),wetlands program, geologic survey, and coastalzone management program to determine whatadditional water resource information is availablefor your community.

STEP 4. Map Your Ground WaterResource Protection AreasOnce you have evaluated your ground waterresource information and determined how thatinformation will be applied to your community’sground water protection needs, you will need totransfer this information onto a separate GroundWater Resource Protection Areas overlay map.Depending on the amount of information avail-able, the community may want to hire a consul-tant to map the resource protection area or seek

➤D •4 •


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assistance from the regional planning agency orstate environmental agency. Assuming that thismap is eventually adopted by the community, itwill become an important land-use decision-mak-ing tool.

Communities use maps to identify a variety ofland-use features, including zoning, existing landuses, water supply watersheds, wetlands, potentialground water supplies, and open space and recre-ation areas. When these maps are laid one on topof another, they provide local land-use decisionmakers with a critical body of information. Youcan use this overlay procedure to immediatelyidentify areas where overlapping existing orintended land uses pose potential conflicts withground water protection goals. Here are someexamples of the kinds of ground water protectionarea maps that can be developed:

■ Surface Watershed AreasBecause any resource protection area will laywithin one watershed or other, the first step of theground water mapping process is to map theboundaries of the watershed in which the area(s)is located. Watershed boundaries (drainagedivides) define the land area that drains surfacewater to a river, stream, pond, lake, or embay-ment. We are fortunate in New England becausewatershed boundaries generally correspond withground water divides, so they can be used to iden-tify the ground water basin as well as the surfacedrainage basin. (See the activity, “WatershedBasics,” to find out how to delineate a water-shed.)

■ Estuarine Protection Areas In coastal communities where estuary protectionis a concern, watershed maps and maps that showground water recharge areas to estuaries can beused to establish estuarine protection area maps.The watershed maps allow communities to identi-fy surface and ground water flow shoreward aswell as land areas that could be potential sources

of pollutant discharges, particularly stormwaterrunoff. Ground water recharge maps provideinformation on ground water discharge areas.

■ Aquifer Protection Areas

It is difficult to determine the exact limits ofaquifers and their recharge areas because groundwater systems are dynamic. Although the geologyof an area does not change perceptibly, the watertable fluctuates. In addition, the porous, perme-able materials that constitute aquifers do not endabruptly at a given point in the watershed; rather,they often blend into adjacent deposits.

Aquifer recharge areas usually include most of theland directly above the aquifer and also extendbeyond the aquifer into the adjacent upland areas.If USGS surficial geology maps and USDA soilmaps are available, they can be used to supplybasic information on the location of permeabledeposits. Depending on the amount and detail ofexisting information, additional soil data may beneeded to map aquifer recharge areas. When alocal ground water study is conducted by a con-sultant, existing information is often supplement-ed by field tests to verify the permeability of thesoil at various depths.

■ Source Water/Wellhead Protection Areas Source water protection areas are the lands neces-sary for protecting drinking water sources—wells,reservoirs, rivers. Surface water supply protectionareas typically include the watershed upstream ofthe water intake. The term “wellhead protectionarea” is used to describe the area needed to protectground water supplies. It is very important toknow how much of an aquifer is affected by awell, because in addition to drawing water to thewell, pumping will also pull any contaminants tothe well that might be leaching from the land sur-face. Therefore, by defining the wellhead protec-tion area as precisely as possible, you can focusyour protection program on the land that is mostcritical and that affects the quality of your drink-


ing water supply. By narrowing the focus of yourprotection program to those areas that have adirect impact on a resource, you are more likely towin support from your community as a whole foradopting protection strategies.

The process of wellhead delineation is extremelyimportant, but it can also be difficult and expen-sive, depending on the needs of the community.Accuracy becomes important if managementtools, such as land-use restrictions, are adopted toprotect the water supply. In such cases, it isimportant to have a delineated wellhead protec-tion area that can stand up to potential legal chal-lenges by landowners. While there are some delin-eation techniques that the community can under-take itself, the more sophisticated techniques willprobably require the town or water company tohire a ground water consulting firm.

Under the federal Safe Drinking Water Act, statesare asked to develop Wellhead ProtectionPrograms to enhance protection of the nation’sdrinking water supplies. All of the New Englandstates have developed Wellhead ProtectionPrograms and regulations or guidelines for delin-eation of wellhead protection areas for newand/or existing wells. Ground water planningteams should check the particular requirementsand guidance materials applicable to their statebefore proceeding with the delineation process.There may be special assistance programs in yourstate to aid in the delineation process, as well aslegal requirements you have to meet.

■ Wellhead Protection Areas for BedrockAquifers Many communities in New England do not havehigh-yielding sand and gravel aquifers but dependinstead on wells drilled into bedrock. Water isdrawn from fractures within the rock, which maybe difficult to identify and locate precisely. Abedrock geology map can, however, provide ageneral sense of the direction and size of the frac-tures in the bedrock, which may help to determinethe land area where water actually enters the

bedrock fractures. Unfortunately, there are nowidely agreed-upon methods for delineating well-head protection areas for bedrock wells.

