Taung CHRS Cultural Heritage Resources Survey BCK2007

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

1 INTRODUCTION 8

2 AIMS 9

3 METHOD 10

4 INVENTORY OF CULTURAL HERITAGE RESOURCES 10

4.1 Geological, geomorphological and hydrological resources 10

4.1.1 Landforms 10

4.1.2 Dart Pinnacle and Hrdlička’s Pinnacle 11

4.1.3 Stratigraphic profile in trench at base of Dart’s

Pinnacle 13

4.1.4 Blue Pool Tufa 13

4.1.5 View of stratigraphic profile from the Power House

Cave 14

4.1.6 Dolomite outcrops on the plateau area above the

Blue Pools 14

4.2 Precambrian fossils 15

4.2.1 Introduction 15

4.2.2 The Precambrian palaeontology of the TS NHS 17

4.2.3 The Way Forward 25

4.3 Palaeontological and Palaeo-anthropological resources 29

4.3.1 Uniqueness of the Taung Skull Fossil Site 29

4.3.2 Palaeontology of the Buxton Limeworks 30

4.4 Palynology 31


4.4.2 Deposits that potentially contain pollen and

phytoliths at the Taung Skull Site 33

4.4.3 Previous palynological work 33

4.4.4 The role of palynology in cultural and natural

heritage 33

4.4.5 Conservation of remaining landscapes 34

4.4.6 State of the exposures 34

4.4.7 Management strategies 34

4.4.8 Monitoring 35

4.5 Archaeological resources 35


4.5.2 Early Stone Age occurrences 35

4.5.3 Middle Stone Age occurrences 35

4.5.4 Later Stone Age occurrences 37

4.5.5 Iron Age 39

4.5.6 Hyaena-Related occurrences 39

4.5.7 Way Forward: Research 41

4.6 Historical resources 41

4.6.1 Introduction – The pre-colonial period to c.1830 41

4.6.2 The Difaqane 45

4.6.3 The Tlhaping at Taung from 1840- Facing the

colonial advance 46

4.6.4 Taung in the Twentieth century 52

4.6.5 Mining history 54

4.6.6 Taung: A brief history of the Taung Skull Find 55

4.6.7 Post Iron Age history action plan 57

4.6.8 Conclusion 59

4.7 Living culture 60

4.7.1 Traditional knowledge systems – Oral traditions 60

4.7.2 Traditional knowledge systems – Ethnobotany 60

4.7.3 Traditional knowledge systems – Craft, art,

music, dance, dress, architectural styles, etc. 60

4.8 Botanical resources 61

4.8.1 Regional context and natural significance 61

4.8.2 Locality description and state of the vegetation 62

4.8.3 Endemics and Red Data Species 62

4.8.4 Alien vegetation 64

4.8.5 Indigenous knowledge systems 64

4.8.6 Research potential, educational value and

tourism potential 65

4.8.7 Key management issues 65

4.9 Zoological resources 66

4.10 Aesthetic resources: View sites and scenic spots 68


4.10.2 Sense of arrival 68

4.10.3 View sites and scenic spots 69

4.10.4 Recommendations 69

4.11 Architectural heritage 69

5 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 75

5.1 Geological and geomorphological heritage resources 75

5.2 Precambrian fossils as a heritage resource 77

5.3 Palaeontological and archaeological sites 78

5.4 Palynology 79

5.5 Historical resources 80

5.6 Architectural resources 81

5.7 Living culture 81

5.8 Botanical resources 82

5.9 Zoological resources 82

5.10 Aesthetic resources: View sites and scenic spots 83

6 THE WAY FORWARD 93

7 REFERENCES 94

APPENDIX 1: A species checklist of plants

CULTURAL HERITAGE RESOURCES SURVEY OF THE TAUNG SKULL NATIONAL HERITAGE SITE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Bapela Cave Klapwijk wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to the following persons for their enormous and valued contribution to this study. Their enthusiasm and willingness to share the benefits of their knowledge demonstrates the value that society places upon our heritage. Ntsizi November South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA) –

North West Province Judy Maguire Project co-leader Heritage resources Conservation planning Menno Klapwijk Project co-leader Site assessment and planning Corné Anderson Zoology Tanya Anderson Botany Clive Bapela Community liaison Peter Beaumont Archaeology Vincent Carruthers Tourism assessment and Planning History Kobus Geldenhuys GIS Mapping Lisa Hopkinson Legal issues Murray MacGregor Pre-cambrian palaeontology Tourism training Andy Manson Post Iron Age History Jeff McKee Palaeontology Elsabe Olivier Administration Report preparation Louis Scott Palynology

CULTURAL HERITAGE RESOURCES SURVEY OF THE TAUNG SKULL NATIONAL HERITAGE SITE

FINAL REPORT

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Cultural Heritage Resources Survey (CHRS) of the Taung Skull National Heritage Site provides a well-annotated inventory of the full spectrum of cultural and natural heritage resources of the Taung Site and environs, from geological and Precambrian fossil resources to the present. Natural heritage resources, both botanical and zoological, have also been included. Surviving aspects of “Living Cultural Heritage”, such as oral traditions, and indigenous knowledge systems such as ethnobotany, have likewise been recorded. Gaps in the current state of knowledge have been identified for all heritage components. Sites have been recorded using a GPS and stored on a GIS system. A map of the various elements of cultural heritage resources has been compiled (Figure 13). Specialists have commented on the heritage significance, on the scientific and educational potential of heritage elements, and their possible value to envisaged future tourism. Existing threats and risks to the sites have been identified, and suggestions made as to how these might be managed. Finally, the site and all its heritage resources have been assessed for its future possible tourism potential. All this information has been carried forward to compile the “State of the Environment” report, and also utilised as the framework for the “Way Forward” recommendations. Since it is the conservation of site significance which drives the Conservation Management Plan, the information contained in the Cultural Heritage Resources Survey has formed the crucial frame of reference for the construction of the management plan. The discussion of heritage resources has been arranged according to age, from oldest to youngest. These have been summarised for executive purposes.

Bapela Cave Klapwijk 1

The Taung Skull National Heritage Site Cultural Heritage Resources Survey

Summary: Precambrian palaeontology The Precambrian Palaeontology of the TS NHS is confined to the stromatolitic assemblages within dolomites of the Transvaal Supergroup. The present report is based on previous work undertaken on stromatolotic and associated rock types elsewhere in South Africa and on a brief site visit on the 12 July 2003. Limited time for field work and the absence of detailed onsite research have prevented “good” exposures of stromatolites from being located on site. This aspect of the cultural heritage resources has therefore not been adequately documented and this gap in our knowledge needs to be filled. Further fieldwork and research work is necessary. Previous studies on stromatolites located not far from the TS NHS and elsewhere in the RSA have revealed 6 distinct groups of micro-organisms with similarities to the Eubacteria, Myxobacteria and various Cyanophyta (Blue-Green Algae). The current report details aspects requiring further attention. These include: the compilation of an updated detailed report on the Precambrian Palaeontology and the stratigraphy of the Transvaal Supergroup with specific reference to the TS NHS; the identification and classification of suitable exposures of stromatolites within and close to the TS NHS; the construction of suitable information displays and exhibits pertaining to the Precambrian Palaeontology of the site, the assessment of current land practices and other activities impacting on the Precambrian Palaeontology of the site and the need for further research. Summary: Palaeontology, Palaeoanthropology and Archaeology Sporadic fieldwork over the past six decades at the Taung Skull Site has shown that it was occupied by Stone Age peoples for a fair portion of the past hundred (or more) millennia, with arguably the four most important of the dozen known localities there being as follows: • Witkrans Cave, where Layer C yielded Middle Stone Age artefacts and

associated large mammal bones, including 2-3 undescribed modern human molars, all dated to at least 89 000 years ago. This site falls outside the heritage boundary of the TS NHS, and should be included in a protected buffer zone.

• Black Earth Cave, where one of the three strata in Gallery A yielded a

large mammal fauna, including two modern human fragments, that may be as old or even earlier than those of Witkrans.



• Equus Cave, where the deposits produced a vast large mammal sample (30 000).

• Identifications (representing 48 species), including modern human

pieces, reflecting its use for over 30 millennia as a brown hyaena maternity den.

• Powerhouse Cave, where Later Stone Age artefacts and associated

large mammal bones relate to an occupation between 3700 and 2000 years ago, which may therefore be the age of some schematic paintings on its walls.

The Taung Skull Site has a firmly-established niche in the history of scientific thought on humankind's distant origins, but for long time little was done to disseminate this evidence more widely, either locally or amongst visitors, with proposed corrective actions being as follows: • To establish a small museum at the envisaged site entrance, in which

should be explanatory panels bearing on modern human beginnings, San hunters, Khoi herders, rock art and past climates.

• To set up a walking trail that could include sites such as Equus and

Powerhouse Caves, for which a trained guide would be needed, as also adequate safeguards at sites along the route.

• As regards further research, an initial focus should be on describing and

dating some of the modern human remains and the geochemical analysis of Blue Pool Cave stalactites, which could provide important new data on past regional climates.

Future research plans: Archaeology Should funding be available, Mr P Beaumont (McGregor Museum, Kimberley) should be contacted to coordinate the two research priorities listed in the Summary and to provide text for the sighted panels in the proposed Site Museum. For any envisaged reconstructions or dioramas there, every effort should be made to obtain the services of Maggie Newman, a talented British Museum-trained artist, now residing in North West Province. Summary: Palynology Fossil pollen analysis (palynology) of sediments from Equus Cave in the Taung Skull National Heritage Site have yielded important scientific results concerning the last 30 000 years of environmental history at the site and the



wider region. Although fossil pollen is generally scarce in the TSNHS further palynological research can potentially enlarge the existing knowledge of prehistoric conditions in the area. Apart from fossil pollen studies at the site, analysis of fossil phytoliths (grass remains) from a wide range of different sediment types including cave fills, fossil dung inclusions, and tufas, has undoubted potential to improve this knowledge significantly and to extend it backwards in time. For this purpose a special effort is, however, needed to protect remaining fossil-rich sediments like those in the Equus Cave locality and others that will potentially be discovered in future. Valuable speleothems (stalagmites) which can preserve records of prehistoric environmental change with their pollen and isotope contents have been lost from the site. Additional ones can potentially be found in underground caverns. Future projects by and L. Scott and student: Phytolith analysis of tufa deposits Summary: History Gaps in the history of the Taung region There is no systematic research or publications that cover the entire twentieth century history of Taung and district. All that really exists is Breutz’s ethnographic field-work of the 1950’s which only reflects conditions at that particular point in time. What is needed is a reconstruction of southern Tswana history, and of Taung in particular, along the lines of Shillington’s work for the nineteenth century, though not as extensive in its scope as Shillington’s book was. This will necessitate consulting archival material in the Cape Archives depot, in particular “Native Affairs” records and records from the Magisterial District of Taung. Alongside this there is a need to collect oral histories from the region. This will augment the official record and fill in a much needed “local history” component which cannot be gleaned from the written sources. In particular, when it comes to the Bophuthatswana phase of Taung’s history there exist only a few records which recount the very interesting opposition mounted by the local leadership to the Mangope regime and the hardships suffered by the community as a result of the Kgosi’s exile and Mangope’s interference in the affairs of Mankurwane’s Tlhaping. This information needs to be collected quickly before the various protagonists pass on or forget the details of that period. Thus there is a need for a well-planned oral history programme and archive focussed around Taung. This could also offer training and work opportunities for local people, especially younger men and women, with the appropriate educational abilities.



Summary: Architecture Buxton Village and the Mine Office precincts preserve a number of interesting architectural pieces. Buxton Village could be refurbished and several restoration-worthy buildings restored. The town could provide a number of services for tourists visiting the Taung Site. The Mine site buildings should be stabilised to prevent further deterioration and steps taken to prevent theft of building materials. Many of the buildings can be put to other uses such as a museum, craft workshop and sales points. Summary: Botany • The vegetation of the Taung Skull Site can be described as savanna

bushveld. The general vegetation types of the area are known as Kimberley Thorn Bushveld to the east below the Ghaap Escarpment on the plains, and Kalahari Plateau Bushveld on the Ghaap escarpment and plateau.

• The Taung Skull Site lies on a transitional zone (ecotone) between

these two vegetation types, with the vegetation surrounding the Taung Skull Site being more typical of the Kalahari Plateau Bushveld. In general, the vegetation of the Kalahari Plateau Bushveld varies from open to closed shrubveld, composed mostly of shrubs and some small trees, in mixed grassland.

• The botany report lists the typical trees, shrubs and grasses of this

vegetation type, and describes the soil, climate and conservation status. The Taung Skull Site and surrounding mined areas have little natural vegetation cover due to the severity of the impacts of mining activities in the past. However, there is a fairly dense patch of woodland present around the Equus Cave area comprising a mixture of sweet thorn Acacia karroo, umbrella thorn Acacia tortilis and the exotic pepper tree Schinus molle. Around the picnic site near Blue Pools larger trees of buffalo thorn Ziziphus mucronata and karee Rhus lancea are present. The vegetation covering the rest of the mined areas, dumps and other disturbed areas is dominated by the pepper tree Schinus molle which proliferates on mined areas, as well as black thorn Acacia mellifera, small shrubs and several weed species. The Taung Skull Site lies on the eastern edge of the Griqualand West Centre of Endemism. A centre of plant endemism is an area with high concentrations of plant species with very restricted distributions. Endemics and near-endemics, which could be present on the Ghaap plateau above the site, include Rhus tridactyla and Aloinopsis orpenii. Seventeen red data and protected species are known to occur in habitats along the Ghaap



escarpment similar to those at the Taung Skull Site, but only one protected species was recorded at the site during the field visit. A preliminary checklist of the 129 plant species recorded at the Taung Site as well as around the site on the Ghaap escarpment and plateau, and from data on previous studies in the KMG Herbarium, McGregor Museum, Kimberley is provided in the botany report. No literature documenting previous ethno-botanical research for the area was found. However, the documented ethno-botanical value of the same plant species recorded for other areas is provided. Of the 129 plant species, 87 species are listed as having ethno-medicinal value (67%). There is potential for a hiking trail from the viewpoint at Blue Pools up the escarpment and along the plateau next to the Thabasikwa River towards Powerhouse Cave. The botany of the area and the natural heritage of the Griqualand West Centre of Endemism could be promoted in a museum/outdoor interpretive centre, as well as the impacts of man on the Taung Skull Site and why we should conserve our natural heritage and live sustainably. Plants could be labeled or numbered along part of the hiking trail and this section utilized by learners as an outdoor classroom. The free roaming cattle, donkeys and goats are severely overgrazing the already sparse herbaceous cover. There is evidence of fuel wood collection. Bush encroachment is taking place on the eastern boundary near Powerhouse Cave due to overgrazing. The state of the natural vegetation on the intact portions of the escarpment and plateau along the western and northern boundary is better, but still in an overgrazed condition. Alien vegetation is abundant at the Taung Skull Site due to past disturbances and continued overgrazing, and seven alien plant species are present. According to the amended regulations (March 2001) of the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (1983), it is the legal duty of the landowner/land user to control invasive alien plants occurring on the land under their control. The abundance of alien invader plants and other weed species indicates that the state of the natural vegetation is poor. A brief outline of the management issues is provided, including the following: • The whole site should be adequately fenced off to prevent access of

livestock to the site. If livestock grazing is essential, a plan should be developed to limit grazing to certain areas that have not been denuded and to levels below the grazing capacity of the veld.

• The invasive alien plants will need to be controlled. A control

programme should be drawn up and manual labour should be used as a more cost-effective means of removing and controlling alien plants.



• Harvesting of fuel wood from indigenous trees must be carefully managed so that it is done in a sustainable manner for that area. Sustainable levels of wood harvesting must be determined and a system for regulation developed before harvesting continues.

• Development of infrastructure, roads, etc. should not take place in the

woodland area near Equus Cave, to keep this thicket intact and visually attractive.

• An ethno-botanical study of the Taung area should be carried out.

Summary: Zoology

Species diversity at the actual site of the skull discovery can be considered extremely low in terms of vertebrate diversity, a direct result of habitat destruction (quarrying activities). The area surrounding the quarries/mines is typically Ghaap plateau/fault, with the escarpment being physiographically and geomorphologically distinct from the adjacent plains. As a result of this the area supports a distinct faunal composition. The Thabasikwa River and adjoining cliff face harbours species normally associated with the Ghaap Plateau. An overall total of 13 mammal, 74 bird, eight reptile and four amphibian species are likely to be encountered. Although this site does not support a unique faunal composition, certain species are more likely to be influenced by an increase in tourist activities. The cliff face currently supports a resident breeding pair of Black Eagles (protected). Up to seven bat species, one of which is considered vulnerable, use the Ghaap plateau’s numerous caves and mineshafts as a migration route and overwintering refuge. Baboon/tourist interaction can play a role, but can be alleviated with an active baboon management programme.



1 INTRODUCTION As the name suggests, the Taung Skull National Heritage Site (TS NHS) derives the greater part of its significance from the partial skull and associated endocranial cast of a juvenile ape-man or Australopithecus africanus, which was recovered from a cavity within a limestone tufa in the course of commercial mining operations. The discovery and recognition of the significance of the Taung child and the remarkable insights and revolutionary claims of Raymond Dart created not only a new genus and species of hominid, but a series of new fields of scientific endeavour, including African palaeo-anthropology. The discoveries at Taung wrought ground-breaking changes in scientific thought in several scientific fields, and set in motion a chain of events which would lead, ultimately, to the discovery of the important hominid sites of the Sterkfontein Valley in Gauteng as well as the Makapan Valley in the Limpopo Province. The TS NHS lies approximately 17 km south west of Taung in the North West Province and adjacent to the village of Buxton. Refer to Fig 1 – Locality Plan. Taung, as the type locality of Australopithecus africanus - the first place on earth where this species was found - occupies pride of place as the starting point for studies of human evolution on the African continent. The Taung Site records an important stage in the emergence and evolution of humans and their close relatives, and as such, it has universal significance. However, the Taung Skull National Heritage Site includes much more than just the site of the skull find itself. It has a fascinating geological and geomorphological history that predates the skull site and contains several deposits that encapsulate evidence of sporadic occupation by emerging man and animals for over three million years. It thus chronicles a broad time-spectrum of events from the Precambrian to the present, including sites of palaeontological, archaeological, historical and economic and natural heritage significance. This component of the Taung Skull National Heritage Site (TS NHS) project therefore involves the compilation of an inventory of the full range of cultural and natural heritage resources that fall within the boundaries of the site area as well as those in the immediate vicinity, some of which currently fall just beyond the proposed site boundary. While the research potential, scientific importance and educational value of these additional heritage resources may not individually be of universal value, they embody considerable significance at the local and provincial level. Only once the full spectrum of heritage resources has been documented, together with a statement of their research and educational potential and current state of preservation, can a management plan can be



created to conserve, maintain, promote and develop the resources appropriately.

Figure 1: Locality Plan

2 AIMS From the Terms of Reference for the Taung Project it is our understanding that the broad aims of this component of the project are: • A cultural heritage resources survey (CHRS): inventory with text, which

establishes the full range of the different kinds of cultural heritage and indigenous knowledge present at the site;

• A statement of the research and educational potential of the different

kinds of heritage that occur;

• Database, GIS and mapping, plus recommendations on keeping the database vital;



• State of the environment report on cultural and natural heritage resources;

• A "way forward" on the findings;

• The information necessary to construct a management plan to support

the conservation, maintenance and promotion of the heritage resources of the site and environs.

