+ All Categories
Home > Documents > TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘!...

TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘!...

Date post: 16-Aug-2021
Category:
Upload: others
View: 0 times
Download: 0 times
Share this document with a friend
52
!"#$% ()*+*(’,-(.(.( / ! "#$0 1 (22*+*. 3*’-(+,*. 4 (5672*’ 7 . 8 *,.8 , .3,’-,7’8 19#:% 0 ";9<=% > ?@A B 4 $%= < 9"C$C D E # FGHI$;0# J " =% 0KK0$C% $ =K$C<$LC% M -$N / %<$N O >??PQ +C0R0$# S % 4 0TG%#9C I C:U%=;: E # 0 60";% 7 T9#% S % # 0 8 0=;: 2 0 8 9"CT% 2(V8(..7 >?@W X$C%T;%"C S " ; C0R0$# J - $TG%# ! 7(.YV7.(+
Transcript
Page 1: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

!

!

!"#$%&'()*+*(',-(.(.(&/&!"#$0&1(22*+*.&

&

3*'-(+,*.&4(5672*'&7.&8*,.8&,.3,'-,7'8&

19#:%&0";9<=%&>?@A&

&

B&4$%=&<9"C$C&D&E&#FGHI$;0#&J&"=%&

0KK0$C%&$=K$C<$LC%&M&

&-$N&/&'%<$N&O>??PQ&

&

+C0R0$#&S%&40TG%#9C&IC:U%=;:&E&#0&

60";%&7T9#%&S%&#0&80=;:&20&89"CT%&

&

2(V8(..7&

>?@W&

&

X$C%T;%"C&S"&;C0R0$#&J&-$TG%#&!7(.YV7.(+&

Page 2: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! G!

5$;0;$9=&

!"#$%&'(#$)*+#,-.*",/#0#&"#1%..-#2&+#3-#3*4*+5#.%&'*"5#6-#2&)+7#*55-",*+5#,-#

6-&8# 2&+# 9'-"*+-"5# 3%+"# ,-# 7&+:# ;7# .-# '/9%",+5#<#=#>&-# 2&-72&)&"# *+5# 7)*+'#

,)-33*?-'# ,-# .-# 6%.9'-",'-#@#A# B-'5-3(# 6%.9'-",'-# 97-+"-.-"5# *&5'&+# -35#

+.9%33+C7-(#.*+3# $-#")%&C7+-'*+# $*.*+3#2&-#6-5#1%..-#"-#,-.*",*+5#9*3#2&-#

2&-72&)&"#?#9*'4+-""-(#.*+3# 3-&7-.-"5#2&)+7# 3-# 3-"5-# 3&DD+3*..-"5#6%"6-'"/#

9%&'#-33*?-':##EF'*,&65+%"#7+C'-G#HI*&",-'3(#JKLMN&

Page 3: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! H!

&

&

&

&

&

&

'%<%CT$%<%=;U&E&J&

O:#O+61-7#P-*"Q&-"*5(#9'%D-33-&'#0#7*#R*&5-#S6%7-#,-#7*#I*"5/#

T*# I%&'6-# -5# ,+'-65-&'# ,-# "%5'-# 5'*4*+7# ,-# U*61-7%'(# 9%&'# 3*#

,+39%"+C+7+5/# *+"3+# 2&-# 9%&'# 7*# '+61-33-# ,-3# ,+36&33+%"3# 2&+# *#

/4-+77/#"%5'-#'/D7-8+4+5/#5%&5#*&#7%"Q#,-#6-#5'*4*+7:#

O.-# S4*# O+6%""-5(# +"D+'.+V'-# -5# 9'*5+6+-""-# D%'.*5'+6-# -"#

./,-6+"-# +"5-'"-# *&# BR!W(# 9%&'# *4%+'# *66-95/# ,)X5'-#

=#-89-'5-# ,&# 5-''*+"#A# *+"3+# 2&-# 9%&'# 7)+"5/'X5# 9%'5/# 0# "%5'-#

5'*4*+7Z&&

O.-# O&'+-77-# Y%55(# 9'%D-33-&'-# 0# 7*# R*&5-# S6%7-# ,-# I*"5/#

W*&,(# 9%&'# 3%"# -"3-+Q"-.-"5# -5# 3-3# 6%"3-+73# *4+3/3# 7%'3# ,&#

.%,&7-#,-#3%+"3#9*77+*5+D3:#

O.-# Z*51*7+-# [*4'-(# O.-# B/7+"-# \'*.-'# -5# O.-# \+3]+%#

U7*"61-(# C+C7+%51/6*+'-3^,%6&.-"5*7+35-3# 36+-"5+D+2&-3(# 9%&'#

7-&'# -"3-+Q"-.-"5# 3&'# 7-3# C*3-3# ,-# ,%""/-3# *+"3+# 2&-# 7-&'#

,+39%"+C+7+5/#5%&5#*&#7%"Q#,-#"%5'-#5'*4*+7#,-#U*61-7%':##

Z%3#D*.+77-3#-5#"%3#9'%61-3#9%&'#7-&'#-"6%&'*Q-.-"5(#3%&5+-"#

-5#7*#'-7-65&'-#,&#5'*4*+7:#

#

#

#

#

#

#

Page 4: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! I!

':U"<:&

&[C9\#:<0;$]"%&J&8%#9=&#%U&U;0;$U;$]"%U&S"&T0=;9=&S%&10"S^&=9=&U%"#%<%=;&#0&<0_9C$;:&S%U&S:TLU&U%&

IC9S"$U%=;&E&#FGHI$;0#&%=&U9$=U&0$`"U^&<0$U&#%"C&=9<\C%&R0&0"`<%=;%C&T%U&IC9TG0$=%U&0==:%UZ&20&

T"#;"C%&\$9<:S$T0#%&T%=;C:%&U"C&#0&`":C$U9=&S%U&I0;G9#9`$%U&0$=U$&]"%&#%U&IC9`CLU&;%TG=9#9`$]"%U&

I%C<%;;%=;&S%&C%I9"UU%C&#0&<9C;&%=&C$U]"0=;&S%&=9"U&K0$C%&I%CSC%&#%&U%=U&S%&#0&R$%Z&5F%U;&S0=U&T%&

T9=;%N;%&]"%&=9"U&=9"U&U9<<%U& $=;:C%UU:%U&E& #F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K&<$U&%=&I#0T%&I0C& #%U&

$=K$C<$LC%U&S0=U&#%U&U%CR$T%U&S%&U9$=U&0$`"UZ&

a"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%&J&B&59<<%=;&`0C0=;$C&"=&0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K&$=K$C<$%C&S%&]"0#$;:&E&

S%U&I%CU9==%U&<9"C0=;%U&%;&E&#%"C&%=;9"C0`%&S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U&M&D&

4";U&J&[0C& T%& ;C0R0$#^& =9"U&=9"U& $=;:C%UU9=U& 0"N& T9=S$;$9=U&=:T%UU0$C%U& E& #0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&SF"=&

0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K&$=K$C<$%C&S%&]"0#$;:&I9"C&#%U&I%CU9==%U&<9"C0=;%U&S0=U&#%U&U%CR$T%U&S%&

U9$=U& 0$`"UZ& 7=& C%`0CS& S%& T%U& T9=S$;$9=U^& =9"U& IC9I9U9=U& S%U& $=;%CR%=;$9=U& E&<%;;C%& %=& I#0T%&

S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&<:S%T$=%&0$=U$&]"%&S%U&I%CUI%T;$R%U&S%&C%TG%CTG%Z&

-:;G9S%&J&.9"U&0R9=U&:#0\9C:&"=%&C%R"%&S%&#$;;:C0;"C%&%=&UF0II"b0=;&U"C&c&0C;$T#%U&UT$%=;$K$]"%U&

IC9R%=0=;& S%U& \0U%U& S%& S9==:%U& 5,.6(2& %;& ["\-%Sd-%S#$=%Z& .9"U& 0R9=U& S:K$=$& S%U& TC$;LC%U&

SF$=T#"U$9=&%;&SF%NT#"U$9=&I9"C&U:#%T;$9==%C&T%U&0C;$T#%UZ&[0C<$&T%"NeT$^&P&0C;$T#%U&U9=;&S%U&:;"S%U&

]"0#$;0;$R%U^& S9=;& "=%& C%R"%& S%& #$;;:C0;"C%& 0$=U$& ]"F"=%& C%R"%& UbU;:<0;$]"%& S%& #$;;:C0;"C%&

]"0=;$;0;$R%Z&(&#F0$S%&S%&`C$##%U&S%&#%T;"C%^&=9"U&0R9=U&IC9T:S:&E&#%"C&0=0#bU%Z&7=&C%TG%CTG0=;&#%U&

I%CT%I;$9=U& S%U& I0;$%=;U^& S%U& K0<$##%U& %;& S%U& U9$`=0=;U^& =9"U& 0R9=U& I"&9\;%=$C& "=%& R$U$9=&I#"U&

T9<I#L;%&S%&=9;C%&U"_%;Z&

X$UT"UU$9=& %;& I%CUI%T;$R%U&J& 2F$=K$C<$LC%& 0& "=%& I#0T%& IC$R$#:`$:%& I9"C& <%;;C%& %=& I#0T%& "=&

0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K&S%&]"0#$;:Z&.9"U&0R9=U&<$U&%=&:R$S%=T%&A&;GL<%U&E&#F$UU"%&S%&#0&#%T;"C%&

S%U&0C;$T#%U&J& #0&T9<<"=$T0;$9=^& #0&C%#0;$9=&%;&#F%=R$C9==%<%=;Z&7=&K9=T;$9=&S%&T%U&;G:<0;$]"%U^&

=9"U& IC:U%=;9=U& #%U& T9=S$;$9=U& =:T%UU0$C%U& 0"& TG%<$=%<%=;& S"& I0;$%=;eK0<$##%& 0$=U$& ]"%& S%U&

C%T9<<0=S0;$9=U&S0=U& #%& T9=;%N;%&S%U& U9$=U& 0$`"UZ&59=T%C=0=;& #%U&I%CUI%T;$R%U&S%& C%TG%CTG%^&

=9"U&=F0R9=U&I0U& ;C9"R:&SF:;"S%&]"$& S:R%#9II%& #%& CH#%&S%& #F$=K$C<$LC%&S0=U& #F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&

I0##$0;$K& S0=U& "=& U%CR$T%& S%& <:S%T$=%& %;d9"& S%& TG$C"C`$%Z& [0C& T9=U:]"%=;^& =9"U& I%=U9=U&

$<I9C;0=;& ]"%& S%U& :;"S%U& I"$UU%=;& f;C%& C:0#$U:%U& %=& 8"$UU%& S0=U& T%& T9=;%N;%Z& X%& I#"U^&

#F0"`<%=;0;$9=&S%&#0&S$R%CU$;:&T"#;"C%##%&%U;&"=&=9"R%0"&TG0##%=`%&E&C%#%R%CZ&5F%U;&I9"C]"9$^&S%U&

C%TG%CTG%U&I9C;0=;&U"C&#%U&T"#;"C%U&S%&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&%=C$TG$C0$%=;&=9U&C%T9<<0=S0;$9=U&%=&

9KKC0=;&"=&0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K&I#"U&0S0I;:Z&

-9;UeT#:U&J&(TT9<I0`=%<%=;^& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KU^& ]"0#$;:& S%& K$=& S%& R$%^& U9$=U& $=K$C<$%CU^& U%CR$T%& S%&

U9$=U&0$`"U&

20&C:S0T;$9=&%;&#%U&T9=T#"U$9=U&S%&T%&;C0R0$#&=F%=`0`%=;&]"%&#0&C%UI9=U0\$#$;:&S%&U%U&0";%"C%U&%;&

%=&0"T"=&T0U&T%##%&S%&60";%&:T9#%&S%&#0&80=;:&20&89"CT%Z&

Page 5: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! J!

+0\#%&S%U&<0;$LC%U&

GK! !"#$%&'(#)%"!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!L!

HK! *'+,#)%"-&+-$+(.+$(.+-+#-/$%01234#)5'+!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!M!

HKGK! 2#&N&6)!()!6-=#)!O4)P=&-66)7)6=!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!M!

HKHK! Q-6+)<=&-6!()!'$!O4)P=&-6!()!#)+,)#+,)!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!R!

HKIK! S6=T#U=!()!'$!O4)P=&-6!()!#)+,)#+,)!)6!#)N$#(!(4!PVP=@7)!P-+&-.P$6&=$&#)!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!W!

HKJK! C;')!&6?&#7&)#!)6!P-&6P!<$''&$=&?P!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!GX!

HKLK! Y4$'&=T!()!P-&6P!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!GH!

IK! 62#.%&%1%7)+!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!GI!

IKGK! *$P)P!()!(-66T)P!4=&'&PT)P!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!GI!

IKHK! Z-=P.+'TP!)=!')4#!+-7[&6$&P-6!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!GI!

IKIK! C)+,)#+,)!($6P!')P![$P)P!()!(-66T)P!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!GJ!

IKJK! CTP4'=$=P!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!GL!

IKLK! Q#&=@#)P!(:&6+'4P&-6!)=!(:)\+'4P&-6!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!GM!

IKMK! ]#=&+')P!#)=)64P!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!GM!

JK! 8"419,+-&+,-4$#)(1+,!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!GR!

LK! :401+4'-(%3/4$4#);!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!HM!

MK! <),(',,)%"-+#-/+$,/+(#)=+,!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!IJ!

MKGK! ]6$'VP)!()P!#TP4'=$=P!)=!#)+-77$6($=&-6P!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!IJ!

MKHK! ^)#P<)+=&%)P!<-4#!'$!#)+,)#+,)!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!JX!

MKIK! 3&7&=)P!()!'$!#)%4)!()!'&==T#$=4#)!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!JG!

RK! >%"(1',)%"!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!JH!

RKGK! ^'$+)!()!'$!#)+,)#+,)!($6P!':)\)#+&+)!(4!#;')!&6?&#7&)#!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!JH!

RKHK! _T%)'-<<)7)6=!<)#P-66)'!)=!<#-?)PP&-66)'!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!JI!

`K! ?)01)%7$4/.)+!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!JJ!

`KGK! 3&P=)!()!#T?T#)6+)P![&['&-N#$<,&O4)P!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!JJ!

`KHK! 3&P=)![&['&-N#$<,&O4)!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!JR!

WK! 8""+@+,!KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK!J`!

!

&

&

&

Page 6: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! L!

@Z! ,=;C9S"T;$9=&

5%& ;C0R0$#& S%& 40TG%#9C& T9=U;$;"%& #%& ;C0R0$#& S%& K$=& SF:;"S%U& S%& #0& K9C<0;$9=& SF$=K$C<$LC%Z& .9"U&

#F0R9=U& %KK%T;":& %=& \$=H<%Z& 5%& ;C0R0$#& T9=U$U;%& E& C:0#$U%C& "=%& C%R"%& S%& #0& #$;;:C0;"C%& E& I0C;$C&

SF0C;$T#%U&UT$%=;$K$]"%UZ&

(K$=& S%& C:0#$U%C& T%& ;C0R0$#& S%& 40TG%#9C^& =9"U& 0R9=U& ";$#$U:& #%& S9T"<%=;& $=;$;"#:& B& +C0R0$#& S%&

40TG%#9C&J&<9S0#$;:U&UI:T$K$]"%U&E&#0&60";%&7T9#%&S%&#0&80=;:&20&89"CT%&%;&TC$;LC%U&SF:R0#"0;$9=&D&

O!%0=`"%=0;^&X%U0"##%U&/&(##$=^&>??PQZ&7=&T%&]"$&T9=T%C=%&#0&K9C<%^&=9"U&=9"U&U9<<%U&0II"b:%U&

U"C&#0&;C0<%&IC9I9U:%&I0C&#%&S9T"<%=;&B&'%IC:U%=;0;$9=&S"&;C0R0$#&S%&40TG%#9C&D&O(##$=^&>?@gQ&]"$&

=9"U&IC9I9U%&S%&S:R%#9II%C&#%&;C0R0$#&%=&c&TG0I$;C%UZ&

X0=U&#0&IC%<$LC%&I0C;$%&S%&T%&;C0R0$#^&=9"U&0##9=U&S:TC$C%&#0&IC9\#:<0;$]"%&TG9$U$%&%=&%NI#$]"0=;&

#F9C$`$=%& S%& #0& T9=T%I;$9=& S%& #0& ]"%U;$9=& S%& C%TG%CTG%& %=& #F$##"U;C0=;& 0R%T& "=%& %NI:C$%=T%&

IC9K%UU$9==%##%& R:T"%& S"C0=;& "=& U;0`%Z& ["$U^& =9"U& 0##9=U& K0$C%& "=& \C%K& :;0;& S%U& #$%"N& S%U& U9$=U&

I0##$0;$KU& S"& T0=;9=& S%& 10"S& ]"$& S:<9=;C%C0& #F$<I9C;0=T%& S%& T9=U$S:C%C& T%;;%& IC9\#:<0;$]"%&

S0=U& #%& T0SC%& S%U& U9$=U& $=K$C<$%CU^& =9;0<<%=;& S0=U& #%U& U%CR$T%U& G9UI$;0#$%CU& 0$=U$& ]"%& U0&

I%C;$=%=T%& S0=U& #%& T9=;%N;%& U9T$9eU0=$;0$C%& 0T;"%#Z& [9"C& T#H;"C%C& #0& IC9\#:<0;$]"%^& =9"U&

S:K$=$C9=U& #%& T9=T%I;& S"& CH#%& $=K$C<$%C& %=& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KU& %;& \C$LR%<%=;& T%#"$& S%& #0& ]"0#$;:& S%U&

U9$=UZ&.9"U&0##9=U&I9"CU"$RC%&%=&%NI9U0=;& #0&<:;G9S9#9`$%&";$#$U:%&I9"C& C%TG%CTG%C& #%U&0C;$T#%U&

C:I9=S0=;& E& =9;C%&IC9\#:<0;$]"%^& 0$=U$& ]"%& #%U& TC$;LC%U& SF%NT#"U$9=& %;& SF$=T#"U$9=& :#0\9C:U&]"$&

=9"U& 9=;& I%C<$U& S%& U:#%T;$9==%C& #%U& 0C;$T#%U& #%U& I#"U& I%C;$=%=;U& I9"C& =9;C%& C%R"%Z& .9"U& 0##9=U&

IC:U%=;%C&\C$LR%<%=;&#%&T9=;%="&S%U&0C;$T#%U&U9"U&K9C<%&S%&C:U"<:&I"$U^&"=&;0\#%0"&T9<I0C0;$K&

I%C<%;;C0& S%& IC:U%=;%C& Ub=;G:;$]"%<%=;& #%U& C:U"#;0;U& %;& #%U& $<I#$T0;$9=U& I9"C& #0& IC0;$]"%&

$=K$C<$LC%&C%T"%$##$U&I9"C&TG0]"%&:;"S%Z&8"$;%&E&T%&;0\#%0"^&=9"U&I9"CC9=U&0\9CS%C&#0&S$UT"UU$9=&

%;& #%U& I%CUI%T;$R%U& I9"C& #0& IC0;$]"%& $=K$C<$LC%& ]"%& =9"U& S:R%#9II%C9=U& E& I0C;$C& S%U& C:U"#;0;U&

9\;%="UZ& 7=& T9=T#"U$9=& S%& =9;C%& ;C0R0$#^& =9"U& S:K$=$C9=U& #%U& 0IIC%=;$UU0`%U& S:R%#9II:U& I0C&

C0II9C;&E& #0&I#0T%&S%& #0&C%TG%CTG%&S0=U& #F%N%CT$T%&S"&CH#%& $=K$C<$%C^&0$=U$&]"%&#%&S:R%#9II%<%=;&

IC9K%UU$9==%#& %;& I%CU9==%#& ]"%& T%& ;C0R0$#& =9"U& 0& 0II9C;:Z& 20& S%C=$LC%& I0C;$%& T9=T%C=%& #%U&

C:K:C%=T%U&\$\#$9`C0IG$]"%U&0R%T& #%U&0C;$T#%U&0=0#bU:U&]"$&9=;&U%CR$&S%&\0U%&E&=9;C%&C%R"%^&0$=U$&

]"%&#%U&0C;$T#%U&%;&#$RC%U&]"$&=9"U&9=;&I%C<$U&SF:;0b%C&=9U&IC9I9UZ&4h\_h_h\_h\=<\_h\_h=h#=h#=h=h&

&

&

&

&

&

&

Page 7: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! M!

>Z! a"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%&%;&IC9\#:<0;$]"%&

B& 59<<%=;& `0C0=;$C& "=& 0TT9<I0`=%<%=;& I0##$0;$K& $=K$C<$%C& S%& ]"0#$;:& E& S%U& I%CU9==%U&<9"C0=;%U&%;&E&#%"C&%=;9"C0`%&S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U&M&D&

&>Z@Z!*C$`$=%&S%&=9;C%&]"%U;$9==%<%=;&&

29CU&S%&=9U&IC%<$LC%U&S$UT"UU$9=U&U"C&#%&;C0R0$#&S%&40TG%#9C^&=9"U&0R9=U&I0C;0`:&#%U&U$;"0;$9=U&S%&

U;0`%U& #%U& I#"U&<0C]"0=;%UZ& '0I$S%<%=;^& =9"U&=9"U& U9<<%U& C%=S"& T9<I;%&]"F$#& UF0`$UU0$;& S%U&

U$;"0;$9=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&R:T"%U&S0=U&#%U&$=U;$;";$9=U&=9=&UI:T$0#$U:%U&%=&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&T9<<%&#%U&

U%CR$T%U&S%&<:S%T$=%^&S%&TG$C"C`$%&9"&%=T9C%&S0=U&#%U&i;0\#$UU%<%=;U&-:S$T9e89T$0"N&O7-8QZ&

20& U$;"0;$9=& S%& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KU& ]"%& #F"=%& SF%=;C%& =9"U& 0& R:T"%& S"C0=;& U9=& U;0`%& %=&<:S%T$=%&

$=;%C=%&$##"U;C%&#0&IC9\#:<0;$]"%&]"%&=9"U&U9"G0$;9=U&S:R%#9II%CZ&

69UI$;0#$U:& %=& U%CR$T%& S%&<:S%T$=%& S%I"$U& j& _9"CU^&-Z& 4Z& %U;& 0;;%$=;& SF"=%& $=U"KK$U0=T%& C:=0#%&

TGC9=$]"%& E& "=& U;0S%& 0R0=T:Z& 50TG%T;$]"%^& $#& I9C;%& "=%& U9=S%& R:U$T0#%& %;& "=& T0;G:;%C& R%$=%"N&

S0=U& #%]"%#&%U;&0S<$=$U;C:&"=&S$"C:;$]"%&S%& #F0=U%Z&X"C0=;& #%&U:_9"C&S%&-Z&4Z^&S$R%CU&U9$=U&U9=;&

I#0=$K$:U&T9<<%&#0&<9\$#$U0;$9=&0R%T&"=&S:0<\"#0;%"C&0K$=&S%&#F0$S%C&E&U%&C%T9=S$;$9==%C&%=&R"%&

SF"=& :R%=;"%#& C%;9"C& E& S9<$T$#%^& #0& IC$U%& S%& I9$SU& %;& S%& U0=`& _9"C=0#$LC%^& #%U& U9$=U& S%& U9=S%&

R:U$T0#%^&#0&I9U%&S%&I%CK"U$9=&SFGbSC0;0;$9=^&#0&IC:R%=;$9=&S%U&%UT0CC%U^&#F0#$<%=;0;$9=&%=C$TG$%&%=&

IC9;:$=%U^&%;TZ&2%U& _9"CU&%;& #%U&U9$=U&U%&U9=;&U"$R$U& ;0=S$U&]"%&U9=&:;0;&`:=:C0#&T9=;$="0$;&S%&U%&

I:_9C%CZ&&

20& K0<$##%^& ;CLU& $=]"$L;%& I9"C& -Z& 4Z^& %U;& KC:]"%<<%=;& R%="%& #"$& C%=SC%& R$U$;%& I9"C& IC%=SC%&

T9==0$UU0=T%&S%&#F:R9#";$9=&S%&U9=&:;0;&S%&U0=;:&0"ICLU&S"&<:S%T$=&%;&S%&#F$=K$C<$LC%&C:K:C%=;%Z&

29CU]"%&-Z&4Z&9"&U9=&:I9"U%&S%<0=S0$%=;&S%U&IC:T$U$9=U& U"C& #0&IC9`C%UU$9=&S%& #0&<0#0S$%^& #%U&

<:S%T$=U&S9==0$%=;&S%U&%NI#$T0;$9=U&<:S$T0#%U&U"C&#%&U;0S%&SF$=U"KK$U0=T%&C:=0#%&S0=U&#%]"%#&-Z&

4Z&U%&;C9"R0$;&0$=U$&]"%&#%U&U9$=U&<$U&%=&I#0T%&I9"C&;%=;%C&S%&I0##$%C&T%&IC9\#L<%&U0=U&:R9]"%C&"=&

I9UU$\#%& :TG%T&S%U& ;C0$;%<%=;U& %=& T9"CUZ& 5%U&S$UT"UU$9=U&=%& U%<\#0$%=;&I0U& C0UU"C%C& #0& K0<$##%&

]"$^&#9CU]"%&#%&<:S%T$=&UF0\U%=;0$;^&UF%<IC%UU0$;&S%&]"%U;$9==%C&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&]"$^&%##%Ue<f<%U^&

#0&C%S$C$`%0$%=;&R%CU&#%&<:S%T$=Z&&

5%&;bI%&SF:R:=%<%=;&]"%U;$9==%&=9;C%&CH#%&$=K$C<$%C&%;&#0&T9##0\9C0;$9=&$=;%CS$UT$I#$=0$C%&0R%T&#%&

<:S%T$=Z& 59<<%=;& T9<I#:;%C& #%U& C%=U%$`=%<%=;U& <:S$T0"N& I9"C& C:I9=SC%& E& #F%=U%<\#%& S%U&

IC:9TT"I0;$9=U& S%& #0& K0<$##%& T9=T%C=0=;& #0& I:_9C0;$9=& S%& #F:;0;& S"& I0;$%=;&M& a"%& I9"CC0$;&

0II9C;%C&#F$=K$C<$LC%&%=&;%C<%U&SF0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&S"&I0;$%=;&%;&S%&U0&K0<$##%&S0=U&"=%&U$;"0;$9=&

T9<<%&T%##%eT$&M&

-Z& 4Z& %U;& %=;C:& %=& IG0U%& ;%C<$=0#%& S%& U0& <0#0S$%Z& 19$T$& #%U& Ub<I;H<%U& C:KC0T;0$C%U& ]"F$#&

IC:U%=;0$;J& "=%&SbUI=:%&T0C0T;:C$U:%&I0C&"=&%=T9<\C%<%=;&\C9=TG$]"%&<0_%"C& T0"U:%&I0C&"=&

kSL<%& I"#<9=0$C%& 0$`"& 0$=U$& ]"F"=%& 0`$;0;$9=& IUbTG9<9;C$T%& S9=;& #F9C$`$=%& U%<\#0$;& f;C%& S%&

#F0=N$:;:^&U%#9=&#F:]"$I%&U9$`=0=;%Z&X"C0=;& #0&IG0U%&SF0`9=$%^& #0&I9C;%&S%&U0&TG0<\C%&%U;&C%U;:%&

Page 8: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! R!