■ Private Wells—Vulnerable Areas If your community is served by private wells, it isimportant to identify vulnerable resource areas.While it may be difficult and unrealistic to draw awellhead protection area around each individualwell, there are other options.

If private wells are spread throughout the town,you may choose to identify the whole town as aprotection area. If residential development is limit-ed to a portion of town, then you may choose todelineate that area for more protection.

If you anticipate future growth, or if private wellowners are experiencing water quality problems,it may be prudent to locate high-yielding areas fora future public water supply well, and take thesteps to protect them to ensure that they will yieldsafe water in the future. To identify such areas,you can consult aquifer and surficial geologymaps, or hire a consultant to do the necessaryresearch.

STEP 5. Inventory Existing and PotentialPollution Threats to Ground WaterProtection AreasWhat happens on the surface of the land has thepotential to contaminate the water below. Yourteam needs to determine which land-use activitiespose a threat to your ground water protectionareas. You need to know what kinds of materialsare being used; how they are being handled,stored, and disposed; and where potentially harm-ful activities are located with respect to yourground water protection areas.

To get a handle on this information, you need todevelop a map that shows land uses and activitieswithin your resource protection areas. First, checkand see if your community has a current land-usemap. Otherwise, obtain a town/city assessor’s mapor a zoning map from which to create your exist-

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➤D •7 •

ing land-use base map. It always helps to double-check any of this information with a drive-by orwalk-by survey. Aerial photos are also very useful.Once you have your existing land-use map, you

can superimpose potential threats to resource pro-tection areas onto the map. (Table 1 lists the typesof land uses that typically pose a risk to bothground and surface waters.) You may want to


AgricultureAirportsAnimal feedlotsAuto-body shopsAutomotive repair

shopsAuto parts storeBeauty salonsBoat builders and

refinishersBus and truck

terminalsCar dealershipCemeteriesChemical

manufacturersConcrete

companies,asphalt, coal andtar

Dredge disposalsites

Dry cleanersDumpsFood processorsForestryFuel oil

distributorsFuneral homesFurniture strippersGolf coursesHighwaysHospitalsHotels, motels

Industrialmanufacturers

Junkyards andsalvageoperations

Land applicationof sludge

LandfillsLaundromatsLogging

operationsMachine shopsMarinas and

boatyardsMedical and

research labsMetal and drum

cleaningoperations

Metal platingoperations

Military facilitiesMiningNursing homesOil and sewer

pipelinesPaint shopsPhotographic

processorsPlant nurseriesPrinters, blueprint

shopsPrisonsPublic works

garages

Railroad yardsRepair shops

(engines,appliances, etc.)

Residential(moderate tohigh density)

RestaurantsRetail malls Road salt storageRust proofersSand and gravel

operationsSchools and

collegesService stations

(gas)Shopping centersSnow dumpsStormwater

managementfacilities

Utility rights-of-way

Utility substations,transformers

Waste storage,treatment,recycling

Waste transferstations

Wastewatertreatment plants

Wood preservers

ChurchesField crops

(non-intensivechemical andwater use)

Low-densityresidential

Non-industrialoffice space

Forest landOpen spacePublic parksWater utility

owned land

Relative Risks of Land-Use ActivitiesRISK PRIORITY

Moderate to High Low Very Low

Table 1

Source: NEIWPCC. Source Protection: A Guidance Manual for Small Surface Water Supplies in New England. March 1996.

identify general land-use types (for example, resi-dential, agricultural, industrial, open space) onyour map so you will know where to concentrateyour efforts. Areas with industrial and commercialland uses will probably be the ones to focus onfirst.

Many of the land uses that might be a concern inyour ground water protection area(s) may bealready regulated, or at least registered, by a gov-ernment program (for example, underground stor-age tanks, use and storage of hazardous materials,or transport and discharge of hazardous materi-als). Discharges to ground water are regulated bystate environmental agencies through the issuanceof ground water discharge permits. Superfund andother known hazardous waste sites are also regis-tered with state environmental agencies.

You need to locate any facilities such as landfills,junkyards, sludge lagoons, and disposal areas byvisual inspection or by contacting the solid wastedivision of your state environmental agency oryour local health department. Residential develop-ment poses a host of potential threats fromsources such as septic systems, road salt, lawn fer-tilizers and pesticides, improper disposal of haz-ardous materials, and stormwater. In terms ofindustrial and commercial development, those ofgreatest concern to ground water quality are theones that use hazardous substances. Agriculturaloperations pose potential risk in terms of pesticideuse and nutrient management.

Once you have inventoried your potential risks,you need to assess these risks in terms of whichrisks pose the greatest threat to your groundwater resources. (See Table 1 on page D•7.)