3 METHOD The method involved the following steps: • Inclusion of all key scientific role-players in the research team; • A desktop survey including literature review for data on all recorded

sites by specialist scientists knowledgeable in each particular field;

• Field scan to establish whether further sites of heritage significance occur (limited time) to assess state of preservation of recorded sites;

• An assessment of the risks and threats to which the heritage sites are

exposed;

• Interviewing local communities and leaders for information pertaining to traditional knowledge systems and "living culture" (Ethno-botanical, Oral History and "Struggle History").

4 INVENTORY OF CULTURAL HERITAGE RESOURCES

4.1 Geological, geomorphological and hydrological resources

4.1.1 Landforms • The Ghaap Escarpment, arguably the most significant landform in the

area, needs to be interpreted for the visitor in terms of its origin and significance;

• The mode of origin and development of the Valley of the Harts

River also requires interpretation. The significance of the fact that its bed is many metres below that of the nearby Vaal River, thus allowing gravity fed transfer of water from the latter river to irrigate the Harts Valley, likewise requires explanation;



• A good viewpoint from which these two landforms can be demonstrated needs to be incorporated into a hiking trail;

• The various tufa deposits, particularly the still largely intact and still

accreting Blue Pool Tufa needs to be preserved and interpreted for the visitor. A pathway should be constructed (or the existing nearby network of pathways extended) to expose the visitor to those points where the mode of accretion of the Blue Pool Tufa can be demonstrated, as well as its cavitous nature. Fossilising leaves preserved in the carbonate-rich waters flowing over the tufa surface should also be demonstrated. The detailed routing of such pathway layout is beyond the scope of the present project.

• The Underground Cave – this feature, sometimes also referred to in

print as “the underground river”, was exposed during the course of earth-moving operations in the north-western extremity of the Blue Pool Picnic Site (Figures 2 and 3). The elongated cave contains attractive limestone formations (speleothems) and numerous “young” stalactitic straws. Visitor vandalism has resulted in many of these having been broken off and removed.

The area will have to be subject to inspection by a professional mine safety officer and pronounced “safe” before it can be opened for use as a tourist opportunity. More recent earth-moving activity appears to have “broken” the entrance, unless this is a deliberate attempt to exclude visitors.

4.1.2 Dart Pinnacle and Hrdlička’s Pinnacle Heritage is indeed valuable and irreplaceable. It is tragic that the site of the original Taung Skull find has been irreplaceably mined away. Two pillars (pinnacles) of unexcavated tufa deposit flank the approximate site of the discovery and preserve the original surface of the tufa prior to mining. They also preserve relic sandy and stony breccial deposits - still fossiliferous - which represent cavity infills similar to those that once entombed the Taung skull. They provide a valuable analogue for the discovery site which no longer exists. As such, they should be preserved at all costs.



Figure 2: Original entrance to underground cave

Figure 3: Speleothems (stalactites) in underground cave



Figure 4: Taung Quarry with fossiliferous Hrdlička’s Pinnacle in

foreground, Dart’s Pinnacle and the memorial cairn marking the discovery site in middle distance

4.1.3 Stratigraphic profile in trench at base of Dart’s Pinnacle The trench at the base of Dart Pinnacle was excavated in the hopes of elucidating site stratigraphy and local mining ‘history’. One of the most impressive insights to be gained from this locality is the sheer thickness and compaction of decades upon decades of lime dust, blown by the prevailing wind, which has built up to an astonishing thickness and degree of compaction. It creates an awareness of what it must have been like to work downwind of the smoking kilns, with the air thick with choking lime dust.

4.1.4 Blue Pool Tufa The still actively accreting portion of the Blue Pool Tufa provides a modern analogue for tufa formation. The Thabasikwa River (historically known as the Thabaseek River) flowing over the surface of the tufa is still today adding to its mass as well as caving out rock shelters and cavities along its winding course. Of further heritage significance are the trace fossils of leaves which are still forming on its surface, as well as the demonstrable cavitous



morphology. Excavations by limeworkers provide interesting insights into tufa structure. Also observable are the algal mats and drapes which biochemically assist in the precipitation of limestone.

4.1.5 View of stratigraphic profile from the Power House Cave The view from this vantage point looking west toward the main quarry provides a valuable orientation into the stratigraphy of the site. The tufas can be seen to have built up upon a substrate of Schmidtsdrift Shales, and the role of the Thabasikwa River dropping off the Ghaap Plateau in the formation of the tufas is quite easily explained. Such insights are not possible from within the quarry.

Figure 5: Tufa deposits resting on Schmidtsdrift shales opposite Power

House Cave

4.1.6 Dolomite outcrops on the plateau area above the Blue Pools Here can be seen interesting dry climate weathering structures called “rillengraben”. These should be included in a tourist walk through the site.



4.2 Precambrian fossils

4.2.1 Introduction The TS NHS has become a world famous site in terms of palaeo-anthropology mainly as a result of the discovery of the Taung Skull in late 1924 during quarrying operations at this site. This skull was described by Raymond Dart and assigned to a new species Australopithecus africanus. This discovery in addition to other hominid remains found elsewhere in South Africa have indicated that the sub-continent may well have been a significant geographical region in the origin of very early humans. The majority of these early hominid remains occur in a karst environment associated with the Malmani Dolomite of Transvaal (now Gauteng and Limpopo Provinces) and the dolomites of the Griqualand West Supergroup outcropping in the Northern Cape and North West Provinces (refer to Figure 6) dated at approximately 2300my. These occurrences have placed South Africa in the forefront of anthropological research but very little coverage has been given to the Precambrian palaeontology of these sites which contains evidence of some of the earliest forms of life (stromatolites and microfossils) positively identified and palaeo-environmental conditions which were a major catalyst to the initiation of an oxygenic environment (atmosphere) which allowed for the later diversification of life forms and the establishment of life on land. Budget constraints limit the detail to which the Precambrian palaeontology can be discussed. The report presents some of the findings of limited previous palaeontological research undertaken on stromatolitic assemblages of the Malmani Dolomites and the Griqualand West Supergroup and the observations on a brief site visit to Taung on the 12 July 2003. Recommendations (see Section 4.2.3 -The Way Forward) are however made later in the report to ensure that Precambrian palaeontological aspects of the TS NHS are adequately addressed as these and the associated geology are of significance in the overall Management Plan of the site. A list of scientific references pertaining directly to the Transvaal Dolomites (Malmani and Griqualand West Supergroup) is provided for additional information if required. Detailed stratigraphic nomenclature has been excluded at this stage as much of the research presented here was undertaken under the old nomenclature which has subsequently been revised.



Figure 6: The Distribution of the Transvaal Supergroup Rocks



4.2.2 The Precambrian palaeontology of the TS NHS

• General The Precambrian palaeontology of the Taung Site is confined to the dolomitic assemblages from which the tufa deposits containing many of the hominid and other more recent fossil remains were derived. Research conducted mainly since the 1960’s has established beyond any doubt that life as we know it today had its origin well back in the Precambrian. Evidence of such life has been gathered from many ancient rock formations throughout the world including those in Australia, Canada, Russia, USA and Southern Africa (refer to Table 1 – The Major Occurrences of Precambrian Fossils and their Ages). Southern Africa is of particular interest in that the stratigraphic record in this region has not only revealed the oldest forms of life, but contains widespread evidence of Early and Late Precambrian life. Well preserved Archaean and unique Early Proterozoic sedimentary sequences contain diverse assemblages of fossilized life-forms. Middle Precambrian stratigraphic units are, in contrast, poorly represented in the subcontinent. The study of Precambrian microbiotas is of primary importance for the following reasons:- a. From these studies valuable information relating to early

biochemistry and biological evolution is obtained; b. These studies have provided important data regarding the

development of the eucaryotic (true nucleus present) cell and the subsequent attainment of the metazoan level of life in late Precambrian times (eucaryotes are organisms which have membrane-bound organelles, separated from the cytoplasm by unit membranes. The DNA is in chromosomes within a well defined nuclear membrane and nuclear division occurs regularly by mitosis. This group contains the majority of nonvascular plants, all vascular plants and includes both photosynthetic and non–photosynthetic forms. Metazoa are multicellular animals whose cells are differentiated into tissues and organs that are specialized for different functions);

c. From such studies important information regarding the primeval

atmosphere and early geochemistry can be obtained or inferred. This is of great importance as the formation of many economic ore deposits is directly or indirectly influenced by biological activity.



Table 1: The Major Occurrences of Precambrian Fossils and Their Ages

Stratigraphic Unit Age in M.Y. Ediacaran Fauna : Australia, Namibia (SWA) 550 - 700 England, Sweden, Europe, U.S.S.R. (Russia) U.S.A Katangan, Kundelungu, Roan (Zambia) 620 - 1050 Bitter Springs Formation (Australia) 800 – 1000 Dismal Lakes Group, Mackenzie District (Canada) 1200 Belt Supergroup, Greyson Shale (Canada) 1300 Beck Spring Formation (U.S.A.) 1300 Waterton Formation Alberta (Canada) 1300 –1400 Belt Supergroup, Newland Limestone (Canada) 1400 Amelia Dolomite (Australia) 1500 Bungle Bungle Dolomite (Australia) 1500 Paradise Creek Formation (Australia) 1600 Umkondo (Zimbabwe / Rhodesia) 1100 – 1785 Belcher Group (Canada) 1900 Lomagundi (Zimbabwe / Rhodesia) 1940 + - 70 Frere Formation (Australia) Approx 2000 Gunflint Formation (U.S.A.) Approx 2000 Pokegama Quartzite (U.S.A.) 2000 Transvaal Supergroup (R.S.A.) 2224+- 21 & greater Ventersdorp (R.S.A.) 2620+- 50 Witwatersrand (R.S.A.) 2720 +- 100 Bulawayan (Zimbabwe / Rhodesia) Belingwe 2070+- 80 2700 Pongola (R.S.A.) >2870 +- 30 < 3070 +- 60 Swaziland (R.S.A.) 3300 – 3500 (after M Macgregor 1978)



The recognition of microfossils and organic matter in Precambrian sediments such as the Malmani and Griqualand West Dolomites has far reaching implications with respect to the origin and evolution of life prior to 540 many years ago. It is now widely acknowledged that stromatolites provide the most conclusive evidence for the existence of Early and Middle Precambrian life. Stromatolites are organo-sedimentary structures produced by life processes of micro-organisms such as blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) and bacteria in various associations of species and genera. The term “stromatolite“ is derived from ancient Greek, a combination of stromatos, “bed covering” and lithos meaning “rock”. The formal definition (Schopf, 2000) has four parts: a stromatolite is (1) an accretionary organosedimentary structure (2) commonly thinly layered,megascopic and calcareous, (3) produced by the activities of mat-building communities of mucilage-secreting micro-organisms, (4) mainly filamentous photoautotrophic prokarotes such as cyanobacteria. It is also of interest that stromatolites are currently forming in various parts of the world including Shark Bay (Western Australia) and the Bahamas, and in the trenches of the Sua Salt Works on the Makarikari Pan in Botswana.

• Stromatolites in the Malmani and Griqualand West Dolomites – previous work & other aspects The first record of stromatolites in the Transvaal System (now Supergroup) was reported by Young (1934; 1940). Subsequent research on these stromatolitic carbonates (Button, 1973b; Truswell & Eriksson, 1973, 1975; Eriksson et. al., 1976) indicates that they accumulated in supratidal, intertidal as well as subtidal depositional environments. Morphological aspects of the stromatolites have been well documented by Truswell & Eriksson (1972) and Bertand & Eriksson (1977) for instance and a classification of the structures and their morphology is as presented in Figure 7. The morphology of a few types of stromatolites is presented in Figure 8. In 1973 a limited study was undertaken on samples collected from the Northern Cape (including the now North West Province) and the Eastern Transvaal (now Mpumulanga). This study revealed the presence of filamentous algae closely resembling modern Cyanophyta (Macgregor 1973a & Macgregor et. al., 1974). At the same time similar results were obtained by Nagy (1974) and more recently by Nagy (1978). Subsequent research (Macgregor, 1978) including Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), light microscopy and other techniques revealed a more diverse assemblage of organisms including six major



groups presented as follows (refer also to Figure 9 for a representative example of each type): a. Group 1: Rod-like structures resembling modern Eubacteria and

Myxobacteria and coccoid blue-green algae and other coccoid microfossils in younger deposits elsewhere in the world (ie Belcher Islands, Canada);

b. Group 2: Spheroidal, Subspheroidal and Ellipsoidal unicells; c. Group 3: Unicellular Forms with Filamentous Projections; d. Group 4: Tapering Filaments & Sheaths – These include

unbranched multicellular trichomes tapering from a generally stouter end at which an enlarged cell may be present. These structures strongly resemble the modern Rivulariaceae. Similar structures have been observed in the younger sediments of the Bitter Springs Formation (Australia) and the Gunflint Cherts (U.S.A.);

e. Group 5: Branched Filamentous Sheaths; f. Group 6: Unbranched Filamentous Sheaths and Cellular

Filaments – resembling modern Oscillatoriaceae and possibly the Nostocaceae.

• Observations on the site visit conducted on the 12 July 2003

As indicated previously the Precambrian palaeontology associated with the site is confined to the dolomitic rock assemblages. Previous work in the area by T C Partridge (2000) and others indicates that the majority of the limeworks and original tufa deposits are underlain by Schmidtsdrift Shale (Figure 5). The dolomites overlie the shales and partly constitute the very distinctive escarpment of the Ghaap Plateau in the region. The contact between the dolomite and shale is particularly well exposed along the SW boundary of the site and this contact based on aerial photography would appear to be synonymous with the escarpment in the region. The dolomitic strata and underlying shales are horizontal to near horizontal. Dips of up to 5 degrees in a westerly direction were recorded on site (refer to Figure 10a). Aerial photography indicates distinctive zones within the dolomite.



Figure 7: The Morphology and Classifications of Stromatolites



Figure 7: Continued



Figure 8 a,b,c: Examples of Stromatolites



Figure 9: Examples of Micro Fossils Identified in Stromatolites of the Transvaal Supergroup



Stromatolites are known in the lower units of the dolomitic assemblages in the Griqualand West Supergroup and although a variety of good examples were not located during the site visit this does not preclude the existence of such structures on site. Evidence of possible tabular / “crinkled” stromatolites and desiccated algal mats were however noted (refer to Figure 10b and 10c). Macroscopically, the dolomite appears to be rather “homogeneous” in terms of mineralogy and devoid of other often commonly associated mineralization elsewhere such as chert. Often the association of both dolomite and chert and the contrast of these mineral types enhances the presence and identification of stromatolitic structures.

4.2.3 The Way Forward • Introduction

Unlike the hominid sites within the caverns and tufa deposits of the Malmani and Griqualand West Supergroup Dolomites which occur at specific localities of limited area and extent the Precambrian palaeontology is inherent to the dolomitic geology as a whole. By comparison with the enormous amount of research undertaken on the hominid fossils (which is current / ongoing and has also involved numerous researchers over an extended period of time in the past) very little research has been undertaken on the palaeontology / microfossils of the dolomitic stromatolitic assemblages of the host rock in which the cave/tufa deposits and associated hominid and other fossils occur.

Much of the information that has been obtained has been by way of limited research undertaken by M. MacGregor (see Bibliography) on samples not within the TS NHS site. This research has revealed the presence of important assemblages of microfossils which have been confirmed by other researchers (see Nagy 1974 & 1978). The aforementioned stromatolitic assemblages are recognised as the oldest known extensive shelf carbonates of their type in the geological record and this is of paramount importance not only in respect to the age of the onset of biogenesis but also pertains to the formation of some later economic ore deposits.





• Aspects requiring further attention a. Compilation of an updated detailed report on the Precambrian

palaeontology of the Transvaal Supergroup

This report represents a brief overview of the Precambrian palaeontology of the stromatolitic assemblages of the Malmani Dolomite and Griqualand West Supergroup. It excludes such important aspects of the significance of these in the process of biogenesis and the evolution of life on the earth. The exclusion of interpretation of such important information within a National and potential World Heritage Site such as the TS NHS is tantamount to presenting only a portion of the significance of this site and could be likened to an “unfinished book”. It is therefore appropriate that a more comprehensive report be compiled on this aspect in which the importance of the fossil assemblages of these oldest known shelf carbonates can be fully recognised. Apart from the significance of the above in the age of biogenesis, such a report should address the following aspects:

- The broader implications of the Precambrian fossil record –

with reference to other Precambrian fossil assemblages world wide;

- The Archaean-Proterozoic Boundary; - The Proterozoic and emergence of metazoans.

The compilation of such a report will require an updating of the attached Reference List as well as an updated review of the literature and any subsequent information / research undertaken since the late 1970’s when the microfossils associated with the stromatolitic assemblages of the Malmani Dolomite and Griqualand West Supergroups were first discovered and documented.

b. Characterization of the stratigraphy of the dolomite and

stromatolitic assemblages of the TS NHS and surrounds

The following actions should be undertaken:

• Detailed mapping of the dolomites within the site and envisaged Buffer Zone;

• The recording of detailed stratigraphy, stomatolitic

assemblages and sedimentary structures;



• Samples of stromatolites should be obtained for micro studies to determine the character of any potential micro-organisms therein;

• Such micro studies could possibly be undertaken as the

subject of a future post graduate dissertation. c. The identification of suitable exposures of stromatolites and

the classification thereof within and in close proximity to the TS NHS

The purpose of the above would be to enhance the visitor by

experience by including not only aspects pertaining the hominid fossil assemblages but to present a holistic picture of the significance and importance of the palaeontology of the TS NHS.

d. The construction of suitable information displays / exhibits

pertaining to the Precambrian palaeontology on site

This would include displays at any onsite museum / visitor information centre as well as at appropriate field sites. The museum exhibit should amongst others include:

- an annotated display of the significance of Precambrian

palaeontology of the site; - examples of common types of stomatolites; - associated micro-organisms; and - appropriate stratigraphic information. If no suitable examples of the various types of stromatolites are

found on site it is recommended that such samples be sourced from elsewhere for inclusion in displays. It should be noted that as a result of the limited area of the site and the low dip of the strata only a small proportion of the dolomitic stratigraphy is likely to be exposed within and in close proximity to the site.

e. The assessment of current land practices and other activities

impacting on the Precambrian palaeontology of the TS NHS It is recommended that this matter be addressed as part of the

Management Plan including appropriate monitoring and auditing procedures.



Of common occurrence within Gauteng and elsewhere is the removal of “Pelindaba Rock” (dolomite) mainly for landscape, architectural and gardening purposes. Such activities have a significant potential impact on the COH WHS (for instance where it has been reported that up to sixty tons a day are being removed form the area). The removal of dolomite from the site could not be determined but should this be occurring, it must be stopped. The matter requires further investigation.

f. Further research

It is appropriate that further onsite research be conducted by way of further post-graduate research or by research funded from other sources as mentioned in Point b. above. The importance of these fossil assemblages is again stressed and further research may endorse this opinion and enhance the significance of the TS NHS and other hominid sites in South Africa.