9"R%C;%& 0K$=& S%& <0$=;%=$C& "=%& IC9N$<$;:& 0R%T& #%U& U9$`=0=;UZ& 80=U& 0<:#$9C0;$9=& S%I"$U&

#l0S<$=$U;C0;$9=&SF"=&=%"C9#%I;$]"%&0K$=&S%&;C0$;%C&U9=&0=N$:;:^&#F$=K$C<$LC%&C:K:C%=;%&0&S:T$S:&S%&

K0$C%&0II%#&E&#F:]"$I%&<9\$#%&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KUZ&V=%&IC%UTC$I;$9=&U"II#:<%=;0$C%&S%&<9CIG$=%&%=&

T9=;$="&I0C&R9$%&$=;C0R%$=%"U%&0&T9=;C$\":&E&C:S"$C%&#F$=T9=K9C;&S%&-Z&4Z^&]"$&U%<\#%C0$;&0R9$C&:;:&

T0"U:&S0R0=;0`%&I0C&#%U&S9"#%"CU&%;&#0&SbUI=:%Z&

5%& I0UU0`%& =9"U& 0<L=%& "=& =9"R%0"& ]"%U;$9==%<%=;& U"C& #%& CH#%& T%=;C0#& S%& #F$=K$C<$LC%& 0"&

<9<%=;&S%&#0&IG0U%&;%C<$=0#%Z&7=&%KK%;^&]"%#&%U;&U9=&CH#%&S0=U&#0&S:;%T;$9=&S%&T%;;%&IG0U%M&7=&

C%`0CS&S%& #0& ;C0=U$;$9=&S%U& U9$=U& T"C0;$KU& 0"N& U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU^& ]"%#& %U;& #%&<%$##%"C&<9<%=;&I9"C&

$=;C9S"$C%&#%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&0K$=&S%&T9=U;C"$C%&"=&IC9_%;&S%&U9$=&%=&I#"C$S$UT$I#$=0C$;:&]"$&U9$;&%=&

0S:]"0;$9=&0R%T&#%&IC9_%;&S%&R$%&S"&I0;$%=;&M&7;&]"F%U;eT%&]"%&#0&I:_9C0;$9=&S%&#F:;0;&S%&U0=;:&S"&

I0;$%=;&$<I#$]"%&I9"C&#l$=K$C<$LC%&S0=U&#%&IC9_%;&S%&U9$=&M&&

.9"U&=9"U&$=;%CC9`%9=U&0"UU$&U"C&#0&<0=$LC%&S%&IC9S$`"%C&S%U&U9$=U&S%&]"0#$;:&0K$=&S%&`0C0=;$C&"=&

T9=K9C;&9I;$<0#&0"&I0;$%=;Z&7=&SF0";C%U&;%C<%U^&]"%#&U%C0$;&"=&B&T9=K9C;&9I;$<0#&D&I9"C&#%&I0;$%=;&

%;& U0& K0<$##%M& [9"C& :;0b%C& T%& ]"%U;$9==%<%=;^& =9"U& S:U$C9=U& C%TG%CTG%C& #0& <0=$LC%& S9=;& #%U&

I0;$%=;U&I%Cm9$R%=;&#%U&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&%=&K$=&S%&R$%Z&

.9"U&I%=U9=U&]"%&#0&C%#0;$9=&%=;C%&#F$=K$C<$LC%^&#%&I0;$%=;&%;&U9=&%=;9"C0`%&%U;&#F:#:<%=;&T%=;C0#&

S%& =9;C%& IC9K%UU$9=Z& 5F%U;& `CnT%& E& %##%& ]"%& =9"U& U9"G0$;9=U& IC9S$`"%C& S%U& U9$=U& S%&<%$##%"C%&

]"0#$;:& %=& #%U& $=S$R$S"0#$U0=;& E& #0& I%CU9==%& ;9";& 0"& #9=`& S%& U9=& %NI:C$%=T%& S%& U0=;:Z& [0C&

T9=U:]"%=;^&=9"U&S:K$=$UU9=U&T9<<%&UI:T$K$]"%&E&#F$=K$C<$LC%^&#0&C%TG%CTG%&%;&#0&T9==0$UU0=T%&S%&

T%&]"%&R$;&#%&I0;$%=;&%;&U0&K0<$##%^&<0$U&0"UU$&#0&R0#9C$U0;$9=&S%&#%"CU&\%U9$=U&0"ICLU&S%U&S$KK:C%=;U&

$=;%CR%=0=;U&]"$&`C0R$;%=;&0";9"C&SF%"NZ&&

X0=U&"=&UbU;L<%&S%&U0=;:&9o&#%U&I0;$%=;U&U9=;&9C$%=;:U&S0=U&#%U&S$KK:C%=;U&U%CR$T%U&%=&K9=T;$9=&S%&

#%"C&I0;G9#9`$%^&9o& #%U& U9$`=0=;U& U9=;&0<%=:U&E& ;C0R0$##%C&S%&<0=$LC%&%KK$T$%=;%&S0=U& #%&\";&S%&

C:S"$C%& #%U& T9p;U^& =9"U& =9"U& ]"%U;$9==9=U& U"C& #0&<0=$LC%& SF:;0\#$C& "=%& 0##$0=T%& ;G:C0I%";$]"%&

O"=%&C%#0;$9=&S%&T9=K$0=T%^&"=&I0C;0`%&S%&U0R9$CU&%=;C%&U9$`=0=;U&%;&U9$`=:U^&"=&I0C;%=0C$0;Q&0R%T&

#%& I0;$%=;& %;& T%T$^& 0K$=& SF:R$;%C& S%& S:UG"<0=$U%C& =9U& U9$=UZ& 7=& T%& U%=U^& =9"U& ]"%U;$9==9=U&

#F$=K#"%=T%&S"&T0SC%&S%&C:K:C%=T%&T"#;"C%#&S%&#FGHI$;0#&]"$&0&I9"C&<0=S0;&IC$=T$I0#&qS%&`":C$Cr&U"C&

#F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K&$=K$C<$%C&J&]"%##%&0;;%=;$9=&I9"R9=Ue=9"U&I9C;%C&E&S%U&U9$=U&%=&K$=&S%&

R$%&%=&;0=;&]"F$=K$C<$LC%&S0=U&"=%&"=$;:&S%&U9$=U&0$`"UM&

7=&C%`0CS&S%&#F%=U%<\#%&S%&=9U&C:K#%N$9=U^&=9"U&U9"G0$;9=U&C%TG%CTG%C& #%U&<%$##%"C%U&IC0;$]"%U&

SF0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&U9$=U&0$`"UZ&

&

>Z>Z!59=T%I;$9=&S%&#0&]"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%&&

(K$=& S%& _"U;$K$%C& #F$<I9C;0=T%& S"& T9=;%N;%& S%& =9;C%& IC9\#:<0;$]"%^& =9"U& =9"U& U9<<%U&

S9T"<%=;:%U& 0K$=&S%& T9==0s;C%& #%U& #$%"N&S0=U& #%U]"%#U& #%U& S:TLU&IC:S9<$=%=;& 0T;"%##%<%=;& %=&

8"$UU%Z&

Page 9: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! `!

7=& U%&\0U0=;& U"C& #%U& U;0;$U;$]"%U&S%U& #$%"N&S%&S:TLU&S"& T0=;9=&S%&10"S& O69%=`%C&%;& 0#Z^& >?@AQ^&

=9"U&0R9=U&T9=U;0;:&]"%&ICLU&S%&g?t&S%U&S:TLU&9=;& #$%"&%=&<$#$%"&G9UI$;0#$%C^&APt&%=&7-8&%;&

U%"#%<%=;& @At&S%U& S:TLU& 9=;& #$%"& E& S9<$T$#%Z& 2%& IC9`C0<<%& T0=;9=0#& S%& S:R%#9II%<%=;& S%U&

U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&S:U$C%&S:R%#9II%C&#%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%=&<$#$%"&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U^&T0C&ICLU&S%&g?t&S%U&

R0"S9$U&b&S:TLS%=;Z&8%#9=&#%&IC9`C0<<%&T0=;9=0#^&B&%=&>?@@^&S%U&T9=;0T;U&9=;&%"&#$%"&0R%T& #%U&

GHI$;0"N&S%&U9$=U&0$`"UZ& 2%U& C:U"#;0;U&S%& #F:R0#"0;$9=& C:0#$U:%&I0C& #F,V-8[@^&9=;&<9=;C:&]"%& #%U&

U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU& U9=;&%=T9C%&I%"&S:R%#9II:U&S0=U& #%U&U9$=U&0$`"U&D& O69%=`%C&%;&0#Z^&>?@A^&IZ&@?QZ&

.9"U&:<%;;9=U&S9=T& #FGbI9;GLU%&]"%& #0&S$KK$T"#;:&:<0=%&S%& #0&<$UU$9=&IC%<$LC%&S%&T%&;bI%&S%&

U%CR$T%& ]"$& %U;& S%& B&`":C$C&DZ& 5F%U;& I9"C& T%;;%& C0$U9=& ]"%& =9"U& 0R9=U& U9"G0$;:& 9C$%=;%C& =9;C%&

;C0R0$#&U"C&#F0IIC9TG%&S%&#0&K$=&S%&R$%&S0=U&T%&T0SC%&$=U;$;";$9==%#Z&&

20& T9=U;C"T;$9=& S%& =9;C%& ]"%U;$9=& S%& C%TG%CTG%& UF%U;& K0$;%& IC9`C%UU$R%<%=;& %=& 0UU%<\#0=;& #%U&

]"%U;$9==%<%=;U& `:=:C:U& I0C& #0& #%T;"C%& SF0C;$T#%U& %;& S%& #$RC%U& U"C& #%& U"_%;& <0$U& 0"UU$& I0C& #%U&

<9S"#%U&E&9I;$9=&]"%&=9"U&0R9=U&U"$R$U&J&<9S"#%&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%;&SF9=T9#9`$%Z&

V=& S%U& 0C;$T#%U& ]"$& 0& C%;%="& =9;C%& 0;;%=;$9=^& =9<<:& B&2%U& TC$;LC%U& S"& \$%=& <9"C$C&D&

O6$=;%C<%b%C^& >??jQ^& %=C$TG$;& =9;C%& ]"%U;$9==%<%=;& %=& =9"U& 9C$%=;0=;& U"C& #%U& :#:<%=;U&

I%C<%;;0=;& S%& ]"0#$K$%C& "=%& B&\9==%&<9C;&D& S0=U& #0& U9T$:;:& 0T;"%##%Z& 5%;& 0C;$T#%& %NI#$]"%& ]"%&

=9"U& :R9#"9=U&S0=U&"=& T9=;%N;%&S0=U& #%]"%#& #0&<9C;& %U;& S$UTCL;%^& R9$C%& %NI:S$;$R%& T9=;C$\"0=;&

I%";ef;C%& E& "=%& I%C;%& S%& U%=U& %;& "=%& 0"`<%=;0;$9=& S%& #F0=`9$UU%Z& -0N& u%\%C& O#F"=& S%U&

K9=S0;%"CU&S%&#0&U9T$9#9`$%Q&T9<<%=;%&#Fk"RC%&S%&+9#U;9v&O@cgcQ^&%=&9II9U0=;&#%&<9=S%&0=T$%=^&

T0C0T;:C$U:&I0C&S%U&U"TT%UU$9=U&S%&<9C;U^&%;&#%&<9=S%&<9S%C=%&]"$^&E&#0&I9"CU"$;%&SF"=&IC9`CLU&

U0=U&#$<$;%^&T9=;C$\"%&E&I%CSC%&#0&U$`=$K$T0;$9=&S%&#0&<9C;&<0$U&0"UU$&T%##%&S%&#0&R$%Z&7=&#$%=&0R%T&

=9;C%& IC:9TT"I0;$9=& SF9KKC$C& "=& 0TT9<I0`=%<%=;& I0##$0;$K& S%& ]"0#$;:^& =9"U& <%;;9=U& %=& 0R0=;&

#F$<I9C;0=T%& S%& T"#;$R%C& "=%& C:K#%N$R$;:& E& #F:`0CS& S%U& IC9`CLU& <:S$T0"N^& ]"$& I%"R%=;& T%C;%U&

0<:#$9C%C& #%&T9=K9C;&S%U&I%CU9==%U&<9"C0=;%U&<0$U&]"$& C$U]"%=;&:`0#%<%=;&S%&IC9#9=`%C& #%"CU&

U9"KKC0=T%U& U$& T%;;%& C:K#%N$R$;:& C%U;%& 0\U%=;%& U"C& #%U& $=;%CR%=;$9=U& <$U%U& %=& I#0T%& %;d9"&

IC9I9U:%UZ&

8%#9=&6$=;%C<%b%C& O>??jQ^& R9$T$& #%&IC$=T$I0#& TC$;LC%&0S<$U&S0=U&=9;C%& U9T$:;:&S"&q\$%=&<9"C$CrJ&

#F0\U%=T%& S%& U9"KKC0=T%& ]"$& %U;& "=%& =9;$9=& I0C;0`:%& I0C& #%U& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KU& %;& #F%";G0=0U$%&

R9#9=;0$C%& %=& 0b0=;& C%T9"CU& E& S%U& IC0;$]"%U& ]"$& S$KKLC%=;Z& XF0";C%U& TC$;LC%U& U%<\#%=;& f;C%&

$<I9C;0=;U& I9"C& ]"0#$K$%C& "=%& q\9==%&<9C;r& T9<<%&<9"C$C& %=& I0$N^& %=& :;0=;& %=;9"C:& I0C& #%U&

U$%=U& %;& C%UI%T;:& I0C& #%U& 0";C%U& 9"& %=T9C%^& <9"C$C& SF"=%& <0=$LC%& ]"$& U9$;& U$<$#0$C%& E& "=&

%=S9C<$UU%<%=;Z&&

("&R"&S%&T%U&C:K:C%=T%U&;G:9C$]"%U^&=9"U&=9"U&$=;%CC9`%9=U&U"C&#0&<0=$LC%&S9=;&#F$=K$C<$LC%&I%";&

0S0I;%C&U%U&$=;%CR%=;$9=U&E&#F%=R$C9==%<%=;&S"&I0;$%=;&0S<$U&%=&U9$=U&0$`"U&%;&E&U0&K0<$##%&0K$=&

S%&I9"R9$C&0;;%$=SC%&T%U&TC$;LC%UZ&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!@& 2l,=U;$;";& V=$R%CU$;0$C%& S%& -:S%T$=%& 89T$0#%& %;& [C:R%=;$R%& 0T;$K& S0=U& #0&C%TG%CTG%&%;& #0&K9C<0;$9=& %=& U0=;:&I"\#$]"%Z&2l,V-8[& K0$;& I0C;$%& S"&56V1&%;& S%& #lV=$R%CU$;:& S%& 20"U0==%&%;&U0& S$R$U$9=& S%U& <0#0S$%U& TGC9=$]"%U& %U;&"=&T%=;C%&T9##0\9C0;%"C&S%&#l*C`0=$U0;$9=&-9=S$0#%&S%&#0&80=;:&O*-8QZ&

Page 10: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! W!

X0=U&=9;C%&U9T$:;:&0T;"%##%^&#%U&IC9`CLU&S%&#0&<:S%T$=%&9=;&I%C<$U&S%&IC9#9=`%C&#l%UI:C0=T%&S%&

R$%& %=& 0II9C;0=;& S%U& U9$=U& T"C0;$KU& S%&<%$##%"C%& ]"0#$;:Z& [9"C& T%;;%& C0$U9=^& =9"U& U9"G0$;%C$9=U&

C:I9=SC%& E& #0& ]"%U;$9=& U"$R0=;%&J& %=& ]"9$& T%U& IC9`CLU& $=K#"%=T%=;& #0& <$U%& %=& I#0T%& S%U& U9$=U&

I0##$0;$KU&$=K$C<$%CU&M&

&

&

O(8[&K9=S0;C$T%>^&>?@WQ&

7=&C%`0CS&S%&T%&UTG:<0&;$C:&S%&#F(UU9T$0;$9=&e&S:R%#9II%<%=;&S%U&89$=U&[0##$0;$KU&O(8[&K9=S0;C$T%^&

>?@WQ^&=9"U&T9=U;0;9=U&]"%&#%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&T9G0\$;%=;&:;C9$;%<%=;&0R%T&#%U&U9$=U&T"C0;$KU^&%;&

T%T$^& _"U]"F0"& ;%C<%& S%& #0&<0#0S$%Z& 19$T$& #%& ]"%U;$9==%<%=;& ]"$& :<%C`%& E& #F9\U%CR0;$9=& S%& T%&

UTG:<0&J& T9<<%=;& "=%& $=K$C<$LC%& I%";e%##%& <%;;C%& %=& I#0T%& "=& IC9_%;& S%& U9$=& ]"$& IC%=S& %=&

T9<I;%&#%U&U9$=U&T"C0;$KU&%;&I0##$0;$KU&TG%w&#0&I%CU9==%&U9$`=:%&M&

7=& 9\U%CR0=;& #%& UTG:<0^& =9"U& =9"U& S%<0=S9=U& :`0#%<%=;^& UF$#& b& 0& "=&<9<%=;& IC:T$U& 9o& #F9=&

I0UU%&S"&T"C0;$K&0"&I0##$0;$K&%=&U9$=U&0$`"U&M&&

>ZAZ!,=;:Cf;&S%&#0&]"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%&%=&C%`0CS&S"&UbU;L<%&U9T$9eU0=$;0$C%&

8%#9=& #F%=]"f;%& C:0#$U:%& I0C& #F*KK$T%& 3:S:C0#& S%& #0& 80=;:& ["\#$]"%e*38[& O19=&u0C;\"C`& %;&.xK^&

>?@>^&IZ&PecQ^&#%&R$%$##$UU%<%=;&S%&#0&I9I"#0;$9=&8"$UU%&S:<9=;C%&#F$<I9C;0=T%&S%&IC9<9"R9$C&#%U&

U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&S0=U&=9;C%&I9#$;$]"%&S%&U0=;:Z&7=&%KK%;^&#%U&IC9`CLU&S%&#0&<:S%T$=%&R9=;&IC9#9=`%C&

#F%UI:C0=T%&S%&R$%&;9";&%=&0"`<%=;0=;&#%&=9<\C%&S%&<0#0S$%U&TGC9=$]"%U&0$=U$&]"%&#%U&S%<0=S%U&

S%&IC%U;0;$9=U&<:S$T0#%UZ&X%&I#"U^&#%&=9<\C%&S%&I%CU9==%U&S%&Wg&0=U&%;&I#"U&S0=U&#0&I9I"#0;$9=&

0"`<%=;%C0&S%&@yt&%=&>?@?&E&>Pt&%=&>?W?Z&8%#9=&T%U&U;0;$U;$]"%U&C:0#$U:%U&%=&8"$UU%^&g?&E&W?t&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!>&(8[J&(TT9<I0`=%<%=;&e&S:R%#9II%<%=;&S%U&89$=U&[0##$0;$KU&

Page 11: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! GX!

S%U&I%CU9==%U&<9"C0=;%U&9=;&"=%&<9C;&B&<9b%==%<%=;&C0I$S%&D&T0"U:%&I0C&"=%&<0#0S$%&`C0R%&

9"&IC9`C%UU$R%^&A?&E&j?t&S%U&I%CU9==%U&U9=;&S:T:S:%U&U"$;%&E&"=%&S:<%=T%&T9=;C%&gt&S%&S:TLU&

\C";0#Z& 5%T$& S:<9=;C%& ]"%& #0& S%<0=S%& %=& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KU& %U;& S:_E& T9=U:]"%=;%& %;& C$U]"%&

SF0"`<%=;%C&S0=U&"=&K";"C&IC9TG%Z&&

8%#9=& #F*38[& O19=&u0C;\"C`& %;& 0#Z^& >?@>Q^& #0& IC9I9C;$9=& S%& I%CU9==%U& S:T:S:%U& %=& $=U;$;";$9=&

UF:#LR%& E& %=R$C9=& j@tZ& 5%;;%& S9==:%& U%<\#%& R0C$%C& %=& K9=T;$9=& S%U& T0=;9=U& <0$U& C%U;%&

T9=U$S:C0\#%&S0=U&#%&T0=;9=&S%&10"S&I0C&C0II9C;&0"N&0";C%U&U;C"T;"C%U&T9<<%&#%U&i;0\#$UU%<%=;U&

-:S$T9e89T$0"N&9"&%=T9C%&#%&S9<$T$#%Z&&

2%& =9<\C%& S%& I%CU9==%U& =:T%UU$;0=;& S%U& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KU& T%U& IC9TG0$=%U& 0==:%U& R0& =%;;%<%=;&

0"`<%=;%CZ& [9"C& T%;;%& C0$U9=^& #0& <0_9C$;:& S%U& I%CU9==%U& %=& K$=& S%& R$%& O%U;$<0;$9=& S%& c?tQ&

I9"CC0$;&f;C%&IC$U%&%=&TG0C`%&I0C&S%U&IC9K%UU$9==%#U&S%&#0&U0=;:&K9C<:U&E&#0&<:S%T$=%&S%&IC%<$%C&

C%T9"CUZ& 2%U& IC9K%UU$9==%#U& %N%Cm0=;& #%U& U9$=U& S%& IC%<$%C& C%T9"CU& U9=;& J& #%U& <:S%T$=U&

`:=:C0#$U;%U^& 3-6& %=& <:S%T$=%& $=;%C=%& 0$=U$& ]"%& #%U& $=K$C<$%CU^& IG0C<0T$%=U^& U0`%UeK%<<%U^&

IGbU$9;G:C0I%";%U^&%C`9;G:C0I%";%U^&(885^&%;TZ&5%;;%&$=K9C<0;$9=&<%;&#F0TT%=;&U"C&#F$<I9C;0=T%&

]"%&#%U&IC9K%UU$9==%#U&S%&#0&U0=;:&S0=U&#0&<:S%T$=%&S%&IC%<$%C&C%T9"CU&U9$%=;&S0R0=;0`%&K9C<:U&

S0=U&#%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KUZ&&

>ZjZ!'H#%&$=K$C<$%C&%=&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&

X:K$=$;$9=&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&U%#9=&-"UU0"#;&OT$;:&S0=U&!9";%0"e.%R%U&/&-0#0]"$=e[0R0=^&>?@A^&

IZ&gQJ&

2%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&U9=;&S%U&U9$=U&0T;$KU&S0=U&"=%&0IIC9TG%&`#9\0#%&S%&#0&I%CU9==%&0;;%$=;%&

SF"=%& <0#0S$%& `C0R%& :R9#";$R%& 9"& ;%C<$=0#%Z& 2%"C& 9\_%T;$K& %U;& S%& U9"#0`%C& #%U& S9"#%"CU&

IGbU$]"%U& 0$=U$& ]"%& #%U& 0";C%U& Ub<I;H<%U& %;& S%& IC%=SC%& %=& T9<I;%& #0& U9"KKC0=T%&

IUbTG9#9`$]"%^& U9T$0#%& %;& UI$C$;"%##%Z& 2%U& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KU& %;& #F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;& U9=;&

$=;%CS$UT$I#$=0$C%UZ& ,#U& UF0SC%UU%=;& 0"&<0#0S%& %=& ;0=;& ]"%& I%CU9==%^& E& U0& K0<$##%& %;& E& U%U&

IC9TG%U^& E& S9<$T$#%& 9"& %=& $=U;$;";$9=Z& 20& K9C<0;$9=& %;& #%& U9";$%=& S%U& U9$`=0=;U& %;& S%U&

\:=:R9#%U& K9=;& I0C;$%& S%& T%;;%& S:<0CTG%Z& 2%U& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KU& %;& #F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&

T9=U$SLC%=;&#%&<0#0S%&T9<<%&"=&f;C%&R$R0=;&%;&#0&<9C;&T9<<%&"=&IC9T%UU"U&=0;"C%#Z&5%"N&

]"$&#%U&S$UI%=U%=;&TG%CTG%=;&E&:R$;%C&#%U&$=R%U;$`0;$9=U&%;&#%U&;C0$;%<%=;U&S:C0$U9==0\#%UZ&,#U&

U%& C%K"U%=;& E& IC9R9]"%C& $=;%=;$9==%##%<%=;& #0& <9C;Z& ,#U& UF%KK9CT%=;& S%& IC:U%CR%C& #0&

<%$##%"C%&]"0#$;:&S%& R$%&I9UU$\#%& _"U]"F0"&S:TLU&%;&IC9I9U%=;&"=& U9";$%=&0"N&IC9TG%U&%=&

S%"$#Z& ,#U& UF%<I#9$%=;& E& T%& ]"%^& I0C& #%"C& IC0;$]"%& T#$=$]"%^& #%"C& %=U%$`=%<%=;& %;& #%"CU&

;C0R0"N&S%&C%TG%CTG%^&T%U&IC$=T$I%U&I"$UU%=;&f;C%&0II#$]":UZ&&

7=&>??>^&#F*C`0=$U0;$9=&-9=S$0#%&S%&#0&80=;:&IC9I9U%&#0&S:K$=$;$9=&U"$R0=;%&J&&

2%U& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KU& TG%CTG%=;& E& 0<:#$9C%C& #0& ]"0#$;:& S%& R$%& S%U&I0;$%=;U& %;& S%& #%"C& K0<$##%&

K0T%& 0"N& T9=U:]"%=T%U& SF"=%& <0#0S$%& I9;%=;$%##%<%=;& <9C;%##%& I0C& #0& IC:R%=;$9=& %;& #%&

U9"#0`%<%=;&S%& #0&U9"KKC0=T%& $S%=;$K$:%&IC:T9T%<%=;&%;&:R0#":%&0R%T&IC:T$U$9=^&0$=U$&]"%&

Page 12: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! GG!

#%U& ;C0$;%<%=;U& S%& #0& S9"#%"C& %;& S%U& 0";C%U& IC9\#L<%U& IGbU$]"%U^& IUbTG9#9`$]"%U& %;&

UI$C$;"%#U&]"$&#"$&U9=;&#$:UZ&&

7=&K9=T;$9=&S%&T%U&S:K$=$;$9=U^&=9"U&<%;;9=U&%=&:R$S%=T%&#0&IC$=T$I0#%&<$UU$9=&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU^&

E& U0R9$C^& #F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;& S%& #0& I%CU9==%& S0=U& #%U& <%$##%"C%U& T9=S$;$9=UZ& 8%#9=& +G$%CCb&

+9"C=%\$U%& OIC0;$T$%=& %=& IUbTG9;G:C0I$%Q^& #F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;& %=& K$=& S%& R$%& B& z& TF%U;& U0R9$C&

%=;%=SC%&%;&0TT9<I0`=%C&#%&<0#0S%&S0=U&;9";&T%&]"F$#&C%UU%=;&I0C&C0II9C;&E&U0&K$=&IC9TG%^&<0$U&

TF%U;& 0"UU$& #F0TT9<I0`=%C& I0C& C0II9C;& E& ;9";%& U$;"0;$9=& S%& R$%& C%U;:%& %=& U"UI%=U& DZ& 5%;;%&

S:K$=$;$9=&<%;&#F0TT%=;&U"C&#0&T9<I9U0=;%&IUbTG9#9`$]"%&S%&#F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&S"&I0;$%=;&%=&K$=&

S%&R$%Z&7##%&=9"U&C:RL#%& #%&CH#%&B&IUbTG9eU9T$0#&%;&UI$C$;"%#&D&S"&U9$`=0=;&S%&I0C&U0&S$UI9=$\$#$;:^&

U9=&T9<I9C;%<%=;&%<I0;G$]"%^&U9=&:T9";%&0T;$R%&%;&T%U&T9<I:;%=T%U&T9<<"=$T0;$9==%##%UZ&

7=&C%`0CS&S%&T%;&0";%"C^&=9"U&=9"U&$=;%CC9`%9=U&U"C&#%U&T9=S$;$9=U&=:T%UU0$C%U&E&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&

SF"=& ;%#& 0TT9<I0`=%<%=;Z& 7U;eT%& I9UU$\#%& SF0UU"C%C& T%U& T9=S$;$9=U& Sl0TT9<I0`=%<%=;& S0=U&

U%CR$T%&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U&M&

-0C$%e3C0=m9$U%&59##$LC%&O>??@^&IZ>@Q&C0II%##%&]"%&;C0$;%C&=F%U;&I0U&"=&U"\U;$;";&S%&U9$`=%C^&TF%U;e

EeS$C%^& S%& IC%=SC%& U9$=Z& 5F%U;& U"C& T%;& :;0;& S%& K0$;& ]"%& #%& CH#%& $=K$C<$%C& U%& T9=U;C"$;&

I0C;$T"#$LC%<%=;& S0=U& #%U& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KUZ& 7=& T%& U%=U^& X0##0$C%& O>??P^& IZ& >WyQ& 0& S:K$=$& #%U& g&

K9=T;$9=U&$=K$C<$LC%U&]"$&C%U;%=;&`:=:C0#$U0\#%U&E&#0&IC9K%UU$9=&J&

@Z! 89$`=%C&]"$&C%`C9"I%&#%U&U9$=U&SF%=;C%;$%=&S%&#0&R$%&%;&#%U&U9$=U&;%TG=$]"%U&

>Z! iS"]"%C&]"$&0UU9T$%&%=U%$`=%C^&C%=U%$`=%C^&IC9<9"R9$C&#0&U0=;:&%;&IC:R%=$C&#%U&C$U]"%U&&

AZ! 59##0\9C%C&]"$&%=`#9\%&#F$=;%CS$UT$I#$=0C$;:^&#%&I0C;0`%&S%U&C%UI9=U0\$#$;:U^&#%U&I9#$;$]"%U&%;&

T"#;"C%U&S%&#F:;0\#$UU%<%=;&0K$=&S%&C:I9=SC%&0"N&\%U9$=U&S"&I0;$%=;&&

jZ! 599CS9==%C&0K$=&SF";$#$U%C&0"&<$%"N&#%U&C%UU9"CT%U&%;&I%CU9==%U&E&S$UI9U$;$9=&&

gZ! 8"I%CR$U%C&%=&S:#:`"0=;&0S:]"0;%<%=;&#%U&U9$=U&E&SF0";C%U&$=;%CR%=0=;U&&

&

7=& T%& U%=U^& =9"U& I9"R9=U& $=UTC$C%& S0=U& T%U& K9=T;$9=U^& #%U& g& <$UU$9=U& UI:T$K$]"%U& 0;;C$\":%U& E&

#F$=K$C<$LC%& %=& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KU& ]"$& U9=;& %UU%=;$%##%<%=;& T%=;C:%U& U"C& #F$=S$R$S"& O20<0"^& @ccW^& IZ&

