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Knowledge IsPowerSMApparatus Maintenance and Power Management
for Energy Delivery
Doble Engineer ing Com pany
Electrical Insulation Modeling
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Scope
Prevention of Apparatus Failure andPower System Interruptions due toInsulation Failure
Enhance System ReliabilityMinimize Damage to ApparatusEnhances Safety to PersonnelMinimize Loss of Revenue
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Benefit
Extension of Apparatus LifeDegradation of Insulation, if detected before failure, cangenerally be restored to its original conditionDefer replacement costs
Better Utilization of ResourcesInspection interval may be safety extended or scheduledto utilize resources efficiently and effectively
Variation of new apparatusVerify that new apparatus meets purchased specification and
agrees with factory test reportsAssures proper field Assembly
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Definition
What is a Power Factor/ DissipationFactor/Tangent Delta Test?
The underlying principle of this test is to measurethe fundamental AC electrical characteristics ofinsulation.
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Definition
InsulationIEEE Defines Insulation as:Material or acombination of suitable non-conductingmaterial that provides electrical isolation oftwo parts at different voltages.
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Clarification
Insulation vs. DielectricInsulation relates to a mediums ability to preventthe flow of current, I.e. poor conducDielectric implies that the medium or material has
specific measurable properties such as: DielectricStrength, Dielectric Constant, Dielectric Loss andPower Factor.
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In 1836, Michael Faraday (the father of the Capacitance
-- Just look at his name) discovered that when theplates between a capacitor were filled with anotherinsulating material, the capacitance would change.
This factor is the dielectric constant e
By definition the dielectric constant of a Vacuum is 1.0.All other dielectric constants are referenced to thisstandard.
Vacuum
Cvacuum=10 pF
Oil e=2.2
Coil= exVacuum = 22 pF
Dielectric Constant
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Dielectric Loss is the time rate at which electric
energy is transformed into heat in a dielectric when itis subjected to an electric field. The heat generated isgiven in terms of Watts.
iRWatts
Watts =E IR
Watts =Contamination + Deterioration
Contamination =Water + Carbon + Dirt
Deterioration =Carbon + Corona
Dielectric Loss
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Fundamental measurement
Fundamental AC ElectricalCharacteristics. . .
Total Current ITCapacitance CDielectric-Loss WDissipation Factor %DF or DFPower Factor %PF or PFResistance R
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PerfectInsulator
The Capacitor
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Ideal Insulation System
Evaluating Insulation System
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Current and Capacitance
Fundamental AC ElectricalCharacteristics. . .
Total Current ITCapacitance C
Dielectric-Loss WPower Factor %PFResistance R
} Evaluate physical makeup ofspecimen, size dependent
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Real Insulation Model
Simplified Equivalent Circuits of an Insulation Specimen
Series Circuit
RS
CS
CP
Parallel Circuit
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No phase shift
The Perfect Resistor
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
0.
1
0.
7
1.
3
1.
9
2.
5
3.
1
3.
7
4.
3
4.
9
5.
5
6.
1
6.
7
7.
3
7.
9
8.
5
9.
1
9.
7
10.
3
10.
9
11.
5
12.
1
Time
Magnitude
Voltage
Current
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Resistive Component
The Resistor
IR
IR= IT
IR
= E/R
W=EIR
q= oE
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Real Component
Fundamental AC ElectricalCharacteristics. . .
Total Current ITCapacitance C
Dielectric-Loss WResistance RPower Factor %PF
}Evaluate quality of thedielectric material, size
dependent
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Basic Insulation Circuit
Basic Power/Dissipation Factor Circuit
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Power Factor Is Size Independent
IC2 Specimen 1: 5 MVA TransformerSpecimen 2: 10MVA Transformer
remains the same regardless of the size of the transformer
Power Factor is an evaluation of the quality of the insulation
and is size independent
IT2
IR2 EIR1
IC1 IT1
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Definition
The Term Power/Dissipation Factor DescribesThe phase angle relationship between the applied voltage
across and the total current through a specimen.
The ratio of the real power to the apparent power.The relationship between the total and resistive current
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Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory
Fundamental AC ElectricalCharacteristics. . .
Total Current ITCapacitance C
Dielectric-Loss WResistance RPower Factor %PF} Overall evaluate of the
insulation (physical and
quality) requires at once one
other piece of information,
size independent
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Measurement Overview
V
Reference
Applied Voltage
Measure
Total Current Vector
Angle
Magnitude
Calculate
Capacitance
Power Factor
Real Loss (Watts)
IT
Watts
Capacitanc
e
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Basic Insulation & Power Factor Theory
Power Factor Vs. Dissipation Factor Vs. Tangent Delta
E
Q
d
IR
IC ITPower Factor = =
I
I
Dissipation Factor = =I
I
R
T
R
C
COS
TAN
Q
d
Q % PF (% COS Q) d % DF (% TAN )
90 0 0 089.71 .500 .29 .500
84.26 10.00 5.74 10.05
0 100.00 90 INFINITY
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Voltage sensitive characteristics
When we closely examine insulation, very small
gaps or voids could exist. These voids developan electrostatic potential on their surfaces. Thesesmall gaps become ionized: PartialDischarge/Corona.
Voids
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Power Factor vs. Test Potential
As test voltage is increased, the power factor will increase dependingon the void density.
Tip-Up = Power Factor at Line-to-ground voltage -Power Factor at 25% Line-to-ground voltage
Tip-up occurs in dry-type insulation specimens such as Dry TypeTransformer, rotating machinery, and cables.