4.3 Palaeontological and Palaeo-anthropological resources

4.3.1 Uniqueness of the Taung Skull Fossil Site The Taung skull fossil site at the Buxton Limeworks is best known for the 1924 discovery of the type specimen of Australopithecus africanus (Dart, 1925). The remains of the facial skeleton and endocranial cast of this early hominid child were the first fossils to confirm Darwin’s (1871) assertion that human ancestry probably could be traced to Africa. The discovery inspired 80 years of exploration and excavation in Africa, yielding hundreds of fossils from southern, eastern, and central Africa that trace the evolution of humans and their ancestors for as much as 6 million years. Taung is not only of historical significance in human evolutionary research and palaeontology, but is unique in other important respects: • Taung is the southernmost early hominid fossil site, and of the greatest

latitude of any hominid fossil site of the Pliocene; • Taung is the only early hominid to have been discovered in the infills of

tufa caves;

• Taung is one of the few early hominid sites for which the associated fauna suggest an open savannah environment for an australopithecine.

The Taung hominid fossil and associated fauna are the subjects of ongoing research.



4.3.2 Palaeontology of the Buxton Limeworks The tufa accretions of the Buxton limeworks are riddled with fossil sites sampling the Pliocene and Pleistocene fauna. Most of these sites have not been excavated, and thus have potential for future research to investigate long term ecological changes in a area at the edge of the Ghaap escarpment. The Taung skull discovery site comprises two localities near the monument, each of which has multiple deposits. The Hrdlička deposits, dating to approximately 2.4-2.6 million years ago, have yielded primarily cercopithecid fossils among the 43 mammalian species found. The Dart deposits are somewhat older, and have been postulated to be the remains of the cave infill from which the Australopithecus fossil came (Figure 4). The fossil localities, GPS coordinates (accurate within 6 metres, except as noted), and vulnerability are as follows: Table 2: GPS coordinates of fossil localities

Hrdlička deposits S 27º 37.165’ E 024º 38.021’ Elevation 1147 m

Fossils exposed, but secure in rock

Dart Deposits S 27º 37.171’ E 024º 37.990’ Elevation 1145 m

Secure site, no exposed fossils

Tobias Pinnacle deposit S 27º 37.215’ E 024º 37.906’ Elevation 1164 m

Secure site, barely visible

Berger Cave complex S 27º 37.155’ E 024º 37.841’ Elevation 1172 m


Lucky Moon Cave S 27º 37.068’ E 024º 37.818’ Elevation 1158 m


LSN Cave S 27º 37.085’ E 024º 37.812’ Elevation 1148 m


Innominate Cave S 27º 37.056’ E 024º 37.823’ Elevation 1153 m


Quinney Cave S 27º 37.032’ E 024º 37.855’ Elevation 1151 m

Vulnerable if noticed

Cut-through alley S 27º 37.030’ E 024º 37.868’ Elevation 1147 m




Black Earth Cave S 27º 37.025’ E 024º 37.950’ Elevation 1158 m

Vulnerable if found

Peabody’s Equus site S 27º 36.954’ E 024º 37.800’ Elevation 1146 m


Equus Cave S 27º 36.936’ E 024º 37.775’ Elevation 1147 m

Highly vulnerable, loose fossils everywhere

Blom Cave S 27º 36.939’ E 024º 37.815’ Elevation 1149 m


Satan Cave S 27º 36.845’ E 024º 37.779’ Elevation 1158 m

Vulnerable site, if noticed, loose fossils exposed

Alcove Cave *Coordinates only accurate to 20 m, due to rock-enclosed location

S 27º 36.762’ E 024º 37.718’ Elevation 1150 m


Oxland large mammal site

S 27º 36.782’ E 024º 37.588’ Elevation 1179 m

Large ex situ fossils visible in rock, secure except for the most adventurous visitor.

Acacia Cave S 27º 37.155’ E 024º 37.843’ Elevation 1162 m


4.4 Palynology

4.4.1 Introduction Pollen analysis (palynology) is a widely used tool in gaining information about changing environmental and climatic conditions during the prehistoric past. Microscopic pollen grains produced by vegetation have been incorporated as dust particles in sediments and have been preserved over long time periods. Counts to determine the pollen grain composition in different sediment layers give a reflection of what plants were present at the time of deposition and what climatic conditions prevailed. Pollen grains trapped in sediments are, however, not always preserved depending on the sediment type and local conditions that the sediments underwent since their formation. For this reason palynological research in South Africa has only been possible in a few cases. Most layers in the Taung limestone accumulations were not productive but a rare pocket of sediment from Equus Cave did contain fossil pollen grains that give extremely valuable information about long-term environmental change. Potentially similar undiscovered pockets with pollen



bearing inclusions might exist in the heritage area that can in future help to elucidate the long environmental history at the site.

Stoebe sp. Cyperaceae sp. (sedge) Figure 11: Examples of fossil pollens An exciting new extension of the field of palynology is phytolith analysis. Phytoliths are small resistant silica particles that provide support to leaves of certain species, especially grasses. They occur in the outer cell layers (cuticles). When plants die the phytoliths survive and become incorporated in soils and sediments. As with pollen grains phytoliths can be preserved as microfossils but they are more resistant to decay and are more likely to survive. Similarly counts of different phytolith types from sediment samples can give us information about former vegetation types that grew in an area, especially the nature of the grass cover which reflects climatic conditions. Saddle Dumbell Figure 12: Examples of phytoliths



4.4.2 Deposits that potentially contain pollen and phytoliths at the Taung Skull Site The mechanism of pollen trapping and destruction in different dry-land deposits is described in Scott and Bonnefille (1986), Scott (1995), Carrion et al. (1999) and Scott (2003, in press). Water percolation under oxygen rich conditions in the long history after deposition resulted in pollen decay while dry sediments that are free of moisture movement preserved pollen better. While tufas and breccias proved to be unproductive in previous pollen studies along the Gaap Escarpment (Scott, unpublished data), stalagmites, dry cave fills, coprolites of hyenas, porcupines and dassies hyracium (hyracium = hyrax dung layers) all have excellent potential for pollen analyses. Old hyracium deposits covering the last 10 to 20 thousand years have been found to be particularly useful in palynological reconstructions (Scott, 1996) and are potentially available in rock shelters along the escarpment. Since phytoliths are considerably more resistant than pollen, all of the above deposits including tufas and breccias are likely to contain them. With the help of Mr. Lloyd Rossouw (a student of phytoliths of the National Museum Bloemfontein at the University of the Free State) previously collected and prepared samples of the Taung Skull breccia and adjacent travertine layers from T.C. Partridge’s borehole cores were tested. They contain abundant phytoliths. Most tufas and other deposits like the Equus Cave sediments are also expected to have excellent potential for phytolith analysis.

4.4.3 Previous palynological work Despite the general scarcity of pollen in deposits at the Taung Site the available results are highly significant. Up to now the only detailed palynological results from the Taung Skull Heritage area are from Equus Cave. Both the reddish cave-fills and coprolite (fossil hyena dung) inclusions contained pollen but the latter were more productive (Scott, 1978). The results, together with palaeontological and isotopic data (Klein et al., 1991; Lee-Thorp and Beaumont, 1995; Johnson et al, 1997) makes this site a treasure trove of information about the vegetation and environmental conditions in the central interior during the last 30 000 years including the cold Last Glacial Maximum period at 20 000 years ago. Preservation of a witness section of these deposits is therefore of great importance.

4.4.4 The role of palynology in cultural and natural heritage Palynology is necessary for understanding both Cainozoic palaeontology and the archaeological finds at Taung. It can potentially provide information about significant cycles of climatic change like prolonged droughts that may have influenced animal and human life. This study is therefore of academic importance and educational value as well as of practical and agricultural significance. One of the scientific applications of dated fossil pollen data is



that they can contribute to current computer models (global circulation models) for monitoring global climatic change in the past and future. Palynological data can not only shed light on faunal and human origins but also on plant evolution.

4.4.5 Conservation of remaining landscapes Conservation of the remaining undisturbed landscapes as well as the historical exposures is necessary for visualization and understanding of processes such as pollen trapping and preservation and preservation in sediments.

4.4.6 State of the exposures Vast volumes of the tufas and breccias have been removed but the available exposures can still be used for phytolith extraction. The Equus Cave fills have mainly been removed by archaeological excavations but small witness sections remain. From the point of view of microfossil investigators these deposits are in a poor state as they are exposed to the elements. It must be kept in mind that the deposits formed and were protected over thousands of years inside a cave chamber. The roof has, however, been removed several decades ago by mining operations and the soft sediments are now vulnerable. Seasonal rainwater percolation and evaporation over decades in the remaining sediments must have had a detrimental effect on microscopic inclusions that may not be easy to observe as in the case of macrofossils. It is not certain to what extent the pollen contents in the remaining sediments have been damaged since opening up and excavation of the shelter but outer exposed layers must have been affected. Under present conditions it can be expected that the remaining sediments and inclusions will eventually be lost unless steps are taken to protect them. Speleothems (e.g. stalagmites) can provide fossil pollen as well as isotopic information about past conditions as was shown at other sites in the Makapansgat valley and at Wonderwork Cave in the vicinity of Taung (Holmgren et al. 1999; L. Scott and G.A. Brook, unpublished data). They are potentially available in deep cavities like the so-called “underground river”. Unfortunately speleothems have in the past been removed in an uncontrolled way and we don’t know if any of them are left intact.

4.4.7 Management strategies Equus Cave should be provided with a roof and camped off to protect its contents. Consideration should also be given to cover part of the witness section with a permanent covering to seal it off from the elements. In any research on deposits at Taung dating is of the utmost importance to place



findings in chronological context. Protection of sediments from mixing with modern or external substances will help ensure that they remain dateable in future.

4.4.8 Monitoring Site monitors should be aware that deterioration of the soft deposit, at Equus Cave is possible through erosion and bioturbation, e.g., tunnelling by termites and rodent activity. Contamination by bioturbation can be especially hazardous for microfossil reliability as in introduces modern material into the sediments.

4.5 Archaeological resources

4.5.1 Introduction The archaeological record of the South Africa interior is divisible into Earlier Stone Age (ESA) from about (~) 2.0 million - 270 millennia (kyr) before present (BP), Middle Stone Age (MSA) from ~270 - 40 kyr BP, Later Stone Age (LSA) from ~40 kyr BP - historical times and Iron Age (IA), beginning by 1700 yrs BP in Limpopo Province (Vogel & Fuls 1999). Each of these four periods is in turn comprised of a series of successive Stages, Traditions or Industries, with, for example, those identified regionally within the latter portion of the LSA being the Kuruman (~12.0 - 8.5 kyr BP), Wilton (~8.5 - 2.0 kyr BP) and various Ceramic LSA groupings (~2.0 kyr BP - historical times) (Beaumont & Vogel 1984).

4.5.2 Early Stone Age occurrences “ACHEULIAN HOLE”: About 150 m NE of Black Earth Cave according to J McKee’s map. • This site requires further investigation.

4.5.3 Middle Stone Age occurrences WITKRANS CAVE: On escarpment, about 5 km S of Buxton. • A small (~2 x 8m) collapsed cave, the floor of which was largely

excavated by Peabody (1954) in 1947/8. Calcified Layer C there yielded a largish faunal assemblage and MSA lithics comparable to Middle Pietersburg material from the Cave of Hearths (Clark 1971);

• Of heritage significance because that stratum also yielded 2 or 3 as yet

undescribed human molars, presumably H. sapiens (Clark 1971;



Sampson 1974). These have a minimum age of ~89 kyr ago in terms of a U-series date on overlying travertine on the upslope side of the site (Beaumont et al. 1992);

• Research possibilities involve their description and dating by means of

ESR applied to tooth enamel or TIMS applied to associated ostrich eggshell;

• Could, with Equus and Black Earth Cave finds (see below), provide

data for an Out of Africa panel at a potential Heritage Site display;

• What remains at the site is stable but uncontrolled access and scavenging could be problematical, given, at best, buffer zone status.

HRDLIČKA’S SITE: GPS reading taken. • Solution here led to the formation of a ~4 m deep pipe from the modern

surface, as shown (Figure 4) in Peabody (1954). This then filled with black unconsolidated earth, in which was found a very small MSA lithic sample, said to be similar to the material from Witkrans Cave (Peabody 1954);

• Now destroyed. CHANNEL ALLUVIUM SITE: ~100 m S of Equus Cave. • Trenching of this up to 5 m thick deposit in 1947/8 revealed rough MSA

flakes below it, on the Oxland Tufa apron (Peabody 1954). Those lithics must therefore postdate ~230 kyr BP, the U-series age for terminal Oxland Tufa deposition (Vogel & Partridge 1984);

• Low heritage and of very limited research, educational and tourism

potential, with no risks to stability or by uncontrolled access or artefact scavenging.

NORLIM 2: “Visitor’s House” vicinity. ~400 m ESE of Powerhouse Cave. A small collection of MSA artefacts of Middle Pietersburg aspect now housed at the McGregor Museum (MMK 6502). These were recovered by PB in 1978 from soil derived from prior trenching to produce a nearby french drain. • Low heritage and of very limited research, educational or tourism

potential, with no risks to stability or by uncontrolled access or artefact scavenging.



4.5.4 Later Stone Age occurrences NORLIM 1: In a gully ~100 m N of the road and ~200 m due E of Powerhouse Cave. • Artefact samples from a surface collection (MMK 6501) and a small

excavation (MMK 6500) made by PB in 1978 at this fairly extensive and rich site suggest a workshop variant of the Kuruman (Oakhurst) Industry. No organics were found but an age of between 12.0 and 8.5 kyr BP is likely on the basis of 14C assays on roughly comparable assemblages at Wonderwerk Cave (Beaumont & Morris 1990);

• Minor heritage significance and research potential;

• Undisturbed, but access uncontrolled and scavenging possible, if

known;

• This area is currently unoccupied and could be part of an eastern buffer zone.

LITTLE WITKRANS SHELTER: About 200 m N of Witkrans Cave (see above). • This small (4 x 13m) overhang at the base of a low Tufa cliff was

excavated in 1947/8 by Peabody (1954) and by PB in 1978 (MMK 6504). The unstratified up to 0.8 m deep deposit probed by the latter dig yielded some fauna plus an abundance of lithic and organic artefacts ascribable to the Wilton (~8.5 - 1.8 kyr BP) and to Ceramic LSA from 1.8 - historical times (Humphreys & Thackeray 1983; Beaumont & Morris 1990);

• A long but very condensed sequence of moderate archaeological

interest;

• Of only modest educational value and tourism potential;

• Susceptible to damage by uncontrolled access and artefact scavenging;

• Should, if possible, be included in a buffer zone to the S. POWERHOUSE CAVE: On the E wall of Thabasikwa gorge. GPS reading taken. • A “bilobial” cave, ~10 x 15 m in extent, in Norlim Tufa, that was

excavated in 1947/8 by Peabody (1954) and in the mid-70's by Humphreys (1978). The latter investigation revealed that the up to



0.6 m deep deposit contained a fair density of fauna (including fish) and Wilton material dated to between 3.7 and ~2.0 kyr BP. Also present were paintings in the form of red smudges, finger lines and one “asterisk” (Peabody 1954; Humphreys 1978);

• A short sequence of moderate archaeological interest that may deserve

further excavation because of good resolution;

• Of educational and tourism potential as part of a hiking trail within the Heritage area, but, if so, protection should be provided with a walkway and gated fence;

• A heritage monitor could check for any new graffiti in the vicinity. TOBIA’S CAVE: J McKee’s map (October 1991) lists such a site ~50 m WSW of Blue Pool, but check as the excavator considered it to correspond in position to Black Earth Cave (Humphreys 1978). • Mining operations in “Quarry C’ exposed an unconsolidated cave

deposit in which a small partly-mineralized pentaganoid skull (parietals and much of frontal) of San type was found, leading to a visit by Tobias in 1952. He retrieved further human fragments (teeth), many large mammal bones and a LSA lithic sample from the blasting debris, while excavation into the deposit produced further human and animal bones plus LSA material similar to that from Powerhouse Cave (Peabody 1954; Humphreys 1978);

• The skull would be of some heritage interest, if it can be traced in the

Wits Anatomy collections;

• How much of the deposit remains and its stability may be known to J McKee.

NORLIM 5: On the hill crest ~200 m ENE of Equus Cave. • A mapped ~60 x 80 m area covered by a dozen or so low rubble-

covered stone walls, mainly in the form of arcs and semi-circles, lacking a clear overall layout, of the sort noted elsewhere in this region (Breutz 1956 & 1968; Beaumont & Vogel 1984). Excavations in 1982 (MMK 6604 - 8) produced amorphous associated Ceramic LSA assemblages and faunal remains that include a possible cow tooth, all dated to 390 - 400 years BP (Beaumont & Morris 1990). Of interest was an area with only ceramics and evidence of ostrich eggshell bead-making, thereby suggesting some degree of activity patterning;



• Of modest heritage significance and research potential, but it could be part of a trail for visitors to the Heritage Site;

• The site is not particularly susceptible to damage by uncontrolled

access or artefact scavenging. NORLIM 6: On the S slope of the same hill, ~100 m SSE of Norlim 5. • A somewhat larger cluster of the same sort of stone walling that was

roughly sketched in 1982 but that still remains to be excavated. OCHRE CAVE: On the W wall of Thabasikwa R channel, ~250 m S of Powerhouse Cave. A small cave, ~1 m above the river-bed, with a 3 m deep rubbly floor deposit that was excavated in 1947 by Peabody (1954). His pits yielded very sparse faunal and LSA assemblages that may relate to finger paintings on its W side that comprise short vertical strips and a grid pattern (Fock & Fock 1989). Both of these patterns are very typical of the parietal art along the Ghaap Escarpment (Beaumont & Morris 1990). • A locality of very limited heritage significance apart from the paintings; • These, if they are still present, may warrant visitor viewing;

• In that case, access would have to be controlled, to prevent graffiti

appearing. 4.5.5 Iron Age

There are no known Iron Age deposits occurring within the confines of the site.

4.5.6 Hyaena-Related occurrences BLACK EARTH CAVE: ~300 m NNW of the A. africanus cairn. • Discontinuous galleries of a cave system in the Norlim Tifa that were

largely destroyed by quarrying before 1947, with the most interesting of those recorded by Peabody (1954) being Gallery A, where three successive fossiliferous strata occurred. The lowest of these, with a “mash” of leached bones, was overlain by one with many hyaena coprolites and a well-preserved fauna, including E. capensis (suggesting a pre-Holocene age) and “two types”of Homo. Capping that unit was dusty black earth with bones of recent appearance (sheaths on some horn-cores) and complete animal skulls;



• Potentially of substantial heritage significance, if any of these deposits remain;

• If, as Peabody (1954) considered likely, hyaena access to the cave was

coeval with the Channel Alluvium, the Gallery A human remains could be of MSA age;

• Could, with Witkrans and Equus Cave finds, provide data for an Out of

Africa panel at a potential Heritage Site display. EQUUS CAVE: GPS reading taken. • A small (~8 x 20 m) cave, partly destroyed by prior mining, where

excavations in 1978 by PB and M Shackley and in 1982 by PB established an up to 2.5 m depth of sediments, divisible into four strata (1a - 2b) that range from younger than 2.4 to before 27.2 kyr BP (Lee-Thorp & Beaumont 1995; Beaumont 1999). These deposits yielded a vast mammal fauna (over 30 000 identifications) representing 48 species (of which 3 are now extinct), including fragments of H. sapiens (Grine & Klein 1985), that reflect the use of the cave for 30 millennia or more as a brown hyaena maternity den (Klein et al. 1991). Sporadic amorphous artefacts in the lower levels were probably flushed in from upslope subsoil sources, together with the sediments which eventually filled the cave to almost roof level (Beaumont 1999). Pollen and 15N isotope analysis (Scott 1987; Johnson et al. 1997) show a shift from the present climate and Kalahari Thornveld cover in Stratum 1a to one in Strata 2a and 2b when temperatures were ~4 °C lower and the vegetation a karroid grass land, sustained by rainfall above half of the present ~420 mm per annum (Climate of South Africa 1954);

• A site of substantial significance with respect to natural history, palaeo-

climatic and palaeo-anthropological studies;

• It remains for the age of Stratum 2b with its vast fossil fauna including human remains) to be more firmly established by means of TIMS datings on ostrich eggshell;

• Of educational value and tourism potential as part of the envisaged

hiking trail;

• The unconsolidated sections should be stabilized;

• Exposures are threatened by weathering and uncontrolled access;

• Scavenging of bones and collapse of the faces are an ongoing risk.