>WcQJ&&

@Z& [C9;:`%C^& <0$=;%=$C^& C%U;0"C%C& %;& IC9<9"R9$C& #0& U0=;:& IGbU$]"%& %;& <%=;0#%& S%U&

I%CU9==%U&0$=U$&]"%&#%"C&0";9=9<$%Z&&

>Z&[0C;$T$I%C&E&#0&IC:R%=;$9=^&E&#F:R0#"0;$9=&%;&0"&U9"#0`%<%=;&S%&#0&S9"#%"C^&S%&#0&S:;C%UU%&

IUbTG9#9`$]"%&%;&IGbU$]"%^&I0C;$T"#$LC%<%=;&%=&K$=&S%&R$%Z&&

AZ& 59=;C$\"%C& E& #0&<$U%& %=&k"RC%& S%U& ;C0$;%<%=;U& J& U"CR%$##0=T%& T#$=$]"%^& 0II#$T0;$9=& S%U&

IC%UTC$I;$9=U&<:S$T0#%U&&

jZ&[0C;$T$I%C&E&#F:R0#"0;$9=&S"&S%`C:&S%&S:I%=S0=T%&S%U&I%CU9==%U&

Page 13: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! GH!

gZ& 59=;C$\"%C& 0"& C%T"%$#& S%& S9==:%U^& E& #0& <$U%& %=& I#0T%& S%&<:;G9S%U& ";$#%U& 0"N& 0";C%U&

IC9K%UU$9==%#UZ&

>ZgZ!a"0#$;:&S%U&U9$=U&

7=&C%#0;$9=&0R%T&#0&]"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%^&=9"U&;C9"R9=U&I%C;$=%=;&S%&S:K$=$C&\C$LR%<%=;&T%&]"%&=9"U& %=;%=S9=U& I0C& "=& B&0TT9<I0`=%<%=;& I0##$0;$K& $=K$C<$%C& S%& ]"0#$;:&DZ& [9"C& T%& K0$C%^& =9"U&IC:U%=;9=U&#%&T9=T%I;&S%&]"0#$;:&S%U&U9$=U&U%#9=&#0&S:K$=$;$9=&S%&X9=0\:S$0=&O@cWWQ&J&&

B&2%U&U9$=U&S%&G0";%&]"0#$;:&U9=;&#%U&U9$=U&R$U0=;&E&<0N$<$U%C&#%&\$%=ef;C%&S%U&I0;$%=;U&0ICLU&0R9$C&IC$U&%=&T9<I;%&#%&C0II9C;&\:=:K$T%UdC$U]"%U&E&TG0]"%&:;0I%&S"&IC9T%UU"U&S%&U9$=UZ&D&&5%;;%&S:K$=$;$9=&$##"U;C%&=9;C%&R9#9=;:&S%&C%TG%CTG%C&#%U&<%$##%"C%U&IC0;$]"%U&SF0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K&0K$=&S%&IC9I9U%C&S%U&U9$=U&0S0I;:U&0"N&I0;$%=;U&%=&K$=&S%&R$%&%;&E&#%"C&K0<$##%&%=&U%CR$T%&S%& U9$=U& 0$`"UZ&X"& C%U;%^& #0& R9#9=;:& S%& T9=U$S:C%C& #%& C0II9C;& %=;C%& #%U& \:=:K$T%U& %;& #%U& C$U]"%U&C%_9$=;&#%U&IC$=T$I%U&:;G$]"%U&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&T9<<%&#%&IC$=T$I%&S%&IC9I9C;$9=&%;&S%&K";$#$;:&]"$&%NI#$]"%=;&]"F"=&;C0$;%<%=;&=F%U;&_"U;$K$:&]"%&U$&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&%;&#%U&%KK%;U&C%TG%CTG:U&U9=;&I#"U&$<I9C;0=;U&]"%&#%U&%KK%;U&=:K0U;%UZ&X0=U&#%&T0U&T9=;C0$C%^&T%&;C0$;%<%=;&I%";&f;C%&0CCf;:&O(={0C&/&59C\0w^&>??cQZ&&&[9"C&0_9";%C&"=%&0";C%&S$<%=U$9=&E&T%;;%&S:K$=$;$9=^&U%#9=&-9C$=&O>?@@Q^&#0&]"0#$;:&S%U&U9$=U&TF%U;&

#F%=U%<\#%& S%U& T0C0T;:C$U;$]"%U& ]"%& #F9=& 0;;%=S& SF"=& U9$=& I9"C& U0;$UK0$C%& "=& \%U9$=&IC:T$UZ& 5F%U;& E& #0& K9$U& "=& IC9T%UU"U& %;& "=& C:U"#;0;Z& 5F%U;& :R9#";$K& %=& K9=T;$9=& S%U&T9==0$UU0=T%U& %;& S%U& %=_%"NZ& z& 5F%U;& :`0#%<%=;& #0& <%U"C%& E& I0C;$C& S%& #0]"%##%& #%U&<0#0S%U&9"&#%"CU&K0<$##%U&T9=U$SLC%=;&]"%&#%U&U9$=U&%;&#%&T9=;%N;%&S0=U&#%]"%#&$#U&#%U&9=;&C%m"U&U9=;&0S:]"0;U&%;&9=;&I%C<$U&SF0<:#$9C%C&#0&U0=;:&9"&#%&\$%=ef;C%Z&

&($=U$^&I9"C&S:K$=$C&"=&0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K&S%&]"0#$;:^&=9"U&U9"G0$;9=U&=9"U&$=;:C%UU%C&0"N&\%U9$=U& %;& 0;;%=;%U& S"& I0;$%=;eK0<$##%& T9=T%C=0=;& #%U& U9$=U& S%& K$=& S%& R$%& <0$U& 0"UU$^& E&#F%=R$C9==%<%=;&S0=U&#%]"%#&$#U&U9=;&S9==:UZ&4\^<=<\=<\<\=<\=<\=<\=<\=<\=<\=<\=&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Page 14: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! GI!

AZ! -:;G9S9#9`$%&

X0=U& T%& TG0I$;C%^& =9"U& 0##9=U& IC:U%=;%C& #0&<:;G9S%&S%& ;C0R0$#& ";$#$U:%& %;& 0T]"$U%& S"C0=;& =9;C%&

K9C<0;$9=& I9"C& #0& C%TG%CTG%& SF0C;$T#%U& UT$%=;$K$]"%UZ& [9"C& T%& K0$C%^& =9"U& 0R9=U& T9=U"#;:&

S$KK:C%=;%U&\0U%U&S%&S9==:%U&]"$&=9"U&9=;&I%C<$U&S%&U:#%T;$9==%C&#%U&0C;$T#%U&C:I9=S0=;&E&=9;C%&

]"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%Z&

AZ@Z!40U%U&S%&S9==:%U&";$#$U:%U&

X0=U&#%&\";&S%&;C9"R%C&S%U&0C;$T#%U&UT$%=;$K$]"%U&I9"C&K0$C%&=9;C%&C%R"%&S%&#$;;:C0;"C%^&=9"U&0R9=U&

T9=U"#;:& IC$=T$I0#%<%=;& >& \0U%U& S%& S9==:%U& J& ["\-%Sd-%S#$=%& %;& 5,.(62& ]"$& U9=;& S%U&

C%UU9"CT%U&:#%T;C9=$]"%U&9C$%=;:%U&U"C& #0&C%TG%CTG%&S0=U& #%&S9<0$=%&S%& #0&U0=;:&]"$&T9<IC%=S&

#%U&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&%;&#%U&UT$%=T%U&S%&#0&R$%Z&.9;C%&TG9$N&UF%U;&I9C;:&U"C&T%U&\0U%U&S%&S9==:%U&E&#0&

U"$;%& S%U& T9"CU& ]"%& =9"U& 0R9=U& U"$R$UZ& .9"U& 0R9=U& :`0#%<%=;& T9=U"#;:& "=& T%C;0$=& =9<\C%&

SF0C;$T#%U&%=&";$#$U0=;& #%&<9;%"C&S%& C%TG%CTG%&_%%Q7-#I61%7*'^& T%;;%& C%TG%CTG%&=F0&I0U&0\9";$&E&

S%U&0C;$T#%U&UT$%=;$K$]"%<%=;&0IIC9"R:UZ&

AZ>Z!-9;UeT#:U&%;&#%"C&T9<\$=0$U9=&

(K$=&SF%KK%T;"%C&=9U&C%TG%CTG%U&U"C&#%U&\0U%U&S%&S9==:%U^&=9"U&0R9=U&TG9$U$&S%U&<9;UeT#:U&%=&#$%=&

0R%T&#%U&T9=T%I;U&S%&=9;C%&IC9\#:<0;$]"%Z&YCnT%&0"N&T9"CU&S9==:U&U"C&#F";$#$U0;$9=&S%U&\0U%U&S%&

S9==:%U^&=9"U&0R9=U& ;C0S"$;& T%U& ;%C<%U&%=&0=`#0$U& %=&";$#$U0=;& #%U& ;G:U0"C"UA& 0K$=&]"F$#U& U9$%=;&

C:I%C;9C$:UZ&19$T$&#%U&;%C<%U&";$#$U:U&J&

-9;UeT#:U&KC0=m0$U& i]"$R0#%=;U&0=`#0$U&

89$=U&I0##$0;$KU& [0##$0;$R%&T0C%&

89$=U&T"C0;$KU& 5"C0;$R%&T0C%&

+C0=U$;$9=& +C0=U$;$9=&

3$=&S%&R$%& 7=S&9K&#$K%&

89$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%& +%C<$=0#&T0C%&

4%U9$=U& .%%SU&

49=&U9$=U& Y99S&T0C%&

,=K$C<$LC%U&%=&<:S%T$=%& -%S$T0#&="CU%U&

89$=U&0$`"U& (T";%&T0C%&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!I!':I%C;9$C%&S%&;%C<%U&";$#$U:U&S0=U&#%U&\0U%U&S%&S%&S9==:%U&UT$%=;$K$]"%U!

!

Page 15: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! GJ!

V=$;:&S%&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU& ,=;%=U$R%&T0C%&"=$;&

49=U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU& Y99S&I0##$0;$R%&T0C%&&

&

AZAZ!'%TG%CTG%&S0=U&#%U&\0U%U&S%&S9==:%U& &

.9"U&IC:U%=;9=U&U9"U&#0&K9C<%&SF"=&;0\#%0"^&#%&=9<\C%&SF0C;$T#%U&]"%&=9"U&0R9=U&;C9"R:&U"C&#%U&

\0U%U& S%& S9==:%U& %=& T9<\$=0=;& #%U& <9;UeT#:U& IC:T:S%<<%=;& <%=;$9==:UZ& 7=& IC:U%=;0=;& T%&

;0\#%0"^& =9"U& U9"G0$;9=U& 9KKC$C& "=%& R$U$9=& I#"U& :;%=S"%& S%& =9U& C%TG%CTG%U& %=& T9<I0C0=;& #%U&

0C;$T#%U&#"U&%;&C%;%="UZ&

-9;UeT#:U& X0;%&S%&

S%C=$LC%&

C%TG%CTG%&

':U"#;0;&S%&

C%TG%CTG%&

.9<\C%&

SF0C;$T#%U&#"U&

.9<\C%&

SF0C;$T#%U&

C%;%="U&

5,.(62&

T"C0;$R%&T0C%&

;9&I0##$0;$R%&

T0C%&&

@@Z?>Z@W& >PA& W& ?&

%=S&9K&#$K%&(.X&

0T";%&T0C%& @PZ?>Z@W& Ajj& c& >&

;%C<$=0#&T0C%&

(.X&<%S$T0#&

="CU%U&

@PZ?>Z@W& APP& @?& >&

;%C<$=0#&T0C%&

(.X&;C0=U$;$9=&@cZ?>Z@W& >gy& P& >&

;%C<$=0#&T0C%&

(.X&=%%SU&>PZ?AZ@W& W>& P& @&

I0##$0;$R%&T0C%&

(.X&`99S&T0C%&A?Z?AZ@W& Wj& c& @&

Page 16: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! GL!

["\-%Sd-%S#$=%&

`99S&I0##$0;$R%&

T0C%&$=&

$=;%=U$R%&T0C%&

"=$;&&

>gZ?>Z@W& @@& >& @&

+9;0"N& & @Fj?c& g>& c&

#

B'%33^'-D-'-"6+"Q&

[9"C&T9<I#:;%C&=9;C%&S9T"<%=;0;$9=^&=9"U&0R9=U&T9=U"#;:& #0&\$\#$9`C0IG$%&S%U&0C;$T#%U& #%U&I#"U&

I%C;$=%=;U&]"%&=9"U&0R9=U&C%;%="UZ&5%;;%&<:;G9S%&=9"U&0&I%C<$U&SF:;9KK%C&#%&=9<\C%&SF0C;$T#%U&

U"C&#%&U"_%;Z&&

*"RC0`%U&T9=U"#;:U&

7=&I0C0##L#%&E&=9U&C%TG%CTG%U&SF0C;$T#%U&U"C&#%U&\0U%U&S9==:%U^&=9"U&0R9=U&#"&I#"U$%"CU&9"RC0`%U&

U"C&#%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KUZ&2F"=&SF%=;C%&%"N&I9C;0$;&U"C&#%&[C9`C0<<%&T0=;9=0#&S%&S:R%#9II%<%=;&S%U&

U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&O69%=`%C&%;&0#Z^&>?@AQZ&5%U&#%T;"C%U&9=;&%=C$TG$&=9U&T9==0$UU0=T%U&U"C&#%&S9<0$=%&

S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%;&0$=U$&=9"U&9=;&I%C<$U&S%&<$%"N&T9=;%N;"0#$U%C&%;&UI:T$K$%C&#0&IC9\#:<0;$]"%Z&

(";C%U&U9"CT%U&

.9"U&0R9=U&%NI#9$;:&SF0";C%U&U9"CT%U&:#%T;C9=$]"%U&0K$=&SF0KK$=%C&=9U&T9==0$UU0=T%U&U"C&#%&U"_%;Z&

2%U&U$;%U&$=;%C=%;&C%;%="U&U9=;&#%U&U"$R0=;&J&#F*-8^&2F*38[^&#%&B&50SC%&`:=:C0#&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&

%=& 8"$UU%& D^& #F,V-8[^& #F(8[& K9=S0;C$T%Z& 5%U& $=K9C<0;$9=U& =9"U& 9=;& I%C<$U& SF0T;"0#$U%C& =9U&

T9==0$UU0=T%U& U"C& #0& U$;"0;$9=&0T;"%##%&S%U& U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%=&8"$UU%&<0$U&0"UU$&S%&=9"U&0UU"C%C&

]"%&#0&]"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%&C:U"#;%&\$%=&SF"=%&IC9\#:<0;$]"%&0T;"%##%Z&

AZjZ!':U"#;0;U&

2%&C:U"#;0;&S%&=9;C%&C%TG%CTG%&SF0C;$T#%U&=9"U&0&0<%=:%U&E& #$C%&%;&E&U:#%T;$9==%C&"=&;9;0#&S%&g>&

0C;$T#%U& 0R0=;& #0& U:#%T;$9=& K$=0#%& S%& c& 0C;$T#%UZ& [0C<$& T%"NeT$^& #0& <0_9C$;:& SF%=;C%& %"N& U9=;& S%U&

:;"S%U&]"0#$;0;$R%UZ&20&C0$U9=&I9"C& #0]"%##%&=9"U&0R9=U&TG9$U$&T%&;bI%&SF:;"S%&%U;&]"F%##%&S:TC$;&

S%U& IG:=9<L=%U& ]"$& =%& U9=;& I0U&<%U"C0\#%U& E& #F0$S%& SF"=& 9";$#Z& 5%;;%&<:;G9S%& S%& C%TG%CTG%&

=9"U& 0& I0C"& T9CC%UI9=SC%& S0R0=;0`%& E& =9;C%& ]"%U;$9=& S%& C%TG%CTG%& T0C& %##%& U%& \0U%& U"C& #%U&

%NI:C$%=T%U& G"<0$=%U& R:T"%U& OI0;$%=;U^& K0<$##%U^& U9$`=0=;UQZ& +9";%K9$U^& =9"U& 0R9=U& ";$#$U:& "=%&

C%R"%&S%&#$;;:C0;"C%&UbU;:<0;$]"%&\0U:%&U"C&"=%&0IIC9TG%&]"0=;$;0;$R%&I9"R0=;&T9<I#:;%C&=9;C%&

C:K#%N$9=&U"C&#%&U"_%;Z&

Page 17: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! GM!

AZgZ!5C$;LC%U&SF$=T#"U$9=&%;&SF%NT#"U$9=&

X0=U&#%&;0\#%0"&]"%&=9"U&IC:U%=;9=U&I#"U&\0U^&=9"U&<%;;9=U&%=&0R0=;&#%U&TC$;LC%U&SF$=T#"U$9=&%;&

SF%NT#"U$9=& C%;%="U&I9"C& #0& U:#%T;$9=&S%&=9U&0C;$T#%UZ&5%U& TC$;LC%U& U%& U9=;& C%U;C%$=;U&0"& K"C&%;&E&

<%U"C%& S%& =9;C%& #%T;"C%Z& [0C& #0& U"$;%^& #%& ;$;C%^& #%& C:U"<:& %;& #F0==:%& S%& I"\#$T0;$9=& 9=;& :;:& #%U&

TC$;LC%U&S%&IC:U:#%T;$9=Z&5%;;%&<:;G9S%&=9"U&0&I%C<$U&SF:#$<$=%C&"=&=9<\C%&$<I9C;0=;&SF0C;$T#%U&

=%& T9CC%UI9=S0=;& I0U& E& #0& ]"%U;$9=& S%& C%TG%CTG%Z& 29CU]"%& T%;;%& IC%<$LC%& U:#%T;$9=& 0& :;:&

%KK%T;":%^&=9"U&0R9=U&U9"<$U&#%U&g>&0C;$T#%U&E&=9U&TC$;LC%U&IC:U%=;:U&T$eS%UU9"UZ&(&#0&U"$;%&S%&T%&

IC9T%UU"U^&c&0C;$T#%U&9=;&:;:&C%;%="U&S9=;&"=%&C%R"%&S%&#$;;:C0;"C%&%;&"=%&C%R"%&UbU;:<0;$]"%&S%&

#$;;:C0;"C%Z&

5C$;LC%U&SF$=T#"U$9=& 5C$;LC%U&SF%NT#"U$9=&

["\#$T0;$9=&C:T%=;%&J&>??W&E&>?@W& ["\#$T0;$9=&0=T$%==%&J&0R0=;&>??W&

X9<0$=%&$=K$C<$%C& [9I"#0;$9=&S%U&0S9#%UT%=;U&%;&%=K0=;U&

59=;%N;%&G9UI$;0#$%C& ':U"<:&I%"&T9=R0$=T0=;&

8%CR$T%&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U& [C:U%=;0;$9=&S%U&C:U"#;0;U&I%"&:;0b:%&

[%CU9==%&%=&K$=&S%&R$%& .%&C:I9=S&I0U&E&#0&]"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%&

[%CUI%T;$R%&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&IC9S$`"0=;&S%U&

U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&

[%CU9==%&%=&K$=&S%&R$%&0b0=;&"=%&I0;G9#9`$%&

UI:T$K$]"%&

[%CUI%T;$R%&S%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&K0<$##%U&0b0=;&

C%m"&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&

89$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&=%&;C0$;0=;&I0U&S%U&

I%CU9==%U&%=&K$=&S%&R$%&

(C;$T#%&%=&0=`#0$U&9"&%=&KC0=m0$U& 59=;%N;%&=9=&G9UI$;0#$%C&

&

AZWZ!(C;$T#%U&C%;%="U&

19$T$&#%U&c&0C;$T#%U&U:#%T;$9==:U&]"$&C:I9=S%=;&E&=9;C%&]"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%&J&

@Z! 50U%b^& XZ^& -"CIGb^& )Z^& .$& 2%$<%^& (Z^& 20Ch$=^& [Z^& [0b=%^& 8Z^& (& 3C9``0;;^& )Z^& /& *F8G%0^& 7Z&

O>?@@QZ&Xb$=`&{%##J&K0T;9CU&;G0;&$=K#"%=T%&;G%&IC9R$U$9=&9K&`99S&%=Se9Ke#$K%&T0C%&K9C&9#S%C&

I%9I#%& $=& 0T";%& 0=S& #9=`eU;0b& T0C%& U%;;$=`U& $=& ,C%#0=SZ& P%&'"*7# %D# B7+"+6*7# Z&'3+"Q(# `a^&

@P>j|@PAAZ&

&

>Z! X0#`00CS^&)e-Z^&+G9CU%##^&YZ&/&X%#<0C^&5Z&O>?@?QZ& ,S%=;$Kb$=`&;C0=U$;$9=&$=&;%C<$=0#& $##=%UU&

;C0_%T;9C$%U& J& 0& TC$;$T0#& K0T;9C& $=& G9UI$;0#e\0U%S& I0##$0;$R%& T0C%Z& ;"5-'"*5+%"*7# P%&'"*7# %D#

Y*77+*5+4-#Z&'3+"Q(#Jb#O>Q:&

Page 18: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! GR!

AZ! Y0`=9=^& !Z& /& u%=Sb^& XZ& O>?@jQZ& +G%& IC9R$U$9=& 9K& %=Se9Ke#$K%& T0C%& \b& <%S$T0#eU"C`$T0#&

="CU%U&{9Ch$=`&$=&0T";%&T0C%J&0&#$;%C0;"C%&C%R$%{Z&Y*77+*5+4-#*",#I&99%'5+4-#B*'-(#J`^&AcAe

j?PZ&

&

jZ! Y0##0`G%C^&(Z^&49"UU9^&'Z^&-T50C;Gb&&!Z^&)9G#%=^&6Z^&(=SC%{U^&+Z^&[0`0=$=$^&-e5Z^&ZZZ&&[0S$#G0^&

)Z& O>?@jQZ& .%`9;$0;%S& C%9C$%=;$=`& J& (& `C9"=S%S& ;G%C9Cb& 9K& ="CU%UF& %=S& 9K& #$K%& S%T$U$9=e

<0h$=`&$=&;G%&$=;%=U$R%&T0C%&"=$;Z&;"5-'"*5+%"*7#P%&'"*7#%D#Z&'3+"Q#I5&,+-3(#c`OjQ^&ycjeP?AZ&

&

gZ! Y"0b^&XZ^&-$TG0"S^&5Z&/&-0;G$%"^&2Z&O>?@@QZ&X%&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&I0##$0;$KU&0"N&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&J&

"=%&I%CUI%T;$R%&$=K$C<$LC%Z&d-61-'61-#-"#3%+"3#+"D+'.+-'3(#c^&A@ejAZ&&

&

WZ! .99<%^&-Z^&49"h_%&-Z^&2%%"{%=S^&7Z&/&1#9%;^&2Z& O>?@WQZ&7NI#9C$=`&K0<$#b&%NI%C$%=T%U&9K&

="CU$=`&0UI%T;U&9K& %=S&9K& #$K%& T0C%& $=& ;G%& ,5VJ&(&]"0#$;0;$R%& U;"SbZ& ;"5-"3+4-#*",#B'+5+6*7#

B*'-#Z&'3+"Q(#ee(#gWeWjZ#&

&yZ! 8#0;b%C^& 8Z^& [$%=00C^& 5Z^&-Z&u$##$0<U^& (Z^& [C9T;9C^& )Z^&/&6%{$;;^& 2Z& O>?@gQZ& 3$=S$=`& IC$R0Tb&

KC9<& 0& I"\#$T& S%0;GJ& 0& ]"0#$;0;$R%& %NI#9C0;$9=& 9K& G9{& 0& S%S$T0;%S& UI0T%& K9C& %=Se9Ke#$K%&

T0C%& $=&0=&0T";%&G9UI$;0#& $<I0T;U&9=&Sb$=`&I0;$%=;U&0=S&;G%$C&K0<$#$%UZ&P%&'"*7#%D#B7+"+6*7#

Z&'3+"Q(#`f^&>@Wj|>@yjZ&

&

PZ! 1$CS"=^&5Z^&2"Th%;;^&+Z^&X0R$SU9=^&[Z&/&[G$##$IU^& !Z& O>?@gQZ&Xb$=`& $=&;G%&G9UI$;0#&U%;;$=`& J&(&

UbU;%<0;$T&C%R$%{&9K&]"0=;$;0;$R%&U;"S$%U&$S%=;$Kb$=`&;G%&%#%<%=;U&9K&%=Se9Ke#$K%&T0C%&;G0;&

I0;$%=;U&0=S&;G%$C&K0<$#$%U&C0=h&0U&\%$=`&<9U;&$<I9C;0=;Z&Y*77+*5+4-#O-,+6+"-(#`KOcQ^&yyje

ycW:&

&

cZ! u$;;%=\%C`e2b#%U^&7Z^&Y9#SU<$;G^&!Z^&/&'0`0=^&'Z&O>?@?QZ&+G%&UG$K;&;9&%0C#b&I0##$0;$R%&T0C%J&0&

;bI9#9`b&9K&$##=%UU&_9"C=%bU&0=S&;G%&C9#%&9K&="CU$=`Z&B7+"+6*7#P%&'"*7#%D#g"6%7%Q?#Z&'3+"Q(#

JcOAQ^&A?jeA@?Z&

jZ! (=0#bU%&S%U&0C;$T#%U&&

X0=U&T%&TG0I$;C%^&=9"U&0##9=U&;C0$;%C&S%U&0C;$T#%U&]"%&=9"U&0R9=U&TG9$U$&S%&T9=U%CR%C&I9"C&=9;C%&

;C0R0$#^&%=&IC:U%=;0=;&"=&\C%K&C:U"<:&S%U&0=0#bU%U&C:0#$U:%U&0"&<9b%=&S%&S%"N&`C$##%U&S%&#%T;"C%j^&

#F"=%&]"0#$;0;$R%&%;&#F0";C%&]"0=;$;0;$R%^&";$#$U:%U&S"C0=;&#%U&U:<$=0$C%U&S"&<9S"#%&S%&C%TG%CTG%Z&

.9"U&0##9=U&<%;;C%&%=&#"<$LC%&S$KK:C%=;U&:#:<%=;U&;$C:U&S$C%T;%<%=;&S%&=9;C%&`C$##%&SF0=0#bU%Z&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!J!5ZKZ&0==%N%&A&%;&j!

!

Page 19: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! G`!