STEP 6. Develop a Ground WaterResource Protection Area ManagementStrategyAfter your team has established its ground waterresource protection goals, identified and mappedground water resource protection areas, andinventoried and rated or ranked the potential

threats to these resources, your next step will beto develop a management strategy for these areas.Much of this work involves choosing mechanismsto control existing or future risks to your groundwater resource areas. You may well discover thatsome mechanisms are already in place throughfederal, state, and local regulations and ordi-nances. But it is also likely that you will need tofine-tune protective measures to meet the needs ofthe site or even work with the community toimplement new controls.

There are an infinite number of ways to structureyour ground water protection program. What youchoose depends on existing regulations in yourstate, the character of your community, your com-munity’s goals for future economic development,the kinds of threats you have identified, and theextent of your protection area. Also, you will haveto consider how much your management programwill cost, if there is a staff to implement andenforce it, and whether you have the legal author-ity in your state to do so.

In the section, “Your Ground Water ProtectionToolbox,” we list a variety of managementapproaches that have been used by communitiesthroughout New England. Some of these optionscan stand alone, but most are like parts of a puz-zle and work best when carried out in conjunctionwith other options as part of an overall protectionprogram. There is not just one approach—eachcommunity must construct the mix of options thatbest suits its unique situation.

As members of a community ponder their man-agement strategy, they should keep in mind thefollowing questions:

• What sort of statutory authority does yourstate grant communities for controllingland use?

• What are the results of your inventory ofpotential threats, and what kind of currentand/or future risks does your ground waterprotection area face?

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• If you restrict future land uses in theground water protection areas, are thereother areas in the community that are moresuitable for high-risk uses?

• Does your community already have, or willit support, a local zoning ordinance to pro-tect ground water?

• If you have a zoning ordinance, are thereportions of your ground water protectionarea that are zoned for dense residentialdevelopment, industrial, or commercial usethat are not yet developed?

• Does your town have staff with the timeand expertise to undertake inspections,monitor ground water quality, and imple-ment and enforce performance standards?

• Will voluntary programs be effective inensuring that harmful activities do not occur?

STEP 7. Ensure That the Strategy WillBe ImplementedNo strategy is “worth its salt” if it is not ultimate-ly put into practice. Educating the public, andconvincing individuals to care about their groundwater resources, are the key to successful imple-mentation and will be among your team’s greatestchallenges. The success of any program depends,to a great extent, on the involvement and aware-ness of the citizens in the community and, on howmuch support there is in the community for theadoption and implementation of the program.There are many ways to educate the public. Hereare a few possibilities:

• Invite the local paper to cover your groundwater protection team meetings so that it willkeep the community up-to-speed on progressand issues. Encourage the paper to run a seriesof short articles about ground water—what itis, how it interrelates with the overall aquaticenvironment, how it becomes contaminated,and the ways to protect it.

• If there is a water company, ask it to insertinformation on ground water into the waterbills.

• Teach the community about household waterconservation practices and nontoxic alterna-tives to household products through the localpaper and/or water bills.

• At key points in the resource protectionprocess, sponsor a community meeting andinvite state or local officials to explain whyprotecting ground water is important.

• Publish a newsletter that goes out to all resi-dents and businesses in the community.

YOUR GROUND WATERPROTECTION TOOLBOX

Resource protection strategies can be implementedusing a variety of tools that should consist of con-trol measures and education and outreach strate-gies. Control measures may be both regulatory ornonregulatory. Regulatory controls at the locallevel generally involve the use of bylaws and ordi-nances designed to exclude or manage certainnoncompatible land uses or activities in areas ofconcern. Nonregulatory controls are voluntaryand do not involve the regulation of property.Here are some examples of both regulatory andnonregulatory resource protection tools.

■ Regulatory Tools

• Zoning is probably the most widely employedmethod of protecting ground water. Zoning isused to control the type of developmentallowed in a particular area and to separateincompatible land uses. Zoning typically con-trols future land-use, not the way already-developed land is used. Thus, if your resourceprotection area is currently undeveloped, aneffective means for protecting ground water isto zone the area for land-use activities that poselittle or no threat to the resource, such as low-density residential development, certain kindsof commercial use, or open space. Other usesmay also be compatible if precautions are takenagainst the storage or use of hazardous sub-stances. Some zoning techniques that are often


used for ground water protection are describedbelow:

• Overlay Zoning supperimposes boundaries ofthe protection area on the zoning map.Preexisting zones are not actually changed;rather, new conditions are imposed on futuredevelopment. (See Figure 2.)

• Large Lot Zoning limits water resource degra-dation by reducing the number of buildingsand, therefore, septic systems within the criticalresource area.

• Cluster Zoning increases the density of livingunits in a particular portion of a zone whileallowing the remainder to be open space. Thisdevelopment approach tends to be less disrup-tive to the natural environment and aquaticecosystems, in particular.

• Special Permits allow certain uses andstructures upon the issuance of a permitor special exception. Special permits areusually granted only if safeguards aretaken to reduce risk to the environmentand if the use or structure is in harmo-ny with the general purpose of the pro-tected area.

• Prohibition of Various Land Uses (forexample, gas stations, or industrialoperations that handle, store, andtransport hazardous substances) may beapplied to the resource protection area.