4.5.7 Way Forward: Research The many MSA and LSA human remains, found at the times when those periods were considered to postdate ~40 kyr BP, should all be relocated, described and, if possible, dated by way of the methods that are now available. The numerous palaeontological and archaeological heritage resources of the Taung Skull Fossil Site are plotted and shown on the Site Plan, Figure 13.

4.6 Historical resources

4.6.1 Introduction – The pre-colonial period to c.1830 The area of modern day Taung’s first human inhabitants were the Khoi and San peoples. Unfortunately, the evidence for this is scanty. A number of sites are mentioned in P-L Breutz’s ethnographic study, “The Tribes of the District Taung and Herbert” (1968) where he encountered rock engravings, but these have not been studied by scholars in any systematic way. Breutz asserts baldly that “the district was old Bushman and Hottentot country.” (Breutz, 1987: 168). The imprint of the Khoi and San is found in place names. For example, the name of the river Thabasikawa, near Taung, is claimed to be a corruption of the original Khoi name !Xabasinqua. The Ghaap limestone plateau or escarpment west of Taung is derived from a Khoikhoi word referring to the succulent Hoodia pilifera which was used as an appetite suppressant and arrow poison. (Nienaber and Raper: 1980) Fragmentary evidence suggests that Dithakong, the nineteenth century Tlhaping capital, some 80 kilometers from Taung, was formerly occupied by the Khoi. Tools and pottery found there do not suggest that the town was built by iron-age people. Even stonewall structures at on hills surrounding the Taung Skull Site, similar to those at Dithakong, suggest pre-iron age builders from about 400 years ago. (pers. com. P. Beaumont, 2003) As the following account shows, the Tlhaping were kept out of the “lush pastures of the Harts/Vaal valley” by San hunter-gatherers until the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Only when the Thlaping acquired guns, ammunition and horses was a clearance of the region made possible. (Shillington, 1985:13). The first iron-age inhabitants of the Taung region were almost certainly the forebears of people later known as the Sotho-Tswana speakers. The best synthesis of the dissemination of these communities is provided by Legassick’s seminal “The Sotho-Tswana People before 1800”. (M. Legassick 1968). From about 1500 A.D. communities of iron-using farmers who had initially congregated in the central highveld of South Africa began to disperse, finally occupy new lands to the west and south. The conclusion of this process was the diffusion of the Sotho-Tswana speakers across much of what became the Transvaal, Orange Free State, and northern Cape.





The geographical expansion of the Sotho-Tswana was virtually accompanied by an expansion in the range of economic activities, predominantly in trade. Thus the first European accounts of the Sotho-Tswana are noticeable for lengthy descriptions of trade items, their manufacture and the means of dispersal of such goods. This meant that they were in close contact with neighbouring and even more distant people. The first of the Sotho-Tswana speaking chiefdoms to have occupied the Taung district was almost certainly the Rolong. This community was displaced from the Marico (Madikwe) river and moved south of the Molopo river some time before 1700. (Legassick, 1968:115). There they appear to have headed a loose “confederacy” (based on military power) under their famous chief Tau, (c1700-1760), after whom Taung is most certainly named. This suggests that Taung was an important centre for the Rolong, though it may not have been continually occupied during the eighteenth century. However, according to Molema (1966:4) Tau was killed in battle at Taung itself, and his death led to a revolt by those communities they had brought under their control. The Rolong disintegrated under the impact of this defeat, though it was perhaps not the defeat itself, rather than the ensuing divisions between Tau’s sons, that led to the fragmentation of the Rolong into five factions. In addition, the Rolong seemed at this point, to abandon the territory south of the Molopo, and moved further north to the Setlagoli district. This created a “power vacuum” in the Taung district. (Montshiwa, 1966:5) It was the Tlhaping who stepped into this vacuum in the late eighteenth century, assuming control of the confederacy formerly under Tau. They shifted their capital firstly to Dithakong and then in 1820 to the Kuruman region, probably to bring them into closer contact with the Kora and Griqua to the south. However it should be noted that moving the main town did not in Tswana terms mean abandoning previous places of residence. Both these towns were close to water sources, the Mashowing River and the Kuruman “eye” respectively. The capacity of the Tlhaping to cultivate crops, even for sale, was remarked upon by later visitors. (Eldredge, 1995:159, citing Campbell, 1967: 64). The Tlhaping were among the first to cross the Orange River and the trade they conducted led to Tlhaping cattle and karosses being traded into the Cape Colony and to the acquisition of iron and copper goods (and later guns and horses) by the Tlhaping. (Shillington, 1985:11). In 1801 the Tlhaping ruler, Molebangwe made contact with Europeans (the Somerville/Truter Botanic expedition.) In 1816 the first of the London Missionary Society Missionaries made contact with Tlhaping under Mothibe and established a mission station among them at Kuruman. (Mackenzie, 1887: 43-45). Mothibe became one of the very earliest African chiefs to convert to Christianity. The Tlhaping were therefore in relatively close contact with the Cape Colony-not surprisingly as they inhabited land close to its border.



The Taung district was by no means abandoned by the Tlhaping during the first two decades of the nineteenth century. It remained an important centre in their trade route to the Bangwaketse in modern Botswana, and later was re-occupied as his capital town by Mahura in about 1838, from which time it can be associated fully with Mahura’s faction of the Tlhaping. (See below). However it seems that the move to the south did allow San hunter-gatherers to establish (or re-establish) themselves in the lush pastures of the Harts valley. It would therefore be interesting and appropriate to consider some of the early traveller’s accounts of the Tlhaping, the chiefdom that was to become synonymous with Taung. The fullest and earliest account is provided by Lichtenstein, the German naturalist and Doctor, in 1807 (following a visit undertaken to Kuruman River in 1805). Lichtenstein’s account focuses mainly relations with Molebangwe, and life in the “royal court”. He describes in particular the latter’s fondness for the trivia of exchange items presented to him such as mirrors, ribbons, handkerchiefs, stockings and particularly tobacco. Lichtenstein exchanged a piece of ivory weighing sixteen pounds for a roll of tobacco. (Lichtenstein 191932: 362-401). Burchell provides a much more valuable account of several weeks spent with the Tlhaping at Dithakong in 1812, two decades before the move to Taung. Dithakong emerges as a thriving centre of about 16,000 inhabitants. He describes their economic activities, such as iron smelting, kaross making and the manufacture of jewellery; of their architecture and town planning (the ward system), and social attitudes and practises such as leisure activities, dress and diet. (1822: 360-422). Indeed, much of the pre-colonial life of the Tswana-speakers has been culled from such descriptions by historians writing on the pre-colonial era. It would be appropriate to quote but a minor extract from Burchell’s account to illustrate both the kind of people the Tlhaping were in the mind of the early European commentator, and the kind of prejudices and condescension held by such writers. “The moral character of the Bachapins, though in general lamentably debased, possesses, however some virtues, and contains some points for which it can be admired and even held up for more general imitation. These people are, in common society, exceedingly well ordered, and conduct themselves with remarkable attention to decorum in several respects. During the whole of my travels and residence at their town, I never saw two men openly quarrelling, nor heard them using abusive language, neither have I witnessed any of the tribe in a state of intoxication ….as the Hottentots have done since the introduction of brandy…..Their women appeared to deserve the character of exemplary modesty and of the greatest propriety of conduct… they are said to be almost universally faithful and obedient wives….. The great attention of the inhabitants of Litakun (Dithakong), to the



removal of everything unclean from their dwellings, constitutes a laudable part of their character, but is counterbalanced by a want of personal cleanliness.” (1822: 389) Further accounts of conditions among the Thlaping in the early part of the C18th are provided by A.G Bain, (1949), and Andrew Smith (1940), so that a full picture of the pre-colonial history of the Tlhaping of Taung is recorded.

4.6.2 The Difaqane The effects of the Difaqane on the southern Tswana were particularly severe. Since the publication of Omer-Cooper’s The Zulu Aftermath in 1966, which illuminated the impact of the Difaqane on the Highveld, historians have been able to unravel in more detail and complex form the full story. What has emerged is that the Difaqane among the Tswana was not just a period of conflict, but more one of dislocation, diffusion and economic hardship that disrupted the very basis of political, economic and social life. For the Tlhaping, the main “event” however, has been recorded as a distinct military encounter, namely, the confrontation at Dithakong in 1823. In this year, three large bands of displaced people converged on Dithakong, in all probability seeking the food that was available in and around the town. Reports of the “invading horde”, given the appellation the “Mantatee”, descending on the town reached the ears of the Misssionary Robert Moffat at Kuruman. Moffat and the Tlhaping chief Mothibe, then enlisted the support of the gun bearing Griqua to the south, and the alliance successfully fought off the advancing refugees. It was one of the most fully recorded incidents of the Difaqane because three Europeans were eyewitness to it and provided full accounts of the battle. (For a fuller account see Hartley 1995.) It also strengthened the relationship between the Tlhaping and the London Missionary Society, and ensured that for the next three or four years the Tlhaping and the Thlaro were “saved from further molestation from the Difaqane” (Shillington:12). However, the Tlhaping could not avoid some of the shock waves of the Difaqane entirely. In the mid to late 1820’s they experienced attacks from armed Kora and “Bergenaar” Griqua, ironically the very communities that had come to their earlier defence. The northward “thrust” of the Griqua was undertaken to distance them from colonial encroachment and possibly a deteriorating environment. (Eldredge: 157-158). Significantly, it was this threat that dislodged the Tlhaping from the Kuruman district, and forced a regrouping of their “confederacy”. Leaving Kuruman in 1828, Mothibi led his followers into the confluence of the Harts/Vaal Rivers. However, the greater portion of his following opted not to join him, choosing to remain at the Harts/ Vaal confluence under his brother Mahura. Why this was so, is not absolutely apparent, but seems to have been related to differing attitudes to the LMS, Mothibi being suspicious of the



close relationship between the Griquas (whose suzerainty he refused to acknowledge) and the LMS. From here he began to systematically remove the San from the Harts valley, which, with access to guns and horses, seems to have been quite easily affected. (Legassick, 1969: 368). They remained here for about a decade. Further division of the Tlhaping occurred in 1839, also under the impact of missionary intervention. The missionary Holloway Helmore, who had arrived among Mothibe’s people in 1837, persuaded his son, Jantjie to move with about 600 followers Dikgatlhong (not to be confused with Dithakong), further north along the Harts. Mothibi, by this time fairly elderly, responded by moving with some followers to Borigelong, some 35 miles further north than Jantjie. Meanwhile, Mahura’s faction, comprising numerically of many more of the former Tlhaping “confederacy”, also left Kuruman, and moved back to Dithakong in 1828. In 1838 he moved to Taung in the Harts valley, and “in gathering around him a mixture of up to 12.000 mainly Tlhaping followers appears to have been attempting to re-establish the former trading strength of the old confederation, but this time with the added power of firearms” (Shillington:13). Effectively, then, by 1840, the Tlhaping were divided into three factions, the largest settled at Taung, where they were to remain. The difaqane (and missionary and Griqua intervention), as it had done with several other Tswana communities (for example the Rolong) had a very divisive effect on the Tlhaping. Mahura’s Tlhaping were involved also in events to the north where the difaqane was disturbing life north and west of the Molopo River. From 1823, the Ndebele had settled among the western Tswana, principally the Hurutshe, and clearly desired to expand their power south of the Molopo river, where the Rolong were settled. Alarmed that Ndebele belligerence would spill over into the Vaal/Harts district, in June 1831 the Tlhaping under Mahura sent men to join a commando consisting of about 1000 Griqua, Kora and Rolong men under the captaincy of Barend Barends to attack Mzilikazi, the feared Ndebele ruler. The commando was more intent on raiding cattle from the Ndebele rather than inflicting a military defeat, and some 6000 head of livestock were captured. However the Ndebele followed up the commando, surprising it in a night attack and killing about 400 men, among them 30-40 Tlhaping. A few stragglers made their way back to Taung and Ditakong, and Mahura seems to have become even more wary of the intentions of the Nbebele. (Kinsman, 1995: 384-385.)

4.6.3 The Tlhaping at Taung from 1840- Facing the colonial advance From 1840 Taung’s history is associated with the main Thlaping branch under Mahura, who ruled until 1869, and then under Mankurwane who was chief until his death in 1892. These were difficult years in the history of the



region and its inhabitants. The Tlhaping were affected by the settlement of whites in and around Taung, and by the impact of diamond discoveries, which was instrumental in drawing these intruders into the region in the first instance. The Tlhaping, as several accounts have revealed were the closest African people to the Diamond Fields, and felt the impact of economic and political developments most keenly. (Shillington, 1985:36-55)

4.6.3.1 Tlhaping and the Orange Free State Firstly, however, it should be noted that the Tlhaping at Taung were not unaffected by the movement of the Trekkers into the interior. In 1858 the Tlhaping at Phokwani, under Gasebonwe, took advantage of border conflict between the Sotho and the Orange Free State Boers to loot a few hundred head of cattle from unoccupied Boer farms in the Free State and Transvaal. Agar-Hamilton (1937: 22-23) points out that this raid had a history in that the Boers had encroached beyond a boundary agreed upon by A.W Pretorius and Mahura. Mahura had in 1856 complained bitterly to the Griqua leader Waterboer of European penetration into his land, and that some Boers had to set up beacons between Taung and the closest area of Boer encroachment. The raid could therefore be construed as a opportunity “to oppose the farmers’ advance”. (Agar-Hamilton: 24). The Boers however challenged them to return the looted cattle or face military action. The Phokwani Tlhaping then decided to seek sanctuary with those at Taung, believing it to be a better defensive position. The result was that Taung was attacked by a Boer commando, “even though it was known (that) Mahura’s men had not been involved in the raids”. (Shillington: 19; Mackenzie, 1887: 46). Taung was besieged for three days and Mahura was forced to sue for peace. As a consequence, the commando seized 4,000 sheep and goats, 2800 head of cattle, 65 horses, 23 wagons and nearly a hundred children taken as captives into Boer society. Gasebonwe was brutally killed in the attack, having his head hacked from his dead body. (Agar-Hamilton: 24). Mahura attempted unsuccessfully to recover the women and children captives.

4.6.3.2 Tlhaping and diamonds The next problem faced by the Tlhaping at Taung was caused by the discovery of diamonds and the subsequent growth of Kimberley. These developments brought them perilously close to the diggings and dragged them into the dispute over control of the diamondiferous territory. As several accounts now testify, the Tlhaping at Taung and at their other towns, benefited from diamonds in the immediate years after their discovery. Surface diamonds could be dug and sold to itinerant white traders. Also a number of Tlhaping traders invested in wagons and oxen to provision the growing town of Kimberley with timber and agricultural produce. Gradually however, the sheer number of white prospectors in the region drove out the Tlhaping diggers, and environmental depletion and the extension of the railway line from the Cape reduced the number of opportunities open to



Tlhaping traders. For a long period however, the Tlhaping at Taung resisted any measures to travel as migrant workers to Kimberley itself, as many of their African neighbours had done. Imperial intervention, in the form of the Keate Award which overruled Tlhaping land rights, and British annexation of the Diamond Fields, was what set the scene for conflict between the Tlhaping and colonial authorities and inevitably led to the collapse of Tlhaping independence. (Shillington, 1985; Agar-Hamilton: 37-138; M. Wilson and L. Thompson, 1969:253-256). The 1870’s however were a time when the Tlhaping were placed under colonial control through the declaration of Griqualand West as a Crown Colony. This had two major consequences; firstly the delineation of locations around the greatest areas of Tlhaping occupancy (hence the later creation of the Taung Native Reserve), secondly the imposition of taxes and other colonial regulations. Though the Tlhaping at Taung and Phokwani were just beyond the Griqualand West boundary, other Tlhaping polities lay within the Colony; the close relations between the Tlhaping factions meant however that those living beyond the border were drawn into the affairs of Griquland West. The deteriorating political and economic conditions among the Tlhaping led to conflict in 1876-78, in what became known as the (somewhat mis-termed) Griqua Rebellion.

4.6.3.3 Tlhaping and the Griqua rebellion The Tlhaping at Ditlakong and Phokwani fell foul of the Griqualamd West authorities for attempting to exercise control over Tlhaping resident within the Colony itself. A number of incidents led to military action against chiefs Jantjie Mothibe and Botlaitse. Mankurwane who by this time was leading the Taung Tlhaping, attempted to stay out of the conflict, to no avail. The chief wished to preserve neutrality in the hope that the British would recognise him as Paramount chief among the Tlhaping. In order to curry favour with the British he attacked a group of Tlhaping “rebels” to the east of Taung. However, the attack was no more than a token effort, (not one “Rebel” was captured) and was recognised as such by the British. Mankurwane was fined a thousand head of cattle but resisted handing over his Phokwani cousins until directly threatened by Colonel Warren who was in charge of the Colonial forces. Reports were circulated that Taung would be attacked, and Mankurwane eventually negotiated with Christopher Bethell of the Intelligence Department to offer up the remaining “rebels”. Mankurwane’s polity at Taung grew stronger, paradoxically, as a consequence of the Griqua Rebellion, because the other Tlhaping polities were left devastated by the punishment meted out by the colonists and many sought Mankurwane’s protection, thus augmenting his following and strengthening the authority of Mankurwane’s Tlhaping at Taung. (Shillington; 76-79; Manson, 1998: 488-489).



The size of Taung was estimated to be about 12 to 13 thousand people at this time, which was large by any standards among the Sotho Tswana. (Agar-Hamilton: 143). Among the various problems faced by Mankurwane’s people was a scourge of lions in the district. According to Breutz in 1875 a D. A. O’Reilly was asked to remove them from the area, for which he was given a farm, named Thumeng, which later became the site of the present lime works and Taung Skull.