@Z&50U%b^&XZ^&-"CIGb^&)Z^&.$&2%$<%^&(Z^& 20Ch$=^&[Z^&[0b=%^&8Z^&(&3C9``0;;^&)Z^&/&*F8G%0^&7Z& O>?@@QZ&

Xb$=`&{%##J&K0T;9CU&;G0;&$=K#"%=T%&;G%&IC9R$U$9=&9K&`99S&%=Se9Ke#$K%&T0C%&K9C&9#S%C&I%9I#%&$=&0T";%&

0=S&#9=`eU;0b&T0C%&U%;;$=`U&$=&,C%#0=SZ&P%&'"*7#%D#B7+"+6*7#Z&'3+"Q(#`a^&@P>j|@PAAZ&

&

2%&P%&'"*7#%D#B7+"+6*7#Z&'3+"Q&%U;&"=%&U9"CT%&Sl$=K9C<0;$9=U&I9"C&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&]"$&TG%CTG%=;&E&

0<:#$9C%C& #%"C& IC0;$]"%& %=& <%;;0=;& %=& :R$S%=T%& S%U& ]"%U;$9=U& 9C$%=;:%U& U"C& #0& IC0;$]"%& S%U&

$=K$C<$LC%UZ&2%U&TG%CTG%"CU&$S%=;$K$:U&S0=U&T%;&0C;$T#%&9=;&<0_9C$;0$C%<%=;&K0$;&"=&S9T;9C0;&%;&U9=;&

IC9K%UU%"CU&%=&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&E&#F"=$R%CU$;:&%=&,C#0=S%Z&

&

2F9\_%T;$K&S%U&0";%"CU&:;0$;&SF%NI#9C%C&#%U&IC$=T$I0#%U&I0C;$%U&%;&#%U&I%CUI%T;$R%U&S%U&`%U;$9==0$C%U&

S%& U9$=U& S$C%T;U& U"C& #0& S$UI9U$;$9=& 0T;"%##%& S%U& U9$=U& S%& K$=& S%& R$%& 0"ICLU& S%U& I%CU9==%U& n`:%U&

S0=U&S%U&:;0\#$UU%<%=;U&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U&%;&S%&#9=`&U:_9"C&%=&,C#0=S%&0K$=&S%&T9=U;C"$C%&"=&<9SL#%&

S%&T%U&S%C=$%CUZ&2%U&C:U"#;0;U&U%<\#%=;&K$0\#%U&%;&I%C;$=%=;U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&$=K$C<$LC%Z&7=&%KK%;^&

#0&]"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%&%U;&%=&#$%=&0R%T&#F9\_%T;$K&S%&#F:;"S%Z&X%&I#"U^&#F";$#$U0;$9=&S%&#0&;G:9C$%&

0=TC:%& %;& #0&<:;G9S%& S%& C%T"%$#& S%& S9==:%U& U9=;& T9=`C"%=;%UZ& 5%;;%& :;"S%& 0& :;:& C:0#$U:%& %=&

K0$U0=;& S%U& %=;C%;$%=U& U%<$eU;C"T;"C:U& 0"ICLU& S%& U9$`=0=;U& 0b0=;& S$KK:C%=;%U& IC9K%UU$9=U&

O%C`9;G:C0I%";%U^& IGbU$9;G:C0I%";%U^& 0$S%UeU9$`=0=;U& %;& $=K$C<$%CUeLC%UQZ& 5%##%UeT$& 9=;& :;:&

C%T"%$##$%U&_"U]"FE&U0;"C0;$9=Z&2F:<%C`%=T%&S%U&T0;:`9C$%U&UF%U;&K0$;%&E&#0&U"$;%&S%&#0&T9<I0C0$U9=&

T9=U;0=;%& S%U& %=;C%;$%=U& %;& S%& #F%=T9S0`%& S%U& S9==:%UZ& (K$=& SF$##"U;C%C& #%"C& IC9I9U^& #%U&

TG%CTG%"CU& 9=;& K0$;& 0II0C0s;C%& S%U& I0C;$%U& S%& S$0#9`"%Z& 2%U& 0";%"CU& %NI9U%=;& T#0$C%<%=;& #%U&

C:U"#;0;U&%=&S9==0=;&S%U&:#:<%=;U&$=;:C%UU0=;U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&$=K$C<$LC%Z&2%U&=9C<%U&:;G$]"%U&

U%<\#%=;& 0R9$C& :;:& C%UI%T;:%U& T0C& #F0IIC9\0;$9=& S%& #0& C%TG%CTG%& 0& :;:& S9==:%& I0C& "=& T9<$;:&

SF:;G$]"%Z& X%& U"CTC9s;^& #%U& 0";%"CU& 9=;& S%<0=S:& #%& T9=U%=;%<%=;& >jG& 0R0=;& #F$=;%CR$%{Z& 20&

T9=K$S%=;$0#$;:& S%U& I0C;$T$I0=;U& 0& :;:& 0UU"C:%& %=& U"IIC$<0=;& ;9"U& #%U& :#:<%=;U& I9"R0=;&

I%C<%;;C%& S%& #%U& $S%=;$K$%CZ& ,#U& 9=;& :;:& $=K9C<:U& S%& #0& I9UU$\$#$;:& S%& U%& C%;$C%C& S%& #F:;"S%& U0=U&

TC0$=SC%&S%U&C:I%CT"UU$9=U&U"C&#%&;C0R0$#Z&.:0=<9$=U^&#%U&0";%"CU&=%&IC:U%=;%=;&I0U&#0&C:I0C;$;$9=&

S"&=9<\C%&SF:;0\#$UU%<%=;U&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U&%;&S%&#9=`U&U:_9"CU&U"C&#%U&W&U$;%U&<%=;$9==:U^&T%&]"$&

I%";&%=;C0R%C&#0&;C0=UK:C0\$#$;:&S%U&C:U"#;0;UZ&

&

7=& C%`0CS& S%& =9;C%& ]"%U;$9=& S%& C%TG%CTG%^& T%;;%& :;"S%& 9KKC%& S%U& I$U;%U& SF$=;%CR%=;$9=& I9"C&

0<:#$9C%C&#0&]"0#$;:&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&S0=U&#%U&:;0\#$UU%<%=;U&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U&%=&0`$UU0=;&U"C&

#%U& K0T;%"CU& ]"$& #%U& $=K#"%=T%=;Z& ,#& S9==%& #%& I9$=;& S%& R"%& S%U& U9$`=0=;U& T9=T%C=0=;& #%U& U9$=U&

IC9S$`":U&0"N&I0;$%=;UZ&

&

>Z& X0#`00CS^& )e-Z^& +G9CU%##^& YZ& /& X%#<0C^& 5Z& O>?@?QZ& ,S%=;$Kb$=`& ;C0=U$;$9=& $=& ;%C<$=0#& $##=%UU&

;C0_%T;9C$%U& J& 0& TC$;$T0#& K0T;9C& $=&G9UI$;0#e\0U%S&I0##$0;$R%& T0C%Z& ;"5-'"*5+%"*7# P%&'"*7#%D#Y*77+*5+4-#

Z&'3+"Q(#Jb#O>Q:&

5%;&0C;$T#%&UT$%=;$K$]"%&%U;&$UU"&S"&_9"C=0#&,=;%C=0;$9=0#&S%&89$=U&[0##$0;$KU&]"$&%U;&"=%&I"\#$T0;$9=&

"=$]"%&:TC$;%&I0C&S%U& $=K$C<$LC%U&I9"C&S%U& $=K$C<$LC%U&%;&]"$&0\9CS%&#%U&0UI%T;U&;0=;&G9#$U;$]"%U&

]"%& UT$%=;$K$]"%U& S%U& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KUZ& 2%U& ;C9$U& 0";%"CU& U9=;& S%U& UI:T$0#$U;%U& S0=U& #%& U%CR$T%&

Page 20: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! GW!

SFG:<0;9#9`$%&S%& #FGHI$;0#&S%&(0#\9C`&0"&X0=%<0ChZ&)0C%=&-0C$%&X0#`00CS&%U;&I9U;eS9T;9C0=;%&

%=& U9$=U& $=K$C<$%CU& T#$=$]"%U^& V=$;:& S%& C%TG%CTG%& E& #FGHI$;0#& (0#\9C`^& Y%9C`& +G9CU%##& %U;&

T9=U"#;0=;^&-X^&UI:T$0#$U;%&%=&G:<0;9#9`$%&%;&IC0;$]"%&`:=:C0#%&0"&S:I0C;%<%=;&SFG:<0;9#9`$%&

E& #FGHI$;0#&SF(0#\9C`&%;&5G0C#9;;%&X%#<0C&%U;& #0& C%TG%CTG%&-0=0`%C& T#$=$]"%&%=& U9$=U& $=K$C<$%CU&

S0=U&T%&<f<%&GHI$;0#Z&

&

,#U&=9"U&IC9I9U%=;&"=%&:;"S%&]"0#$;0;$R%&";$#$U0=;&#0&;G:9C$%&0=TC:%&I9"C&#%&C%T"%$#&S%&S9==:%U&]"$&

0&I9"C&\";&S%&T9<IC%=SC%&#F$<I9C;0=T%&S%&#F$S%=;$K$T0;$9=&S%U&IG0U%U&S%&;C0=U$;$9=&SF"=%&<0#0S$%&

$=T"C0\#%^& 0$=U$& ]"%& #F$<I9C;0=T%& SF"=%& T9<<"=$T0;$9=& %NI#$T$;%& S"C0=;& T%;;%& IG0U%Z& [9"C& T%&

K0$C%^&$#U&<%;;%=;&%=&0R0=;&#%U&9\U;0T#%U&E&"=&S$0#9`"%&9"R%C;&%=;C%&#%&I%CU9==%#^&#%&I0;$%=;&%;&U0&

K0<$##%Z& 5%;;%& :;"S%& 0& :;:& C:0#$U:%& %=& %KK%T;"0=;& @gy& G%"C%U& SF9\U%CR0;$9=& 0$=U$& ]"%& S%U&

%=;C%;$%=U& $=K9C<%#U&%=C%`$U;C:U&0"ICLU&S%&S$KK:C%=;U& U9$`=0=;U&<0$U&:`0#%<%=;&S%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&

S%U& K0<$##%U& O<:;G9S%& S%& ;C$0=`"#0;$9=QZ& 2F:<%C`%=T%& S%U& 9\U;0T#%U& UF%U;& K0$;%& E& #0& U"$;%& S%&

#F%=T9S0`%&U%#9=&A&:;0I%U&O%=T9S0`%&9"R%C;^&0N$0#&%;&U:#%T;$KQZ&2%U&TG%CTG%"CU&9=;&K0$;&0II0C0s;C%&

S%U& I0C;$%U& S%& S$0#9`"%& S%& S$KK:C%=;U& U9$`=0=;U& O<:S%T$=U& %;& $=K$C<$LC%UQZ& .:0=<9$=U^& #F0C;$T#%&

=F0KK$TG%&I0U&#%U&S$0#9`"%U&S%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&#%"CU&K0<$##%UZ&,#&%U;&:`0#%<%=;&S$KK$T$#%&S%&S$UU9T$%C&#%U&

C:U"#;0;U& S%U& S9==:%U& C%T"%$##$%U& U"C& #%& ;%CC0$=& 0"ICLU& S"& I%CU9==%#& <:S$T0#& %;& S%& T%##%U& S%U&

K0<$##%U& %;& I0;$%=;UZ& X%& I#"U^& #%U& TG%CTG%"CU& =%& IC:U%=;%=;& I0U& #%U& ]"%U;$9=U& I9U:%U& #9CU& S%U&

%=;C%R"%UZ& V=%& 0";C%& #$<$;%& S%& T%;;%& C%TG%CTG%& %U;& ]"F%##%& 0& :;:& <%=:%& S0=U& "=& U%"#& U$;%&

G9UI$;0#$%CZ& 2%U& =9C<%U& :;G$]"%U& =%& U9=;& I0U& T#0$C%<%=;& %NI#$T$;:%U& \$%=& ]"F$#U& S$U%=;& #%U& 0R9$C&

C%UI%T;:%U&U%#9=&#%&B&Z%',+6#,+'-65+4-3#/51+2&-3&D&S%U&I0bU&I9"C&#0&C%TG%CTG%&%=&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&

%=&T%&]"$&T9=T%C=%&#0&I0C;$T$I0;$9=&R9#9=;0$C%&%;&#0&T9=K$S%=;$0#$;:&S%U&I0C;$T$I0=;UZ&&

.9"U& 0R9=U& U:#%T;$9==:& T%;& 0C;$T#%& T0C^& \$%=& ]"F$#& IC:U%=;%& S%U& #$<$;%U^& $#& <%;& %=& :R$S%=T%&

#F$<I9C;0=T%&S%&C%T9==0$;C%&%=&;0=;&]"%&U9$`=0=;^&#%U&S$KK:C%=;%U&IG0U%U&S0=U&#0&;C0_%T;9$C%&SF"=%&

<0#0S$%& $=T"C0\#%& %=& =9"U& 9KKC0=;& S%U& I$U;%U& SF$=;%CR%=;$9=& I9"C& #0& IC0;$]"%& \0U:%& U"C& #0&

T9<<"=$T0;$9=Z&

&

AZ&Y0`=9=^& !Z&/&u%=Sb^&XZ& O>?@jQZ& +G%&IC9R$U$9=&9K& %=Se9Ke#$K%& T0C%& \b&<%S$T0#eU"C`$T0#& ="CU%U&

{9Ch$=`&$=&0T";%&T0C%J&0&#$;%C0;"C%&C%R$%{Z&Y*77+*5+4-#*",#I&99%'5+4-#B*'-(#J`^&AcAej?PZ&

&

5%& _9"C=0#&%U;&"=%&C%R"%& $=;%C=0;$9=0#%&S%&<:S%T$=%&I0##$0;$R%&]"$&U%&T9=T%=;C%&U"C& #%U&0UI%T;U&

IUbTG$0;C$]"%U^& IUbTG9U9T$0"N^& UI$C$;"%#U^& %N$U;%=;$%#U^& :;G$]"%U& %;& IG$#9U9IG$]"%U& S%U& U9$=U&

I0##$0;$KUZ&20&I9C;:%&S%&#0&C%R"%&%U;&#0C`%&%;&T9=T%C=%&;9"U&#%U&0UI%T;U&S%&#0&<:S%T$=%&I0##$0;$R%Z&

2F0";%"C%&IC$=T$I0#%&0&"=&<0U;%C&%=&UT$%=T%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&%;&#0&U%T9=S%&0&"=&S9T;9C0;&%=&UT$%=T%U&

$=K$C<$LC%UZ&5%U&S%"N&0";%"C%U&;C0R0$##%=;&E&#F"=$R%CU$;:&SF(#\%C;0&0"&50=0S0Z&

&

2F9\_%T;$K&S%U&0";%"C%U&%U;&SF%NI#9C%C&%;&SF0T]":C$C&"=%&<%$##%"C%&T9<IC:G%=U$9=&U"C&#0&K0m9=&S%&

IC9S$`"%C&S%U&U9$=U&S%& K$=&S%&R$%&I0C&S%U& $=K$C<$LC%U&S%&<:S%T$=%eTG$C"C`$%&S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&

Page 21: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! HX!

U9$=U&0$`"U&%;&SF$S%=;$K$%C&#%U&:T0C;U&0$=U$&]"%&#%U&C%T9<<0=S0;$9=U&I9"C&S%U&K";"C%U&C%TG%CTG%UZ&

59=T%C=0=;& #0& K$0\$#$;:& S%& T%;& 0C;$T#%^& #%& ]"%U;$9==%<%=;& S%& #0& C%TG%CTG%& %U;& %=& #$%=& 0R%T& #%U&

9\_%T;$KU& S%& #F:;"S%Z& 20&<:;G9S%& S%& C%T"%$#& S%& S9==:%U& %U;& S:;0$##:%& %;& IC:U%=;%& #%U& \0U%U& S%&

S9==:%U&";$#$U:%U^&#%U&;%C<%U&";$#$U:U&#9CU&S%&#0&U:#%T;$9=&S%U&0C;$T#%U&%;&#%U&TC$;LC%U&SF$=T#"U$9=&%;&

SF%NT#"U$9=Z& 2%U& :;"S%U& U:#%T;$9==:%U& U9=;& 0S:]"0;%<%=;& IC:U%=;:%U& O;0\#%0"& T9<I0C0;$K& S%U&

C:U"#;0;UQZ& .:0=<9$=U^& #%U& I0C;$T$I0=;U& S%U& :;"S%U& U:#%T;$9==:%U& U9=;& <0_9C$;0$C%<%=;& S%U&

K%<<%UZ&[9"C&T%;;%&C0$U9=^&#F:TG0=;$##9=&C%IC:U%=;%&"=&\$0$U&E&#0&`:=:C0#$U0;$9=&S%U&C:U"#;0;UZ&X%&

<0=$LC%&`:=:C0#%^& #%U&:#:<%=;U& 0<%=:U&S0=U& #0&S$UT"UU$9=& U9=;& ;CLU&I%C;$=%=;U&%;& %=& #$%=&0R%T&

#F$=;%CIC:;0;$9=&S%U&S9==:%UZ&

&

5%;& 0C;$T#%& 0& :R%$##:& =9;C%& $=;:Cf;& T0C& #%U& 0";%"C%U& IC9I9U%=;& S%U& $=;%CR%=;$9=U& I9"C& 0<:#$9C%C&

#}0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&S9==:&I0C&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&S%&<:S%T$=%eTG$C"C`$%&I9"C&S%U&I%CU9==%U&%=&K$=&S%&

R$%& %=& <%;;0=;& %=& :R$S%=T%& #%U& K0T;%"CU& ]"$& $=K#"%=T%=;& T%;& 0TT9<I0`=%<%=;Z& X%& I#"U^& %##%U&

$S%=;$K$%=;&#%U&:T0C;U&%=;C%&#0&;G:9C$%&%;&#0&IC0;$]"%Z&

&

f:&& Y0##0`G%C^& (Z^& 49"UU9^& 'Z^& -T50C;Gb^& !Z^& )9G#%=^& 6Z^& (=SC%{U^& +Z^& [0`0=$=$^& -e5Z^& ZZZ& [0S$#G0^& )Z&

O>?@jQZ&.%`9;$0;%S&C%9C$%=;$=`&J&(&`C9"=S%S&;G%C9Cb&9K&="CU%UF&%=S&9K&#$K%&S%T$U$9=e<0h$=`&$=&;G%&

$=;%=U$R%&T0C%&"=$;Z&;"5-'"*5+%"*7#P%&'"*7#%D#Z&'3+"Q#I5&,+-3(#c`OjQ^&ycjeP?AZ&

&

2%U& 0";%"CU& S%& T%;;%& :;"S%& IC9R$%==%=;& ;9"U& SF"=%& "=$R%CU$;:& %=& <:S%T$=%& S%& T$=]& I0bU&

S$KK:C%=;UZ&[0C<$&T%U&I0bU^& $#&b&0& #%&4C:U$#^& #0&[0#%U;$=%^& #F(##%<0`=%^& #F,C#0=S%^&%;& #F(=`#%;%CC%Z&5%;&

0C;$T#%& 0& :;:& I"\#$:& S0=U& #%& P%&'"*7# ;"5-'"*5+%"*7# %D# Z&'3+"Q# I5&,+-3& ]"$& %U;& "=%& C%R"%&

$=;%C=0;$9=0#%&SF:;"S%U&%=&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&]"$&0&I9"C&9\_%T;$K&S%&K0$C%&IC9`C%UU%C&#0&]"0#$;:&S%&#0&

C%TG%CTG%& %=& I"\#$0=;& S%U& S9T"<%=;U& <:;G9S9#9`$]"%U& $=;C9S"$U0=;& 9"& :#0\9C0=;& U"C& S%U&

;%TG=$]"%U&0=0#b;$]"%U^&S%U&<%U"C%U&%;&S%U&<:;G9S%U&S%&C%TG%CTG%Z&

2%&\";&S%&T%;;%& C%TG%CTG%&%U;&S%&T9<IC%=SC%& #%&IC9T%UU"U&S:T$U$9==%#&S%U& $=K$C<$LC%U&S0=U& #%U&

"=$;:U& S%& U9$=U& $=;%=U$KU& S0=U& S$KK:C%=;U& T9=;%N;%U& T"#;"C%#UZ& [9"C& <%=%C& T%;;%& :;"S%^& S%U&

%=;C%R"%U&U%<$eU;C"T;"C:%U&%=C%`$U;C:%U&9=;&:;:&<%=:%U&0"ICLU&S%&g@&$=K$C<$LC%U&O@?&0"&4C:U$#^&c&

%=& (=`#%;%CC%^& @?& %=& (##%<0`=%^& @?& %=& ,C#0=S%& %;& @>& %=& [0#%U;$=%Q& %=& U9$=U& $=;%=U$KU^&

%NI:C$<%=;:%U^&0b0=;&0"&<9$=U&W&<9$U&SF%NI:C$%=T%&S%&;C0R0$#&S0=U&"=%&"=$;:&S%&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&%;&

;C0R0$##0=;&S0=U&"=%&"=$;:&S%&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&0"&<9<%=;&S"&C%TC";%<%=;&S0=U&S%U&"=$R%CU$;:U&9"&

GHI$;0"N& #9T0"N&S%&T%U&I0bUZ&2l:]"$I%&S%&IC9_%;&S%&TG0]"%&I0bU&0&I0C;$T$I:&E&"=&0;%#$%C&0K$=&S%&

S$UT";%C&S%&#F0=0#bU%&S%&#l%=U%<\#%&S%U&S9==:%U&E&#F0$S%&S%&#0&;G:9C$%&0=TC:%Z&["$U^&T%U&S9==:%U&

9=;&:;:&%=T9S:%U&%=&";$#$U0=;&#0&T9<I0C0$U9=&T9=U;0=;%&%;&#%&T9S0`%&B&9"R%C;&D^&I"$U&B&U:#%T;$K&D&

0K$=&S%&`:=:C%C&S%U&T0;:`9C$%UZ&20&T9##%T;%&S%&S9==:%U&0&:;:&I9"CU"$R$%&_"U]"lE&U0;"C0;$9=Z&7=&T%&

]"$& T9=T%C=%& #%& C%UI%T;& S%U& =9C<%U& :;G$]"%U^& #0& IC9I9U$;$9=& S%& IC9_%;& 0& :;:& %N0<$=:%& I0C& "=&

T9<$;:& SF:;G$]"%& S%& C%TG%CTG%& O;"35+5&5+%"*7# d-4+-h# U%*',3Q& S0=U& TG0]"%& I0bUZ& +9"U& #%U&

I0C;$T$I0=;U&9=;&C%m"&S%U&$=K9C<0;$9=U&T9=T%C=0=;&#%&IC9_%;Z&[0C<$&%"N^&T%"N&]"$&9=;&0TT%I;:&S%&

K0$C%& I0C;$%& S%& #F:;"S%& 9=;& S9==:& #%"C& T9=U%=;%<%=;& I0C& :TC$;Z& 2%U& TG%CTG%"CU& 9=;& :`0#%<%=;&

Page 22: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! HG!

<%=;$9==:& ]"%& #%U& I0C;$T$I0=;U& :;0$%=;& #$\C%U& S%& U%& C%;$C%C& E& ;9";&<9<%=;^& U0=U& T9=U:]"%=T%&

=:`0;$R%Z&2%U&=9C<%U&S%&T9=K$S%=;$0#$;:&#%"C&9=;&:;:&%NI#$]":%UZ&,#&=Fb&0&I0U&%"&S%&T9=K#$;&SF$=;:Cf;^&

U%#9=&#%U&0";%"CUZ&2%U&#$<$;%U&S%&#F0C;$T#%&=%&U9=;&I0U&IC:U%=;:%UZ&&

5%;& 0C;$T#%& =9"U& 0& $=;%CI%##:%U& T0C& $#& S9==%& I#"U$%"CU& I$U;%U& SF$=;%CR%=;$9=U& I9"C& 0<:#$9C%C& #0&

]"0#$;:&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&S0=U&#%U&:;0\#$UU%<%=;U&S%&U9$=U&0$`"UZ&X%&I#"U^&$#&<%;&%=&:R$S%=T%&

#%&CH#%&S:T$U$9==%#&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&%=&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KUZ&[9"C&;%C<$=%C^&#%U&0";%"CU&U%&C:KLC%=;&E&S%U&

0C;$T#%U& IC9R%=0=;& S%& S$KK:C%=;U& I0bUZ& 5%T$& I%C<%;& SF0R9$C& "=%& R$U$9=& I#"U& :;%=S"%& S%& #0&

IC9\#:<0;$]"%&%;&0"`<%=;%&#0&;C0=UK:C0\$#$;:&S%U&C:U"#;0;UZ&

&

gZ&Y"0b^&XZ^&-$TG0"S^&5Z&/&-0;G$%"^&2Z&O>?@@QZ&X%&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&I0##$0;$KU&0"N&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&J&"=%&

I%CUI%T;$R%&$=K$C<$LC%Z&d-61-'61-#-"#3%+"3#+"D+'.+-'3(#c^&A@ejAZ&

&

20&C%R"%&~'%TG%CTG%&%=&89$=U&,=K$C<$%CU~&O'Z8Z,Q&0&I9"C&\";&S%&S$KK"U%C&#%U&0C;$T#%U&S%&C%TG%CTG%^&

SF0IIC9K9=S$C& "=& U"_%;& S9T"<%=;:^& SF0R9$C& "=%& C:K#%N$9=& :I$U;:<9#9`$]"%& 9"&<:;G9S9#9`$]"%&

I9"C&0$S%C&E&T9<IC%=SC%&#%U&T9<I9C;%<%=;U&%;&#0&=9;$9=&S%&U0=;:Z&2%U&0";%"CU&S%&T%;&0C;$T#%&U9=;&

%UU%=;$%##%<%=;&S%U&IC9K%UU%"CU&%=& U9$=U& $=K$C<$%CU&S9=;&S%"N&E& #0& K0T"#;:&S%&<:S%T$=%&%;&S%U&

UT$%=T%U&S%&#0&U0=;:&E&#F"=$R%CU$;:&S%&8G%C\C99h%^&0"&50=0S0Z&

&

2F9\_%T;$K& S%U& TG%CTG%"CU& :;0$;& S%& T9<IC%=SC%& T9<<%=;& U%& <0=$K%U;%=;& #%U& B& \9=U& U9$=U& D&

I0##$0;$KU& 0"N& U9$=U& $=;%=U$KU& U%#9=& #0& I%CUI%T;$R%& S%U& $=K$C<$LC%U& ]":\:T9$U%UZ& 20& TC:S$\$#$;:& S%&

#F:;"S%&%U;&K0R9C$U:%&I0C&#%&K0$;&]"%&#%U&TG%CTG%"CU&9=;&;C0R0$##:&S0=U&#%&T9=;%N;%&:;"S$:Z&X%&I#"U^&

$#U&9=;&";$#$U:&#0&;C$0=`"#0;$9=&T9<<%&U;C0;:`$%&S%&T9##%T;%&S%&S9==:%U&O9\U%CR0;$9=U^&S$UT"UU$9=U&

S%& `C9"I%& %;& $=S$R$S"%##%UQZ& 20& IC$U%& %=& T9=U$S:C0;$9=& S%& #0& I9U$;$9=& S%& #F0";%"C& IC$=T$I0#& S%&

#F:;"S%&0&:;:&C:I%C;9C$:%&S0=U&"=&T0C=%;&S%&C%TG%CTG%Z&20&T9=K$C<0;$9=&S%& #F:;"S%&%U;&K0R9C$U:%&

I0C&#%U&=9<\C%"N&C%;9"CU&0"ICLU&S%U&I0C;$T$I0=;%U&0K$=&S%&R:C$K$%C&]"%&#F0=0#bU%&IC9I9U:%&I0C&#%U&

TG%CTG%"CU& %U;& T9CC%T;%Z& 20& K$0\$#$;:& S%U& S9==:%U& %;& C:U"#;0;U& S%& #F:;"S%& %U;& 0UU"C:%& I0C& #0&

S%UTC$I;$9=& S:;0$##:%& S"& S:C9"#%<%=;& S%& #F:;"S%& %;& #F0TT%UU$\$#$;:& 0"N& S9==:%U& \C";%U&

O%=C%`$U;C%<%=;^&;C0=UTC$I;$9=&S%U&R%C\0;$<^&T0C=%;&S%&C%TG%CTG%QZ&20&;C0=UK:C0\$#$;:&S%U&C:U"#;0;U&

I%";& f;C%& 0IIC:T$:%& I0C& "=%& S%UTC$I;$9=& :;9KK:%& S"& T9=;%N;%& S%& #F:;"S%^& S%U& I0C;$T$I0=;U^& S"&

IC9T%UU"U&S%&T9##%T;%&%;&SF0=0#bU%&S%U&S9==:%U&0$=U$&]"%&S%U&C:U"#;0;U&]"0#$;0;$KU&0II"b:U&I0C&S%U&

T$;0;$9=U& S%U& I0C;$T$I0=;UZ& X%& I#"U^& #%U& %=;C%R"%U& S%& R0#$S0;$9=& %=& `C9"I%& I%C<%;;0$%=;& 0"N&

$=K$C<$LC%U& ]"$& =F9=;& I0U& I0C;$T$I:& 0"N& IC%<$LC%U& T9##%T;%U& S%& S9==:%U& S%& I0C;0`%C& #%"C&

%NI:C$%=T%Z& 5%;& :#:<%=;& 0& K0R9C$U:& "=%& I#"U& R0U;%& ;C0=UK:C0\$#$;:Z& 20& K9CT%& IC$=T$I0#%& S%& T%;;%&

:;"S%& %U;& ]"F%##%& IC:U%=;%& "=& <9SL#%& T9=T%I;"%#& %"C9I:%=Z& 2%U& #$<$;%U& U9=;& #%U& U"$R0=;%U& J&

#F:;"S%& UF%U;& S:C9"#:%& U"C& "=& U%"#& U$;%^& #0& I0;$%=;L#%& :;0$;& "=$]"%<%=;& S%U& 0S"#;%U&�& #%U&

I0C;$T$I0=;%U&9=;&S%U&T0C0T;:C$U;$]"%U&T"#;"C%##%U&G9<9`L=%U&�&#%&=9<\C%&SF%=;C%R"%U&S%&`C9"I%&

:;0$;& IC:S:;%C<$=:& T%& ]"$& 0& I"& T9<IC9<%;;C%& #0& U0;"C0;$9=& S%U& S9==:%U&�& I#"U$%"CU& %=;C%;$%=U&

9=;&:;:&C:0#$U:U&#0&<f<%&_9"C=:%^&T%#0&0&I9UU$\#%<%=;&%=;C0R:&#F:R9#";$9=&S"&`"$S%&SF%=;C%R"%&�&

%;& #F0\U%=T%& SF"=& 9\U%CR0;%"C& 0& I"& T9<IC9<%;;C%& #0& S%UTC$I;$9=& S%U& $=;%C0T;$9=U& %=;C%& #%U&

I0C;$T$I0=;%UZ&

Page 23: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! HH!

