Take out all of your writing utensilsAverage/Mean for females? _____

Average/Mean for males? _____

The Need for Psychological Science

The Need for Psychological ScienceThe biases and errors of people’s everyday

judgmentsillustrate the need for a scientific attitude:A. Skepticism

Where is the evidence?How do you REALLY know this?

B. HumilityScientists are willing to reject their own

ideas/biases, if needed.

The Need for Psychological ScienceC. Critical Thinking

Scientists never blindly accept arguments and conclusions

Four elements1. examine assumptions2. discerns hidden values3. evaluates evidence4. assess conclusions

TrepanationChipping away a hole in the skull to let out evil spirits is a cure for adolescent rebellion and the thinking that leads adolescents to behave badly.

1.Examine Assumptions2.Discern Hidden Values3.Evaluate Evidence4.Assess Conclusions

The Need for Psychological Science

Hindsight Bias we tend to believe, after learning an outcome,

that we would have foreseen it the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon

Intuition Describe your intuitive moment In research, common sense (intuition) predicts

what DID happen more often than what WILL happen.

Intuition is based on common sense and experience!

The Need for Psychological Science

Overconfidence we tend to think we know more than we do

this leads us to CONFIRM our own thoughts and ignore evidence that might disprove us (bias) – confirmation bias

Have you ever ignored evidence that was contrary/different from what you believed?

The Scientific MethodTheoryHypothesisOperational Definition

How can you measure or “operate” with these variables?

http://www.csupomona.edu/~rosenkrantz/santafeweb/yearbook/sfhs67_yearbook_pg46f.jpg

Test the hypothesis:Girls smile more than boys.

Operational DefintionsI want to study the effects of physical

contact on attachment. 

I want to study the effects of sugar on attention levels. 

Six steps of the Scientific Method.a. Identify the theoryb. Form an

hypothesisc.Determine the variablesd. Design the

experimente. Gather the dataf. Analyze, conclude, and

report your findingsJournals, ColleaguesMagazines

g. Replicate = Valid

Case StudySurvey

Naturalistic ObservationCorrelation

Experimentation

Free Response 2006 ExamPsychologists use a variety of research methods to study behavior. Three of the main research methods used are:

* Case Study* Correlational Study, and* Experiment.

A.Discuss the advantage of each research method listed above.

B.Discuss one disadvantage of each research method listed above.

Pretend you are a psychologist who will use each of the three research methods – case study, correlational study, and experiment—to determine the effect of taking Vitamin J on improving memory.

C.For each method listed above, explain a key characteristic of the basic approach you could use to reach a scientific conclusion about the relationship between taking vitamin J and improving memory. You need not design a complete study.

Case StudyGoals Met -

Description (of the ONE person or ONE small group)

Definition: Intensive analysis and description of an individual or a small group.

Advantages: A lot of information. A rich description.Leads to ideas for future study.

Case Study Continued …Disadvantages

ExamplesReflection Question #2…

Observer BiasDifficult to generalize

beyond single case studied

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_6Fv_P-lKYU

Goals Met:Describe and Predict (if correlation determined from data)

Definition: Asking predetermined questions using an interview or a questionnaire.

Survey Continued …Advantages DisadvantagesLots of informationRelatively low costDone in a short amount

of time

Respondents might not be representative (sampling bias)

Respondents might not be knowledgeable or might want to please researcher (response bias)

Survey Problems …. Response Bias – What

people SAY is often very different from what the DO. (Would you admit to everything you do/think/feel?)

False Consensus – The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and opinions.

Types of Wording EffectsWording Effects – The

way a question is worded affects the outcome of the survey.

a. Emotionally Charged Questionsb. Limited/Biased Range of Optionsc. Biased Order of the Questionsd. Subject Ignorance

Samples Provided in Class

Survey/Experiment Definitions Population: Larger group you

wish to generalize your findings to … the group your research will benefit.

Sample of Subjects: People you choose from the population to survey (study)

Representative Sample: (noun)Set of subjects that represent the population (all parts … ethnicity/sex/religion/etc.) Random Sampling:

(verb/procedure)Each person in your

population has an equal chance of being selected for your study. Ensures a representative sample.

Examples and Reflection Question #3

Goals Met:Describe

Definition: Behavior is studied in its natural environment without interference from the

researcher.

Naturalistic Observation Cont.Advantages:

SpontaneousNot a “lab” settingGreat ideas for

future hypotheses

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zvpG6lkGMVs

DisadvantagesObserver BiasConfirmation BiasOne Chance – think

spontaneous moment!

Reflection Question #1

Goals Met:Describe and Predict

Definition: Used to clarify the strength of a relationship among variables.

Correlation Continued …Examples: What kind of correlation?

Scatter Plots and Correlation Coefficient

Dark clouds and rainStudy time and test

scoresSmoking and lifespanConsumption of hot

cocoa and temperature

DirectionPositive – Vary togetherNegative – Vary oppositeNone – No relationship

Strength -1.00 < ---0.00---

>+1.00+0.25 -0.99+0.87

Correlation

Perfect positivecorrelation (+1.00)

No relationship (0.00) Perfect negativecorrelation (-1.00)

Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlations

Correlation ContinuedAdvantages DisadvantagesDescription and

prediction are possible.Absolutely NO causality.Cannot explain why a

relationship exists, only that there is one.

Illusory Correlation (see correlation where none

exists)Patterns (Idaho drivers)Random Events (shootings)Third Variables (pallegra)No Cause/Effect

Multi-Method Approach (Eclectic)You follow a case study closelyYou notice (as part of some naturalistic

observations) a correlationYou survey a similar set of subjects from the

populationYou find a definite mathematical correlationYou experiment to prove cause and effect

Usually the last step in the research process.May include other methods along the way.

Goals Met: Explain!!

Definition: The investigator manipulates one or more factors called the independent variable to observe its effect

on some behavior or mental process called the dependent variable while controlling other, relevant factors

called confounding variables.

Definitions Experimentation Independent Variable (IV):

The controlled or manipulated variable. The “thing” that is given or not given to the subjects. The variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable (DV): The effect (behavior or mental

process) being observed that is caused by the IV. The variable that may change in response to the IV.

Hypothesis and Operational Definition (see previous)

Experimental Group (EG): Manipulated group Receives the treatment Receives the IVControl Group (CG): Comparison Group Does not receive the IV May receive a placebo (looks like IV,

but is not have the same effect)

Experimentation Continued …Random Sampling

(verb)Get sample that

represents (noun) the population

Biased Sample Does not represent the

population

Eliminate Researcher Bias/Subject Bias Blind – one doesn’t know Double-Blind – both don’t know

Random AssignmentRandomly assign

subjects to CG and EG – to make both groups representative.

Experimentation ContinuedExample – Reflection Sheet

PopulationIVDVCGEG

Experimentation Continued …Advantages DisadvantagesConclusions can be

drawn about causationExplanations are given

for behaviors and mental processes

Cause and effect

Ethical considerations – any time you experiment with humans/animals

Behavior constricted to a laboratory (not always natural/realistic)

Ethical Guidelines - APA1. Informed consent 2. Subject can withdraw at any time3. Information provided for how to contact researcher

after 4. Confidentiality5. Explain any misconceptions at the earliest possible

time (without creating bias)6. If deception occurs, must remove misconceptions at

the end7. Those working with animals/humans must be trained8. Great lengths must be taken to minimize all

animal/human discomfort