4.6.3.4 The Bechuanaland Wars and British annexation Mankurwane was also involved in what became known as the The Bechanaland Wars of 1881-1883. This was a time of hardship caused by drought, a decline in the gains to be had from the Diamond Fields and attempts by the Transvaal and OFS to expand there respective borders westwards into the territory of the “Independent” Tswana under Mankurwane and Mothshiwa to his north. Both chiefs commanded good agricultural land with relatively abundant water sources, which attracted the attention of the Boers, and rival African and Griqua factions. In the late 1870’s Mankurwane’s Tlhaping had expanded their cattle herds to over 50,000 head and the grazing around Taung was insufficient. This led to a “expansive movement” southwards by prominent Tlhaping cattle keepers. According to Shillington (128-129), this expansion “put pressure” on a Kora group under the leadership of David Mossweu, who were locked up in a corner at Mamusa. In 1881 this competition led to an attack by Mankurwane on Mamusa. This brought the conflict close to the Transvaal border, upon which certain Boers took fright. They responded by coming to Mossweu’s assistance, forcing the Tlhaping to retreat back to Taung. (Shillington: 139). Over 1000 head of cattle taken from the Kora were recaptured. In a sense the attack on Mamusa provided a pretext for a more concerted attack on Mankurwane by certain Boer and British mercenaries or “freebooters” from within the Transvaal. Under the leadership of G van Niekerk, a storekeeper at Christiana, these men attacked Taung in late November 1881. Mankurwane attempted to recruit his own white mercenaries from Kimberley but failed due to the intervention of the Cape Government that did not want to become embroiled in a dispute between the Transvaal and what were considered “foreign natives”. In all he recruited 34 men who were based at Taung. (Agar-Hamilton: 190). As more mercenaries threw their weight behind Mossweu, sensing a good opportunity to alienate Tlhaping land and loot, they moved to Taung to prepare for the anticipated attack. By June 1882 about 500-600 white mercenaries laid siege to Taung, an event comparable to developments among the Rolong to the north whose capital at Mafikeng was also besieged at about the same time. As the tide turned against Mankurwane he chose to negotiate rather then risk the destruction of his capital and ruination of his followers. Disillusioned with the British, whom he had considered allies, he appealed to the Transvaal Government. The result was that a boundary was



drawn between the Kora and Tlhaping, and land was given to the mercenaries. The land claims of Mossweu were expanded to include land north and west of the Hart’s river. The Transvaalers now had control over much of the land north of Taung, over which they declared a republic- the independent republic of Stellaland. The Tlhaping tried to keep some form of control over these farms and there was constant but ill-coordinated resistance from them. 1884 was a particularly troubled year for Taung. At the start of 1884 Mankurwane was instructed by the Stellalanders to remove to their “locations” i.e to give up former pasture and agricultural land around Taung. He refused, and accusations and counter accusations of cattle theft were received by the British authorities in Cape Town. Rumours of yet another attack on Taung reached Cape Town in February. Former foes of Mankurwane, the Kora and Gasibonwe’s Tlhaping, in the conditions of general chaos that now pertained, seized the chance to also attack Taung. By May it was reported that the Tlhaping ‘were starving and despondent, and in recent action had lost 3000 head of cattle and 16 guns”. (Agar-Hamilton: 281). Mankurwane had gathered together in Taung a dubious collection of white volunteers, “horse or cattle thieves by profession, or land sharks”. Among them was the notorious Scotty Smith, a self-proclaimed horse thief and later outlaw. It was reported by Captain Bower, who was sent by the Cape Ministry to investigate matters in March, that at Taung, “the defences were poor-a circuit of five or six miles of badly made schanzes, which could not possibly be defended by the dispirited Tlhaping.” (Cited In Agar-Hamilton : 282. ) Bower estimated that they had lost between 40,000 to 60.000 thousand cattle, and that the residents of Taung were starving. These events alarmed Cecil Rhodes who feared that such conflict threatened British interests in Bechuanaland and the “Road to The North”. Missionary interests also inclined strongly to intervention. In May Mankurwane was visited at Taung by Rev. Mackenzie and was quite easily persuaded to accept British protection. Events moved steadily towards annexation of Bechuanaland in 1885. In January the Warren Expedition was sent to Bechuanaland to remove the Stellalanders, an easily accomplished exercise. On the 30th September Bechuanaland was annexed and declared a Crown Colony. In 1895 it was annexed to the Cape, not without opposition from Mankurwane who appreciated the changes in “native administration” which annexation to the Cape would bring.

4.6.3.5 Imperial policy and the Langeberg rebellion The most important repercussion of Imperial rule was the creation of a reserve around Taung. Mankurwane’s people had controlled land and villages as far north as present day Vryburg and north-east to the Marokane hills. In this way Mankurwane could make the optimum use of grazing resources. (Shillington :196-197). The new government however recognised



the land claims of the Stellalanders, thus placing most of these Tlhaping villages outside Mankurwane’s control. The inhabitants were forced to return to within the boundaries of what became known as the “Taung Reserve”. This comprised an area of 690 square miles. This led to competition for resources within an ever- growing crowded reserve. (Shillington :208-209). Cattle that strayed across the reserve’s boundary were impounded by unscrupulous white farmers, and the Tlhaping lost 1,200 acres of good land for the construction of the railway line. On top of all these hardships came the Rinderpest epidemic of 1896, and the clumsy response of the authorities, which shot all animals suspected of having had contact with the disease. The reality of colonial encroachment became horribly clear to the residents of Taung. In response the Tlhaping mounted one last act of resistance- the so-called Langeberg Rebellion of 1896-97. In Taung, much resentment was aimed at the activities of the Anglican missionary, the Reverend John Brown, who opposed initiation ceremonies in the town, and at local storekeepers, who were seen as exploiting the residents. These were localised responses to a much wider set of problems to which the other Tlhaping factions responded even more forcefully. Fuelled by fear and rumour, Bechuanaland slipped into a state of rebellion. The rebellion was eventually crushed with much brutality, and the “end of the Langeberg campaign signalled the end of the last remnants of Southern Tswana autonomy” (Shillington :240) The Tlhaping, now under Molola, were not targeted by the Colonial forces for specific attack, as Molala signed an agreement not to “interfere” with the police detachments which were sent up to quell the rebellion. However a significant number of men from Taung went to the assistance of the main rebel forces under the Tlhaping chiefs Toto, Galishwe and Luka. Taung was fortunately not attacked again. However the impact of the rebellion generally could not be avoided in Taung itself. It was noted in 1897, after the rebellion was over, that the “natives of Taung are now grasping the fact that in order to live they must work for the colonists” and that 6,867 labourers left the Taung reserve to work in other parts of the country. The dismal pattern of labour migrancy now gripped the residents of Taung.

4.6.3.6 The South African War and Taung In this conflict (1899-1902), Taung was occupied by a small detachment of British Police, to guard the long and vulnerable frontier and railway line between the Orange River and Mafikeng. On October 14th 1899, the Bloemhof Commando cut the railway and telegraph line between Vryburg and Taung. All but six of the Vryburg police refused to defend the town. Under their commanding officer, Major Scott, the loyal six retreated to Taung, and that night, “in the bitterness of his disillusionment at the disloyalty of his men who had sworn to fight for the Queen”, Scott committed suicide. His



men made their way to Barkly West. Taung remained in Boer hands until the relief of Kimberley in February 1900. (Times History of the War).

4.6.4 Taung in the Twentieth century Not very much is known of Taung’s history in the twentieth century. No secondary sources exist, beyond the Ethnographic compilations of P-L Breutz, who conducted fieldwork there in the 1950’s, some of which was updated in the 1980’s. Though his work contains valuable information, it part of an ethnological series for the former Dept. of Native Affairs, and therefore has a questionable ideological basis. A recent history of Taung and district still needs to be written, and oral information gathered in order to supplement such a history. What we have is largely a snapshot or impressionistic view of Taung’s history, with few discernible trends or developments. Some of these events are given below.

4.6.4.1 Leadership at Taung Breutz’s research reveals two Tlhaping factions resident in Taung in the 1980’s-one comprising the Tlhaping ba Mothibi, and the other, much more numerous, made up of the Tlhaping-ba–Phudutswana under Mankurwane. He estimated the population to be over 70,000 people. The size of the district is estimated at 13,933ha, some of which was under irrigation. (Breutz:1968). Molale succeeded his father, as mentioned, in 1891 and ruled to 1920. The heir would have been Thampana, but he predeceased his father. Thampana’s son, Kgosietsile John Mankurwane, was too young to assume chieftainship, and so a regent, Henry Radibogelo, elder brother to Kgosietsile ruled until 1934. The rightful heir then took over and ruled until 1948. In the first year of his control Taung enjoyed “great “rain” after years of dreaded drought. Thampana Radibegelo succeeded as regent in 1948, and died in 1962. After another short regency, in 1966 Scotch Kgosiehe Mankurwane took over the reins of leadership.

4.6.4.2 Infra-structural and economic developments in Taung Some significant C20th developments were the building of a large school at Taung in 1938 and the holding of the first “Native” Cattle Show at Taung in 1940. In 1943 Irrigation Plots were allocated to the Tlhaping and a hospital was opened. A magistrate’s court was established in 1899, just before the South African War. Quarrying of lime from the Tumeng tufa began after World War 1 by the Northern Lime Company. The quarry was closed in 1977. A private railway line was opened from Taung to Buxton in 1936. Buxton village (Figure 14) was named in 1919, after Earl Sydney Buxton, the Second Governor General of the Union of South Africa from 1914-1920. Buxton came from a line of British Liberals and applied similar policies in South Africa-for example during



the 1914 rebellion. He advocated humane and reasonable policies regarding black South Africans.

Figure 14: Buxton Village looking south-east from above the Mine Office

4.6.4.3 The Vaal-Harts irrigation scheme

This was first mooted in 1881 by Cecil Rhodes, but it was only in 1922 that Deneys Reitz, Minister of Lands in the Smuts government, had the scheme surveyed. The scheme was revived in 1934, and implemented at a cost of six million pounds. The scheme was the second largest of its kind in the world and today irrigates some 3000 farms and smallholdings.

4.6.4.4 Liberation and Resistance history Taung has quite an interesting contribution to make to this aspect of our history. In the 1960’s, 70’s and 80’s the route from Vryburg to Mafikeng and then Botswana and there after to training camps for the freedom fighters ran through Taung, where they were secured in “safe houses”. Again further research may throw up information on this forgotten aspect of the history of this region. In the 1990’s Kgosi Samuel Mankurwane opposed the Homeland rule of Lucas Mangope who had been undemocratically imposed upon the residents of the Bophuthatswana homeland. Mangope attempted to impose a more compliant leadership in Taung, and Mankurwane was deposed and went into exile. However his followers fought for his reinstatement, taking their protests to the cities of South Africa. Finally, after Mangope’s fall,



Samuel Mankurwane returned to Taung. In Taung specifically, one of the incidents that most enraged the residents was the decision by Mangope’s government to shoot donkeys as part of a culling programme in the mid-1980’s. The military was called in to assist in the culling and no compensation was paid out to the owners of such animals.

4.6.5 Mining history The commercial and scientific potential of the limestone deposits at Buxton was not recognised until early in the 20th century. The man who claimed to be the actual discoverer of the carapaces of limestone tufas at Buxton was a Mr M G Nolan, although the Batlaping of the Taung area must long have known of Buxton’s white rocks and the pools on the Thabasikwa River where cattle could be watered. The controversial press announcement of the discovery of the Taung Skull and its naming as Australopithecus africanus in February 1925 prompted Mr Nolan to voice his claim as the discoverer of the deposit in an interview with the Natal Advertiser (6 February 1925, p.7): “My brother is the owner of the Nolan Lime Works in Sterkfontein, near Krugersdorp. [The role of H. G. Nolan in the uncovering of the Sterkfontein caves about 1896-7 has been described by the late Professor C. van Riet Lowe, 1947, and by Tobias, 1979, 1983a]. He commissioned me, in my wanderings about the country, to keep my eyes open for any considerable deposits of limestone. Eventually I landed at Taungs, and while looking towards the east [sic] along the Kaap Plateau I noticed a white formation at about seven miles distance. Inquiries among the people living round about revealed the fact that this was dolomite. Knowing of course that dolomite is the mother of all limestone, I came to the conclusion that this white mass in the distance would probably turn out to be the sort of thing I was looking for. Following a ride on my bicycle, which I left in the charge of friendly natives at a neighbouring kraal, I made my way through dense bush to my goad, and found what I verily believe to be the larges deposit of limestone in the world. I lost no time in procuring a claim licence at Vryburg, entitling me to take over 1,000 acres. Then hastening back to the scene of my find, a spot known to the natives as Thaba Sige* (Black Mountain) I found from rough measurements that the area under limestone was approximately the area allowed me under my licence. It was in this vast bed of limestone, at about 50 feet below the surface, that the now famous Taung skull was found.



While that unique relic is of enormous interest to the world of science, the great limestone is of more material value, and especially to the gold mining industry of the Rand, limestone being a substance essential to the process of gold extraction.” The name ‘Nolan’ remained attached to the limeworks at Buxton until 1919. Thereafter, the Northern Lime Company, having previously become associated with the Nolan Lime Company following a merger in about 1917 finally took over. It held the veigns until 1967 after which the mining was undertaken under the name of Pretoria Portland Cement (PPC). The kilns stopped burning and the mine closed in 1977. The site preserves remains and relics of almost the whole of the commercial and industrial part of the mining village as well as some of the lime beneficiation infrastructure such as the bases of the lime-burning kilns. Unfortunately, "metal harvesting" after mining operations stopped has resulted in the total removal of the narrow guage railway track as well as everything else that was made of metal including crushers and other mining installations. The result is that little sense can be made of the remnant dumps, kilns, ore passes, etc., and the visitor will gain little insight into the processing of lime. However, the entire history of the skull find is tied up with the story of lime exploitation on a massive scale and the visitor needs to understand this if the fact that the find site itself is not there any more is to be accepted and understood. The history of the exploitation of the site as a large lime-quarry is therefore one of the first things that the visitor should be exposed to. Entrance to the site should therefore be via the old mining infrastructure at the foot of the hill. Another element supporting this suggestion is the "sense of arrival" the visitor experiences after rounding the crest of the hill overlooking the Thabasikwa gorge, particularly after traversing the rather bland landscape on the approach to the site from the Mmabatho-Kimberley road.

4.6.6 Taung: A brief history of the Taung Skull Find Taung (formerly known as Taungs) was the site of the first discovery of the early hominid, Australopithecus africanus. At many places within the various limestone tufas at Taung, cavitous areas occur or occurred in the past. Some of these became filled with sediment and bones and other surface-derived materials such as ostrich eggshell. In time, the pinkish or reddish patches of sediment became calcified to form rich bone breccias: what the limeworkers were inclined to call “impure limestone”. It was from one such deposit that the Taung fossil skull was discovered.



The first recorded discovery of fossilised bones at the Taung Site was in 1919, when seven or eight small monkey or baboon skulls were sent to the South African Museum, Cape Town. On 20 May 1920 a paper on these fossils – very rare on the African continent – was read before the Royal Society of South African by S. H. Haughton. Even at this early stage, Haughton suggested that these extinct baboons “may extend back in point of time to a level contemporaneous with the early and possibly pre-Pleistocene of Europe” (Haughton 1925;68). Then, in November 1924, M. de Bruyn, a quarry man employed at the Buxton Limeworks blasted out of one of the pinkish “impure limestone” deposits a petrified skull and associated endocranial cast, which seemed to him to be much larger than those of the fossil baboons, of which he had previously recovered a number. The limeworks manager, A.E, Spiers, saved the specimen along with additional fossil baboon skulls. A week or two later, R.B. Young, professor of Geology at the University of the Witwatersrand, visited the Taung quarry as a consultant to the Northern Lime Company, and arrived in Spiers’ office, where the fossil in question was serving as a paper weight, according to one version of the story. Young had been alerted to the presence of fossilised monkeys and baboons at Taung by Professor Raymond. A. Dart, professor of Anatomy at the same university, and a specialist in skulls and brain morphology. Dart, in turn, had had his enthusiasm ignited by his only female medical student, Miss Josephine Salmons, who had shown him a well-preserved fossil Taung baboon skull from the Taung quarry which she had obtained from Mr. Pat Izod, son of Mr. E.G. Izod, at the time a director of the Northern Lime Company. Professor Young made a selection of fossils to take back to Professor Dart, fortunately choosing the endocranial cast and the related piece of breccia which enclosed part of a skull and mandible. These he brought back to Johannesburg, handing them to Dart on 28 November 1924. The large endocast and skull fragments embedded in the pinkish breccia proved to be part of the hominid Australopithecus africanus. Dart set to work on the embedded skull with unconventional tools such as sharpened knitting needles and dental picks. After about a month’s work, Dart managed to extract the precious fossil from the cement-hard encasing breccia which enclosed it. He was been able to recognise that the brain cast, skull and jaw embodied an unprecedented blend of manlike and apelike features. Because of this, he was obliged to make the specimen the ‘Type’ of a new genus and species – and family – which he named Australopithecus africanus. This means “the southern ape of Africa”. He asserted that the Taung child (the fossil sported a full set of milk teeth) was an ape-like higher primate with rudimentary human-like anatomical features. It therefore filled the role of a “missing link”. Dart claimed that his new species was ancestral to the genus Homo, and that it vindicated Darwin's 1871 prediction (in the



book "The Ascent of Man") that Africa, and not Asia, was the cradle of humanity. In the whole of the huge limestone quarry at Taung, just this single ape-man or hominid fossil has been found. It was sheer fluke that it found its way into the hands of Professor Raymond Dart, who was perhaps one of only two or three people in the whole of South Africa at that time, who were able to appreciate and give expression to its uniqueness. The universal significance of the Taung Skull Fossil site is vested primarily in this single unique specimen.

4.6.7 Post Iron Age history action plan • Introduction

This report presents an overview or action plan of what can be gleaned about the post-iron age history of the Taung district and how it might contribute to the overall management plan for the site. It attempts to identify what knowledge we do have of the history of the Taung region, as well as suggesting what might be done to fill some of these gaps.

• Sources

Not very much has been written or researched on the history of the Taung area, despite the fact that it has reasonable depth and diversity. The only historian to my knowledge who has attempted to make “sense” of the complicated past of the arid and sparsely populated region of the northern Cape is Kevin Shillington. (The Colonisation of the Southern Tswana, 1870-1900). However, as the title indicates this covers only the latter half of the nineteenth century. For the C20th even fewer published works exist. The only source is P-L Breutz’s The Tribes of the Districts Taung and Herbert, an ethnographic survey conducted for the former Department of Bantu Affairs in the mid-1950’s, but an informative study nevertheless, based on solid experience in the field.

Ironically however the early history of the Southern Tswana is well recorded by percipient travellers’ and missionary records. Amongst the former, Lichtenstein and Burchell provide evidence for the pre-colonial social, economic political life of the Tswana. For the precolonial period, much can be gleaned also from the records of the London Missionary Society, which although initially based at Griquatown and Kuruman, developed an important outstation at Taung. For the colonial period, it is the official government papers housed in London and the Cape Archives Depot, which provide a mass of official despatches, official enquiries, etc. However, as Shillington has more than adequately



covered this period, it is not necessary for the purposes of this inquiry, to re-visit such sources. In terms of oral history, nothing systematic has been recorded, except perhaps by individual researchers investigating specific issues. If the heritage plan included an oral history programme or centre, devoted to the collection and storage of oral records on the history of the early C20th especially, it would go a long way to filling in the gaps in the history of the southern Tswana, as well as providing more information on the material basis of their culture, especially if such narratives were recorded by trained Setswana speaking researchers.