.9"U& 0R9=U& S:T$S:& S%& C%;%=$C& T%;& 0C;$T#%& T0C& #%U& C:U"#;0;U& IC:U%=;:U& =9"U& S9==%=;& S%U& I$U;%U&

SF$=;%CR%=;$9=U&I%C;$=%=;%U&%;&T9=TCL;%U&I9"C&0<:#$9C%C&#0&]"0#$;:&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&S0=U&#%U&

:;0\#$UU%<%=;U&S%&U9$=U&0$`"UZ&

&

WZ& .99<%^& -Z^& 49"h_%& -Z^& 2%%"{%=S^& 7Z& /& 1#9%;^& 2Z& O>?@WQZ& 7NI#9C$=`& K0<$#b& %NI%C$%=T%U& 9K&

="CU$=`& 0UI%T;U& 9K& %=S& 9K& #$K%& T0C%& $=& ;G%& ,5VJ& (& ]"0#$;0;$R%& U;"SbZ& ;"5-"3+4-# *",# B'+5+6*7# B*'-#

Z&'3+"Q(#ee(#gWeWjZ#&

5%;&0C;$T#%&UT$%=;$K$]"%&IC9R$%=;&SF"=&_9"C=0#&$=;%C=0;$9=0#&U"C&#0&C%TG%CTG%&%;&#0&IC0;$]"%&%=&U9$=U&

$=K$C<$%CU&]"$&;C0$;%&S%U&0UI%T;U&S%&#0&IC0;$]"%^&S%U&0UI%T;U&T#$=$]"%U&S%&#0&C%TG%CTG%^&S%U&0UI%T;U&

;%TG=9#9`$]"%U^&9"&%=T9C%&S%U&0UI%T;U&:S"T0;$KUZ& 2%U& TG%CTG%"CU& U9=;&S%U& UI:T$0#$U;%U&%=& U9$=U&

$=;%=U$KUZ&&

,#U& =9"U& IC:U%=;%=;& "=%& :;"S%& ]"0#$;0;$R%& IG:=9<:=9#9`$]"%& ]"$& 0& :;:& C:0#$U:%& E& #F0$S%&

SF%=;C%;$%=U& U%<$eU;C"T;"C:U& 0"ICLU& S%U& K0<$##%UZ& 5%;;%& :;"S%& 0& I9"C& \";& Sl%N0<$=%C& #%U&

%NI:C$%=T%U& S%U& K0<$##%U& 0b0=;& 9\U%CR:& #%U& U9$=U& $=K$C<$%CU& S%& K$=& S%& R$%& S0=U& #F"=$;:& S%& U9$=U&

$=;%=U$KU& 0ICLU& 0R9$C& IC$U& "=%&S:T$U$9=&S%&<%;;C%& K$=& 0"N& ;C0$;%<%=;U& T"C0;$KUZ&(&I0C;$C& S%& T%;;%&

S:T$U$9=^&#%U&TG%CTG%"CU&#%"C&9=;&S%<0=S:&S%&S:TC$C%&#%U&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&]"F$#U&9=;&0IIC:T$:&%;&#%U&

U9$=U&]"$^&U%#9=&%"N^&K0$U0$%=;&S:K0";Z&

(K$=& S%& C:0#$U%C& T%;;%& :;"S%^& #%U& 0";%"CU& 9=;& $=;%CR$%{:&"=&:TG0=;$##9=&S%&>W& K0<$##%U& U"C& #%"CU&

%NI:C$%=T%U^&g&E&P&U%<0$=%U&0ICLU&#%&S:TLU&S%&#%"C&IC9TG%&%=&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KUZ&2%U&I0C;$T$I0=;U&9=;&

:;:& C%TC";:U& 0"& U%$=& SF"=& U%CR$T%& S%& U9$=U& 0$`"U& S0=U& "=& GHI$;0#& "=$R%CU$;0$C%& %;& S0=U& ;C9$U&

GHI$;0"N& 0"N& [0bUe40UZ& 2%U& %=;C%R"%U& 9=;& :;:& <%=:%U& 0K$=& S%& C%T"%$##$C& #%U& %NI:C$%=T%U& S%U&

K0<$##%U&0b0=;&"=&IC9TG%&%=& K$=&S%&R$%&G9UI$;0#$U:&S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&U9$=U&0$`"UZ&[9"C&T%& K0$C%^&

S%"N& ]"%U;$9=U& #%"C& :;0$%=;& I9U:%UZ& 7=& T%& ]"$& T9=T%C=%& #%U& =9C<%U& :;G$]"%U^& #l:;"S%& 0& :;:&

0IIC9"R:%& I0C& #%& 59<$;:& C:`$9=0#& -:S$T0#& %;& :;G$]"%& S%& #0& C%TG%CTG%& %=& U0=;:^& I"$U& I0C& #%U&

I0C;$T$I0=;U&S%U&U9$=U& $=;%=U$KUZ&2%U&I0C;$T$I0=;U&I9;%=;$%#U&9=;&:;:& $=K9C<:U&S%& #F:;"S%^&E& #0&K9$U&

I0C&:TC$;&%;&I0C&9C0#Z&X0=U&W&T0U^&#0&K0<$##%&0&C%K"U:&S0R0=;0`%&S%&T9=;0T;&0R%T&#%&TG%CTG%"C&T0C&#%U&

<%<\C%U&S%&#0&K0<$##%&=F:;0$%=;&I0U&S$UI9=$\#%U&9"&U%&U%=;0$%=;&;C9I&:<9;$KUZ&(ICLU&0R9$C&0TT%I;:&

S%&I0C;$T$I%C&E&#F:;"S%^&"=&T9=U%=;%<%=;&:T#0$C:&0&:;:&9\;%="&0"ICLU&S%&;9"U&#%U&I0C;$T$I0=;UZ&2%U&

TG%CTG%"CU^& 0b0=;& T9=UT$%=T%& ]"%& #%& I0C;0`%& S%U& :<9;$9=U& I"$UU%& IC9R9]"%C& "=%& C:0T;$9=&

:<9;$9==%##%&;CLU&K9C;%&TG%w&#%U&K0<$##%U^&9=;&S%<0=S:&0"N&K0<$##%U&U$&%##%U&U9"G0$;0$%=;&0R9$C&"=&

U9";$%=&I#"U&$<I9C;0=;&0R%T&"=&IC9K%UU$9==%#&S%&#FGHI$;0#&0ICLU&#F%=;C%R"%Z&59=T%C=0=;&#%U&#$<$;%U&

S%& #F:;"S%^& #%U& 0";%"CU& <%;;%=;& %=& :R$S%=T%& #%& K0$;& ]"%& U%"#& #F0R$U& S%U& K0<$##%U& %U;& IC$U& %=&

T9=U$S:C0;$9=& %;& ]"F$#& K0"SC0$;& K0$C%& S0R0=;0`%& S%& C%TG%CTG%U& S:TC$R0=;& #%U& I%CT%I;$9=U& S%U&

$=K$C<$LC%U&%=&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU^&0K$=&S%&T9<\$=%C&T%U&C:U"#;0;U&%;&SF0<:#$9C%C&#0&]"0#$;:&S%U&U9$=U&%=&

9KKC0=;& "=%& R$U$9=& I#"U& `#9\0#%Z& +9";%K9$U^& #%U& IC$=T$I0"N& C:U"#;0;U& S%& T%;;%& :;"S%& S9==%=;& "=&

0I%Cm"&S%U&;GL<%U&]"$&%=;C0R%=;&"=%&IC$U%&%=&U9$=U&S%&]"0#$;:&%=&IC9I9U0=;&0$=U$^&S%&=9"R%##%U&

I%CUI%T;$R%U&S%&C%TG%CTG%Z&&

Page 24: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! HI!

.9"U&0R9=U&T9=U%CR:&T%;&0C;$T#%&T0C&$#&;C0$;%&S$C%T;%<%=;&S%&=9;C%&IC9\#:<0;$]"%&%;&]"F$#&I%C<%;&

0"N&$=K$C<$LC%U&S%&C%T9==0s;C%&#%U&IC0;$]"%U&S%&U9$=U&]"$&9=;&:;:&0IIC:T$:%U&%;&]"$&9=;&U9"#0`:&#%U&

K0<$##%U&0$=U$&]"%&#%U&I0;$%=;U&S"C0=;&#%"C&K$=&S%&R$%&0"N&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KUZ&

yZ&8#0;b%C^&8Z^&[$%=00C^&5Z^&-Z&u$##$0<U^&(Z^&[C9T;9C^&)Z^&/&6%{$;;^&2Z&O>?@gQZ&3$=S$=`&IC$R0Tb&KC9<&0&

I"\#$T&S%0;GJ&0&]"0#$;0;$R%&%NI#9C0;$9=&9K&G9{&0&S%S$T0;%S&UI0T%&K9C&%=Se9Ke#$K%&T0C%&$=&0=&0T";%&

G9UI$;0#&$<I0T;U&9=&Sb$=`&I0;$%=;U&0=S&;G%$C&K0<$#$%UZ&P%&'"*7#%D#B7+"+6*7#Z&'3+"Q(#`f^&>@Wj|>@yjZ&

&

5%;& 0C;$T#%& UT$%=;$K$]"%& %U;& I"\#$:& S0=U& #%& P%&'"*7# %D# B7+"+6*7# Z&'3+"Q& ]"$& ;%=S& E& IC9<9"R9$C& #%&

S:R%#9II%<%=;& %;& #F:TG0=`%& S%& T9==0$UU0=T%U& T9CC%UI9=S0=;& 0"N& S$KK:C%=;%U& UIGLC%U& S%& #0&

IC0;$]"%&$=K$C<$LC%Z&2%&_9"C=0#&0&0"UU$&I9"C&\";&S%&IC9<9"R9$C&#F:TG0=`%&SF$S:%U&%;&SF%NI:C$%=T%U&

U"C&#%U&IC0;$]"%U&S%&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&0"&=$R%0"&$=;%C=0;$9=0#Z&2%U&0";%"CU&]"$&9=;&S$KK:C%=;U&;$;C%U^&

;%#& ]"%& IC9K%UU%"C& %=& U9$=U& $=K$C<$%CU& 9"& T#$=$T$%=^& =9"U& IC9I9U%=;& "=%& 0IIC9TG%& ]"0#$;0;$R%&

\0U:%&U"C&S%U&%=;C%;$%=U&U%<$eU;C"T;"C:U&%=&UF0II"b0=;&U"C&#0&;G:9C$%&0=TC:%Z&

&

20& R9#9=;:& S%U& 0";%"CU& :;0$;& SF%NI#9C%C& #%U& %NI:C$%=T%U& %;& I%CT%I;$9=U& S%& #0& K0<$##%& %;& S"&

I%CU9==%#& U9$`=0=;& ]"$& 9=;& IC9S$`":& S%U& U9$=U& E& S%U& I0;$%=;U& <9"C0=;U& S0=U& "=%& TG0<\C%&

$=S$R$S"%##%&0II%#:%&B&T%5&3#'%%.#DZ&7=&%KK%;^&#%U&C:U"#;0;U&S%&T%;&0C;$T#%&=9"U&$=R$;%=;&E&C:K#:TG$C&

U"C&#F0<:=0`%<%=;&S%&#F%=R$C9==%<%=;&S%U&<9"C0=;U&S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U&G9UI$;0#$%CZ&

20&]"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%&%U;&%=&#$%=&0R%T&#F9\_%T;$K&S%&#F:;"S%Z&2F";$#$U0;$9=&S%&#0&;G:9C$%&0=TC:%&U%&

C%;C9"R%&S0=U&#0&<:;G9S%&S%&C%T"%$#&S%&S9==:%U&S"C0=;& #F:;"S%Z&5%;;%&C%TG%CTG%&0&:;:&C:0#$U:%&

%=& K0$U0=;& S%U& %=;C%;$%=U& U%<$eU;C"T;"C:U& 0"ICLU& S%& @y& U9$`=0=;U& S%& S$KK:C%=;%U& S$UT$I#$=%U&

O<:S%T$=U^& $=K$C<$LC%U^&0$S%UeU9$`=0=;%UQ&%=&";$#$U0=;& #0&<:;G9S%&S%& ;C$0=`"#0;$9=&S%U&S9==:%UZ&

($=U$^& T%U& S9==:%U& 9=;& :;:& C:T9#;:%U& 0"ICLU& S%& #0& K0<$##%& E& #F0$S%& SF"=& ]"%U;$9==0$C%& 0K$=&

SF%=C$TG$C& #0& C:T9#;%& SF$=K9C<0;$9=U& _"U]"FE& #F9\;%=;$9=& SF"=%& U0;"C0;$9=Z& 2F:<%C`%=T%& S%U&

T0;:`9C$%U& UF%U;& K0$;%& E& #0& U"$;%& S%& #0& T9<I0C0$U9=& T9=U;0=;%& S%U& %=;C%;$%=U& ]"$& 0& I%C<$U&

#F%=T9S0`%& S%U& S9==:%UZ& (& #0& U"$;%& S%& T%& IC9T%UU"U^& #%U& 0";%"CU& IC:U%=;%=;& #%U& C:U"#;0;U& %=&

IC9I9U0=;& S%U& C%T9<<0=S0;$9=U& I%C;$=%=;%U& I9"C& #0& IC0;$]"%& $=K$C<$LC%Z& 2%U& =9C<%U& :;G$]"%U&

9=;& :;:& C%UI%T;:%U& %;& #%U& TG%CTG%"CU& %NI#$T$;%=;& #%"CU& IC:9TT"I0;$9=U& :;G$]"%U^& =9;0<<%=;& %=&

C%#0;$9=&0R%T&#0&I9UU$\$#$;:&]"%&#%U&I0C;$T$I0=;U&U9$%=;&%=&S:;C%UU%dU9"KKC0=T%&<9C0#%Z&5F%U;&I9"C&

T%;;%&C0$U9=&]"%&#%&TG%CTG%"C&=F%U;&I0U&%=;C:&S$C%T;%<%=;&%=&T9=;0T;&0R%T&#%U&K0<$##%U&%;&I0;$%=;UZ&

[0C& 0$##%"CU^& "=& T9=U%=;%<%=;& 0& :;:& S%<0=S:& 0"N& K0<$##%U& %=& R%$##0=;& 0"& C%UI%T;& S%& #%"C&

T9=K$S%=;$0#$;:Z&&

&

.9"U&0R9=U&TG9$U$&S%&`0CS%C&T%;&0C;$T#%&T0C& $#&<%;& #F0TT%=;&U"C& #F$<I9C;0=T%&S%& #F%=R$C9==%<%=;&

S0=U&#F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&S%U&I%CU9==%U&<9"C0=;%U&S0=U&"=%&"=$;:&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U&%;&]"F$#&K9"C=$;&

S%U&I$U;%U&SF$=;%CR%=;$9=U&T9=TCL;%U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%Z&

&

&

Page 25: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! HJ!

L:# 1$CS"=^& 5Z^& 2"Th%;;^& +Z^& X0R$SU9=^& [Z& /& [G$##$IU^& !Z& O>?@gQZ& Xb$=`& $=& ;G%& G9UI$;0#& U%;;$=`& J& (&

UbU;%<0;$T& C%R$%{& 9K& ]"0=;$;0;$R%& U;"S$%U& $S%=;$Kb$=`& ;G%& %#%<%=;U& 9K& %=Se9Ke#$K%& T0C%& ;G0;&

I0;$%=;U&0=S&;G%$C&K0<$#$%U&C0=h&0U&\%$=`&<9U;&$<I9C;0=;Z&Y*77+*5+4-#O-,+6+"-(#`KOcQ^&yyjeycW:&

&

5%;;%& C%R"%& UbU;:<0;$]"%&0&:;:&:TC$;%&I0C&"=%& U%"#%&0";%"C%Z&.:0=<9$=U^& ;9"U& #%U&0";%"CU&9=;&

T9=;C$\":&E&S:K$=$C&#%U&\";U&S%&#0&C%TG%CTG%Z&2%U&j&0";%"CU&U9=;&$UU"U&S%&#0&K0T"#;:&"=$R%CU$;0$C%&S%&

#0&U0=;:&%;&;%TG=9#9`$%&E&8bS=%b^&%=&("U;C0#$%Z&X%"N&SF%=;C%&%"N&U9=;&S0=U&#0&C%TG%CTG%&T#$=$]"%&

]"$&R$U%&E& #F0<:#$9C0;$9=&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&E&8bS=%bZ&2%U&S%"N&0";%"CU&C%U;0=;U&9=;&U"$R$& #F:T9#%&

%=& U9$=U& $=K$C<$%CU& E&40#;$<9C%&%;& %=&.9"R%##%e�:#0=S%Z&5%;& 0C;$T#%& 0& :;:&I"\#$:&S0=U& #%& _9"C=0#&

Y*77+*5+4-#O-,+6+"-& %=& >?@g& ]"$& IC:U%=;%& S%U& $=K9C<0;$9=U& %UU%=;$%##%U& I9"C& #%U& IC9K%UU$9==%#U&

S%U& U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU^&%=& U%&T9=T%=;C0=;& U"C& #l0<:#$9C0;$9=&S%& #0&]"0#$;:&S%&R$%&S%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&S%&

#%"C&K0<$##%Z&&

&&

2%&\";&S%&T%;;%&:;"S%&%U;&S%&<$%"N&T9<IC%=SC%&T%&]"%& #%U&I0;$%=;U&%;& #%"C& K0<$##%&T9=U$SLC%=;&

T9<<%&#%&I#"U&$<I9C;0=;&S0=U&#%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&IC9S$`":U&0"N&I0;$%=;U&G9UI$;0#$U:UZ&[9"C&T%&

K0$C%^& #%U& TG%CTG%"CU& 9=;& S:;%C<$=:& g& ;G:<0;$]"%U& IC$=T$I0#%UZ& [9"C& C:0#$U%C& T%;;%& C%R"%&

UbU;:<0;$]"%^& #F0";%"C%& IC$=T$I0#%& 0& C:T9#;:& ;9"U& #%U& 0C;$T#%U& ;C0$;0=;& S"& U"_%;& O@FPgc& 0C;$T#%UQZ&

(ICLU& 0R9$C& S:K$=$& S%U& TC$;LC%U& SF$=T#"U$9=& %;& SF%NT#"U$9=^& %##%& 0& U:#%T;$9==:& P& 0C;$T#%U& I9"C& #0&

C%R"%Z&2F0";%"C%&0&U:#%T;$9==:&"=$]"%<%=;&S%U&0C;$T#%U&]"0=;$;0;$KU&%=&0=`#0$U^&S%&@cc?&E&>?@j^&%;&

T%"N& IC:U%=;0=;& #0& U0;$UK0T;$9=& S%U& I0;$%=;U& %;& K0<$##%U& 0b0=;& C%m"& S%U& U9$=U& S%& K$=& S%& R$%& E&

#FGHI$;0#Z&.9"U&S$UI9U9=U&S%U&<9;UeT#%KU&TG9$U$U^&I0C&T9=;C%^& #%U&TG%CTG%"CU&=%&<9=;C%=;&I0U& #%U&

\0U%U&S%&S9==:%U&";$#$U:%UZ&2%U&S:;0$#U&U"C&#0&K0m9=&S%&<%;;C%&%=&:R$S%=T%&#%U&;%C<%U&]"$&9=;&:;:&

T9=U%CR:U&I0C& #%&IC9`C0<<%& $=K9C<0;$]"%& #9CU&S%& #F0=0#bU%&S%U&S9==:%U&=%&U9=;&I0U&%NI#$T$;:UZ&

5%;;%&C%R"%&%U;&"=%&S%UTC$I;$9=&S%&S9==:%U&]"0=;$;0;$R%U&]"$&U$`=$K$%&]"%&#F0=0#bU%&C%U;%&#$:%&E&T%&

]"%& #F0";%"C%&0& $=;%CIC:;:&U"\_%T;$R%<%=;Z&[9"C& C:S"$C%&T%&\$0$U^& #F0";%"C%&0&S%<0=S:& #F0R$U&S%&

#F:]"$I%&S%&TG%CTG%"CUZ&2%U&S9==:%U&S%U&I0;$%=;U&IC9R$%==%=;&S%&>&T%=;C%U&S%&C%TG%CTG%&U$;":U&

S0=U& A& I0bU& S$KK:C%=;U& J& #%& 50=0S0^& #%U& 7;0;UeV=$U^& %;& #F(=`#%;%CC%Z& 2F:TG0=;$##9=& %U;&

<0_9C$;0$C%<%=;& T9=U;$;":& SF0S"#;%U& \#0=TU& 9TT$S%=;0"N^& n`:U& S%& I#"U& S%& y?& 0=U& %;& S%& U%N%&

K:<$=$=Z& 8%#9=& #%U& TG%CTG%"CU^& T%U& :#:<%=;U& T9=U;$;"%=;& #%U& #$<$;%U& S%& #F:;"S%Z& V=& =9<\C%& S%&

@F@j@&I0;$%=;U&%;&AF@@y&K0<$##%U&9=;&:;:&U9##$T$;:U&S0=U&T%;;%&C%R"%&UbU;:<0;$]"%Z&5%;;%&:;"S%&%U;&

"=%&0IIC9TG%&=0CC0;$R%^&]"$& $=;L`C%&0$=U$& #0&U"\_%T;$R$;:&S%&#F0";%"C%&T9=T%C=0=;&#F$=;%CIC:;0;$9=&

S%U&S9==:%UZ&[0C&#0&U"$;%^&T%;;%&$=;%CIC:;0;$9=&0&I%C<$U&0"N&0";%"CU&S%&K0$C%&:<%C`%C&#%U&;GL<%UZ&

5F%U;& I9"C& T%;;%& C0$U9=& ]"%& #F0";%"C& 0KK$C<%& ]"%& #%U& C:U"#;0;U& =%& U9=;& I0U& $UU"U& SF"=%& B& R:C$;:&

0\U9#"%&D&<0$U&]"F$#U&9=;&S0R0=;0`%&"=%&R0#%"C&$=K9C<0;$R%Z&20&S%C=$LC%&#$<$;%&S%&T%;;%&C%R"%&%U;&

]"%& #%U& 0";%"CU& IC:U%=;%=;& "=$]"%<%=;& g& ;G:<0;$]"%UZ& 2%U& =9C<%U& :;G$]"%U& =%& U9=;& I0U&

S:;0$##:%U&S0=U&#F0C;$T#%Z&7=&C%R0=TG%^&#%U&0";%"CU&0KK$C<%=;&]"F$#&=Fb&0&I0U&%"&S%&T9=K#$;&SF$=;:Cf;&

9"& S%& K$=0=T%<%=;& I0C;$T"#$%CUZ& [0C& 0$##%"CU^& #%U& B& Y# 4*7&-# D& U9=;& U$`=$K$T0;$R%U& %;& I%C<%;;%=;&

SF$=;%CIC:;%C&#%U&C:U"#;0;UZ&&&

&

Page 26: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! HL!

.9"U&0R9=U&C%;%="&T%;;%&C%R"%&UbU;:<0;$]"%&T0C&%##%&<%;&#F0TT%=;&U"C&#F$S%=;$K$T0;$9=&S%U&TC$;LC%U&

S%&q\9=U&U9$=Ur&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&S%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&S%&#%"CU&K0<$##%U&S0=U&"=&T9=;%N;%&G9UI$;0#$%CZ&7##%&

<%;&:`0#%<%=;&%=&0R0=;&g&;GL<%U&$S%=;$K$:U&T9<<%&IC$9C$;0$C%U&TG%w&#%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&K0<$##%U&]"$&

S%RC0$%=;&f;C%&IC$U&%=&T9=U$S:C0;$9=&I0C&#%U&U9$`=0=;U&I9"C&`0C0=;$C&"=&0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&S%&U9$=U&

S%& K$=&S%&R$%&S%&]"0#$;:Z&[9"C&0##%C&I#"U& #9$=&S0=U& #F0=0#bU%^& $#& K0"SC0$;&R9$C& U$&T%U&g& ;GL<%U&U9=;&

;C0=UK:C0\#%U&S0=U&SF0";C%U&I0bU&0b0=;&SF0";C%U&T"#;"C%UZ&

&

cZ& u$;;%=\%C`e2b#%U^& 7Z^& Y9#SU<$;G^& !Z^& /& '0`0=^& 'Z& O>?@?QZ& +G%& UG$K;& ;9& %0C#b& I0##$0;$R%& T0C%J& 0&

;bI9#9`b&9K& $##=%UU& _9"C=%bU&0=S&;G%&C9#%&9K&="CU$=`Z&B7+"+6*7# P%&'"*7#%D#g"6%7%Q?#Z&'3+"Q(#JcOAQ^&

A?jeA@?Z&

&

5%;&0C;$T#%&%U;&I0C"&S0=U&#%&_9"C=0#&T#$=$]"%&S%U&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&%=&9=T9#9`$%&]"$&K0$;&I0C;$%&S%&#0&

I"\#$T0;$9=&9KK$T$%##%&S%&#0&U9T$:;:&S%&U9$=U& $=K$C<$%CU&%=&9=T9#9`$%&O*.8QZ&5%&_9"C=0#&%U;&9C$%=;:&

U"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&$=K$C<$LC%&UI:T$0#$U:%&S0=U&#0&IC$U%&%=&TG0C`%&S%U&I0;$%=;U&0R%T&"=&S$0`=9U;$T&C:%#&

9"&I9;%=;$%#& S%& T0=T%C& 0K$=& S%& K9"C=$C& S%U& $=K9C<0;$9=U&IC0;$]"%U&=:T%UU0$C%U& I9"C& U9$`=%C& #%U&

I0;$%=;U&%;&#%"C&K0<$##%&E&;C0R%CU&#%&T9=;$=""<&S"&T0=T%CZ&2%U&A&0";%"CU&S%&#F0C;$T#%&9=;&9\;%="&"=&

S9T;9C0;&%;&U9=;&IC9K%UU%"CU&9"&IC9K%UU%"CU&0UU9T$:U&S0=U&S$R%CU%U&"=$R%CU$;:U&0"N&7;0;UeV=$UZ&

&

2%U&TG%CTG%"CU&9=;&;%=;:&S%&S:;%C<$=%C&#%U&T0C0T;:C$U;$]"%U&S%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&]"$&$=K#"%=T%=;&#0&

<$U%&%=&I#0T%&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&IC:T9T%U&%;&#0&<0=$LC%&S9=;&T%"NeT$&K0m9==%=;&#l%NI:C$%=T%&S%U&

U9$=U&S%&#0&K0<$##%&%;&S"&I0;$%=;Z&2%&\";&S%U&0";%"CU&:;0$;&S%&<%;;C%&%=&:R$S%=T%&#%U&C:U"#;0;U&S%U&

S$KK:C%=;%U&T0C0T;:C$U;$]"%U&S%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&0K$=&SF0KK$C<%C&#%&CH#%&S:;%C<$=0=;&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%UZ&

59=T%C=0=;& #0& K$0\$#$;:& S%& T%;& 0C;$T#%^& #0& ]"%U;$9=& S%& C%TG%CTG%& %U;& %=& #$%=& 0R%T& #F9\_%T;$K& S%&

#F:;"S%Z& X%& I#"U^& #F";$#$U0;$9=& S%& #0& ;G:9C$%& 0=TC:%& %;& #0& <:;G9S%& S%& C%T"%$#& S%& S9==:%U& U9=;&

T9=`C"%=;%UZ&5%;;%&:;"S%&0&:;:& C:0#$U:%&%=& K0$U0=;&S%U&%=;C%;$%=U&U%<$eU;C"T;"C:UZ&2%U&S9==:%U&

9=;&:;:&0$=U$&C:T9#;:%U&_"U]"FE&U0;"C0;$9=&%=&#%U&T9<I0C0=;&0R%T&SF0";C%U&C%TG%CTG%UZ&2F%=T9S0`%&

S%U&S9==:%U&0&:;:&K0$;&I0C&S%"N&TG%CTG%"CUZ&5%T$&0&I%C<$U&S%&<%;;C%&%=&:R$S%=T%&#%U&T0;:`9C$%U&

%;&#%U&;G:<0;$]"%UZ&7=&C%R0=TG%^&#0&<:;G9S9#9`$%&S%&C%TG%CTG%&<0=]"%&S%&S:;0$#U^&=9;0<<%=;&

S0=U& #%U&<:;G9S%U&SF:TG0=;$##9==0`%&%;&S0=U& #%U&T0C0T;:C$U;$]"%U&I%C<%;;0=;&SF0KK$C<%C&]"%& #%U&

C:U"#;0;U&U9=;&K$0\#%UZ&2%U&TG%CTG%"CU&9=;&K0$;&0II0C0s;C%&S%U&I0C;$%U&S%&S$0#9`"%&]"$&I%C<%;;%=;&

SF$##"U;C%C& #F0=0#bU%& S%U& C:U"#;0;U& 9\;%="UZ& X%& I#"U^& $#U& %NI9U%=;& T#0$C%<%=;& #%U& C:U"#;0;U& %=&

S9==0=;& S%U& :#:<%=;U& $=;:C%UU0=;U& I9"C& #0& IC0;$]"%& $=K$C<$LC%Z& 2%U& =9C<%U& :;G$]"%U& U%<\#%=;&

0R9$C&:;:&C%UI%T;:%U&O0TT9CS&S"&T9<$;:& $=U;$;";$9==%#&%;&C%=S"&0=9=b<%&#%U& #$%"N&%;&I%CU9==%UQ&

<0$U&0"C0$%=;&I"&f;C%&S0R0=;0`%&%NI#$T$;:%UZ&

&

7=& C%`0CS& S%& =9;C%& ;C0R0$#^& #%U& 0";%"CU& S9==%=;& S%U& I$U;%U& SF$=;%CR%=;$9=U& I9"C& 0<:#$9C%C&

#F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&%=&<%;;0=;&%=&:R$S%=T%&#%&CH#%&T%=;C0#&S%&#F$=K$C<$LC%&S0=U&#0&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&

0"ICLU&S%&I0;$%=;U&<9"C0=;U&S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&G9UI$;0#$%CZ!

!

!