• Performance Standards are based onthe assumption that any given resourcehas a threshold, beyond which its abili-ty to function deteriorates to an unac-ceptable level. This control methodassumes that most uses are allowed in adesignated area, provided that they donot or will not overload the resource ofconcern. It focuses additional regula-tions on specific impacts without bur-dening all uses in a zoning district andregulates land development impactswithout prohibiting development.

• Transfer of Development Rights is used totransfer development from the resource protec-tion area to locations outside that area. Thismechanism allows a landowner to sell his orher right to develop the land as permitted byzoning, but maintain other rights associatedwith the land (e.g., ownership, existing use,open space).

• Subdivision Regulations focus less on land-useand more on engineering concerns such asstreet construction (for example, grade, width,intersection angles, stormwater control,drainage), utility placement, and traffic patternsof individual subdivisions. Subdivision controlsare generally less effective for controllingpotential environmental threats than zoningcontrols. Subdivision controls that address

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Figure 2 ZONING MAP

RESIDENTIAL

INDUSTRIAL

COMMERCIAL

PUBLIC SUPPLY WELL

ZONE OF CONTRIBUTION

WELLHEAD PROTECTION

OVERLAY DISTRICT

➤D •11 •

drainage from roads and lawns and perfor-mance standards that address nitrogen andphosphorus loading associated with roads,lawns, and septic systems provide excellentmeans for keeping significant contaminantsfrom entering the ground water.

• Health Regulations can be very effective inprotecting ground water quality. These controlsare usually contaminant source-specific (forexample, septic systems, underground storagetanks, toxic and hazardous materials).

• Wetland Bylaws can greatly enhance waterquality through the judicious regulation of pro-posed activities within wetland buffer zones.Specific steps that wetlands commissions maytake include requiring vegetated buffer stripsadjacent to wetland areas, imposing stringentcontrols on surface water discharges to wet-lands, and restricting the use of fertilizers, pesti-cides, and herbicides in close proximity to wet-lands.

• Best Management Practices (BMPs) arestructural designs, nonstructural designs, orguidance for the operation of a specific busi-ness, industry, or land-use activity that preventor control threats to ground water resources.The term “best management practices” appliesto protective measures that have worked bestover time. Through the use of BMPs, pollutionfrom many land-use activities can be con-trolled. BMPs can be structural (for example,creating a detention pond to hold stormwaterlong enough so that many of the pollutants areremoved by the soil and vegetation) or non-structural (for example, establishing zoningordinances that allow certain types of activitiesin certain areas, based on resource considera-tions). BMPs can serve as both regulatory andnonregulatory tools.

■ Nonregulatory Tools

• Water Conservation Practices Commu-nities can provide the public with information,

suggestions, and programs on conserving waterresources. During severe droughts, some NewEngland communities have instituted emer-gency water conservation measures (for exam-ple, limiting lawn and gardening watering).However, communities should also remind thepublic that water conservation is not only foremergencies—being water-wise should be every-day behavior. In cases where ground water orsurface water is withdrawn from one drainagebasin and used and then discharged into anoth-er, maintaining the water budget can become aserious concern for both the losing and thereceiving basins.

• Household Hazardous Waste Collection Ifa large portion of your delineated area is resi-dential, and particularly if it is unsewered, haz-ardous waste collection days can be an impor-tant way of reducing threats to your groundwater protection area. Typical household haz-ardous wastes include:

• Pesticides and herbicides

• Paints and thinners

• Solvents and degreasers

• Septic system cleaners

• Art supplies

• Used oil and antifreeze

These wastes, when disposed of in the trash,septic system, sewer, or backyard, can causecostly and sometimes irrevocable water qualityproblems. The organic chemicals used in thesematerials are some of the most common andpersistent ground water contaminants.Household hazardous waste collection days canbe organized by a community, a coalition ofcommunities, or the state.

• Recycling Recycling programs can reduce theamount of toxins that might end up in landfills,incinerators, or backyards, or that might beflushed down sinks or toilets, where they caneventually leach into ground water and surfacewater.


• Education and Outreach You can conducteducation programs and workshops to informcommunity residents about the importance ofprotecting ground water.

• Land Donations Landowners are sometimesable to donate a piece of land (as part of adevelopment project or a developable parcel)either to the community or to a nonprofit orga-nization such as the Nature Conservancy.Giving the land for preservation can providethe landowner with a variety of tax-saving andcost-share benefits.

• Outright Sale of Land Many communitiesare committed to the acquisition of selectedparcels that are deemed so significant to thecommunity’s future that it is willing to pur-chase them outright, at market prices.

• Tax Deferments All New England statescurrently provide for some degree of real estatetax reduction for lands used, in general terms,for conservation.

• Conservation Easements An easement is alimited right to use or restrict land owned by aprivate landowner. The granting of a conserva-tion easement by a community does not involvethe transfer of ownership of the land; instead, itmeans giving up certain development rights ofthe property.