• A possible reconstruction of the history of Taung and district From what has been mentioned above, it seems one can best provide a historical reconstruction of Taung itself, by locating it in the context of broader historical developments which characterised the Northern Cape/ Griqualand West.

a. The precolonial period (up to c.1820). The frequency of travellers

and missionaries to the region provide a wonderful picture of pre-colonial society in South Africa. Burchells account (50 pages) of his stay with the Tlhaping at Dithakong, a decade or so before they moved to Taung, (replete with drawings and sketches) is the best example. If part of the heritage site could be devoted to displaying aspects of Tswana pre-colonial life it may enhance its appeal. Included in this period are the effects of the Difaqane on the Tswana, vividly recorded by Moffat and others.

b. The Colonial period –up to 1910. From 1839 the main Tlhaping

faction under Mahura and later Mankurwane settled at Taung in the Harts Valley. Any history of Taung thus becomes virtually synonymous with the Tlhaping. At Taung, the Tlhaping were drawn inevitably into the major events sweeping the region. These include; relations with the emerging Griqua community (whose impact they hoped to lessen by moving to Taung), the discovery of diamonds in Kimberly which caused the Tswana to lose much of their land and propelled all Tswana communities into closer colonial contact and eventually control, and missionary and trader contact. (The big hunter Gordon Cumming often visited Taung to trade in guns). The Tlhaping at Taung were involved in three “episodes” of resistance to the debilitating effects of colonialism. These were the so-called Griqua rebellion of 1878, (a little known but important event in “resistance history”); the Bechuanaland wars of 1881-1884 which preceded the establishment of Stallaland, and in which Mankurwane was caught between the Boers in the Transvaal and the Korana in the south; and the 1896 Langeberg rebellion which represented the last throw of the dice



for the Thlaping. In all these events Mankurwane and Taung figure significantly.

c. The Modern period, from c. the Axnnexation of British

Bechanaland. From here on in the Thlaping become drawn in to the major developments of modern South Africa- Taung becomes the centre of the so-called Taung Native Reserve, much more land around Taung is privatised and men and women increasingly take up jobs on white owned farms or in other centres. Some statistics are offered by Breutz on the Reserve, giving a glimpse of conditions there. Some of Breutz’s informants in Taung have some interesting things to say about the 1896 Rinderpest Epidemic, Haley’s comet, and the 1912 earthquake in Taung! The creation of the Vaal/Harts irrigation scheme would be an important aspect to mention, but personally I do not know too much about it, though the information should be easily at hand. In order to augment what is known about the C20th history of Taung, it might be appropriate to simply run a computer check through the archives, and I am sure some interesting material should emerge, without even having to consult the original documentation. Lastly, in the Bophuthatswana period, the resistance offered by Kgosi Mankurwane (and his followers) to Mangope’s attempts to impose an alternative leadership is an important event in the history of Taung. It brought “Taung to Johannesburg” in the form of demonstrations and legal challenges etc.

4.6.8 Conclusion

Little is known of the Khoi and San who first inhabited the Taung district from

at least before 1600 A.D. Fragmentary evidence suggests their presence in many ways, but there has been little archaeological reconstruction of these sites of evidence. This gap needs to be filled through proper uncovering of known sites, and possible identification of new sites, by rock art research and the collection of oral evidence, so as to gain a more complete picture of the hunting and gathering way of life they practised in the region.

The History of Taung is quite rich for the late C18th and C19th century. Its history is given special significance by the fact that it was from 1840, the main capital of the most important and numerous Tlhaping faction. On examination, the history of Taung and the Thlaping, is certainly significant in the wider history of Bechuanaland. However, no full history of the Tlhaping has been produced yet which would provide a coherent picture of this important community.

For the C20th however, we have only an impressionistic and episodic picture of Taung’s history. Much could be done to supplement this by supporting research into the area, particularly through the use if oral sources. Given the



obvious fact that older people are the source of most oral information, there is a need to collect such oral histories as soon as possible.

4.7 Living culture

4.7.1 Traditional knowledge systems – Oral traditions Thompson Kgasa is a Traditional Healer. He represents the Traditional Healers and cattle farmers. He made a request that provision be made for them to access the site as they perform rituals in the blue pool. He also made a request for provision of their cattle grazing and water drinking within the site, as it is the only area where their livestock could drink water. He also gave a short history of the area and made a request that the area be renamed to its original name Xabasiqwa, which is a Khoikhoi name of the inhabitants of the area.

4.7.2 Traditional knowledge systems – Ethnobotany Thompson Kgasa, the Traditional Healer referred to above, mentioned that from time to time medicinal plants are collected from the site. The botanical survey revealed that of the 129 plant species known from the site, 87 have ethno-medicinal value.

4.7.3 Traditional knowledge systems – Craft, art, music, dance, dress, architectural styles, etc. Mpho Serape represents the sewing project on the skull site. She informed us that they started working at the site since 1995, sewing school uniforms and traditional attires. Buxton Batswana Craft is currently operating at the site. They are funded by the Department of Social Services, Arts and Culture. They are currently making cultural products from wood. D J Mabote from the Department of Social Services, Arts and Culture is in charge of the Buxton Batswana Craft. He made a request that a village be build within the site for tourists and for showcasing the Batswana and Khoikhoi cultures. Contact was made with Pule Moswana, who is one of the Buxton Brickmaking Project leaders. He is also the chairperson of the Buxton Monument site. He stated that they wish to build a monument for all the workers who died on the site next to their graveside. They have already drafted a business plan towards the monument. He stated that they wish to make the AME Church and the demolished family houses outside the site where married couples lived as part of the tourist areas within the site. He



informed that they have drafted a history of the area from the time of the Khoi Khoi up to date.

4.8 Botanical resources The climate of the Buxton area is semi-arid, with no water surplus in any section, winters (May - October) that are cool and very dry, and summers (November - April) that are hot and punctuated by thunderstorms that provide 95% of total yearly rainfall with a mean of ~425 mm per annum (Climate of South Africa 1954; Clark 1971). Historically, the regional vegetation was dominated by a grass and Acacia thorn tree mosaic known as Kalahari Thornveld (Acocks 1953), or perhaps more descriptively as acacia grassland (Klein et al. 1991).

4.8.1 Regional context and natural significance The Taung Skull Site falls within the Savanna Biome (Low & Rebelo 1996). A biome is a broad ecological unit that represents a major life zone extending over a large natural area, and reflects the major features of climate (Rutherford & Westfall 1994). The general vegetation types of the Taung area are classified as Kimberley Thorn Bushveld (VT33) to the east below the Ghaap escarpment on the plains, and Kalahari Plateau Bushveld (VT33, van Rooyen & Bredenkamp 1996) on the Ghaap escarpment and plateau. The Kalahari Plateau Bushveld covers 233 909 km2, and is not represented in any conservation area, while the Kimberley Thorn Bushveld, of which 3.1% is conserved, covers 271 026 km2 (Low & Rebelo 1996). The summer rainfall for these vegetation types varies from 250 mm to 500 mm per year. The Ghaap plateau and escarpment is geo-morphologically distinct from the plains, and the floral composition of these areas is therefore distinct. The Taung Skull Site lies on a transitional zone (ecotone) between these two vegetation types, with the vegetation at and immediately surrounding the Taung Skull Site being more typical of the Kalahari Plateau Bushveld. This vegetation type is found on different types of soils, such as calcareous tufa, dark brown to red sands and acid gravels, all underlain by dolomite (van Rooyen & Bredenkamp 1996). In general, the vegetation of the Kalahari Plateau Bushveld varies from open to closed shrubveld, composed mostly of shrubs and some small trees, in mixed grassland. The principal shrubs are Camphor Tree Tarchonanthus camphoratus, Threethorn Rhigozum trichotomum, Puzzle Bush Ehretia rigida, Grewia flava and Maytenus heterophylla (renamed Gymnosporia buxifolia). The tree species present are Umbrella Thorn Acacia tortilis, Wild Olive Olea europaea subsp. africana and Shepherd’s Tree Boscia albitrunca (van Rooyen & Bredenkamp 1996). Grasses are tall, and Red Grass Themeda triandra, Copperwire Grass Aristida diffusa and Silky Bushman Grass Stipagrostis uniplumis are common. This vegetation type is extremely



poorly conserved and not represented in a sizeable conservation area (van Rooyen & Bredenkamp 1996).

4.8.2 Locality description and state of the vegetation

4.8.2.1 Taung Skull Site and mineworks The Taung Skull Site and surrounding mined areas have little natural vegetation cover due to the severity of the impacts of mining activities in the past. However, there is a fairly dense patch of woodland present around the Equus Cave area comprising a mixture of sweet thorn Acacia karroo, umbrella thorn Acacia tortilis and the exotic pepper tree Schinus molle. Around the picnic site near Blue Pools larger trees of buffalo thorn Ziziphus mucronata and karee Rhus lancea are present, providing shade for visitors and food for the abundant birdlife in that particular area. The vegetation covering the rest of the mined areas, dumps and other disturbed areas is dominated by the pepper tree Schinus molle which proliferates on mined areas, black thorn Acacia mellifera and small shrubs including brosdoring Lycium cinereum, Chrysocoma ciliata, Felicia muricata and several weed species including Blumea gariepina and Conyza bonariensis. The dominant grasses are iron grass Aristida diffusa, Lehmann’s love grass Eragrostis lehmanniana, white stick grass Aristida congesta and Enneapogon desvauxii. The free roaming cattle, donkeys and goats are severely overgrazing the already sparse herbaceous cover. There is evidence of fuel wood collection. Bush encroachment is taking place on the eastern boundary near Powerhouse Cave due to overgrazing.

4.8.2.2 Escarpment and plateau The state of the natural vegetation on the intact portions of the escarpment and plateau along the western and northern boundary is better, but still in an overgrazed condition. The vegetation composition is similar to that of the Kalahari Plateau Bushveld. The dominant trees and shrubs are black thorn Acacia mellifera subsp. detinens, umbrella thorn Acacia tortilis and kuni bush Rhus burchellii. The ravine at Blue Pools and riverine habitat along the Thabasikwa River supports open woodlands and shrubveld, with characteristic plant species associated with these sheltered habitats. These include certain lichens, mosses and ferns, a number of herbs, and large shrubs such as puzzle bush Ehretia rigida and raisin bush Grewia retinervis, and trees namely white stinkwood Celtis africana, false olive Buddleja saligna, namaqua fig Ficus cordata, buffalo thorn Ziziphus mucronata and karee Rhus lancea.

4.8.3 Endemics and Red Data Species

The Taung Skull Site lies on the eastern edge of the Griqualand West Centre of Endemism as defined by van Wyk & Smith (2001). A centre of plant



endemism is an area with high concentrations of plant species with very restricted distributions. Centres of endemism are important because it is these areas which, if conserved, would safeguard the greatest number of plant species. The Griqualand West Centre (GWC) is one of the 84 African centres of endemism and one of 14 centres in southern Africa, and these centres are of global conservation significance. The GWC of endemism is however, extremely poorly conserved. The Kalahari Plateau Bushveld vegetation type is endemic to the GWC. The endemic and near-endemic species make up 2.2% of the total flora, and are mostly from the Ascepiadaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Mesembryanthemaceae families. Some of the endemics are edaphic specialists, adapted to lime-rich substrates. Endemics and near-endemics, which could be present on the Ghaap plateau above the site include Rhus tridactyla and Aloinopsis orpenii. Table 1 lists the red data and protected species known to occur in habitats along the Ghaap escarpment similar to those at the Taung Skull Site. Table 3. Red Data Book and protected plant species possibly present around the Taung Skull Site

Scientific name Red Data Book Category

Ghaap escarpment

& plateau

Observed during

site visit Red Data Book species Adenia repanda Insufficiently Known (K) Yes No Hoodia gordonii Not Threatened (nt) Yes No Hoodia officinale Not Threatened (nt) Yes No Huernia barbata Not Threatened (nt) Yes No Protected species Aloe grandidentata Yes No Aloe hereroensis Yes No Aloinopsis orpenii Yes No Ammocharis coranica Yes No Anacampseros subnuda Yes No Babiana hypogea Yes No Boscia albitrunca Yes Yes Psilocaulon species Yes No Ruschia species Yes No Stapelia species Yes No Taveresia barklyii Yes No Trichodiadema species Yes No Tridentea gemmiflora Yes No

Rare plant species are classified either as protected species in the Forestry Act (No. 122 of 1984) and Nature and Environmental Conservation Ordinance (No. 19 of 1974) (Glavovic 1993), or as Red Data Book species in the Red Data List of Southern African Plants (Hilton-Taylor 1996). There are various categories for Red Data Book species, such as ‘Endangered’,



‘Vulnerable’, ‘Rare’ and ‘Not Threatened’. According to the Nature and Environmental Conservation Ordinance (No. 19 of 1974), no person without a valid permit may pick, buy, sell, donate, import or export any of the protected plants listed under this Ordinance.

4.8.4 Alien vegetation

Alien vegetation is abundant at the Taung Skull Site due to past disturbances and continued overgrazing. Table 2 lists the invasive plant species recorded during the site visit. Table 4. Invasive plants present at the Taung Skull Site

Scientific name Common name Category

Argemone ochroleuca Mexican poppy 1 Eucalyptus cf. camaldulensis Red river gum 2 Lantana camara Lantana 1 Melia azedarach Seringa 3 Nicotiana glauca Wild tobacco 1 Opuntia ficus-indica Prickly pear 1 Schinus molle Pepper tree Proposed invader

Alien invasive plants are divided into three categories (Table 2): Category 1 may not be grown and must be removed immediately (Regulation 15A), Category 2 may only be grown in an area demarcated for commercial cultivation purposes and must be controlled (Regulation 15B), and Category 3 plants may no longer be planted, and existing plants may continue to grow but any new seedlings must be destroyed. According to the amended regulations (March 2001) of the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (1983), it is the legal duty of the landowner/land user to control invasive alien plants occurring on the land under their control. The State has the right to clear invasive plants at the landowner’s expense if the landowner refuses to remove invasive plants. The abundance of alien invader plants and other weed species (listed in Annexure 1) indicates that the state of the natural vegetation is poor.

4.8.5 Indigenous knowledge systems No literature documenting previous ethno-botanical research for the area was found.



However, a recent publication by Arnold et al. (2002) provides an annotated checklist of the ethno-medicinal plants of South Africa. These data are however not specific to the Taung area and to determine which of these species, and possibly others not listed, are being used at the Taung Skull Site would require an ethno-botanical study of plant usage in that area. Annexure 1 provides a list of plant species recorded during the site visit at the Taung Site as well as around the site on the Ghaap escarpment and plateau, and from data on previous studies in the KMG Herbarium, McGregor Museum, Kimberley (Gubb 1979). The ethno-botanical value (from Arnold et al. 2002) of each species is indicated in the same list in Annexure 1. The preliminary list comprises a total of 129 plant species, of which 87 species have an ethno-medicinal value (67%). Of these, 64 are administered medicinally to people only (Mp), 16 species are known to be administered medicinally to people and animals (M), 28 are applied in a magical sense and administered medicinally (Mp*/M*), five species are applied in a magical sense only (*), one species is administered to animals only (Ma), and one species could be used medicinally but the plant identity is inconclusive (M!).

4.8.6 Research potential, educational value and tourism potential There is potential for a hiking trail from the viewpoint at Blue Pools up the escarpment and along the plateau next to the Thabasikwa River towards Powerhouse Cave. The botany of the area and the natural heritage of the Griqualand west Centre of Endemism could be promoted in a museum/outdoor interpretive centre, as well as the impacts of man on the Taung Skull Site and why we should conserve our natural heritage and live sustainably. Plants could be labeled or numbered along part of the hiking trail and this section utilized by learners as an outdoor classroom.

4.8.7 Key management issues

• The whole site should be adequately fenced off to prevent access of

livestock to the site. This will assist with preventing overgrazing and bush encroachment on the site, as vegetation cover is vital to prevent soil erosion. If livestock grazing is essential, a plan should be developed to limit grazing to certain areas that have not been denuded and to levels below the grazing capacity of the veld. This plan should also apply to the buffer zone. Maintaining a good vegetation cover will largely prevent soil erosion and the loss of topsoil. Low levels of grazing by livestock or game will lead to a vegetation in good condition (i.e. a healthy ecosystem) and any protected, rare species or endemic species present will as a result be protected in situ.

• The invasive alien plants will need to be controlled to prevent their

further spread onto surrounding farmland. A control programme should



be drawn up and manual labour should be used as a more cost-effective means of removing and controlling alien plants. This would provide temporary employment for local people and the products could be used for fuel wood or to make charcoal. Photographs of the alien plants can be provided if necessary.

• Harvesting of fuel wood from indigenous trees must be carefully

managed so that it is done in a sustainable manner for that area. Sustainable levels of wood harvesting must be determined and a system for regulation developed before harvesting continues.

• Development of infrastructure, roads, etc. should not take place in the

woodland area near Equus Cave, to keep this thicket intact and visually attractive.

4.9 Zoological resources The White Paper on the conservation and sustainable use of South Africa’s biodiversity and the national Environmental Management act (107 of 1998) specifies that due care be taken to conserve and avoid negative impacts on biodiversity, as well as the sustainable, equitable and efficient use of biological resources. The Taung skull fossil site at the Buxton Limeworks is best known for the 1924 discovery of the type specimen of Australopithecus africanus, and not for its zoological biodiversity as such. Species diversity at the actual site of the discovery, as well as the immediate surrounds, can be considered extremely low as a result of the quarrying activities (habitat destruction). The Ghaap plateau/fault and its escarpment are physiographically and geomorphologically distinct from the adjacent plains and thus also support a distinct faunal composition. The Thabasikwa River and adjoining cliff face to the north of the site should harbour the species normally associated with the Ghaap Plateau. An overall total of 13 mammal, 74 bird, eight reptile and four amphibian species have been recorded at a site similar in character to the northern part of the Taung Skull Heritage Site. Although this site does not support a unique faunal composition, certain species are more likely to be influenced by an increase in tourist activities. • The cliff face currently supports a resident breeding pair of Black Eagles

– all raptor species currently enjoy a protected status; • Several bat species (up to seven species) use the Ghaap plateau as a

migration route and overwintering refuge – I am positive that the



numerous caves and mineshafts harbour their share of these very useful little mammals;

• Baboon/tourist interaction can play a role.

Figure 15: Black Eagle’s Nest: Contact between the Schmidtsdrift shales (below) and dolomites forming the edge of the Ghaap Escarpment Table 5: Key Management Issues Resident breeding Black Eagles

Protected Although a tourist attraction on its own, care must be taken to avoid disturbance at the nest site when breeding.

Bats One vulnerable species

Bats use the mineshafts and caves as overwintering refuges. Disturbance during winter months and breeding periods can cause major mortalities.

Baboons A baboon management programme (baboon proof rubbish bins, etc.) can be implemented to prevent littering and an increased interaction with man.



4.10 Aesthetic resources: View sites and scenic spots

4.10.1 Introduction The Taung Limeworks near the village of Buxton (Figures 14 and 16) lies within a valley along the Thabasikwa River that drops off the escarpment of the Ghaap Plateau. This valley is largely hidden from viewers until the last bend in the road from where it suddenly appears in view as a landscape turned upside down through mining operations.

Figure 16: First view of Buxton and the Limeworks

4.10.2 Sense of arrival The road from Taung to Buxton is poorly signposted. It traverses an overgrazed and flat landscape scattered with recent settlements. The encroachment of these settlements is rapidly diminishing the rural atmosphere that the traveller would experience on route to the site. This, in turn, reduces the drama of approaching the site of where evidence of early hominids was first found.



The entrance to the site is poorly defined (Figure 17). It currently is through a narrow gap between some existing buildings and a large mine dump. From the entrance the road passes through the back works area which has been visually intruded by a dominant overhead power line.

4.10.3 View sites and scenic spots There are several view sites that can be utilised (Figure 18). These need to be incorporated in an integrated site utilisation plan. The scenic spots are concentrated along the Thabasikwa River. These, together with the view sites and the historical sites should form part of the visitors’ experience (Figures 19, 20 and 21).