Page 27: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! HM!

gZ! +0\#%0"&T9<I0C0;$K&

50U%b^&XZ^&-"CIGb^&)Z^&.$&2%$<%^&(Z^&20Ch$=^&[Z^&[0b=%^&8Z^&(&3C9``0;;^&)Z^&/&*F8G%0^&7Z&O>?@@QZ&Xb$=`&

{%##J&K0T;9CU&;G0;&$=K#"%=T%&;G%&IC9R$U$9=&9K&`99S&%=Se9Ke#$K%&T0C%&K9C&9#S%C&I%9I#%&$=&0T";%&0=S&#9=`e

U;0b&T0C%&U%;;$=`U&$=&,C%#0=SZ&P%&'"*7#%D#B7+"+6*7#Z&'3+"Q(#`a^&@P>j|@PAAZ&

a"%U;$9=U&S%&C%TG%CTG%&

a"%##%U&U9=;&#%U&IC$=T$I0#%U&I0C;$%U&%;&I%CUI%T;$R%U&S%U&`%U;$9==0$C%U&S%&U9$=U&S$C%T;U&U"C&#0&S$UI9U$;$9=&0T;"%##%&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&0"ICLU&S%U&I%CU9==%U&n`:%U&S0=U&S%U&:;0\#$UU%<%=;U&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U&%;&S%&#9=`&U:_9"C&%=&,C#0=S%&0K$=&S%&T9=U;C"$C%&"=&<9SL#%&S%&T%U&S%C=$%CU&M&

[C$=T$I0"N&C:U"#;0;U&

-9SL#%dUTG:<0&S"&B&\$%=&<9"C$C&D&O]"0#$;:&S%&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%Q&%;&S%U&A&K0T;%"CU&]"$&#F$=K#"%=T%=;&J&&@Z&[G$#9U9IG$%^&T"#;"C%^&9C`0=$U0;$9=&S%U&U9$=U&J&K0R9C$U%C&"=%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&G9==f;%&0R%T&#%&I0;$%=;&%;&0\9CS%C&#0&<9C;&0K$=&S%&=%&I0U&S$UU$<"#%C&0"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&#F$UU"%&K0;0#%&S%&#0&<0#0S$%�&K0R9C$U%C&"=%&IG$#9U9IG$%&]"$&R0#9C$U%&S%U&U9$=U&G9#$U;$]"%U&%;&$=S$R$S"0#$U:U&%=&K9=T;$9=&S%U&\%U9$=U&%;&IC:K:C%=T%U&S"&I0;$%=;&%;&0$=U$&#"$&I%C<%;;C%&S%&K0$C%&S%U&TG9$N&T9=T%C=0=;&U0&U0=;:�&R0#9C$U%C&#%&CH#%&$=K$C<$%C&S0=U&#F0IIC%=;$UU0`%&S%U&IC$=T$I%U&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%;&#%"CU&0II#$T0;$9=U&0"ICLU&S"&I%CU9==%#&U9$`=0=;Z&>Z&59==0s;C%&#0&I%CU9==%&J&K0R9C$U%C&#0&T9=U;C"T;$9=&SF"=%&C%#0;$9=&S%&T9=K$0=T%&0R%T&#%&I0;$%=;&%;&0IIC%=SC%&E&#%&T9==0s;C%Z&AZ&2F%=R$C9==%<%=;&IGbU$]"%&OTG0<\C%&$=S$R$S"%##%Q&%;&#%U&C%UU9"CT%U&O\%U9$=U&S$KK:C%=;U&%=&K9=T;$9=&S%&#0&S$R%CU$;:&%;G=$]"%&%=&0"`<%=;0;$9=Q&J&\%U9$=&"C`%=;&S%&K9"C=$C&S0R0=;0`%&S%&U9";$%=&%;&S%&K9C<0;$9=&0"&I%CU9==%#&U9$`=0=;&I9"C&0<:#$9C%C&#0&]"0#$;:&S%&U9$=U&S%&K$=&R$%&O;%TG=$]"%U&S%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=Q&%;&S%&I9"R9$C&9KKC$C&"=%&TG0<\C%&$=S$R$S"%##%&0"N&I0;$%=;U&%=&K$=&S%&R$%Z&

,<I#$T0;$9=U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&

20&<$U%&%=&:R$S%=T%&S%U&K0T;%"CU&$=K#"%=T%C0$;&#0&]"0#$;:&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&I9"C&#%U&I%CU9==%U&n`:%U&G9UI$;0#$U:%U&S0=U&#%U&:;0\#$UU%<%=;U&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U&%;&S%&#9=`&U:_9"C&%=&0$S0=;&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&E&IC$9C$U%C&#%U&T9==0$UU0=T%U&E&S:R%#9II%CZ&&2F0"`<%=;0;$9=&S%&#0&S$R%CU$;:&%;G=$]"%&S%&#0&I9I"#0;$9=&U9$`=:%&]"%U;$9==%&#%U&TG%CTG%"CU&U"C&#0&<0=$LC%&S%&S9==%C&S%U&U9$=U&S%&]"0#$;:&J&59<<%=;&K9"C=$C&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&S%&]"0#$;:&E&S%U&I0;$%=;U&0II0C;%=0=;&E&S$R%CU%U&%;G=$%UM&

&

X0#`00CS^&)e-Z^&+G9CU%##^&YZ&/&X%#<0C^&5Z&O>?@?QZ&,S%=;$Kb$=`&;C0=U$;$9=&$=&;%C<$=0#&$##=%UU&;C0_%T;9C$%U&J&

0&TC$;$T0#&K0T;9C&$=&G9UI$;0#e\0U%S&I0##$0;$R%&T0C%Z&,=;%C=0;$9=0#&!9"C=0#&9K&[0##$0;$R%&."CU$=`^&@W&O>QZ&

a"%U;$9=U&S%&C%TG%CTG%&

2F9\_%T;$K&%U;&S%&T9<IC%=SC%&#F$<I9C;0=T%&S%&#F$S%=;$K$T0;$9=&S%U&IG0U%U&S%&;C0=U$;$9=&S0=U&#0&<0#0S$%&$=T"C0\#%^&0$=U$&]"%&#F$<I9C;0=T%&SF"=%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&%NI#$T$;%&E&T%&<9<%=;e#EZ&[9"C&T%&K0$C%^&$#U&<%;;%=;&%=&0R0=;&#%U&9\U;0T#%U&E&"=&S$0#9`"%&9"R%C;&%=;C%&#%&I%CU9==%#^&#%&I0;$%=;&%;&U0&K0<$##%Z&

[C$=T$I0"N&C:U"#;0;U&

•! X%"N&U9"Ue;GL<%U&E&#F$S%=;$K$T0;$9=&S%U&;C0=U$;$9=U&U9=;&<$U&%=&:R$S%=T%&J&@Q&#F$S%=;$K$T0;$9=&S"&`C9"I%&T$\#%&0b0=;&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%;&>Q&#0&=:T%UU$;:&SF:;0\#$C&9"&=9=&"=%&;C0=U$;$9=&%NI#$T$;%&R%CU&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&

•! YC9"I%&T$\#%&I9"C&T%;;%&:;"S%&J&;9"U&#%U&I0;$%=;U&S$0`=9U;$]":U&0R%T&"=%&<0#0S$%&$=T"C0\#%&

•! +0\#%0"&IC:U%=;:&0R%T&#%U&S$KK:C%=;%U&IG0U%U&T#$=$]"%U&S0=U&#0&<0#0S$%&$=T"C0\#%&&

•! +C0=U$;$9=&;0CS$R%&R%CU&#%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&#9CU]"%&#%&;C0$;%<%=;&<:S$T0#&%U;&$=;%CC9<I"&

•! @?&\0CC$LC%U&$S%=;$K$:%U&J&"=%&IC$U%&S%&T9=UT$%=T%&;0CS$R%&S"&I%CU9==%#&<:S$T0#&%;&"=%&S$KK$T"#;:&E&%NI#$]"%C&0"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&"=%&IC9`C%UU$9=&S%&#0&<0#0S$%&I0C&TC0$=;%&SF0=:0=;$C&;9";&%UI9$C&&

•! [9"C&\%0"T9"I&S%&I0;$%=;U&%;&K0<$##%U^&#%&;C0$;%<%=;&<:S$T0#&%U;&"=&Ub<\9#%&SF%UI9$CZ&5%T$&0&;%=S0=T%&E&S$UU"0S%C&#%&I%CU9==%#&U9$`=0=;&SF0\9CS%C&#F0CCf;&S%&T%#"$eT$Z&

•! X$KK:C%=;U&U;0S%U&SF0TT%I;0;$9=&%=;C%&#%&I0;$%=;&%;&U0&K0<$##%^&T%&]"$&I%";&%=;C0R%C&#%&IC9T%UU"U&

Page 28: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! HR!

S:T$U$9==%#Z&[0C&%N%<I#%^&#0&K0<$##%&%=T9"C0`%&U9=&IC9TG%&<0#0S%&E&T9=;$="%C&"=&;C0$;%<%=;&0#9CU&]"F$#&U9"G0$;%&#F0CCf;%CZ&

•! X$KK$T"#;:&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&%;&S%U&<:S%T$=U&E&UF0TT9CS%C&S"&;%<IU&I9"C&S$UT";%C&S%&#0&IC9`C%UU$9=&S%&#0&<0#0S$%&0R%T&#%U&K0<$##%U&%;&#%U&I0;$%=;UZ&

•! V=%&I%C;%&SF$=K9C<0;$9=U&9"&S%U&U$;"0;$9=U&$=T9<IC$U%U&S"%U&0"N&TG0=`%<%=;U&SF:]"$I%&U9$`=0=;%Z&

•! X$KK$T"#;:&S%&IC:R9$C&#%U&%KK%;U&S%U&;C0$;%<%=;U&%;&#%"CU&%KK%;U&U%T9=S0$C%U&U"C&#F:;0;&S"&I0;$%=;&]"$&K0R9C$U%&"=%&0R0=T:%&C0I$S%&R%CU&"=%&U$;"0;$9=&S%&U9$=&I0##$0;$R%Z&

•! 2%U&0;;$;"S%U&S%U&U9$`=0=;U&9=;&"=&$<I0T;&U"C&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&SF"=&;C0$;%<%=;&I0##$0;$KZ&

•! X$KK:C%=;%U&IC$9C$;:U&%=;C%&<:S%T$=U&O;C0$;%<%=;U&%;&9\_%T;$KU&;G:C0I%";$]"%UQ&%;&$=K$C<$LC%U&O:;0;&`:=:C0#&S"&I0;$%=;&%;&]"0#$;:&S%&R$%&0T;"%##%Q&

,<I#$T0;$9=U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&

5%;&0C;$T#%&<9=;C%&#F$<I9C;0=T%&S%&C%T9==0s;C%&%=&;0=;&]"F$=K$C<$LC%^&#%U&S$KK:C%=;%U&IG0U%U&S0=U&#0&;C0_%T;9$C%&SF"=%&<0#0S$%&$=T"C0\#%Z&5%T$&I%C<%;&0"N&U9$`=0=;U&SF0R9$C&"=%&S$UT"UU$9=&9"R%C;%&0"&<9<%=;&9II9C;"=&0R%T&#%&I0;$%=;&%;&U0&K0<$##%&%;&%<IfTG%&0$=U$^&S%&#0&C%;0CS%C&_"U]"F0"&U;0S%&;%C<$=0#%Z&2%U&0R0=;0`%U&S%&T%;;%&S$UT"UU$9=&KC0=TG%&I%C<%;;%=;&E&#F$=K$C<$LC%&SFf;C%&E&#F0$U%&<0$U&:`0#%<%=;&E&#0&K0<$##%&S%&I0C;0`%C&#%"CU&I%=U:%U&0"&;C0R%CU&SF"=&S$0#9`"%&9"R%C;Z&2%&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&I%";&0$=U$&;C9"R%C&"=&=9"R%#&%UI9$C&%;&"=&U%=U&E&#0&<9C;Z&X%&T%&K0$;^&T%;&0C;$T#%&ICH=%&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&SF"=&S$0#9`"%&U$=TLC%&SLU&#%&S:\";&S%&#F0CCf;&S"&;C0$;%<%=;&T"C0;$KZ&5%;&0C;$T#%&<%;&:`0#%<%=;&%=&0R0=;&#F$<I9C;0=T%&SF"=%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&$=;%CIC9K%UU$9==%##%&O<:S%T$=U&%;&$=K$C<$LC%UQ&#9CU&S%U&U$;"0;$9=U&T9<I#%N%U&I9"C&K0R9C$U%C&#0&T9=;$="$;:&S%U&U9$=UZ&&

&

Y0`=9=^&!Z&/&u%=Sb^&XZ&O>?@jQZ&+G%&IC9R$U$9=&9K&%=Se9Ke#$K%&T0C%&\b&<%S$T0#eU"C`$T0#&="CU%U&{9Ch$=`&$=&

0T";%&T0C%J&0&#$;%C0;"C%&C%R$%{Z&Y*77+*5+4-#*",#I&99%'5+4-#B*'-(#J`^&AcAej?PZ&

a"%U;$9=U&S%&C%TG%CTG%&

59<<%=;&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&S:TC$R%=;&#F%NI:C$%=T%&S%&IC9S$`"%C&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&M&a"%#U&U9=;&#%U&K0T;%"CU&]"$&$=K#"%=T%=;&#%U&C:0T;$9=U&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&0$=U$&]"%&#F0_"U;%<%=;&S%U&IC%U;0;$9=U&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&M&a"%##%&K";"C%&C%TG%CTG%&I%";&f;C%&<%=:%&S0=U&T%&S9<0$=%&M&

[C$=T$I0"N&C:U"#;0;U&

j&`C9"I%U&S%&K0T;%"CU&$=K#"%=m0=;&#0&IC$U%&%=&TG0C`%&$=K$C<$LC%U&S%U&I%CU9==%U&%=&K$=&S%&R$%&J&@Z&2%U&K0T;%"CU&C%#$:U&0"N&T9=;C0$=;%U&9C`0=$U0;$9==%##%U&J&#0&T"#;"C%&S%U&U9$=U^&S"&;%<IU&%;&S%&#0&R$%&IC$R:%&U9=;&#%U&A&:#:<%=;U&]"$&9=;&"=&$<I0T;&U"C&#%U&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CUZ&"! 20&T"#;"C%&<:S$T0#%&$=K#"%=T%&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&E&IC$9C$U%C&#%U&\%U9$=U&IGbU$]"%U&S%U&I0;$%=;U&%=&

U$;"0;$9=&0$`"�Z&&"! X%U&S$KK$T"#;:U&E&_"U;$K$%C&#%&;%<IU&C%#0;$9==%#&0R%T&#%U&I0;$%=;U&"! V=&<0=]"%&SF%UI0T%&IC$R:&%=;C0R%&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&S%&U9$=U&UI$C$;"%#U&%;&:<9;$9==%#U&0R%T&#%U&

I0;$%=;U&T0C&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&S9$R%=;&S9==%C&U$<"#;0=:<%=;&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&E&S%U&<9"C0=;U&%;&S%U&U9$=U&T"C0;$KU&E&SF0";C%U&I0;$%=;U&

"! 2%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&C%T9==0$UU%=;&]"%&B&#%&<0=]"%&S%&;%<IU&D&%;&B&#0&]"0=;$;:&S%&U9$=U&;%TG=$]"%U&D&U9=;&S%U&U;C0;:`$%U&SF:R$;%<%=;&&

>Z&2%U&K0T;%"CU&C%#$:U&0"N&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&%;&0"N&$S:0"N&S%U&IC9K%UU$9==%#U&T9=T%C=0=;&B&"=%&\9==%&

<9C;&D&J&#0&IC$U%&%=&T9<I;%&S%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&K0<$##%U&#9CU&S%U&S:T$U$9=U^&#%U&`0CS%C&$=K9C<:U^&#%U&0$S%C&E&0TT%I;%C&]"%&#0&<9C;&%U;&$<<$=%=;%^&0R9$C&"=&%=R$C9==%<%=;&0IIC9IC$:^&B&f;C%&%=&I0$N&D&%;&K0R9C$U%C&#F0\U%=T%&S%&S9"#%"C^&0$S%C&#%U&<%<\C%U&S%&#0&K0<$##%&E&U%&IC:I0C%C&E&#0&<9C;&S%&#%"C&IC9TG%&%;&E&K0$C%&#%"CU&0S$%"N^&`:C%C&%KK$T0T%<%=;&#%U&Ub<I;H<%U&%=&IC%=0=;&%=&T9=U$S:C0;$9=&#0&U9"KKC0=T%&S"&I0;$%=;Z&&AZ&2%U&K0T;%"CU&C%#$:U&E&#0&T9##0\9C0;$9=&%;&E&#0&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&0R%T&#%&T9CIU&<:S$T0#&J&2F0IIC9TG%&T9##0\9C0;$R%&0K$=&SF0<:#$9C%C&#0&T#0C;:&S"&IC9_%;&S%&U9$=UZ&19$T$&#%U&\0CC$LC%U&O$S%=;$K$:%U&I0C&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%UQ&]"$&%=;C0R%=;&#0&;C0=U$;$9=&S"&I0;$%=;&S%U&U9$=U&T"C0;$KU&%=&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%;&=%&K0R9C$U%=;&I0U&"=%&B&\9==%&<9C;&D&%=&<0$=;%=0=;&"=&B&K0"N&%UI9$C&S%&`":C$U9=&D&J&"! "=&<0=]"%&S%&T9==0$UU0=T%&S"&I0;$%=;&%;&S%&U0&K0<$##%&T9=T%C=0=;&#%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&&

Page 29: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! H`!

"! S%U&0;;%=;%U&$CC:0#$U;%U&I0C&C0II9C;&0"N&;C0$;%<%=;U&&"! "=%&<:T9==0$UU0=T%&S%&#0&IC9`C%UU$9=&S%&#0&<0#0S$%&0"&U;0S%&;%C<$=0#&jZ&2%U&K0T;%"CU&C%#$:U&0"N&%NI:C$%=T%U&I%CU9==%##%U&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&%;&E&#%"CU&C%UU9"CT%U&I%CU9==%##%U&J&2%U&T9==0$UU0=T%U&T#$=$]"%U&S9==%=;&I#"U&9"&<9$=U&SF0$U0=T%&0"N&$=K$C<$LC%U&E&`:C%C&U$<"#;0=:<%=;&S%U&I%CU9==%U&=:T%UU$;0=;&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%;&S%U&I%CU9==%U&=:T%UU$;0=;&S%U&U9$=U&T"C0;$KUZ&59<I:;%=T%U&C%]"$U%U&I9"C&I9"R9$C&S9==%C&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&J&&"! B&"=%&\9==%&D&T9==0$UU0=T%&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&"! B&"=%&\9==%&D&T9==0$UU0=T%&S%&U9$&%;&S%U&0";C%U&&"! S%U&G0\$#%;:U&T9<<"=$T0;$9==%##%U&%;&C%#0;$9==%##%U&&

"! K0$C%&IC%"R%&S%&T9<I0UU$9=&%;&0II9C;%C&S"&U9";$%=&0"N&K0<$##%U&,<I#$T0;$9=U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&

"! 2F$<I9C;0=T%&S"&;C0R0$#&:<9;$9==%#&%;&#F%=R$C9==%<%=;&S%U&U9$=U&0$`"U&=%&U%C0$%=;&I0U&IC9I$T%U&E&#F:R0#"0;$9=&S%U&\%U9$=U&S%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&K0<$##%U&0$=U$&]"F0"&B&;C0R0$#&:<9;$9==%#&D&O<9<%=;&SF:TG0=`%&%=;C%&I0;$%=;eU9$`=0=;Q&&

"! V=&<0=]"%&S%&C%T9==0$UU0=T%&S%&#0&TG0C`%&:<9;$9==%##%&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&#9CU&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&K0R9C$U%&"=&S:T0#0`%&%=;C%&#0&C:0#$;:&S%&#0&IC0;$]"%&%;&#%&<0=S0;&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&&

"! 2F$<I9C;0=T%&OI9"C&#%U&U9$`=0=;UQ&S%&<0$=;%=$C&#F%UI9$C&TG%w&#%&I0;$%=;&%;&K0<$##%&_"U]"FE&#0&IG0U%&;%C<$=0#%&%=`%=SC%&TG%w&#%U&I0;$%=;UeK0<$##%U&#F%UI9$C&B&S%&`":C$C&D&%;&S9=T^&"=&B&K0"N&%UI9$C&D&T9=T%C=0=;&#F:R9#";$9=&S%&#0&<0#0S$%Z&

"! 2%&S:=$&S%&#0&<9C;&U%C0$;&K0R9C$U:&I0C&#%&T9=;%N;%&S%U&U9$=U&T"C0;$KU&0R%T&"=%&B&<:S$T0#$U0;$9=&S%&#F%UI9$C&DZ&2%U&C:0T;$9=U&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&K0T%&E&#0&<9C;&S:I%=S%=;&S%&#%"CU&%NI:C$%=T%U&I%CU9==%##%UdIC9K%UU$9==%##%U&%;&S9$R%=;&f;C%&IC$U%U&%=&T9=U$S:C0;$9=&#9CU&S%U&%=U%$`=%<%=;U&U"C&#%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&0K$=&SF0<:#$9C%C&S0R0=;0`%&#0&]"0#$;:&S%&#0&IC$U%&%=&TG0C`%&$=K$C<$LC%&&

"! 20&;C0=U$;$9=&S%U&U9$=U&T"C0;$KU&0"N&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%U;&#0&\0;0$##%&]"%&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&S9$R%=;&0KKC9=;%C&UF$#&b&0&"=&<0=]"%&S%&T9##0\9C0;$9=&0R%T&#%U&<:S%T$=UZ&&

"! X0=U&#%U&U9T$:;:U&9TT$S%=;0#%U^&#0&T"#;"C%&K0R9C$U%C0$;&#0&I%"C&S%&#0&<9C;&%=;C0s=0=;&0$=U$&U9=&S:=$&0";0=;&TG%w&#%U&I0;$%=;U&]"%&TG%w&#%U&U9$`=0=;UZ&[0C&T9=U:]"%=;^&#%&I0C;0`%&S%U&:<9;$9=U&=%&U%C0$;&I0U&0IIC9IC$:Z&5%&IC9T%UU"U&U%C0$;&E&#F9C$`$=%&SF"=&S:;0TG%<%=;&:<9;$9==%#&C%UU%=;$&I0C&T%C;0$=%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&%;&%NI#$]"%C0$;&#%"CU&S$KK$T"#;:U&E&T9<<"=$]"%C&%KK$T0T%<%=;&0R%T&#%U&I0;$%=;UZ&&

19$T$&#%U&IC9I9U$;$9=U&S%&K";"C%&C%TG%CTG%&U"C&#%&U"_%;&J&"! 7;"S$%C&#%U&I9UU$\$#$;:U&SF%=T0SC%<%=;&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&S%&<:S%T$=%eTG$C"C`$%&IC9S$`"0=;&S%U&

U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&%=&;%=0=;&T9<I;%&S%U&#$<$;%U&%;&I0C;$T"#0C$;:U&S"&T9=;%N;%&S%&U9$=U&%=&0`$UU0=;&U"C&#0&C%T9==0$UU0=T%&%;&#%&U9";$%=&S"&B&;C0R0$#&:<9;$9==%#&D&`:=:C:&I0C&T%U&U$;"0;$9=U&S%&U9$=U&

"! 7;"S$%C&T9<<%=;&0<:#$9C%C&#0&T9##0\9C0;$9=&%;&#0&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&%=;C%&U9$`=0=;U&&

"! '%TG%CTG%C&#0&U$`=$K$T0;$9=&S"&T9=T%I;&SF%UI9$C&%;&S%&B&\9==%&<9C;&D&TG%w&#%U&$=K$C<$%CUeLC%U&S%&<:S%T$=%eTG$C"C`$%&I9"C&<$%"N&T9<IC%=SC%&#%U&$S:9#9`$%U&%;&#%U&GbI9;GLU%U&]"$&`"$S%=;&#%"C&IC0;$]"%&S%&U9$=U&%=&K$=&S%&R$%Z&

&

Y0##0`G%C^&(Z^&49"UU9^&'Z^&&-T50C;Gb&&!Z^&)9G#%=^&6Z^&(=SC%{U^&+Z^&[0`0=$=$^&-e5Z^&ZZZ&&[0S$#G0^&)Z&O>?@jQZ&

.%`9;$0;%S&C%9C$%=;$=`&J&(&`C9"=S%S&;G%C9Cb&9K&="CU%UF&%=S&9K&#$K%&S%T$U$9=e<0h$=`&$=&;G%&$=;%=U$R%&

T0C%&"=$;Z&;"5-'"*5+%"*7#P%&'"*7#%D#Z&'3+"Q#I5&,+-3(#c`OjQ^&ycjeP?AZ&

a"%U;$9=U&S%&C%TG%CTG%&

2F9\_%T;$K&S%&C%TG%CTG%&%U;&S%&T9<IC%=SC%&#%&IC9T%UU"U&S:T$U$9==%#&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&S0=U&#%U&"=$;:U&S%&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&S0=U&S$KK:C%=;U&T9=;%N;%U&T"#;"C%#UZ&&

[C$=T$I0"N&C:U"#;0;U&

•! -%;&%=&:R$S%=T%&#F$<I9C;0=T%&]"F$#&K0";&0TT9CS%C&E&#0&C%#0;$9=&O0R%T&#%U&K0<$##%U&%;&#%U&I0;$%=;UQ&0$=U$&]"F0"&S$0#9`"%&S0=U&#0&IC$U%&S%&S:T$U$9=&I0C;0`:%Z&

•! X0=U&#%U&g&T"#;"C%U^&%=&S:I$;&S%&]"%#]"%U&S$KK:C%=T%U&%=&T%&]"$&T9=T%C=%&#%U&I%CT%I;$9=U&S%&

Page 30: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! HW!