25% L-G L-G
E
%PF
%PF @ 25% L-G
%PF @ L-G
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Knowledge IsPowerSMApparatus Maintenance and Power Management
for Energy Delivery
Doble Engineer ing Com pany
Measurement Principle
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Basic Laws of Electricity
A Difference in Potential Must ExistBetween Two Points in order forcurrent to flow
Current Always Returns to ItsSource
Current Always Takes the Path ofLeast Resistance
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Grounded-Specimen Test Mode (GST-
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Grounded Specimen Test Mode (GSTGround)
GuardTest Ground
High-Voltage Cable
Low-VoltageLead
Test-SetGround Lead
Test-SetStep-UpTransformer
Current &LossMeter
Grounded-Specimen Test Mode (GST-
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Grounded Specimen Test Mode (GSTGuard)
Current &LossMeter
Guard
Test Ground
High-Voltage Cable
Low-VoltageLead
Test-SetGround Lead
Test-Set
Step-UpTransformer
U d d S i T M d (UST)
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Ungrounded-Specimen Test Mode (UST)
Current &LossMeter
Guard
TestGround
High-VoltageCable
Low-VoltageLead
Test-SetGroundLead
Test-SetStep-Up
Transformer
M C d C
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Guard
High-VoltageCable
Test-SetStep-UpTransformer
TestGround
Low-
VoltageLead Test-Set
GroundLead
Current &LossMeter
CA CB
IA IB
IA+IB
GST-Ground
Measure CAand CB
M C G d C
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Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-SetStep-UpTransformer
TestGround
Low-
VoltageLead
Test-Set
GroundLead
Current &LossMeter
GST-Guard
CA CB
IA IB
IB
Measure CAGuard CB
M C G d/G d C
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Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-Set
Step-UpTransformer
TestGround
Low-VoltageLead
Test-SetGroundLead
Current &LossMeter
UST
CA CB
IA IB
IA
Measure CAGround/Guard CB
M C + C + C
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Guard
High-VoltageCable
Test-SetStep-UpTransformer
TestGround
Low-VoltageLeads
Test-SetGroundLead
Current &LossMeter
CB
CC
IB
IC
IA+IB +IC
GST GroundRed + Blue
Measure CA+ CB + CC
CA
IA
Meas e C + C
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Guard
High-VoltageCable
Test-SetStep-UpTransformer
TestGround
Low-VoltageLeads
Test-SetGroundLead
Current &LossMeter
CB
CC
IB
IC
IB +IC
GST Gnd RedGuard Blue
Measure CB + CC
CA
IA
Measure C + C
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Guard
High-VoltageCable
Test-SetStep-UpTransformer
TestGround
Low-VoltageLeads
Test-SetGroundLead
Current &LossMeter
CB
CC
IB
IC
IA+IC
GST Gnd BlueGuard Red
Measure CA+ CC
CA
IA
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Measure C + C
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Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-SetStep-UpTransformer
TestGround
Low-VoltageLeads
Test-SetGroundLead
Current &LossMeter
CB
CC
IB
IC
IA+IB
UST MeasureRed + Blue
Measure CA+ CB
CA
IA
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Measure C
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Guard
High-Voltage
Cable
Test-SetStep-UpTransformer
TestGround
Low-VoltageLeads
Test-SetGroundLead
Current &LossMeter
CB
CC
IB
IC
IA
UST MeasureBlue Gnd Red
Measure CA
CA
IA
Test set shielding
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Test set shielding
Understanding Electrostatic Interference
StaticSource
Specimen
Current &
Loss Meter
It
Ie+ Ie
Ie+ Ie
Ie
Ie
Ie
Ie
IT
Ie
IeTest
SetGroundShield
TestSetGuardShield
Ie Ie Ie Ie
Ie
LV Lead
Guard
Shield
Ground
Shield
Test Cable
Terminations
High-Voltage Test Cable
Test Cable Guard Shield
Test Cable Ground Shield
Electrostatic Interference
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Electrostatic Interference
Characteristics of Interference
IR
IC
IL
Electrostatic Interference and
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Measurements
IR
IL
W W
IT
IT
Traditional suppression method
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Traditional suppression method
Interference Suppression - Line Sync Reversal(Traditional)
Reports the average of the normal and 180 degreereversed reading at 60 Hz. It is only effective when thespecimen current is greater than the interference current.
The test frequency is obtained from the 120/240-volt linefrequency. Some difficulties may be encountered whenusing an unstable frequency source with this type of test.
IR
IC
IR
IC
Updated approach to interference
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p ppcancellation
Interference Suppression - Line FrequencyModulation Reports the computed result at line frequency of the two
measurements at +-5% of the line frequency, e.g. 57 and 63 Hz.This method minimizes the effects of electrostatic interference andyields superior results in high levels of electrostatic interference.
The test frequency is obtained from an internal oscillator. This type
of test creates a synthesized test voltage that is isolated from theinput and offers better performance using a generator or DC to ACinverter
Measurements
Current
6357 60 Frequency (HZ)
Interference
Input voltage interference
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Input voltage interference
Causes
Portable power supply
Power quality issue
Cannot be suppressed
Stability will affect accuracy of measure
Test signal should be independentto power line frequency
Issue to consider when testing
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Safety!
Isolate and ground apparatus under test Work between visible grounds
Ground M4100
Connect test lead to the M4100 first
Never come in contact with the test leadswhile testing
Isolating test specimen
Issue to consider when testing