4.10.4 Recommendations A visitor utilisation master plan needs to be developed for the site. This plan should take note of previous planning, such as the EDP plan, done for the site. This plan has been developed as part of the Conservation Management Plan during the final phases of the project.

4.11 Architectural heritage The small mining village adjacent to the quarry, called Buxton, preserves some extremely interesting examples of architecture which endow the place with special “fossil mining village” qualities. The stone church (Figure 22) is a noteworthy example. There are also several attractive stone-walled miners’ cottages worthy of restoration as they demonstrate the effective use of vernacular building materials and give the village a typical mining camp feel (Figure 23). These cultural assets can be incorporated into a more broadly based tourist product, and elements of the village used to support the tourist initiative in the Heritage Site across the road; for example, a “general store” to service campers and caravaners, a trading tea shop and restored miners’ houses can be used as self-catering overnight facilities. In this way, the benefits of enhances tourism can be disseminated through the local community. The Norlim Quarry or area of the lime mining operation also preserves interesting architectural remains, several of them stone-built. Of note are the old Power House (Figure 24) near the Thabasikwa River, the old railway bridge (Figure 25) and the Mine Office building (Figure 26).



Figure 17a: Current Main Entrance to Taung National Heritage Site.

The lettering off the entrance notice board has been removed. Red-roofed gatekeepers house in centre

Figure 17b: Entrance gateway with boom, looking south towards

Buxton



Figure 18: Parking area near the Monument Site, Dart Pinnacle area

Figure 19: Blue Pools Valley



Figure 20: Power House Cave – The view westwards from here is

geologically informative

Figure 21: Picnic site above the Blue Pools



Figure 22: 1924 Church at Buxton

Figure 23: Typical house in Buxton with renovation potential



Figure 24: Old Power House next to Thabasikwa River

Figure 25: Steel girder rail bridge over Thabasikwa River



Figure 26: Cultural assets: The Mine Office building (foreground) and

remnants of the lime loading area

5 STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT This section of the project deals with an assessment of the present state of preservation of the cultural and natural resources of the site, the threats which are present or which might present themselves should tourism become a factor, and the risks that these threats pose to the sites or to the environment. It also provides an assessment of the research potential of the sites and their educational and touristic potential. This information will be presented in the form of a table. Finally, as part of the way forward, recommendations regarding their future conservation will be made.

5.1 Geological and geomorphological heritage resources None of the geological or geomorphological resources are at risk at present, except perhaps from defacement with graffiti, and the visual impact on views and vistas caused by structures erected outside the site (see section 5.9).



Good vantage points from which to view the geology and geomorphology should be incorporated into an interpretive hiking trail through the site. This could be conducted by a trained heritage site guide, or as a self-guided trail with interpretation panels at key viewing stations. Good viewpoints over the valley of the Harts and of the Ghaap Escarpment need to be identified. Some such stations could include: • the Blue Pool Tufa and waterfall (origin of tufas, fossil leaves, algal

mats, water-eroded cavities and shelters); • the Upper Quarry view site (view over the Harts Valley, down the gorge

of the Thabasikwa, changing watercourse); • the dolomitic plateau above the Blue Pool Area (stromatolites,

rillengraben); • the contact of the tufas with the Schmidtsdrift shales (opposite

Powerhouse Cave); • the contact between the Schmidtsdrift Shales and the overlying

dolomite in the south-west part of the quarry excavation; • the section through the Oxland Tufa and the relict channel alluvium at

the Channel Alluvium Site; • the Dart and Hrdlička’s Pinnacles (see Palaeontological and

Archaeological Sites). The latter need to be protected at all costs as the only authentic vestiges of an analogous deposit to the original discovery site which has been mined away. The “Underground River” and “Old Mine Shaft” should be subjected to inspection and reporting by a professional Mine Safety Officer prior to their use for tourism. The potential of the geological and geomorphological assets of the Taung Site to provide enriching educational experiences is discussed further in the management plan. No further removal or re-sculpturing of the mine dumps should be allowed as they form part of the cultural imprint of the site (Figure 27).



Figure 27: The abandoned lime dumps are a powerful cultural imprints

and should not be removed

5.2 Precambrian fossils as a heritage resource Very little coverage has been given to the fascinating Precambrian palaeontology of any of the fossil hominid sites. The dolomites which host the cavern sites or which have provided the limestone from which the travertine deposits of Taung have been accreted, is the source of unimaginably old fossils (over 2224 million years) which provide insights to some of the earliest preserved life forms on earth. They also provide evidence into the evolution of the atmosphere, and its gradual acquisition of all-important oxygen, vital to the existence of life on earth. Precambrian resources of the Taung Site require further academic study as well as field study in order to identify good examples to serve as viewing stations. Samples need to be collected both for scientific study and as examples for the heritage museum. Not to include Precambrian heritage resources is to ignore a very significant part of site significance. Dolomite slabs have been used as seats in the picnic area. They provide a useful and almost indestructible construction material. Time did not allow to determine whether or not dolomite stripping (such as occurs in the cradle of Humankind) is a problem in the area. This certainly should be monitored in



order to determine the risk – it is very often the chert- and stromatolite-rich pieces that are removed because of their interesting surface patterning. The State of the Environment of Precambrian fossils has also been reported on in the Table that follows.

5.3 Palaeontological and archaeological sites The state of the environment report on these aspects of the Taung Site are included in the Table that follows. The issues arising may be summarised as follows:

1. Some of the archaeological sites fall outside the proposed heritage

boundary. Such sites include:

• The Witkrans Cave (MSA) • Norlim 2 (MSA) • Norlim 1) (LSA) • Little Witkrans Shelter (LSA) • Ochre Cave

It is suggested that these be protected by the declaration of a

“Protected area” or Buffer Zone surrounding the proposed Taung Skull World Heritage Site, which would include them all, as serve as a Buffer Zone around the site. There are other strong points to support such a measure. These are discussed in the management plan.

Although the above sites fall outside the heritage boundary, they

nevertheless require occasional but regular inspections by heritage site monitors, who will have to be trained in site monitoring.

2. Many of the sites (see Table) are stable and secure as long as their

whereabouts remains undisclosed. Here, non-disclosure can function as a temporary management tool. Care should be taken as to which sites are located on maps and presented in information panels for site visitors, particularly those where scavenging of artefacts and fossils is possible. Attention should not be drawn to the following caves, because of a risk of scavenging of fossils:

• Quinney Cave, • Black Earth Cave • Equus Cave – unless protections are put in place • Satan Cave • Oxland Large Mammal Site



• Witkrans Cave • Norlim 1 – unless visitors accompanied by a guide • Little Witkrans Shelter • Powerhouse cave – unless protections are put in place • Ochre Cave – unless protections are put in place

3. The most vulnerable site by far is the Equus Cave. This is a site of

substantial heritage significance and important residual research potential. It is situated on the main access route to the Blue Pool picnic area, and is easily accessible. Loose fossil bones and teeth are eroding out of the deposit everywhere, and the deposits are unstable and cascading. Trampling of the deposit not only damages the fossils, but causes disturbance to the sediments. The witness section is unstable and unroofed, which allows rainwater to seep through the deposits. This affects the reliability of dating results. Bioturbation (burrowing by small mammals and insects, termites, etc) also causes mixing of the deposits.

Care should be taken to avoid these high-risk areas when planning

infrastructure such as camping sites, caravan parks and ablution blocks.

Management strategies have been noted in the Table, and are

discussed more fully in the Management Plan 4. The Dart Pinnacle and the Hrdlička’s Pinnacle. These must be

preserved at all costs, as they provide the only “authentic” element (in the terms of the World Heritage Site Guidelines) to the now non-existent discovery site – see Table.

5.4 Palynology Palynology is the study of the fossil pollens, which in the case of the Taung Site are preserved in a small portion of the Equus Cave deposit, where both the sediment itself and fossil coprolites yielded significant results. This, and the potential for further study, make site protection for this locality a top priority The field of Palynology has recently been expanded by the study of “phytoliths” – microscopically small resistant silica particles that provide support to the leaves of certain species of plant, notably grasses. These may become incorporated into deposits and fossilised. It has been established that the breccias of the Taung Skull Site contain abundant phytoliths, and most of the Tufas and sediments of important sites like Equus cave are expected to have excellent potential for phytolith analysis. Scientific reportage on this exciting new aspect of palaeontology is eagerly awaited.



Deposits of Hyrax dung – “hyracium” – because such deposits can build up over a period of thousands of years, trapping pollens and phytoliths as they accrete – are very valuable, and steps should be taken to establish whether or not any are present within the Hyrax habitats that exist along the escarpment edge and within the quarry itself. Speleothems, i.e. stalagmites and stalactites can provide fossil pollen as well as isotopic information used in dating deposits, and no further destruction of these potential sources of information should be allowed to be removed, such as has happened (and still occurs) at the “underground river” The protection of the remaining undisturbed landscapes and patches of vegetation is an essential comparative element in studies such as these, and as such, they should be conserved

5.5 Historical resources Attention should be drawn to the fact that the original inhabitants of the Taung Skull Site and environs were the Khoi, as attested by the Ceramic Later Stone Age archaeological remains at Norlim 5 and Norlim 6 within the site and the even more impressive stone ruins near Dithakong a short distance to the north. The existence of residual original Khoi toponyms – for example, “Ghaap” and !Xabasiqua should be flagged. This could be done by providing a panel in the interpretative museum and by incorporating the ruins in an interpretation hiking trail. The local community have requested the recognition of traditional Khoi Khoi geographical toponyms, and this should be done as far as possible. Little is documented about the former presence of the San and the Khoi, and this gap needs to be filled. No full history of the Tlhaping has been produced yet. This is another gap which requires addressing. There is an urgent need to tap local Oral Traditions in order to preserve the history of the 20th century before it disappears. There is a need to collect such stories as soon as possible. The public participation exercise revealed that two former limeworkers are still resident in the area who have vital information on the early history of the Limeworks. There is an early limeworkers’ graveyard within the property that is still regularly visited. An important element of recent history is to record the significant role that local communities played in the Liberation struggle. In this regard, the history



of the nearby Tigerkloof Mission School needs documentation, as it was here that many of today’s prominent politicians received their training. As far as the on site mining history is concerned, many of the original mining buildings are still intact, although falling into a state of disrepair. Research should be undertaken to establish what they were originally used for. Unfortunately, metal harvesting after the mine closed caused almost all of the mining technology to be removed from site – including the private branch railway line laid in 1936 from Taung to Buxton, and on to the smaller lime quarry at Thomeng. Even the lime-burning kilns were destroyed, probably in order to recover the refractory brick (made by the Cullinan Brick Factory near Olifantsfontein).

5.6 Architectural resources The Buxton Village adjacent to the Norlim Quarry preserves several noteworthy architectural features, including an attractive stone church, rural “fossil” post office, and several stone-built miners’ cottages which are worthy of restoration. This attractive townscape is worthy of being incorporated into a broader-based tourism product and offers economic opportunities to local residents (tea shop, general dealers to supply caravaners and campers, bed and breakfast accommodation) – see Figure 22. The mine site and environs likewise preserves interesting industrial buildings and infrastructure. Of note are the stone-built Power House, the old steel girder rail bridge over the Thabasikwa, and several interesting mine buildings (Figures 24, 25 and 26). These structures all form part of the cultural imprints on the Taung Heritage Site and should not be allowed to decay to the point that they are non-restorable. Many of the buildings form part of the history of Taung and should be stabilised, with a view to possible future restoration. Theft of usable building material is a problem.

5.7 Living culture The meetings undertaken as part of the Public Participation programme revealed that there is a considerable residual ethnobotanical knowledge in the local communities. There is a local Traditional healer who operates in the Buxton-Thabasikwa area, who occasionally utilises the resources of the Taung Skull Site. Such Traditional Knowledge Systems need to be recorded as soon as possible, as usually the full knowledge dies, in time, along with the practitioners.



The Blue Pools are used for baptisms and other traditional ritual purposes. A Craft Centre operates within some of the old Mine Management buildings near the old entrance to the mine, and here is a traditional dance group. Living cultural practices need to be incorporated into the tourist experience. The Conservation Management Plan provides greater detail concerning local community initiatives and concerns.

5.8 Botanical resources The site is on the edge of the Grikwaland West Centre of Endemism, and this fact should be promoted in the hiking trails and in panels in the interpretative museum. Named species of plants should be a feature of the hiking trails. The site inspection to ascertain the state of the environment revealed several management problems: • the lack of a fence permits free-ranging grazing of the site by numerous

cattle, donkeys, goats and sheep; • this has given rise to overgrazing, and grazing-induced bush

encroachment is occurring; • overgrazed areas are prone to rapid soil erosion; • a livestock grazing plan needs to be negotiated with the communities, to

limit grazing to a sustainable level, and on areas of veld that have the carrying capacity;

• harvesting of fuelwoods from the site is becoming problematic. Sustainable levels of wood harvesting must be determined and a system of regulation developed before uncontrolled harvesting destroys reserves;

• the best shade tree within the quarry, the lime-loving pepper tree, is a potential alien invasive. Pending its declaration, the management plan will have to consider its control or possible replacement.

5.9 Zoological resources A total of 13 mammal, 74 bird 8 reptile and 4 amphibian species occur. There is a need for further research into the bat species present. The cliffs above the Blue Pool supports a breeding pair of Black Eagles There is a looming problem with baboon-human interactions – baboon-proof rubbish bins will be required, and prohibitions placed on feeding.


The Taung Skull National Heritage Site Cultural Heritage Resources Surve


The consequences and impact of a fence on the local animal communities will require consideration – e.g. how will a fence affect the baboon troop?

5.10 Aesthetic resources: View sites and scenic spots A buffer zone around the Heritage Site should be considered in order to place controls on the erection of structures which might impinge on the visual appreciation of geological, geomorphological and other scenic views, such as TV towers, power lines, cell phone towers and the like. Any densification of the Mokassa rural residential area will destroy the sense of travelling through a traditional rural district, which, because of the distance from the tarred road, automatically becomes part of the tourist experience. The route could be used to showcase traditional vernacular architectural styles and traditional farming practices, although it is understood that most people would prefer an RDP type of house. A buffer zone incorporating a small portion of Mokassa (as the main approach direction) would go a long way to promote appropriate and sustainable land use options. It is significant to note that the original discoverer of the Buxton limestone tufas had to struggle his way through thick bush all the way from Taung to the escarpment – an area which today is almost totally devoid of trees and shrubs.

y


PALAEONTOLOGICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES: STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT

PALAEONTOLOGICAL OR ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE

RESOURCE

HERITAGE SIGNIFICANCE, EXCAVATION HISTORY RESEARCH AND EDUCATIONAL

POTENTIAL

STATE OF ENVIRONMENT

PALAEONTOLOGICAL SITES Stromatolites • Heritage significance underexposed

• Stromatolites represent some of the oldest preserved forms of life on earth

• Research: Yes. Both field studies and academic research indicated

• Education: Significance of stromatolites requires exposure in Interpretative Centre; inclusion in hiking trail through site

• Exposures secure, but dolomitic areas require further field studies to locate good exposures for use in hiking trails

Dart Pinnacle Deposits (multiple deposits) S 27 37. 215’ E 24 37. 990’

• Original Taung Skull Fossil discovery site mined away since 1924; remaining deposits in Dart Pinnacle highly significant as an analogue or witness section

• Older than 2.6 million years

• Research: Yes • Educational: Yes.

Essential to preserve for site significance

• Secure site, stable except for loose material on top of pinnacle, few exposed fossils.

• Site vulnerable to vandalism • Open excavation at foot of pinnacle a

hazard to pedestrians – uneven substrate




RESOURCE


POTENTIAL


Hrdlička's deposits S 27 37. 165’ E 24 38. 021’

• Multiple deposits present. • The Hrdlička deposits, dating to 2.4 - 2.6 million

years ago, have yielded primarily cercopithecoid fossils among the 43 fossil mammalian species found

• Solution led to the formation of a 4m deep solution cavity which filled with black earth in which a small MSA sample similar to Witkrans Cave (see below) was recovered. This part of the site now destroyed

• Research: Yes. Recent excavations have taken place.

• Educational: Yes. Essential to conserve the Hrdlička Pinnacle as a demonstrable analogue and witness section.

• Site stable but steep, not suitable for visitor access, fossils exposed on surface but secure in rock. Vulnerable to vandalism by chipping

Tobias Pinnacle deposits S 27 37.215’ E 24 37. 906’

• Untested • Unknown • Secure site, barely apparent to the uninitiated

Berger Cave Complex S 27 37.155’ E 24 37. 841’


Lucky Moon Cave S 27 37. 068’ E 24 37, 818’

• Untested • Unknown • Secure site ,barely apparent to the uninitiated

LSN Cave S 27 37. 085’ E 24 37. 812’


Innominate cave S 27 37. 056’ E 27 37. 823’

• Untested • Unknown • Secure site

Quinney Cave S 27 37. 032’ E 24 37. 855’

• Heritage potential is moderate to high • Unknown • Vulnerable to scavenging of fossils and artefacts if noticed




RESOURCE


POTENTIAL


Cut-through Alley S 27 37.030’ E 24 37.868’

• Untested • Unknown • Secure site

Black Earth Cave S 27 37.025 E 24 37.950

• Potentially of substantial heritage significance, if any of the original sediments remain

• Research: Yes. Gallery A remains could be of MSA age

• Education: Could, with Witkrans, Tobias Cave and Equus Cave finds provide data for an "Out of Africa" panel at a Heritage Site interpretation centre

• Volume of unexcavated, unmined sediments and the stability of this deposit is unknown. Further field scans required to establish.