#F0";9=9<$%&S%&#F$=K$C<$LC%^&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&%=&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&U9=;&0T;$R%<%=;&%=`0`:%U&S0=U&#0&=:`9T$0;$9=&SF"=%&C:9C$%=;0;$9=&S%U&U9$=U&T"C0;$KU&R%CU&"=%&9C$%=;0;$9=&I#"U&#0C`%&S%&U9$=U&G9#$U;$]"%UZ&

•! 2%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&I0C;$T$I%=;&E&#0&C:9C$%=;0;$9=&=:`9T$:%&I0C&T9=U%=U"U&%;&#F%NI#9$;0;$9=&:<9;$9==%##%&I%C<%;&SF0;;%$=SC%&I#"U&0$U:<%=;&T%#"$eT$Z&&

•! -0#`C:&#%U&S:K$U&S"&;C0R0$#&S0=U&"=&%=R$C9==%<%=;&]"$&U%&T9=T%=;C%&U"C&#%&;C0$;%<%=;&%;&#0&`":C$U9=^&#0&;G:9C$%&U"``LC%&]"%&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&C%U;%=;&T9=T%=;C:%U&U"C&#%U&\%U9$=U&%;&#0&U9"KKC0=T%&S%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&S%U&K0<$##%UZ&

•! A&CH#%U&U9=;&<$U&%=&:R$S%=T%&J&T9"C;$%C&%=&$=K9C<0;$9=&%=&S9==0=;&S%U&$=K9C<0;$9=U&0"N&<:S%T$=U&0$=U$&]"F0"N&<%<\C%U&S%&#0&K0<$##%&�&<:S$0;%"C&OI%CU9==%&S%&T9=K$0=T%&%;&%<I0;G$]"%Q&�&S:K%=U%"C&S%U&I0;$%=;UeK0<$##%UZ&&

•! 20&#$;;:C0;"C%&U9"#$`=%&#l$<I9C;0=T%&S%&IC%=SC%&%=&T9<I;%&#%U&R0#%"CU&T"#;"C%##%U&%;&C%#$`$%"U%U&%;&#%U&TC9b0=T%UZ&

•! 5%;;%&C%TG%CTG%&0&<$U&%=&:R$S%=T%&#%&<0=]"%&S%&C%UU9"CT%U&%;&#%&<0=]"%&S%&S$UI9=$\$#$;:&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%=&[0#%U;$=%Z&

•! ("&4C:U$#^&#%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&=%&U9=;&I0U&$=;:`C:U&E&#0&K9C<0;$9=&S%U&IC9K%UU$9==%#U&S%&U0=;:Z&&

•! 2%U&T9##L`"%U&0##%<0=SU&U"``:C0$%=;&]"%&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&]"$&0R0$%=;&S%U&T9<I:;%=T%U&%=&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&:;0$%=;&I#"U&E&#l0$U%&0R%T&#0&IC$U%&S%&S:T$U$9=Z&

,<I#$T0;$9=U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&

2%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&U9=;&0"&IC%<$%C&I#0=^&%;&9=;&"=%&C%#0;$9=&IC$R$#:`$:%&0R%T&#%&I0;$%=;&%;&#0&K0<$##%^&T%&]"$&K0$;&]"F%##%U&9=;&I#"U&S%&K0T$#$;:&E&0R9$C&"=&CH#%&0T;$K&S0=U&#F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&S%U&K0<$##%U&#9CU]"%&#%&IC9=9U;$T&S"&I0;$%=;&0&:;:&:R9]":&I0C&#%&<:S%T$=Z&*=&C%<0C]"%&]"F$#&%U;&$<I9C;0=;&]"F"=&T9=U%=U"U&U9$;&;C9"R:&%=;C%&#%U&<:S%T$=U^&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&%;&#0&K0<$##%&T0C&T%T$&0<:#$9C%&#0&IC$U%&%=&TG0C`%&S"&I0;$%=;&%;&I%C<%;&S%&U9"#0`%C&#%U&K0<$##%UZ&5%T$&C:S"$;&#0&TC0$=;%&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&SFf;C%&%=`0`:%U&S0=U&"=%&K9C<%&B&SF%";G0=0U$%&DZ&X0=U&T%;&0C;$T#%^&=9"U&I9"R9=U&T9=U;0;%C&]"%&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&9=;&"=&CH#%&T0I$;0#&S0=U&#0&C:9C$%=;0;$9=&S"&IC9_%;&S"&I0;$%=;^&U"$;%&E&#F0==9=T%&SF"=&IC9=9U;$T&S:K0R9C0\#%Z&5%;&0C;$T#%&U9";$%=;&#F$<I9C;0=T%&S%&#0&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&0R%T&#%U&K0<$##%U&%=&#%U&$<I#$]"0=;&S0=U&#%&IC9T%UU"U&S:T$U$9==%#&0K$=&]"F%##%U&=%&U%&U%=;%=;&I0U&S:I0UU:%U&I0C&#%U&:R:=%<%=;UZ&2%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&;%=;%=;&S%&IC:I0C%C&#%U&K0<$##%U&E&#F$UU"%&K0;0#%&0K$=&]"F%##%U&I"$UU%=;&I0C;$T$I%C&E&;9";%U&#%U&IC$U%U&S%&S:T$U$9=UZ&2%&\";&:;0=;&S%&C:S"$C%&0";0=;&]"%&I9UU$\#%&"=%&$=T%C;$;"S%&K0T%&0"&S%R%=$C&S%&#%"C&IC9TG%Z&

&

Y"0b^&XZ^&-$TG0"S^&5Z&/&-0;G$%"^&2Z&O>?@@QZ&X%&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&I0##$0;$KU&0"N&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&J&"=%&

I%CUI%T;$R%&$=K$C<$LC%Z&'%TG%CTG%&%=&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU^&g^&A@ejAZ&

a"%U;$9=U&S%&C%TG%CTG%&

59<<%=;&U%&<0=$K%U;%=;&#%U&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&I0##$0;$KU&0"N&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&U%#9=&#0&I%CUI%T;$R%&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&]":\:T9$U%U&M&

[C$=T$I0"N&C:U"#;0;U&

W&S$<%=U$9=U&S%U&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&I0##$0;$KU&J&&@Z! X$<%=U$9=&IGbU$]"%&S%U&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&J&#F$<I9C;0=T%&S%&T9=U$S:C%C&#F0II0C%=T%&IGbU$]"%&%;&S%&

R%$##%C&E&#F$=;$<$;:&S"&I0;$%=;&#9CU&S%U&U9$=U&0K$=&S%&#%&C%T9==0s;C%&S0=U&U9=&G"<0=$;:Z&

"! -0$=;%=$C&#%U&U9$=U&S%&\0U%&%;&SFGb`$L=%&

"! ':S"$C%&#0&U9"KKC0=T%&

"! 89"#0`%C&#0&S9"#%"C&%;&0";C%U&Ub<I;H<%U&O0=N$:;:&%;&=0"U:%UQ&"! '%;$C%C&9"&<0$=;%=$C&T%C;0$=U&S$UI9U$;$KU&T9=;9=S0=;U&9"&$=T$U$KU&>Z! X$<%=U$9=&C%#0;$9==%##%&S%U&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&J&G"<0=$U%C&#%U&U9$=U&%=&$=T#"0=;&#0&IC:9TT"I0;$9=&S"&

\$%=ef;C%&S%U&<%<\C%U&S%&#0&K0<$##%^&K0T$#$;%C&#%&C0IIC9TG%<%=;&0R%T&#%&IC9TG%&%;&#%U&$<I#$]"%C&S0=U&#%U&U9$=UZ&

"! 59=U$S:C%C&#%U&<%<\C%U&S%&#0&K0<$##%&T9<<%&S%U&B&UI:T$0#$U;%U&D&

"! 10#9C$U%C&#0&IC:U%=T%&S%U&I%CU9==%U&U$`=$K$T0;$R%U&%;&G9=9C%C&#%U&#$%=U&

Page 31: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! IX!

"! (UU9"I#$C&#%U&CL`#%U&C%#0;$R%U&E&#0&S"C:%&%;&0"&=9<\C%&S%&R$U$;%"CU&

"! '%T9==0s;C%&#%"C&%NI%C;$U%&%;&C%G0"UU%C&#%"C&T9=;C$\";$9=&O0;;C$\";$9=&S%&I%;$;U&CH#%U^&#%"C&I%C<%;;C%&SF0II9C;%C&S%U&9\_%;U&I%CU9==%#U^&T9"R%C;"C%^&IG9;9UQ&

"! 30T$#$;%C&#%&T9=;0T;&%;&#0&IC9N$<$;:&AZ! X$<%=U$9=&IUbTG9#9`$]"%&S%U&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&J&R0#9C$U%C&#%&T0C0T;LC%&"=$]"%&%;&S:K$=$;$K&S%&TG0T"=%&

S%U&U$;"0;$9=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%Z&

"! ,=R$;%C&#%U&<%<\C%U&S%&#0&K0<$##%&E&K0$C%&#%&C:T$;&S%&#0&R$%&S%&#%"C&IC9TG%&I9"C&K0T$#$;%C&#%&TG%<$=%<%=;&S"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&&

"! X9==%C&S%U&B&I%;$;U&U9$=U&D&%=R%CU&#%&I0;$%=;&%;&U0&K0<$##%&

"! 7=T9"C0`%C&#%&C:T$;&S%&#0&R$%&S"&I0;$%=;&

"! '%`0CS%C&#0&C:0#$;:&E&;C0R%CU&#0&#"=%;;%&S"&I0;$%=;&O]"0#$;:&S%&R$%&;%##%&]"%&S:K$=$%&I0C&#0&I%CU9==%Q&

"! 80R9$C&S9U%C&U0&IC:U%=T%&

"! .%&_0<0$U&#0$UU%C&"=&I0;$%=;&<9"C$C&U%"#&jZ! X$<%=U$9=&<9C0#%&S%U&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&J&#0&S$`=$;:&G"<0$=%&%;&#0&]"0#$;:&S%&R$%Z&

"! Y%U;%U&S%&6*'+"Q#J&T9=;$="%C&E&UF0SC%UU%C&0"&I0;$%=;&I0C&U9=&=9<^&#%&IC:R%=$C&0R0=;&SF$=;%CR%=$C^&IC:U%CR%C&U9=&$=;$<$;:&%;&#F0TT9<I0`=%C&T9<<%&"=%&I%CU9==%&G"<0$=%&

"! (\U%=T%&S%&#0&K0<$##%&9"&IC9TG%&J&$=K$C<$LC%&T9<\#%&T%;;%&0\U%=T%&

"! 30R9C$U%C&#0&I0C;$T$I0;$9=&S"&I0;$%=;&%;&#F%NIC%UU$9=&S%&U%U&R9#9=;:U&

"! '%UI%T;%C&U%U&R0#%"CU&O]"%U;$9=U&T$CT"#0$C%U&E&#0&K0<$##%Q&

"! [C%=SC%&U9$=&gZ! X$<%=U$9=&U9T$0#%&S%U&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&J&+C0$;%C&;9"U&#%U&I0;$%=;U&S%&<0=$LC%&:]"$;0\#%Z&

"! i;0\#$C&S%U&IC$9C$;:U&%=&;%=0=;&T9<I;%&S%&#0&U;C"T;"C%&9C`0=$U0;$9==%##%&

"! 8F0UU"C%C&]"%&#%&I0;$%=;|K0<$##%&=%&U%&U%=;%&I0U&0\0=S9==:&OU"CR%$##0=T%U&C:`"#$LC%U^&KC:]"%=;U&T9=;0T;U&R$U"%#U&%;&;9"C=:%U&I0C&"=%&T9##L`"%Q&

"! 8F0UU"C%C&S"&C%UI%T;&<";"%#&%=;C%&I0;$%=;UeK0<$##%Z&WZ! X$<%=U$9=&UI$C$;"%##%&S%U&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&J&'%TG%CTG%C&#%U&\%U9$=U&0T;"%#UZ&&

"! ,=S$R$S"0#$U%C&#%U&U9$=U&J&$<I9C;0=T%&S"&TG%<$=%<%=;^&S%&#F%NI:C$%=T%^&S%&#0&U$`=$K$T0;$9=&S%&#0&<9C;&

"! *"R%C;"C%&UI$C$;"%##%&OC%UI%T;&S%U&C%#$`$9=U&%;&TC9b0=T%UQ&

"! *KKC$C&#%&U%CR$T%&I0U;9C0#&

,<I#$T0;$9=U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&

5%;;%&:;"S%&9KKC%&#0&I%CUI%T;$R%&S%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&]"$&IC9S$`"%=;&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&S0=U&"=%&"=$;:&S%&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KUZ&7##%&S9==%&S%U&I$U;%U&SF$=;%CR%=;$9=U&S0=U&W&S$<%=U$9=U&S$KK:C%=;%U&0K$=&S%&SF0<:#$9C%C&#%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&J&IGbU$]"%^&C%#0;$9==%##%^&IUbTG9#9`$]"%^&<9C0#%^&U9T$0#%^&UI$C$;"%##%Z&

&

.99<%^&-Z^&49"h_%&-Z^&2%%"{%=S^&7Z&/&1#9%;^&2Z&O>?@WQZ&7NI#9C$=`&K0<$#b&%NI%C$%=T%U&9K&="CU$=`&

0UI%T;U&9K&%=S&9K&#$K%&T0C%&$=&;G%&,5VJ&(&]"0#$;0;$R%&U;"SbZ&;"5-"3+4-#*",#B'+5+6*7#B*'-#Z&'3+"Q(#ee(#gWe

WjZ#&

a"%U;$9=U&S%&C%TG%CTG%&

2l9\_%T;$K&S%&T%;;%&:;"S%&:;0$;&Sl%N0<$=%C&#l%NI:C$%=T%&S%U&K0<$##%U&T9=T%C=0=;&#%U&0UI%T;U&$=K$C<$%CU&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&S0=U&#F"=$;:&S%&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&0ICLU&"=%&S:T$U$9=&S%&<%;;C%&K$=&0"&<0$=;$%=&S%&#0&R$%^&E&"=&;C0$;%<%=;&%;&S%&S:TC$C%&T%&]"$&0&:;:&;CLU&0IIC:T$:&%=&;0=;&]"%&U9$=&$=K$C<$%C&%;&T%&]"$&<0=]"0$;Z&

[C$=T$I0"N&C:U"#;0;U&

•! ,<I9C;0=T%&SF$=K9C<%C&#0&K0<$##%&SF"=%&<0=$LC%&T9<IC:G%=U$\#%&%;&U$<$#0$C%&

•! 30<$##%U&C%UU%=;%=;&#0&I%"C&S%&IC%=SC%&S%U&S:T$U$9=U^&TF%U;&I9"C]"9$&$#&%U;&$<I9C;0=;&S%&#F$=K9C<%C&]"%&#0&IC$U%&S%&S:T$U$9=&K$=0#%&%U;&K0$;%&I0C&#%&<:S%T$=&&

•! 8%=;$<%=;&S%&U9#$;"S%&C%UU%=;$&I0C&#%U&K0<$##%U&]"$&%U;&%=;C%;%="&I0C&S%U&T9=R%CU0;$9=U&;C9I&B&U"I%CK$T$%##%U&D&0R%T&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&&

•! 30<$##%U&U9"G0$;%=;&S0R0=;0`%&f;C%&$<I#$]":%U&S0=U&#%U&U9$=U&IC9S$`":U&0"N&I0;$%=;U&T0C&=%&U9=;&

Page 32: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! IG!

I0U&U9"R%=;&U9##$T$;:U&I0C&#%U&U9$`=0=;U&I9"C&#%&K0$C%^&%;&=%&U0R%=;&I0U&T%&]"F$#U&I%"R%=;&K0$C%&

•! ,<I9C;0=T%&SF$=K9C<%C&#0&K0<$##%&U"C&#%&IC9T%UU"U&%;&#0&`C0R$;:&S%&#0&U$;"0;$9=&OS$UT";%C&0R%T&#0&K0<$##%&S%&#0&I9UU$\$#$;:&]"%&#%&I0;$%=;&S:TLS%Q&

•! ,=K$C<$LC%U&S9$R%=;&U%&IC:9TT"I%C&S%U&S%<0=S%U&%;&S%U&U9"G0$;Ud&\%U9$=U&UI:T$K$]"%U&S%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&#%"CU&K0<$##%U&OI0C&%N%<I#%^&T9=;0T;%C&#F0"<H=$%CQ&&

•! 30<$##%U&0IIC:T$%=;&#%U&%UI0T%U&IC$R:U&T0C&=%&U9=;&I0U&E&#F0$U%&I9"C&#0$UU%C&#%"CU&:<9;$9=U&0II0C0s;C%&U$&#%&I0;$%=;&I0C;0`%&U0&TG0<\C%&0R%T&"=&0";C%&I0;$%=;&

,<I#$T0;$9=U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&

5%;&0C;$T#%&<9=;C%&#F$<I9C;0=T%&S%&C%T9==0s;C%^&%=&;0=;&]"%&U9$`=0=;U^&#%U&S$R%CU%U&%NI:C$%=T%U&R:T"%U&I0C&#%U&K0<$##%U&S%U&I0;$%=;U&0"N&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KUZ&5%#0&I%C<%;&0"N&U9$`=0=;U&S%&C%T9==0s;C%&#%U&IC0;$]"%U&S%&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&]"$&9=;&:;:&0IIC:T$:%U&%;&]"$&9=;&U9"#0`:%U&#%U&K0<$##%U&0$=U$&]"%&#%U&I0;$%=;U&S"C0=;&#%"C&U:_9"C&0"N&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KUZ&2%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&%=&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&I%"R%=;&0S0I;%C&#%"CU&U9$=U&0"N&\%U9$=U&%;&S:U$CU&S%&#0&K0<$##%&S%U&I0;$%=;U&%=&K$=&S%&R$%&S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&0K$=&SF0<:#$9C%C&#0&]"0#$;:&S%&U9$=UZ&

&

8#0;b%C^&8Z^&[$%=00C^&5Z^&-Z&u$##$0<U^&(Z^&[C9T;9C^&)Z^&/&6%{$;;^&2Z&O>?@gQZ&3$=S$=`&IC$R0Tb&KC9<&

0&I"\#$T&S%0;GJ&0&]"0#$;0;$R%&%NI#9C0;$9=&9K&G9{&0&S%S$T0;%S&UI0T%&K9C&%=Se9Ke#$K%&T0C%&$=&0=&

0T";%&G9UI$;0#&$<I0T;U&9=&Sb$=`&I0;$%=;U&0=S&;G%$C&K0<$#$%UZ&P%&'"*7#%D#B7+"+6*7#Z&'3+"Q(#`f^&

>@Wj|>@yjZ&

a"%U;$9=U&S%&C%TG%CTG%&

a"%##%U&U9=;&#%U&%NI:C$%=T%U&%;&I%CT%I;$9=U&S"&I%CU9==%#&U9$`=0=;&%;&S%U&K0<$##%U&U"C&#%U&U9$=U&IC9S$`":U&E&S%U&I0;$%=;U&<9"C0=;U&S0=U&"=%&TG0<\C%&$=S$R$S"%##%&0II%#:%&B&29;"U&C99<D&M&

[C$=T$I0"N&C:U"#;0;U&

20&TC:0;$9=&SF"=&%=R$C9==%<%=;&0S:]"0;^&B&29;"U&C99<&D&%=&R%$##0=;&E&IC9I9U%C&"=&%UI0T%&J&&"! `C0=S&&"! U:T"C$U0=;&"! IC$R:&

0$S%C0$;&E&IC:U%CR%C&#0&S$`=$;:&S%U&I0;$%=;U&]"$&IC:U%=;%=;&S%U&Ub<I;H<%U&B%<\0CC0UU0=;UD&R$UeEeR$U&S%U&0";C%U&I0;$%=;U^&S%&#%U&IC9;:`%C&S"&S%"$#&%;&S%&#0&U9"KKC0=T%&<0$U&0"UU$^&S%&K0R9C$U%C&#%&C%UI%T;&S%&#0&T"#;"C%^&S%U&C$;%U&%;&;C0S$;$9=U&K0<$#$0#%UZ&

,<I#$T0;$9=U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&

,<I9C;0=T%&S%&R%$##%C&E&"=&%=R$C9==%<%=;&0S:]"0;&I9"C&#%U&I%CU9==%U&<9"C0=;%U&S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&U9$=U&0$`"U&J&&

"! ':S"$C%&#%&\C"$;&"! [C9I9U%C&"=&%UI0T%&IC$R:&&

I9"C&0<:#$9C%C&#0&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&0R%T&#0&K0<$##%&%;&K0R9C$U%C&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&S%U&IC$=T$I%U&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&OU9"#0`%<%=;&S%U&Ub<I;H<%U^&$=;:`C%C&]"%&#0&R$%&%;&#0&<9C;&K9=;&I0C;$%&S"&IC9T%UU"U&S%&#0&R$%^&U9$=U&IUbTG9#9`$]"%U&%;&UI$C$;"%#U&I%"R%=;&f;C%&K0R9C$U:UQ&;9";&%=&C%UI%T;0=;&#%U&\%U9$=U&T"#;"C%#U&OC$;%U^&;C0S$;$9=U^&TC9b0=T%UQ&S"&I0;$%=;&%;&S%&#0&K0<$##%Z&

&

1$CS"=^&5Z^&2"Th%;;^&+Z^&X0R$SU9=^&[Z&/&[G$##$IU^&!Z&O>?@gQZ&Xb$=`&$=&;G%&G9UI$;0#&U%;;$=`&J&(&UbU;%<0;$T&

C%R$%{&9K&]"0=;$;0;$R%&U;"S$%U&$S%=;$Kb$=`&;G%&%#%<%=;U&9K&%=Se9Ke#$K%&T0C%&;G0;&I0;$%=;U&0=S&;G%$C&

K0<$#$%U&C0=h&0U&\%$=`&<9U;&$<I9C;0=;Z&[0##$0;$R%&-%S$T$=%^&>cOcQ^&yyjeycWZ&

a"%U;$9=U&S%&C%TG%CTG%&

2F9\_%T;$K&%U;&S%&<$%"N&T9<IC%=SC%&T%&]"%&#%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&#%"CU&K0<$##%U&T9=U$SLC%=;&T9<<%&#%&I#"U&$<I9C;0=;&S0=U&#%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&0"N&I0;$%=;U&G9UI$;0#$U:UZ&[9"C&T%&K0$C%^&$#U&9=;&S:;%C<$=:&#%U&g&:#:<%=;U&#%U&I#"U&$<I9C;0=;U&S0=U&#%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&IC9S$`":U&I0C&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&$S%=;$K$:U&I0C&#%U&I0;$%=;U&G9UI$;0#$U:U&0$=U$&]"%&#%"CU&K0<$##%UZ&

[C$=T$I0"N&C:U"#;0;U&

Page 33: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! IH!

•! V=%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&%KK$T0T%&%;&"=%&IC$U%&S%&S:T$U$9=&I0C;0`:%&OT9<<"=$T0;$9=&G9==f;%^&IC:I0C%C&#0&K$=&S%&R$%^&C:U%0"^&S$UT"UU$9=&0TT%UU$\#%&E&IC9I9U&S"&S$0`=9U;$TQ&

•! 7NI%C;&%=&U9$=&O\9=U&U9$=U&IGbU$]"%U^&`%U;$9=&%;d9"&U9"#0`%<%=;&S%U&Ub<I;H<%U^&$<I9C;0=T%&S%&T9==0s;C%&#0&U$;"0;$9=^&\9==%&T9##0\9C0;$9=&%=;%&IC9K%UU$9==%#UQ&&

•! 89$=U&C%UI%T;"%"N&%;&T9<I0;$UU0=;U&OIC:U%CR0;$9=&S%&#0&S$`=$;:^&0;;$;"S%&U9";%=0=;%&S%U&U9$`=0=;U^&$=;:Cf;&S"&I0;$%=;&IC$U&%=&T9=U$S:C0;$9=&R%CU"U&$=;:Cf;&S%U&<:S%T$=UQ&&

•! 20&T9=K$0=T%&%=R%CU&#%U&T#$=$T$%=U&OC%#0;$9=&S%&T9=K$0=T%^&%=R$C9==%<%=;&0S:]"0;&I9"C&#%U&U9$=UQ&,<I#$T0;$9=U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&

•! 59<<"=$T0;$9=&%KK$T0T%&%;&S:T$U$9=&I0C;0`:%&S0=U&#%U&U9$=U&U9=;&S%U&$=S$T0;%"CU&S%&U9$=U&S%&]"0#$;:&OS9<0$=%U&T9=U$S:C:U&T9<<%&#%U&I#"U&$<I9C;0=;U&E&#lGHI$;0#&I0C&#%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&#%"C&K0<$##%Q&

•! '%UI%T;&%;&T9<I0UU$9=&U9=;&$<I9C;0=;U&I9"C&:;0\#$C&"=%&C%#0;$9=&S%&T9=K$0=T%&0R%T&#%&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%Z&

•! ,<I9C;0=T%&S%&;C9"R%C&"=&<9SL#%&S%&U9$=U&I9"C&#%&I0;$%=;&=:T%UU$;0=;&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&%=&C:9C`0=$U0=;&#%&UbU;L<%&S%&U0=;:&O<0TC9&J&=$R%0"&I9#$;$]"%&�&<%U9J&9C`0=$U0;$9=&S%U&U9$=U&%;&S%&#0&U0=;:&�&<$TC9&J&I0;$%=;&%;&K0<$##%Q&&

•! 2F0"`<%=;0;$9=&S%U&I%CU9==%U&<9"C0=;%U&E&#FGHI$;0#&S:<9=;C%&#F$<I9C;0=T%&S%&S:R%#9II%C&%;&S%&;%U;%C&S%&=9"R%0"N&<9SL#%U&S%&U9$=UZ&

&

u$;;%=\%C`e2b#%U^&7Z^&Y9#SU<$;G^&!Z^&/&'0`0=^&'Z&O>?@?QZ&+G%&UG$K;&;9&%0C#b&I0##$0;$R%&T0C%J&0&;bI9#9`b&9K&

$##=%UU&_9"C=%bU&0=S&;G%&C9#%&9K&="CU$=`Z&5#$=$T0#&!9"C=0#&9K&*=T9#9`b&."CU$=`^&@gOAQ^&A?jeA@?Z&

a"%U;$9=U&S%&C%TG%CTG%&

a"%##%U&U9=;&#%U&T0C0T;:C$U;$]"%U&S%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&]"$&$=K#"%=T%=;&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&IC:T9T%U&M&59<<%=;&T%"NeT$&K0m9==%=;&#l%NI:C$%=T%&S%U&U9$=U&S%&#0&K0<$##%&%;&S"&I0;$%=;&%;&]"%#&CH#%&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&_9"%=;&S0=U&T%U&S$KK:C%=;%U&T0C0T;:C$U;$]"%U&S%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&M&

[C$=T$I0"N&C:U"#;0;U&

2%U&A&;bI%U&S%&;C0_%T;9$C%&S%&<0#0S$%&]"$&$=T#"%=;&"=&;bI%&S%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&J&@Z&19b0`%&$U9#:&J&#F0\U%=T%&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&

•! +bI%&S%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&J&K%C<:%&0R%T&"=%&0IIC9TG%&T"C0;$R%&9C$%=;:%&U"C&#%&S$0`=9U;$T&%;&"=%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&S%U&U9$=U&<:S$T0"N&

•! 59<<"=$T0;$9=&$=K$C<$LC%&J&#$<$;:%&E&#F:S"T0;$9=&E&#0&U0=;:^&T%=;C:%&U"C&#%&;C0$;%<%=;&%;&U%U&%KK%;U&OR$U$9=&\$9<:S$T0#%Q^&S$UT"UU$9=&"=$#0;:C0#%^&I0U&S%&R$U$9=&G9#$U;$]"%&S%&#0&I%CU9==%^&I%"d&I0U&S%&T9##0\9C0;$9=&%=;C%&UI:T$0#$U;%U&

•! (IIC9TG%&T"C0;$R%&U%"#%&J&C$U]"%&]"%&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&U"C%U;$<%&#%&IC9=9U;$T&%;&9I;%&I9"C&S%U&;G:C0I$%U&0`C%UU$R%U&

>Z&19b0`%&U0"R:&J&U0"R%;0`%&S"&R9b0`%&$U9#:&I0C&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&

•! +bI%&S%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&J&K%C<:%&I"$U^&9"R%C;%&]"$&I%C<%;&"=%&%NI:C$%=T%&%=C$TG$UU0=;%&%;&9KKC%&#0&I9UU$\$#$;:&S%&I#0=$K$%C&#0&K$=&S%&R$%&

•! 59<<"=$T0;$9=&$=K$C<$LC%&J&S$UT"UU$9=&S"&IC9=9U;$T^&#F:S"T0;$9=&0"&I0;$%=;&%U;&9C$%=;:%&U"C&#%U&:;0I%U&S%&#0&IG0U%&;%C<$=0#%^&#%U&#$<$;%U&S%&#0&<:S%T$=%&U9=;&C%T9=="%U^&#%&IC9_%;&S%&U9$=U&%U;&IC:0#0\#%<%=;&S$UT";:&%;&#0&K$=&S%&R$%&%U;&I#0=$K$:%&OK"=:C0$##%UQ&

•! V=&K0$\#%&=$R%0"&S%&#$;;:C0;$%&%=&U0=;:&S"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&K0R9C$U%&#%&TG9$N&S%&;C0$;%<%=;&0`C%UU$K&%=&K$=&S%&R$%Z&&

AZ&19b0`%&C:T9=K9C;:&J&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%;&U9$=U&0"N&<9"C0=;U&

•! +bI%&S%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&J&9"R%C;%^&%NI:C$%=T%&%=C$TG$UU0=;%&]"$&I%C<%;&S%&I#0=$K$%C&#0&K$=&S%&R$%&&

•! 59<<"=$T0;$9=&$=K$C<$LC%&J&#%&IC9=9U;$T&%U;&S$UT";:^&#F:S"T0;$9=&%U;&9C$%=;:%&U"C&#%U&:;0I%U&S%&#0&IG0U%&;%C<$=0#%^&#%U&#$<$;%U&S%&#0&<:S%T$=%&U9=;&C%T9=="%U^&#%&IC9_%;&S%&U9$=U&%U;&S$UT";:&%=&0R0=T%^&#%U&UI:T$0#$U;%U&T9##0\9C%=;^&#0&K0<$##%&%U;&$=;:`C:%^&#0&IC$U%&S%&S:T$U$9=&%U;&I0C;0`:%^&#0&IC$U%&%=&TG0C`%&S%&#0&S9"#%"C&%U;&G9#$U;$]"%&

Page 34: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! II!

•! ,<I9C;0=T%&S%&<%;;C%&#0&IC$9C$;:&U"C&#F%NI:C$%=T%&R:T"%&S"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&

•! X9==%C&"=&CH#%&0T;$K&E&#0&K0<$##%&

•! 59==0s;C%&%;&$=;%CR%=$C&%=&K0R%"C&S%U&\%U9$=U&_"`:U&T9<<%&IC$9C$;0$C%U&I0C&#%&I0;$%=;&I%C<%;&S%&K0R9C$U%C&#0&C%#0;$9=&S%&T9=K$0=T%&

,<I#$T0;$9=U&I9"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&

2%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&9=;&"=%&I#0T%&IC$R$#:`$:%&I9"C&I0C#%C&S0R0=;0`%&S%U&9I;$9=U&S%&U9$=U&0"ICLU&S"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&%;&I9"C&S$UT";%C&S"&IC9=9U;$T&S%&#0&<0#0S$%Z&2%U&0";%"CU&U9"#$`=%=;&#F$<I9C;0=T%&S"&CH#%&$=K$C<$%C&S0=U&J&

•! #%U&IC$U%U&S%&S:T$U$9=&<:S$T0#%U&

•! #0&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&0R%T&I0;$%=;&%;&K0<$##%&

•! #%&S:R%#9II%<%=;&S%U&$=;%CR%=;$9=U&O<9SL#%U&%;&0;;$;"S%UQ&$=K$C<$LC%U&9C$%=;:%U&U"C&#0&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&%;&\0U:%U&U"C&S%U&S9==:%U&IC9\0=;%U&0K$=&SF:R$;%C&#%U&;C0_%T;9$C%U&S%&<0#0S$%&q$U9#:%&9"&U0"R:%r&&

3";"C%U&C%TG%CTG%U&J&

−! UF$=;:C%UU%C&0"&CH#%&S%&T9<<"=$T0;C$T%&S%&#F$=K$C<$LC%&0R%T&S%U&I0;$%=;U&0;;%$=;U&S%&<0#0S$%U&`C0R%U^&T9<I#%N%U&%;&%=&IG0U%&;%C<$=0#%&

−! $S%=;$K$%C&#%U&I9$=;U&T%=;C0"N&I:S0`9`$]"%U&]"%&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&S9$R%=;&0T]":C$C&0R0=;&SF0##%C&U"C&#%&;%CC0$=&

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

Page 35: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! IJ!