• Protection Area Signage Signs may be post-ed along roadways and property boundaries toeducate residents and visitors about the loca-tion of protection areas. Signs may also includeinformation about who to notify in the event ofa hazardous material spill.

D •12 •


KEY TERMS

• Best Management Practices (BMPs)

• Conservation Easement

• Detention Pond

• Overlay Map

• Water Budget

• Wellhead Protection Area (WHPA)

➤D •67 •

TEACHING STRATEGY

In this activity, students will develop a wellhead protection programfor a hypothetical community. While the community scenario is hypo-thetical, it is representative of situations that many New England com-munities face when embarking on a wellhead protection program. Youmay choose to have the students undertake this activity as a class or asteams. Students should read “Getting Up to Speed…ProtectingGround Water” before beginning this activity.

We recommend that you have students assume various roles in the com-munity (e.g., gas station owner, photo lab owner or employee, beautysalon owner, restaurant owner, resident, environmentalist). In doing this,each student can bring the perspective of his or her role to the discus-sion. You may wish to point out that the relationships between business-es, environmentalists, and community leaders can be, but need not be,adversarial. Many businesses have taken pollution prevention to heart asa way of reducing supply costs, waste disposal costs, insurance costs,reducing regulatory paperwork, and being a good neighbor.

1. Distribute copies of the activity handouts and the reading.

2. Tell the students that they are residents of “Small Town” and aremembers of the town’s Ground Water Protection Committee,which is about to begin developing a wellhead protection programfor the community’s public supply well. Students should keep inmind that this wellhead protection program must ultimately gainthe support of the community as a whole to be effective.

Explain to the students that there is no “correct way” to protect acommunity’s wells. Developing a best management program isdependent on the unique situation and limits (political, financial,physical, administrative) faced by the community. There really areno right or wrong answers in this exercise. As a homework assign-ment, have the class read the activity handout, the reading, and“Getting Up to Speed.”

3. Hold a committee (class) meeting to discuss the information pro-vided by the consulting firm hired by the Ground Water ProtectionCommittee (as per the activity handout) and the considerationsassociated with developing a wellhead protection strategy—thearea to be protected, potential threats to ground water, types ofprotection mechanisms, political and economic environment.

As part of this meeting, answer the three questions posed in thehandout:

Grades 10-12

➤ MATERIALS


❏ “Protecting the TownWell Takes SomeDoing”

➤ OBJECTIVES

• Learn about the toolscommunities may useto develop a wellheadprotection program.

• Recognize that devel-oping a communitywellhead protectionprogram is not easyand that, while it isimportant to protectdrinking water sup-plies, it can be very dif-ficult to develop a pro-gram that will gainsupport from the over-all community.


SKILLS

English, PoliticalScience, Law

➤ ESTIMATED

TIME

Two to three classperiods

PROTECTING GROUND WATERPROTECTING GROUND WATERDevelop A WellheadProtection Program

➤D•68 •

Develop a Wellhead Protection Program

a. Does existing development in the wellhead protection area posea threat to the town’s well? If so, how?

Many land uses have the potential to jeopardize ground waterquality. Ground water quality can be threatened by the impro-per use, handling, or storage of hazardous materials and theimproper use of lawn and agricultural fertilizers and pesticides.Land uses where hazardous materials are typically used, such asgas stations and auto repair shops, pose an especially high riskof contamination because of the potential for repeated spillsduring their daily operation. Ground water availability can bestrained because of excessive water use, particularly during peri-ods of drought. Uses such as restaurants and hospitals tend touse large amounts of water. Watering of lawns and gardens dur-ing summer months without sufficient recharge (caused bydrought or over withdrawal) places especially high demands onground water supplies.

b. What, if anything, should be done to protect the town’s well?

In this scenario, the town’s drinking water supply is at riskfrom potential sources of contamination. Ideally, the townshould work to minimize potential risks from existing andfuture land uses in the wellhead protection area in particular,and town wide, in general. Students should be familiar withinformation in “Getting Up to Speed…Protecting GroundWater” to gain some insight on steps communities can take toprotect their water resources.

c. How can the town ensure that current and future land uses in thewellhead protection area will not present a threat to the well?

There is no way for any community to ensure that current andfuture land uses in its wellhead protection area(s) will be risk-free—accidents and carelessness happen. Communities do, how-ever, have many tools available to them to reduce the risk ofcontamination. Refer to “Getting Up to Speed…ProtectingGround Water” and the reading for this section.

4. Based on the Ground Water Protection Committee’s discussion, havethe class or each team prepare a wellhead protection strategy forpresentation at town meeting. Encourage students to think creative-ly. There are no right or wrong answers. When developing a protec-tion strategy, communities must balance environmental protectionwith other goals, such as economic sustainability and quality of life,and must consider the political feasibility of gaining acceptance ofthe strategy. A plan is only worthwhile if it can be carried out.

5. If the activity is carried out by teams, ask each team to present itsfindings to the class. Students should assume the roles of variousmembers of the community (e.g., business owners, landowners,homeowners) so that the committee hears many viewpoints.