• Vulnerable to scavenging if found

Peabody's Equus Site S 27 36.954’ E 24 37.800’





RESOURCE


POTENTIAL


Equus Cave S 27 36.936’ (954) E 24 37.775’ (800)

• A site of substantial significance with respect to natural history, palaeontological and palaeoclimatic studies

• Research: Yes: The age of Stratum 2B, which contains a vast fossil fauna, requires verification base on the dating of ostrich eggshell

• Education: Of educational and tourism potential as part of a hiking trail

• Highly vulnerable, loose artifacts, fossils, teeth everywhere

• Sediments unroofed, exposed to percolating rainwater and weathering. This can affect dating results

• Site prone to bioturbation • Threatened by uncontrolled access,

trampling, subsidence and collapse • Scavenging of artifacts and fossils • Management: Unconsolidated witness

section to be stabilized and roofed • Access to be controlled, walkway

required to minimize trampling • Fencing • Monitor for bone removal

Blom Cave S 27 36.939’ E 24 37.815’

• Untested • Unknown • Secure site, barely apparent to the unitiated

Satan Cave S 27 36.845’ E 24 37.779’

• Untested • Unknown • Vulnerable site if noticed - use non-disclosure as a management tool. Loose fossils exposed

Alcove Cave S 27 36.762’ E 24 37.718’ *Coordinates only accurate to 20m due to rock-enclosed location

• Untested • Unknown • Secure site, barely apparent to the unitiated

Oxland large mammal site S 27 36.782’ E 24 37.588’

• Heritage potential good • Unknown • Large ex situ fossils visible in rock, some loose, secure except to the most adventurous visitor

Acacia Cave • Untested • Unknown • Secure site, barely noticeable




RESOURCE


POTENTIAL


ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES "Acheulian Hole" (ESA) Located about150m NE of Black Earth Cave

• Untested • Unknown • Vulnerability unknown

Witkrans Cave (MSA) Located against escarpment, about 5km S of Buxton

• Excavated by Peabody in 1947/8 • Significant faunal assemblage and MSA lithics

comparable to Middle Pietersburg at the Cave of Hearths, Makapan Valley

• Human molars recovered, min age 89 000, as yet undescribed

• Research: Yes. Human teeth require description and dating

• Educational Value: Use, with Black Earth Cave and Equus Cave, in Out of Africa panel

• Deposits largely removed by Peabody. Remaining sediments heavily calcified and stable

• Uncontrolled access problematic • Calcified nature of sediments makes

artefact scavenging difficult • Buffer Zone status or "protected area

"status recommended

Channel Alluvium Site (MSA) 100m S of Equus Cave

• Uncertain, given only a passing mention by Peabody (1954)

• Trenching in 1947/8 revealed rough MSA lithics on the Oxland Tufa surface, therefore postdating ~230kyr BP

• Research : Yes This deep stratified deposit deserves further study

• Education: Could form the basis of Field School project

• What remains of the deposit is stable • Threats by weathering, etc., are

minimal • Risks due to artefact scavenging are

low • No management measures are

required • Monitoring criteria are not relevant

NORLIM 2 (MSA) "Visitors House" locality, ~400m ESE of Powerhouse Cave

• Collection of MSA artifacts of Middle Pietersburg affinities housed in the McGregor Museum, collected from soil removed during the construction of a french drain

• Modest heritage significance

• Research: Modest• Educational:

Modest

• What remains of this site is stable • Threats due to natural weathering

negligible • No management required • Monitoring criteria not applicable




RESOURCE


POTENTIAL


NORLIM 1 (LSA) Located in a gully ~100m N of the tar road and ~200m due E of Powerhouse Cave

• Archaeological sampling and mini-excavation made by P Beaumont in 1978 at this fairly rich and extensive site suggest a workshop variant of the KURUMAN (Oakhurst) Industry

• By comparison with Wonderwerk Cave, aboout 12.0 - 8.5 kyr BP

• Significance lies in the fact that it is one of the very few excavated factory sites of Oakhurst age

• Research: Yes, good potential

• Education: Low value, due to high percentage of, to the novice, unconvincing debitage

• The open site is stable • No threats at present as the area is

uninhabited • Scavenging a potential threat, if visited • Recommend that site fall into a buffer

zone • Monitoring difficult, not relevant at

present Little Witkrans Shelter (LSA) About 200m N of Witkrans Cave - see above

• Excavated by Peabody in 1947/8 and by P Beaumont in 1978

• Fauna, abundance of lithic and organic artefacts • Ascribable to Wilton(~8.5 - 1.8kyr BP) and to

Ceramic LSA from 1.8 to historical times • A long but condensed LSA sequence of modest

archaeological interest

• Research: Limit has been reached

• Educational : Too remote

• 1978 dig backfilled and therefore stable • No present threats as remote from

Buxton • Artefact scavenging would occur, if

visited • Site could fall into a southern Buffer

Zone • Visitor litter would be an indicator of

visitation Powerhouse Cave (LSA) Located on eastern flank of the Tabasikwa River, a short distance north of the road bridge

• Excavated in 1947/8 by Peabody, and in the mid-1970's by Humphreys.

• Fair density of faunal material, including fish • Wilton artefacts (3.7 and ~2.0 kyr BP. • Rock paintings in the form of smudges, finger lines

and an asterisk • Heritage significance moderate

• Research : Yes, some. Brief occupational period, if date confirmed, would provide date for rock art

• Educational: Include as a feature in a hiking trail

• Deposits are unconsolidated; would require protection from trampling, e.g a walkway

• Scavenging is a problem and visitors would have to be accompanied by a guide

• Graffiti are a problem as the Schmidsdrift shales provide excellent writing surface

• Gated fence probably necessary • Heritage monitor to check the site

regularly for unauthorised visitors and visitor debris, litter




RESOURCE


POTENTIAL


Tobias Cave (LSA) The J McKee map lists this site ~50m WSW of Blue Pool, but excavator considered it to correspond in position to Black Earth Cave (Humphreys 1978)

• LSA lithic sample and human remains of San type, as well as a faunal sample, including large mammal bones

• Research: The skull should be dated

• Education: Information pertinent to Out of Africa panel should be incorporated

• Amount of material remaining and site stability at present is unknown

NORLIM 5 (LSA) On the hill crest 200m ENE of Equus Cave

• A 60 x 80m area of low rubble-covered stone walls, in the form of arcs or semi-circles, lacking a clear layout.

• Excavation revealed an amorphous associated Ceramic LSA assemblage plus faunal remains that include a cow tooth, all dated to 390-400years BP

• Modest heritage significance compared with Dithakong

• Some evidence, in the form of localized occurrences of ostrich egg-shell beads and ceramics, of site patterning

• Research: Yes. Further excavation could more fully document the link with domestic livestock

• Education: Could form part of a trail for visitors to the site

• State of preservation is good • Not susceptible to damage by

uncontrolled access • No significant risk as regards artefact

scavenging • No management interventions

necessary at this stage • No monitor checks are deemed

necessary

NORLIM 6 (LSA) On the S slope of the same hill as described above, 100m SSE of NORLIM 5

• Somewhat larger complex of structures similar to the above, as yet unexcavated

• Heritage significance as for above

• Research: Yes. Could be used as a Field School project (university students)

• Educational: As for above

• As for above




RESOURCE


POTENTIAL


Ochre Cave (LSA) Located on the western flank of the Thabasikwa Gorge, just S of the road bridge and Powerhouse Cave

• Excavated in 1947/8 by Peabody • Yielded sparse faunal remains with LSA

assemblages which may relate to the finger paintings

• Limited heritage significance apart from the finger paintings

• Research: The paintings should be traced and recorded before deterioration occurs

• Education: Only of interest to rock art specialists - could incorporate in a trail

• The rock paintings are in a poor state of preservation

• Weathering and uncontrolled access are both threats

• Risks include graffiti, defacement and littering

• A gated fence may be warranted • Paintings should be traced and

recorded before further deterioration occurs

• Monitor by checking against a photographic record

HYAENA RELATED ASSEMBLAGES Black Earth Cave Located ~300m NNW of the A africanus find site.

• Discontinuous galleries, largely destroyed by mining, but richly fossiliferous.

• The fossils are probably the result of hyaena feeding and denning behaviour in the galleries

• The presence of E capensis suggests a pre-Holocene age

• Two types of Homo are present • Potentially of high heritage significance if any

deposits remain

• Research The dating of the human remains requires to be done

• Educational: Use the info to provide data for an Out of Africa panel at a potential heritage site display

• State of preservation uncertain and a field scan is necessary

Equus Cave – see above



onal Heritage Site Cultural Heritage Resources Survey


RESOURCE


POTENTIAL


PALYNOLOGY Tufa deposits and Equus Cave, hyracium deposits along escarpment fossil pollens and phytoliths.

Provides valuable information about long-term environmental change

New fiels of phytolith studies can reveal info regarding vegetation and climatic change

• Research: Much still remains to be done. Imperative that the Equus Cave deposits receive the necessary protections

• Education: Panel in Interpretative Centre required

Equus Cave site vulnerable – see above

The Taung Skull Nati


6 THE WAY FORWARD • The way forward is to incorporate the findings of the State of the

Environment report into the management plan, in order to inform its management strategies for the site itself and the immediate surrounds.

• A further step will be to devise an interpretation trail which maximises

exposure to and provides information on the cultural heritage resources of the site.

• The local communities need to be informed about the requirements for

a World Heritage Site, and consulted on issues such as the consequences (for them) of fencing the site, the control of grazing and wood collection, etc. It is important to gather local knowledge and concerns regarding these issues, for without their full knowledge, discussion and consent, management strategies around such matters will not be successful. Community concerns and aspirations need to be incorporated into the planning process.

• The need for a Buffer Zone, its definition and boundaries, function and

the motivation for such a protection need to be addressed, The declaration of temporary ‘Protected areas” is possible under the existing SAHRA legislation (Section 27). This matter is fully discussed in the Management Plan.

• Funding needs to be sought for the creation not only of the hiking trail,

but stopping stations interpretive panels and a heritage museum – not a cheap item.

• Funding needs to be sought for the training of site guides and heritage

monitors from the surrounding communities. • Further field studies and basic research need to be promoted in the

various cultural heritage resource areas outlined above, the most urgent being in the area of Traditional Knowledge Systems and Oral traditions, especially modern and mining history.

• The most important thing is to secure the heritage resources that are at

risk within the site itself – notably the Equus Cave site.



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Breutz, P-L, The Tribes of the Districts Taung and Herbert, Dept. of Bantu Administration and Development, Ethnological Publications No. 5, Pretoria, 1968. (Reprint). Breutz, P-L. 1956. Stone kraal settlements in South Africa. African Studies, 157 - 175. Breutz, P-L. 1968. The tribes of the districts of Taung and Herbert. S. Afr. Dept. of Bantu Admin. & Dev. ethnol. Pubs. 51. Breutz, P-L., A History of the Batswana and Origin of Bophuthatswana. Margate: The author, 1987. Breutz, P-L., The Tribes of the Districts of Taung and Herbert. Department of Bantu Administration and Development, Ethnological Publications No. 51. Pretoria: Government Printer 1968. Burchell, W.J, Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa, London, Batchworth Press, 1953, vol. 11. Button, A & Vos R.G. 1977. Subtidal and intertidal clastic and carbonate sedimentation in a macrotidal environment: An example from the lower Proterozoic of South Africa. Sediment.Geol. 18: 175-200. Button, A. 1971. Early Proterozoic algal stromatolites of the Pretoria Group, Transvaal Sequence. Trans.geol.Soc.S.Afr. 74: 201-210. Button, A. 1973a. Algal stromatolites from the early Proterozoic Wolkberg Group, Transvaal Sequence. J.sedim.Petrol., 43: 160-167. Button, A. 1973b. “A regional study of the stratigraphy and the development of the Transvaal Basin in the eastern and north-eastern Transvaal” Unpubl. Ph.D. Thesis, Univ.of the Witwatersrand. Cape Archives KAB 3/GR 4/1/1/30 7/8D (N) 1943-1944. Old Power Station, Northern Lime Corporation. Cape Archives: KAB 3/GR 4/1/130 7/8D 1943-1944. Old Power House Station, Northern Lime Corporation. Carrión, J. S. and Scott, L. 1999. The challenge of pollen analysis in palaeoenvironmental studies of hominid beds: the record from Sterkfontein Caves. Journal of Human Evolution 36: 401-408.



Clark, J.D. 1971. Human behavioural differences in Southern Africa during the Late Pleistocene. Amer. Anthrop. 73 (5), 1211 - 1236. Climate of South Africa. 1954. Part 2. Rainfall statistics. South African Weather Bureau Pubs. Davenport, R. and Saunders, C. South Africa: A Modern History. 5 ed. London: Macmillan, 2000. Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, Responsible Tourism, Pretoria, March 2002. E.A Eldredge, “Sources of Conflict in Southern Africa c. 1800-1830,” in C. Hamilton (ed), The Mfecane Aftermath: Reconstructive Debates in Southern African History, Witwatersrand and Natal University Press, 1995 Environmental Design Partnership, ‘The Taung monument’, n.d. Environmental Design Partnership, ‘The Taung Skull Site’, n.d. Eriksson, K.A. McCarthy, T.S. & Truswell, J.F. 1975 Limestone formation and dolomitization in a lower Proterozoic succession from South Africa. J..Sediment. Petrol. , 45 : 604-614. Eriksson, K.A. & Macgregor, I.M. 1981. Precambrian Palaeontology of Southern Africa: Precambrian of the Southern Hemisphere. In Hunter, D.R. (ed) : Developments in Precambrian Geology 2, Elsevier, Amsterdam : 813 – 833. Eriksson, K.A. & Truswell, J.F. 1974. Tidal flat associations from a Lower Proterozoic carbonate sequence of South Africa. Sedimentology, 21: 293-309. Eriksson, K.A. & Truswell, J.F. 1978. Geological processes and atmospheric evolution in the Precambrian. In D.H. Tarling (ed), Evolution of the Earth’s Crust. Academic Press, London: 219 – 238. Eriksson, K.A. 1977. Tidal flat and subtidal sedimentation in the 2250 m.y. Malmani Dolomite, Transvaal, South Africa. Sediment.Geol., 18: 228-244. Eriksson, K.A. Truswell, J.F. & Button, A. 1976. Palaeoenvironmental and geochemical models from a lower Proterozoic carbonate succession in South Africa. In Walter, M.R. (ed), Stromatolites, Developments in Sedimentology, Elsevier, Amsterdam : 635-643. Fock, G.J. & Fock, D.M.L. 1989. Felsbilder in Südafrika: Teil III: Die Felsbilder im Vaal-Oranje-Becken. Köln: Böhlau Verlag.



Glavovic, P.D. 1993. Flora and the Law. A review of existing laws that protect wild plant species in the Republic of South Africa. Flora Conservation Committee, Botanical Society of South Africa, Cape Town. Glavovic, P.D. 1993. Flora and the Law. A review of existing laws that protect wild plant species in the Republic of South Africa. Flora Conservation Committee, Botanical Society of South Africa, Cape Town. Golubic, S. & Hofmann, H.J. 1976. Comparison of Holocene and mid-Precambrian Entophysolidaceae (Cyanophyta) in stromatolitic algal mats: Cell division and degradation. J. Palaeont., 50:1074-1082. Grine, F.E. & Klein, R.G. 1985. Pleistocene and Holocene human remains from Equus Cave, South Africa. Anthropology 8 (2), 55 - 98. Gubb, A.A. 1979. Taung cave series and surrounds vegetation survey data. Unpublished, KMG Herbarium, McGregor Museum, Kimberley. Hammond-Tooke, W.D. Imperfect Interpretors: South Africa’s Anthropologists 1920-1990. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1997. Harris, W.C., Wild Sports of South Africa, Facs. Reprod. Cape Town, Struik, 1987. Harris, W.C., Wild Sports of Southern Africa. Facs. Repr. Cape Town: Struik, 1987. Henderson, L. 2001. Plant Invaders of Southern Africa. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 5. ARC, Pretoria. Henderson, L. 2001. Plant Invaders of Southern Africa. Plant Protection Research Institute Handbook No. 5. ARC, Pretoria. Hilton-Taylor, C. 1996. Red Data List of Southern African Plants. Strelitzia 4. National Botanical Institute, Pretoria. Hilton-Taylor, C. 1996. Red Data List of Southern African Plants. Strelitzia 4. Holmgren, K., Karlén, W., Lauritzen, S.E., Lee-Thorp., J.A., Partridge, T.C., Piketh, S., Repinski, P., Stevenson, J., Svanered, O., and Tyson, P.D. (1999). A 3000-year high-resolution stalagmite-based record of palaeoclimate for north-eastern South Africa. The Holocene 9: 295-309. Humphreys, A.J.B. & Thackeray, A.I. 1983. Ghaap and Gariep. Later Stone Age studies in the Northern Cape. Cape Town: S. Afr. Archaeol. Soc. Monograph Series No. 2.



Humphreys, A.J.B. 1978. The re-excavation of Powerhouse Cave and an assessment of Dr. Frank Peabody’s work on Holocene deposits in the Taung area. Ann. Cape Prov. Museums (Nat. Hist.) 2 (12), 217 - 244. Institute for Tourism and Leisure Studies, ‘North West socio-economic tourism audit, 2002’, Potchefstroom: Potchefstroom University, 2002. Jacobs, N, Environment, Power and Injustice: A South African History, Cambridge University Press, 2003. Jacobs, N., Environment, Power, and Injustice: A South African History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Johnson B. J. Miller, G.H. Fogel M.L., and Beaumont P.B. 1997. The determination of Late Quaternary palaeoenvironments at Equus Cave, South Africa, using stable isotopes and amino acid racemization in ostrich eggshell. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoecol, Palaeoclimatol. 136: 121-137. Johnson, B.J., Miller, G.H., Fogel, M.L. & Beaumont, P.B. 1997. The determination of Late Quaternary palaeoclimates at Equus Cave, South Africa, using stable isotopes and amino acid racemization in ostrich eggshell. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology & Palaeoecology 136, 121 - 139. Jones, P.S, “From ‘nationhood’ to regionalism in the North West Province”, African Affairs, 98, 1999. Jones, P.S., ‘From “nationhood” to regionalism to the North West Province: “Bophuthatswananess” and the birth of the “new” South Africa”, African Affairs 98 pp.509-534. (1999). Kinsman, M, “’Hungry Wolves’: The Impact of Violence on Rolong Life”, in C. Hamilton (ed), The Mfecane Aftermath: Reconstructive Debates in Southern African History, Witwatersrand and Natal University Press, 1995. Klein, R. G. Cruz-Uribe, K. and Beaumont, P. B. (1991), Environmental, ecological and palaeoanthropological implications of the Late Pleistocene mammalian fauna from Equus Cave, Northern Cape Province, South Africa. Quaternary Research 36: 94-119. Klein, R.G., Cruz-Uribe, K. & Beaumont, P.B. 1991. Environmental, ecological and palaeoanthropological implications of the late Pleistocene mammalian fauna from Equus Cave, Northern Cape Province, South Africa. Quat. Res. 36, 94 - 119. Lawrence, M and Manson, A, “The ‘Dog of the Boers’: The Rise and Fall of Mangope in Bophuthatswana”, Journal of Southern African Studies, vol.20, 1994.



Lee-Thorp, J. A. and Beaumont, P. B. 1995. Vegetation and seasonality shifts during the Late Quaternary deduced from 13C/12C ratios of grazers at Equus Cave, South Africa. Quaternary Research 43: 426-432. Lee-Thorp, J.A. & Beaumont, P.B. 1995. Vegetation and seasonality shifts during the Late Quaternary deduced from 13C/12C ratio of grazers at Equus Cave, South Africa. Quat. Res. 43, 426 - 432. Legassick, M, “ The Griqua, The Sotho-Tswana and the Missionaries, 1780-1840, unpublished Ph.D thesis, UCLA, 1970. Legassick, M, “The Sotho-Tswana Peoples before 1800”, in L.M. Thompson(ed), African Societies in Southern Africa, London, Heinemann, 1969. Lewis-Williams, D. and Blundell, G., Fragile Heritage: A Rock Art Fieldguide. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1998. Lichtenstein, H, Travels in Southern Africa, in the years 1803-1806, Van Riebeeck Society, Cape Town, 1953, vol. 11. Low, A.B. & Rebelo, A.G. 1996. Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria. Low, A.B. & Rebelo, A.G. 1996. Vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism, Pretoria. Lye, W and Murray, C, Transformations on the Highveld: The Tswana and Southern Sotho, Cape Town, David Philip, 1980. Lye, W.E., Andrew Smith’s Journal of his Expedition into the Interior of South Africa, 1834-1836. Cape Town: South African Museum and A.A. Balkema, 1975. Lye, W.E., Andrew Smith’s Journal of his Expedition into the Interior of South Africa, 1834-1836, Cape Town, South African Museum and A.A. Balkema, 1975. Macgregor, I.M. Truswell, J.F. & Eriksson, K.A. 1974 Filamentous algae from the 2,300 m.y. old Transvaal Dolomite. Nature, Lond. , 247 : 538-540. Macgregor, I.M. 1973a. Microstudies on stromatolites of the Transvaal Dolomite, Transvaal System, South Africa. Unpubl. B.Sc Hons Thesis, Univ. of Witwatersrand.



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