NOTES

➤D •69 •

Develop a WellheadProtection Programþ DIRECTIONS

Read the following scenario:

þ SETTING

You are a resident of “Small Town” and a representative of the town’s GroundWater Protection Committee. Like many small towns in the United States, yourtown developed along a historic travel route. A well was installed approximate-ly 30 years ago to serve the downtown area and a nearby residential neighbor-hood in the town.

þ ACTION

Because of recent incidents of ground water contamination in a neighboringcommunity, your community hired a firm to identify (or delineate) the land areathat supplies water to your well. This land area is called the wellhead protec-tion area.

þ EXISTING CONDITIONS

At the last Ground Water Protection Committee meeting, the firm presented itsfindings. Your committee learned that most of the downtown area is located inthe wellhead protection area. (See attached land-use and zoning maps.)

• A range of land uses exists throughout the wellhead protection area,including:

- Gas station- Photo lab- Restaurant- Hospital- Farm- Houses (sewered)

• Land uses located nearby but outside the wellhead protection areainclude:

- Houses- Plastics manufacturing plant

- Clothing store

þ YOUR JOB

The Ground Water Protection Committee is meeting tonight to discuss thefirm’s findings. Tonight you will discuss three key questions and begin develop-ing a wellhead protection plan.

Activity Handout: Develop a Wellhead Protection program

ASSIGNMENT

➤D •70 •


Ground Water ProtectionCommittee Agenda

_____________, 19___

1. Introductions

2. The Committee will discuss the consultant’s findings and willattempt to answer three major questions:

• Does existing development in the wellhead protection area pose a threatto the town’s well? If so, how?

• What, if anything, should be done to protect the well?

• How can the town ensure that current and future land uses in the well-head protection area will not present a threat to the well?

3. The Committee will begin development of a wellhead protec-tion program for the well, in light of the consultant’s findingsand the answers to the above questions.

➤D•71 •


Small Town Zoning Map

��

Wellhead Protection Area

Town Boundary

XWell

Town Hall

River

Main

Stre

et

Hig

hway

��Agricultural

Residential

Business

Industry

KEY

➤D •72 •


Small Town Land-Use Map

Wellhead Protection Area

Town Boundary

XWell

Town Hall

River

Main

Str

eet

Hig

hway

Residential (shown along major routes only)

KEY

∆5

∆4

∆1

∆6

∆7

∆2

∆3Farm Boundary

∆1 - Gas Station∆2 - Photo Lab∆3 - Restaurant∆4 - Hospital∆5 - Farm∆6 - Clothing Store∆7 - Plastics Plant

➤D•73 •


I s it worth losing your bestfriend to protect the townwell? Just ask Ron Boivin,

Water Superintendent for theTown of Clinton, Maine, whofaced this question when histown attempted to implementwellhead protection measuresto protect the town’s only well.Located in Kennebec Countyamid gently rolling hills at theconfluence of the Kennebec andSebasticook Rivers, this tranquildairy farming community of3,350 in south central Mainehas the highest number of ac-tive dairy farms of any town inthe state.

A few years back, nitratesdetected in ground and surfacewaters alarmed many residents,who began to suspect that localfarming activities were toblame. The town had relied ona single well since 1946 for itsdrinking water supply. Dis-cussion of protecting the landabove this aquifer raised a num-ber of land use issues, whichfrightened many of the town’sfarmers—Boivin’s best friendamong them.

“I was scared to deathwhen this project started,” saysBoivin, who didn’t know howhis fellow town residents wouldreact to the idea of imposingcertain restrictions to protectthe town’s water supply. TheTapley Well, which supplies100,000 gallon per day, is lo-cated in a partially developeddowntown area.

“My best friend owns thefarm that we originally thoughtwas causing the nitrate levels inthe water,” Boivin explains.With no backup well online inthe event of contamination,town officials were coming torealize that a second well wasneeded.

A Chance MeetingWhile attending a Maine WaterWorks conventio in Portland in1991, Boivin met Peter Garrett,a principal in the firm of Emeryand Garrett Groundwater Inc.,a hydrogeological consultingfirm located in Waterville - thenext town over from Clinton.Garrett was familiar withMaine’s new EPA-approvedWellhead Protection Program,and was looking for an oppor-tunity to apply it on the locallevel.

After listening to Boivin’sconcerns about protecting thetown’s water supply, Garrettsuggested to Boivin that Clintonapply to a new EPA grant pro-gram for funds to study andmap the wellhead protectionarea—the area of land thatrecharges the well. Inexperi-enced in the often-dauntingprocess of filling out federalgrant applications, Boivin con-vinced the town that theirmoney would be well spent tohire Garrett to do it for them.

Garrett, in turn, made aconvincing case to town offi-cials that the most logicalprocess for Clinton to followwould be to conduct a hydro-geological study of the existingwell to determine the extent ofland that needed to be protectedbefore addressing the installa-tion of a backup well.

EPA AwardsDemonstration GrantGarrett teamed up with EstherLacognata, an environmentalpolicy consultant, to preparethe grant application. Lacognatawas a former Bureau Director inMaine’s Department of Agri-culture, and also had extensiveexperience in public participa-tion and agricultural issues.

Garrett and Lacognata both

felt that the grant applicationshould focus on two primaryprinciples of wellhead protec-tion: demonstration of how toinduce farmers to adopt BestManagement Practices (BMPs)in public water supply water-sheds; and emphasis on the im-portance of citizen involvementthrough the formation of an ad-visory committee.

In 1991, EPA awarded theClinton Water District a $15,200grant to develop a wellhead pro-tection project that would con-sist of delineating the zone ofcontribution; identifying andproposing management optionsto control threats to groundwater quality; and preparing acontingency plan in the eventof contamination.

The consultant team wasalso hired to assemble anAquifer Protection AdvisoryCommittee that would provideinput and oversee the plan.With strong leadership from thetown’s Selectmen and theWater District, the Town ofClinton contributed $18,250 tothe project - a substantiallyhigher sum than the minimum5 percent match that EPA re-quired for the grant.

The Advisory CommitteeIs AssembledWith dairy farmers accountingfor almost half the land owner-ship in Clinton, both Garrettand Lacognata knew that thefarmers’ support was critical ifthe wellhead program was tohave any chance of success.Garrett also recognized the im-portance of using Lacognata’spublic participation skills tohelp explain highly technicalissues to the public, because, ashe says, “many of the peoplewho can do the technical workare often not very good at ex-plaining it.”

Protecting The Town Well Takes Some Doing

CLINTON WATER DISTRICT, CLINTON, MAINE

Source: NEIWPCC. The Water Source. Fall 1994.

➤D •74 •


It took some measure ofpersuasion to convince localwater officials that a citizen’sadvisory committee, whichwould have substantial inputinto the wellhead protectionplan, would be a good idea. Oneof the first tasks Lacognata tack-led was to assist local officials indetermining who should com-prise the 10-to 12- memberAquifer Protection AdvisoryCommittee.

To avoid the inevitable po-litical squabbles that often arisein local government, Lacognata“pre-interviewed” members ofthe local water district and thecomprehensive planning com-mittee to seek their input onmembership. The final AquiferProtection Advisory Committeeconsisted of members of WaterDistrict staff, the Compre-hensive Planning Committee,the Planning Board, local his-torians, business owners, andfarmers.

Hydrogeological StudyYields Some SurprisesWhile Lacognata focused ongenerating public support forthe project, Peter Garrett got towork conducting water sam-pling and pump tests to deter-mine the direction and sourceof water supplying the well. Atthe time, Clinton was using a300-foot fixed radius as a zoneof protection around the well.However, Garrett knew from ex-perience that a fixed radiusbears little relation to what isactually happening beneath thesurface. Poring over state mapsthat showed the well to be lo-cated in a shallow sand andgravel deposit, Garrett initiallybelieved that the aquifer wastoo small to be supplying sucha large amount of water. Thisconcern lead him to believe thatthe two streams located on ei-ther side of the well were actu-ally recharging the aquiferthrough a process known as in-duced filtration.

After reviewing the data,the recharge rates, and old

pump test yields from the1940s, Garrett surmised that thestreams must have, at one time,supplied recharge to the aquifer.Old pump tests revealed that,indeed, more water had beenpumped in the 1940s.

After much head scratch-ing, Garrett observed that thestream bottoms were heavilysilted over, probably as a resultof changing crops over from hayto corn (plowing associated withcorn crops loosens the soil andincreases erosion runoff) in the1950s. This siltation suggestedthat, at present, very little waterwas infiltrating the streambed.Also, water samples from boththe well and the streams indi-cated differences in hardness, which, as Garrett hypothesized,“seemed to fit a model thatwould suggest that the watercame from bedrock fractures.”

With data in hand, Garrettmapped out a Primary andSecondary Wellhead ProtectionDistrict that, much to the reliefof area farmers, did not includetheir farms. The Primary Districtwas the immediate area of draw-down around the well (calledthe cone of influence). TheSecondary District, consistingof 638 acres, comprised therecharge area.

It is ironic to note that, al-though farming activities didnot appear to be threatening thewellfield, the farm communitydid find itself subject to changesin farming practices. A statelaw, which was being imple-mented at the same time thatthe wellhead protection projectwas underway, required mini-mum setbacks from streams andother water sources. Best man-agement practices, such as ma-nure holding tanks, pesticidesapplication controls, and ripar-ian preservation corridors, arecurrently being implemented byfarmers statewide.

The Public In TheProcessThe first public meeting of thenewly formed Aquifer Pro-

tection Advisory Committee at-tracted many farmers who were,according to Lacognata, “ab-solutely terrified” that the well-head protection plan wouldimpose new regulations andland use controls over their ac-tivities. “The first meeting waseducational and confirmatory,”says Lacognata. “Peter Garrettand I used a mock question andanswer session to address thefarmers concerns about whatthis would mean to them.”

This question and answertechnique had been used suc-cessfully by Garrett on other oc-casions to help take thepressure off the audience. Byhaving Lacognata, who was nota hydrogeologist by training, askGarrett to explain basic con-cepts that the audience mighthave been reluctant to ask, theycreated a more relaxed atmos-phere at the meeting, which inturn facilitated discussion.

Other activities intended to

TapleyWell

Hinkley Road

Hill Road

Mut

ton

Lan

e

I-95

Beaver Brook

Maine C

entra

l Rail

road

12-M

ile B

rook

SebasticookRiver

¸

Primary and Secondary Wellhead Protection Districts for Clinton’s Tapley Well

Primary WellheadProtection District

Emer

y &

Gar

rett

Gro

undw

ater

, Inc

.

Secondary WellheadProtection District

Protecting the Town Well Takes Some Doing continued

D•75 •


further public support for theproject included a field trip tothe pump station and monitor-ing well; a demonstration of apump test; visual aids; and ademonstration by Garrett onhow he had calculated the sizeof the wellhead protection area.

A New WellheadProtection OrdinanceEnter Paula Thompson and RonCormier. Thompson, at the timea Senior Planner with the NorthKennebec Regional PlanningCommission, began to work withthe Advisory Committee on de-veloping a wellhead protectionordinance. Fortunately, Clintonhad completed a ComprehensivePlan (a requirement of Maine’sGrowth Management Act) in1989 that specifically requiredthe town to address groundwater and public water supplyissues. A section in the newLand Use Ordinance was setaside for wellhead protection.

Working with the PlanningBoard, Thompson, and theAdvisory Committee, CodeEnforcement Officer, RonCormier set out to design an or-dinance that was tailoredspecifically to the needs ofClinton. Using model ordi-nances from other states as astarting point for discussion, thegroup eventually proposed anoverlay district that would pro-hibit certain high risk activitieswithin the wellhead protectionarea.

With input from town offi-cials and the public, the ordi-nance was tailored to givelandowners considering activi-ties in the wellhead protectionarea two options: to rebut thepresumption of the boundary ofthe wellhead protection area, orto adhere to the performancestandards that were developedfor certain uses.

In the case of a challenge tothe boundary, the burden ofproof would fall on thelandowner or developer toshow that the intended activity

within the Secondary WellheadProtection District would notadversely impact the well. Toovercome this presumption, alandowner would have to hire ahydrogeological consultant,whose work would also be re-viewed by the Water District’shydrogeological consultant, toconduct in-depth studies tomake their case.

Flexibility The Key ToSuccessBy offering some flexibility interms of what uses would be al-lowed in the SecondaryRecharge Area, the town feltthat opponents to the planwould have fewer grounds onwhich to object. According toCormier, the ordinance processallows a landowner to workwith town officials in a reason-able manner to determine iftheir intended use will impactthe well. “Give us your plan,we’ll talk about it,” saysCormier.

Lacognata also agrees thatflexibility was key to obtainingpublic support for the project.“We did design the ordinancefor Clinton and it’s conditions.Therefore, it may be more per-missive than it might be some-place else,” she explains.

Lessons LearnedDespite a current challenge tothe wellhead ordinance by alocal landowner, the participantshave all felt that the Clinton pro-ject was successful in many re-spects. Ron Boivin found outthat even highly technical sub-jects like wellhead protectioncan be made understandable. “Ifyou explain it to people in lan-guage they understand, theyreact much better,” he says.

The farming community,who initially balked at any talkof land use controls to protect thetown’s drinking water, alsolearned that the public partici-pation process was an effectiveforum for airing their concernsand for understanding the issues.

Ron Cormier feels that 40years in the land developmentbusiness has taught him thecritical importance of protect-ing municipal water supplies.“No water, no town. It’s thatsimple,” he says. He also cred-ited the success of the projectto strong leadership by thePlanning Board and Selectmen,who made the decision tospend money on preventionactivities to protect the longterm interests of the town.

Peter Garrett feels that thetrue value of wellhead protec-tion is “not simply arriving at adrawn line around a well.”Rather, he says, informationabout the safe yield, water qual-ity, thickness of the aquifer, andother data will allow for moreintelligent and informed deci-sion making.

The Clinton experience hasreinforced Esther Lacognata’sbelief that wellhead protectionis essentially a locally-based ac-tivity. “Wellhead protectioncannot be forced from the top,”she says. The project has alsoconfirmed for her that the pub-lic needs to understand the“fundamental relationship be-tween land use, water quality,and the need for sound scien-tific information as a basis formanagement decisions.”

Paula Thompson says theClinton project has taught herthat you can’t “overcommuni-cate” between parties. Withcontinual turnover of local of-ficials, many of whom are vol-unteers, the entire wellheadprogram and ordinance is but“one town vote away” fromelimination. She stresses theneed for a support system thatboth ensures continuity of un-derstanding and intent and sus-tains the momentum evident atthe beginning of the project.•

Protecting the Town Well Takes Some Doing continued

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