WZ! X$UT"UU$9=&%;&I%CUI%T;$R%U&

X0=U&T%&TG0I$;C%^&=9"U&0##9=U&IC:U%=;%C&=9;C%&C:K#%N$9=&U"C&#0&IC0;$]"%&S%U&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&S0=U&

#%U& U%CR$T%U&S%& U9$=U& 0$`"U&E&I0C;$C&S%U& C:U"#;0;U&S%U&0C;$T#%U&]"%&=9"U&0R9=U& U:#%T;$9==:U&I9"C&

;%=;%C&S%&S9==%C&S%U&:#:<%=;U&S%&C:I9=U%&E&=9;C%&]"%U;$9=&S%&C%TG%CTG%Z&7=&C%`0CS&S%&#F0=0#bU%&

S%& T%U& C:U"#;0;U^& =9"U& 0##9=U& %NI9U%C& #%U& A& ;G:<0;$]"%U& IC$=T$I0#%U& ]"$& 9=;& :<%C`:& J& #0&

T9<<"=$T0;$9=^& #0&C%#0;$9=&%;& #F%=R$C9==%<%=;Z&[9"C&0II"b%C&=9U&IC9I9U^&=9"U&0##9=U&";$#$U%C& #%&

T0SC%&S%&C:K:C%=T%&S%&X0##0$C%&O>??PQ&]"$&S:R%#9II%&g&K9=T;$9=U&S"&CH#%& $=K$C<$%C&0K$=&SF0_9";%C&

"=%&S$<%=U$9=&U"II#:<%=;0$C%&E&=9;C%&S$UT"UU$9=Z&

&

(K$=&SF$##"U;C%C&T9=TCL;%<%=;&=9U&C%T9<<0=S0;$9=U^&=9"U&IC9I9U9=U&S%U&$=;%CR%=;$9=U&E&<%;;C%&

%=&I#0T%&%=&#%U&T9=;%N;"0#$U0=;&S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&<:S%T$=%Z&

&

WZ@Z!(=0#bU%&S%U&C:U"#;0;U&%;&C%T9<<0=S0;$9=U&

&

.9;C%& 0=0#bU%& S%U& C:U"#;0;U& S%U& 0C;$T#%U& =9"U& 0& 0<%=:%U& E& :#0\9C%C& #%U& T9=S$;$9=U& =:T%UU0$C%U&

I9"C&<%;;C%&%=&I#0T%&"=&0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&S%&]"0#$;:Z&&

&

20& S%"N$L<%& K9=T;$9=& S:TC$;%& I0C& X0##0$C%& O>??PQ& %U;& SF:S"]"%C^& ]"$& 0UU9T$%& %=U%$`=%C^&

C%=U%$`=%C^& IC9<9"R9$C& #0& U0=;:& %;& IC:R%=$C& #%U& C$U]"%UZ& 7=& T%& U%=U^& =9"U& S:R%#9II9=U& =9;C%&

C:K#%N$9=&U"C&#%U&C:U"#;0;U&S%&=9U&0C;$T#%U&I9"R0=;&T9=;C$\"%C&E&C:0#$U%C&T%;;%&K9=T;$9=Z&

&

8%#9=&u$;;%=\%C`e2b#%U^&Y9#SU<$;G&%;&'0`0=&O>?@?Q^&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&0"C0$%=;&"=%&I#0T%&IC$R$#:`$:%&

I9"C& I0C#%C& S%U& 9I;$9=U& S%& U9$=U& %;& S"& IC9=9U;$T& 0"ICLU& S"& I0;$%=;& %;& S%& U0& K0<$##%Z& [#"U$%"CU&

;bI%U& S%& ;C0_%T;9$C%U& S%& #0& <0#0S$%& U9=;& <$U& %=& C%#0;$9=& 0R%T& #%& ;bI%& S%& T9<<"=$T0;$9=& S%U&

$=K$C<$LC%UZ&2%&R9b0`%&q$U9#:r&%U;& #0&IC%<$LC%&;C0_%T;9$C%&S:TC$;%&9o&#%&I0;$%=;&%;& #0&K0<$##%&=F9=;&

I0U&%"&S%&S$UT"UU$9=&U"C&#%&IC9=9U;$T&;%C<$=0#&%;&#%U&9I;$9=U&S%&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%Z&X%&I#"U^&#%&;bI%&

S%& T9<<"=$T0;$9=& ";$#$U:& I0C& #F$=K$C<$LC%& %U;& #$<$;:%& E& #F:S"T0;$9=& E& #0& U0=;:^& T%=;C:%& U"C& #%&

;C0$;%<%=;&%;&T%U&%KK%;U^&U$&\$%=&]"%&#0&S$UT"UU$9=&C%U;%&"=$#0;:C0#%&%;&B&U"I%CK$T$%##%&D&%<IfTG0=;&

0$=U$&"=%&R$U$9=&G9#$U;$]"%&S%&#0&I%CU9==%Z&5%&;bI%&S%&;C0_%T;9$C%&S:TC$;&#%U&%KK%;U&SF"=%&0IIC9TG%&

T"C0;$R%& U0=U& 0IIC9TG%&I0##$0;$R%& U"C& #%& I0;$%=;eK0<$##%Z& 2%U& C:U"#;0;U& IC:U%=;:U& S0=U& T%;& 0C;$T#%&

<%;;%=;&%=&:R$S%=T%&]"%&#%U&K0<$##%U&%;&#%U&I0;$%=;U&9=;&;%=S0=T%&E&U"C%U;$<%C&#0&IC9\0\$#$;:&S%&

U"CR$%&%;&9I;%C&I9"C&S%U&;G:C0I$%U&0`C%UU$R%UZ&&

&

20&S%"N$L<%&;C0_%T;9$C%&%U;&#%&R9b0`%&qU0"R:r&]"$&U$`=$K$%&]"%&T%&U9=;&#%U&I0;$%=;U&%;&K0<$##%&]"$&

U9=;& B& U0"R:U& D& SF"=& R9b0`%& B&$U9#:&D& T0C& #0& ;C0=U$;$9=& S%U& ;C0$;%<%=;U& T"C0;$KU& R%CU& S%U&

;C0$;%<%=;U& I0##$0;$KU& 0& I"& f;C%& K0$;%Z& 2F9"R%C;"C%& S%& #0& S$UT"UU$9=& U"C& #%& IC9=9U;$T& %;& #0&

C%T9==0$UU0=T%& S%U& #$<$;%U& S%& #0& <:S%T$=%& 9=;& I%C<$U& SF0\9CS%C& S%U& U"_%;U& T9<<%& #0&

I#0=$K$T0;$9=&S%&#0&K$=&S%&R$%&%;&S9==%C&S0R0=;0`%&SF:S"T0;$9=&0"&I0;$%=;&T%=;C:%&U"C& #%U&:;0I%U&

Page 36: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! IL!

S%&#0&IG0U%&;%C<$=0#%Z&.:0=<9$=U^&#%U&0";%"CU&%NI#$]"%=;&]"%&#%&=$R%0"&S%&#$;;:C0;$%&%=&U0=;:g&S"&

I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&0&"=&$<I0T;&U"C&#%"C&IC$U%&S%&S:T$U$9=Z&

&

20& S%C=$LC%& ;C0_%T;9$C%& %U;& #%& R9b0`%& qC:T9=K9C;:r& ]"$& T9CC%UI9=S& E& #0&<$U%& %=& I#0T%& S%& U9$=U&

I0##$0;$KU^& T9<<%&S0=U& #0&IC:T:S%=;%& ;C0_%T;9$C%^& %=& b& 0_9";0=;& #F$=;:`C0;$9=&S%& #0& K0<$##%& %;&S"&

I0;$%=;& S0=U& #0& IC$U%& S%& S:T$U$9=& ]"0=;& 0"& IC9_%;& S%& U9$=Z& 5%;;%& ;C0_%T;9$C%& I%C<%;& 0"N&

IC9K%UU$9==%#U&S%&<%;;C%&#0&IC$9C$;:&U"C&#F%NI:C$%=T%&R:T"%&I0C&#%&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%Z&[9"C&#0&I#"I0C;&

S%U&I0;$%=;UeK0<$##%U^&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&SF"=%&0IIC9TG%&I0##$0;$R%&#%"C&9KKC%&#0&I9UU$\$#$;:&S%&I9U%C&

S%U&]"%U;$9=U^&%;&SFf;C%&%=`0`:&S0=U&#0&IC$U%&S%&S:T$U$9=&T9<<%&:;0=;&S%U&<%<\C%U&S%&#F:]"$I%&

U9$`=0=;%Z&&

&

2%U& C:U"#;0;U& S%& Y0`=9=& %;& u%=Sb& O>?@jQ& T9v=T$S%=;& 0R%T& T%U& T9=U;0;0;$9=UZ& 5%U& 0";%"CU&

IC:U%=;%=;&#%U&K0T;%"CU&]"$&%=;C0R%=;&#0&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&%=;C%&#F$=K$C<$LC%&%;&#%&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&%;&

0$=U$^& %<IfTG%& #0& ;C0=U$;$9=& S"& I0;$%=;& %=& U9$=U& T"C0;$KU& R%CU& S%U& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KUZ& 7=& %KK%;^& #%&

<0=]"%&S%&T9==0$UU0=T%U&S"&I0;$%=;&%;&S%&U0&K0<$##%&T9=T%C=0=;&#%U&IC%U;0;$9=U&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&

0"N]"%##%U& $#U& I%"R%=;& 0R9$C& 0TTLU^& S%U& 0;;%=;%U& $CC:0#$U;%U& I0C& C0II9C;& 0"N& ;C0$;%<%=;U& %;& "=%&

<:T9==0$UU0=T%&S%&#0&IC9`C%UU$9=&S%&#0&<0#0S$%&0"&U;0S%&;%C<$=0#&R9=;&0$=U$&T9=;C$\"%C&E&KC%$=%C&

#0& ;C0=U$;$9=&R%CU& #%U& U9$=U&I0##$0;$KUZ&5%U&:#:<%=;U&IC9R$%==%=;&S%& #0&I%CT%I;$9=&S%U& $=K$C<$LC%U&

]"$& C%_9$=;& #%& I9$=;& S%& R"%& S%& #0& K0<$##%& S0=U& #F0C;$T#%& S%& .99<%^& 49"h_%^& 2%%"{%=S& %;& 1#9%;&

O>?@WQZ&X0=U&T%;&0C;$T#%^&#%U&0";%"CU&S9==%=;&"=&:#:<%=;&S%&C:I9=U%&0"&<0=]"%&S%&T9==0$UU0=T%&

S%U& K0<$##%U& %=& U9"#$`=0=;& #F$<I9C;0=T%& S%& #%U& $=K9C<%C& U"C& #%& IC9T%UU"U& %;& #0& `C0R$;:& S%& #0&

U$;"0;$9=Z&.9"U&I%=U9=U&C:0#$U0\#%&]"%&#F$=K$C<$LC%&U%&C%=U%$`=%&U"C&#F:;0;&0T;"%#&S"&I0;$%=;&0"ICLU&

S"&<:S%T$=&%;&$=K9C<%&#%&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%Z&5%T$&K0R9C$U%C0$;&#0&T9##0\9C0;$9=&$=;%CIC9K%UU$9==%##%&%;&

0<:#$9C%C0$;& #0& T9##0\9C0;$9=& S"& I0;$%=;eK0<$##%& 0"& IC9_%;& S%& U9$=Z& [0C& 0$##%"CU^& T%;& :#:<%=;& %U;&

C%=K9CT:& I0C& #F0C;$T#%& S%&u$;;%=\%C`e2b#%U& %;& 0#Z& O>?@?Q& ]"$&<%;& E& =9"R%0"& %=& %N%C`"%& #%& CH#%&

%UU%=;$%#& S%& T9<<"=$T0;C$T%& ]"%& S:;$%=;& #F$=K$C<$LC%Z& 7=& %KK%;^& =9"U& I%=U9=U& $=S$UI%=U0\#%& S%&

;C0S"$C%& #%& #0=`0`%&<:S$T0#& 0K$=& ]"F$#& U9$;& T9<IC:G%=U$\#%& %;& 0S0I;:& %=& K9=T;$9=& S"& =$R%0"& S%&

#$;;:C0;$%&%=&U0=;:&S"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&%;&0$=U$&K0R9C$U%C&"=%&IC$U%&S%&S:T$U$9=&I0C;0`:%&%;&:T#0$C:%Z&

&

X0=U& #F0C;$T#%& S%& X0#`00CS^& +G9CU%##& %;& X%#<0C& O>?@?Q^& =9"U& 0R9=U& 9\U%CR:& ]"F"=%& S$UT"UU$9=&

9"R%C;%& U"C& #0& K$=& S%& R$%& %U;& U9"R%=;& C%;0CS:%& 0"& U;0S%& ;%C<$=0#^& 0#9CU& ]"F"=%& T9<<"=$T0;$9=&

G9==f;%& %;& U$=TLC%& S%RC0$;& f;C%& :;0\#$%& SLU& #%& S:\";& S%& #F0CCf;& S"& ;C0$;%<%=;& T"C0;$KZ& 7=&

T9<I0C0$U9=&0R%T&#%&UTG:<0&U"C&#%U&IG0U%U&SF:R9#";$9=&SF"=%&<0#0S$%&$=T"C0\#%&IC:U%=;:&S0=U&#0&

IC9\#:<0;$]"%^&=9"U&T9=U;0;9=U&]"%&#%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%;&T"C0;$KU&T9G0\$;%=;&U9"R%=;&_"U]"FE&#0&

K$=&%;&]"F$#&=Fb&0&I0U&"=&0CCf;&B&=%;&D&S"&;C0$;%<%=;&T"C0;$KZ&7=&T9=U:]"%=T%^&=9"U&I%=U9=U&I#"U&

I%C;$=%=;&SF0\9CS%C&T%;;%&S$UT"UU$9=&0"&<9<%=;&S%&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KUZ&7=&%KK%;^&

$#&U%<\#%C0$;&]"%&T%&C%;0CS&U9$;&:;C9$;%<%=;&#$:&E&#F0\U%=T%&S%&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!L!2$;;:C0;$%&%=&U0=;:&J&TF%U;&#0&T0I0T$;:&S%&#$C%^&S%&T9<IC%=SC%&%;&SF";$#$U%C&#F$=K9C<0;$9=&<:S$T0#%&I9"C&IC%=SC%&S%U&

S:T$U$9=U&%;&U"$RC%&"=&;C0$;%<%=;&O)$%K%C^&>?@>Q&

!

Page 37: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! IM!

Ou$;;%=\%C`^& 0#Z& >?@?Q& ;H;& S0=U& #%& IC9T%UU"U& S%& #0&<0#0S$%& %;& T%#0& I9"CC0$;& UF%NI#$]"%C& I0C& "=&

<0=]"%& S%& C%T9==0$UU0=T%& S%U& U9$`=0=;U& U"C& #%U& S$KK:C%=;%U& IG0U%U& SF"=%& <0#0S$%& $=T"C0\#%Z&

+9";%K9$U^& X0#`00CS& %;& 0#Z& O>?@?Q& I%C<%;& S%& ="0=T%C& T%& IC9I9U& %=& %NI#$]"0=;& #0& S$KK$T"#;:& S%&

IC:S$C%&%;&SF$S%=;$K$%C&IC:T$U:<%=;&S0=U&TG0]"%&U$;"0;$9=& #%U&%KK%;U& C%TG%CTG:U&S%U& ;C0$;%<%=;U&

0$=U$&]"%& #%"CU&%KK%;U& U%T9=S0$C%U& U"C& #F:;0;&S"&I0;$%=;Z&5%;&:#:<%=;&%NI#$]"%C0$;&%=&I0C;$%&]"%^&

S0=U&T%C;0$=%U& U$;"0;$9=U^& #%U& U9$=U&T"C0;$KU&\0UT"#%=;&\C";0#%<%=;&%=&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%;& T%T$^&S%&

<0=$LC%&;0CS$R%Z&&

&

2%& T9=T%I;& S%& #F*,4%6*6?# OX%\9";^& >?@>Q& ]"$& %U;& #F"=& S%U& CH#%U& %UU%=;$%#U& $=K$C<$%C^& C:U"<%&

#F%=U%<\#%&S%U&:#:<%=;U&S$UT";:U&%=&S:K$=$UU0=;&A&<0=$LC%U&S$KK:C%=;%U&S%&<%;;C%&%=&k"RC%&T%&

T9=T%I;J& 0II9C;%C& S%U& $=K9C<0;$9=U& I%C<%;;0=;& E& #0& I%CU9==%& S%& T9==0s;C%& U%U& SC9$;U^&

#F0TT9<I0`=%C&S0=U& #%&IC9T%UU"U&S:T$U$9==%#&%;d9"& U%&I9U$;$9==%C&%=& ;0=;&]"%&I9C;%eI0C9#%&S"&

I0;$%=;&#9CU&S%&IC$U%&S%&S:T$U$9=Z&&

&

[9"C& $##"U;C%C& S0R0=;0`%& =9U& IC9I9U^& =9"U& I%=U9=U& $=S$UI%=U0\#%& SF$=K9C<%C& #%& I0;$%=;& U"C& U%U&

SC9$;UZ&7=&%KK%;^&=9"U&I%=U9=U&]"%&T%&T9<I#:<%=;&SF$=K9C<0;$9=U&K0R9C$U%&#F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&S"&

I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&S0=U&#0&IC$U%&S%&S:T$U$9=Z&7=&C%`0CS&S%U&SC9$;U&S"&I0;$%=;W^&#%&SC9$;&E&#F$=K9C<0;$9=&

U;$I"#%&]"%& #%&I0;$%=;&0& #%&SC9$;&SFf;C%& $=K9C<:&S%&<0=$LC%&T#0$C%&%;&0IIC9IC$:%&U"C&U9=&:;0;&S%&

U0=;:^&#%U&%N0<%=U&%;&;C0$;%<%=;U&%=R$U0`%0\#%U^&#%U&T9=U:]"%=T%U&%;&#%U&C$U]"%U&:R%=;"%#U&]"F$#U&

$<I#$]"%=;^&#%&IC9=9U;$T&%;&#%U&0UI%T;U&K$=0=T$%CU&S"&;C0$;%<%=;Z&V=&0";C%&I9$=;&$<I9C;0=;&%U;&]"F$#&

I%";& C%;$C%C& U9=& T9=U%=;%<%=;& 9"& C%K"U%C& "=& ;C0$;%<%=;& E& ;9";& <9<%=;& O8%CR$T%& S%& #0& U0=;:&

I"\#$]"%&S"&50=;9=&S%&10"S^&>?@j^&IZPQZ&X%&I#"U^&=9"U&I%=U9=U&]"%&S%<0=S%C&0"&I0;$%=;&U$& #%U&

S$C%T;$R%U& 0=;$T$I:%U&9=;&I"&f;C%& K0$;%U&9"& UF$#& U9"G0$;%& #%U& :#0\9C%C& K0$;& I0C;$%&S%&=9;C%& CH#%&%;&

I%";&I%C<%;;C%&E& #F$=K$C<$LC%&S%& K0$C%&R0#9$C& T%U&\%U9$=U&0"ICLU&S%U&0";C%U&IC9K%UU$9==%#U&S%& #0&

U0=;:&I#"U&0$U:<%=;Z&X"&C%U;%^&T%U&S$C%T;$R%U&I%"R%=;&f;C%&"=%&I9C;%&SF%=;C:%&E&"=%&S$UT"UU$9=&

9"R%C;%&U"C&#0&K$=&S%&R$%Z&V=&S%C=$%C&I9$=;&]"%&=9"U&;C9"R9=U&I%C;$=%=;&S%&<%=;$9==%C&%U;&#%&SC9$;&

SFf;C%& 0TT9<I0`=:& %;& S%& <0$=;%=$C& #%& T9=;0T;& 0R%T& U9=& %=;9"C0`%Z& 5%& SC9$;& I%";& f;C%& I0C&

%N%<I#%& S%<0=S:& I0C& #%& I0;$%=;& #9CU& S%U& %=;C%;$%=UZ& 2F$=;%CR%=;$9=& %=& #$%=& 0R%T& T%& ]"%& =9"U&

0R9=U& S:R%#9II:& %U;& S%& S9==%C& UbU;:<0;$]"%<%=;& T%;;%& \C9TG"C%& %=& %NI#$T$;0=;& U9=& T9=;%="&

0"ICLU&S"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%Z&7=&C:0#$U0=;&T%T$^&#F$=K$C<$LC%&K0R9C$U%&#F-.9%h-'.-"5M&S"&I0;$%=;&%=&#%&

C%=S0=;&0T;%"C&S%&U0&U0=;:Z&7=&T%&U%=U^&T%;&0UI%T;& K0R9C$U%& #F0II#$T0;$9=&S"&IC$=T$I%&:;G$]"%&S%&

#F0";9=9<$%&]"$&%U;&#F"=%&S%U&R0#%"CU&%UU%=;$%##%U&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KUZ&

&

X0=U&#F0C;$T#%&S%&Y0`=9=&%;&0#Z&O>?@jQ^& #%U&0";%"CU&S:=9=T%=;&"=%&B&<:S$T0#$U0;$9=&S%&#F%UI9$C&DZ&

7=&%KK%;^&#%U&U9$`=0=;U&%=;C0R%C0$%=;&"=%&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&9"R%C;%&%=&U9"G0$;0=;&<0$=;%=$C&#F%UI9$C&

_"U]"FE& #0& IG0U%& ;%C<$=0#%& S%& #0&<0#0S$%Z& 5%T$& %=;C0s=%C0$;& "=& %UI9$C& B&S%& `":C$U9=&D& TG%w& #%U&

I0;$%=;UeK0<$##%U& ]"$& U%C0$;& :;C9$;%<%=;& #$:& E& "=& S:=$& S%& #0& <9C;Z& [#"U& `#9\0#%<%=;^& S0=U& =9U&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!W&8%CR$T%&S%&#0&U0=;:&I"\#$]"%&S"&50=;9=&S%&10"S^&>?@j^&IZg&y&X:K$=$;$9=&J&"=&IC9T%UU"U&SF0T]"$U$;$9=&SF"=%&T%C;0$=%&0";9=9<$%&S"&T#$%=;&I0C&C0II9C;&E&U%U&U9$=U&%;&0"N&S:T$U$9=U&

]"$&#%&T9=T%C=%=;&O[G0=%"K^&>?@AQ!

Page 38: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! IR!

U9T$:;:U&9TT$S%=;0#%U^&#0&T"#;"C%&K0R9C$U%C0$;&"=%&I%"C&S%&#0&<9C;&%=;C0s=0=;&0$=U$&U9=&S:=$^&0";0=;&

TG%w& #%U& I0;$%=;U& ]"%& TG%w& #%U& U9$`=0=;UZ& 5F%U;& "=%& S%U& C0$U9=U& I9"C& #0]"%##%& #%& I0C;0`%& S%U&

:<9;$9=U&=%&U%C0$;&I0U&T9=U$S:C:&T9<<%&B&0IIC9IC$:&D&I0C&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%UZ&5%&IC9T%UU"U&U%C0$;&E&

#F9C$`$=%& SF"=& S:;0TG%<%=;& :<9;$9==%#& C%UU%=;$& I0C& T%C;0$=%U& $=K$C<$LC%U& %;& %NI#$]"%C0$;& #%"CU&

S$KK$T"#;:U&E&T9<<"=$]"%C&%KK$T0T%<%=;&0R%T&#%U&I0;$%=;UZ&

&

7=& C%`0CS& S%& T%U& :#:<%=;U^& #F%UI9$C& U"UT$;:& TG%w& #%& I0;$%=;& K0R9C$U%C0$;& S9=T^& "=& %UI9$C& B&S%&

`":C$U9=&DZ&[0C&T9=U:]"%=;^&=9"U&0R9=U&C:K#:TG$&U"C&#%U&C0$U9=U&]"$&%=T9"C0`%=;&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&E&

R9"#9$C& <0$=;%=$C& #F%UI9$C& TG%w& #%& I0;$%=;eK0<$##%Z& 2FGbI9;GLU%& ]"%& =9"U& K9C<"#9=U& %U;& ]"%&

#F$=K$C<$LC%&9\U%CR%&]"%&#%&I0;$%=;&IC:U%=;%&9"&%U;&E&C$U]"%&S%&IC:U%=;%C&"=%&S:;C%UU%&UI$C$;"%##%P&

%=&C%#0;$9=&0R%T& #%&T0C0T;LC%& $=T"C0\#%&S%& #0&<0#0S$%Z&[9"C&T%;;%&C0$U9=^& #%U& $=K$C<$LC%U&U%C0$%=;&

S:<"=$%U& %=& #F0\U%=T%& SF9";$#& I9"C& $=;%CR%=$C& 0S:]"0;%<%=;Z& 5%T$& K0R9C$U%C0$;& S9=T& "=& %UI9$C&

$=0S:]"0;& S"& I0;$%=;eK0<$##%& %=& C%`0CS& S%& #0& U$;"0;$9=Z& 7=& T%& U%=U^& =9"U& C%TG%CTG9=U& S%U&

$=;%CR%=;$9=U&T9=TCL;%U&I9"C&`:=:C%C&"=&%UI9$C&]"$&=F%=;C0R%&I0U& #F0S0I;0;$9=&S"&I0;$%=;&E&U9=&

=9"R%#&:;0;&S%&U0=;:Z&

20&=9;$9=&SF%UI9$C&%U;&"=&T9=T%I;&]"$&0&:;:&S:R%#9II:&S0=U&#0&;G:9C$%&S%&#F$=T%C;$;"S%&O-$UG%#&/&

5#0b;9=^&>??PQZ&5%;;%&;G:9C$%&S:TC$;& #0&<0=$LC%&S9=;& #%&I0;$%=;&:R0#"%& #F$=T%C;$;"S%&OU9$;&T9<<%&

"=&S0=`%C^&U9$;&T9<<%&"=%&9II9C;"=$;:Q&`:=:C:%&I0C&#F0==9=T%&9"&#0&I:_9C0;$9=&SF"=%&<0#0S$%&

%;&#0&<0=$LC%&S9=;&T%;;%&:R0#"0;$9=&R0&$=K#"%=T%C&U9=&0S0I;0;$9=&E&U0&=9"R%##%&U$;"0;$9=Z&29CU]"%&

#%&I0;$%=;&;C0R%CU%&"=%&I:C$9S%&SF$=T%C;$;"S%^& #0&;G:9C$T$%==%&IC9I9U%&S%&K0R9C$U%C& #F%UI9$C&I9"C&

0$S%C& #0&I%CU9==%&E&UF0S0I;%C&E&U0&=9"R%##%&U$;"0;$9=&S%&R$%Z&8%#9=&-$UG%#&O>??PQ^& #0&<0=$LC%&S%&

C:9C$%=;%C&#F%UI9$C&S"&I0;$%=;&%U;&S%&#F0TT9<I0`=%C&E&:R0#"%C&#F$=T%C;$;"S%&S0R0=;0`%&T9<<%&"=%&

9II9C;"=$;:Z&5%&IC9T%UU"U&I%";&0<%=%C& #0&I%CU9==%&E&:;0\#$C&S%&=9"R%##%U&IC$9C$;:U&T9=T%C=0=;&

U9=&IC9_%;&S%&R$%&%=&`:=:C0=;&"=&%UI9$C&9C$%=;:&U"C&S%&=9"R%0"N&9\_%T;$KU&E&0;;%$=SC%Z&($=U$^& #%&

I0;$%=;& I%";& S9==%C& "=& =9"R%0"& U%=U& E& U0& R$%Z& 7=& T%& U%=U^& =9"U& IC9I9U9=U& SF$=R%U;$`"%C& #0&

S$<%=U$9=&UI$C$;"%##%&S"&I0;$%=;&0K$=&S%&<%;;C%&%=&:R$S%=T%&T%U&C%UU9"CT%U&I%CU9==%##%U&%;&0$=U$&

#F0TT9<I0`=%C& E& #%U& ";$#$U%CZ& 2%& `"$S%& I0##$0;$K& S%U&<:S%T$=U& R0"S9$U& U"C& #0& UI$C$;"0#$;:& %=& U9$=U&

I0##$0;$KU& S9==%=;& S%U& 9";$#U& I9"C& $=R%U;$`"%C& #0& S$<%=U$9=& UI$C$;"%##%& S"& I0;$%=;^& =9;0<<%=;&

#F9";$#&8[,'c&O'$R$%C^&8";%C&/&69=`#%C^&>??P^&IZ&gQZ&5%;&9";$#&IC9I9U%&j&%N%<I#%U&S%&]"%U;$9=UeT#%KU&

E&";$#$U%C&I9"C&0\9CS%C&#0&S$<%=U$9=&UI$C$;"%##%Z&2F9";$#&6*[7@?&O[:;C%<0=S^&4$`#%C^&4�TG%&/&3"TGU^&

>?@?Q& %U;& 0"UU$& "=& 9";$#& C%T9=="& S0=U& #%U& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KUZ& ,#& IC9I9U%& 0"N& U9$`=0=;U& #%U& ;GL<%U&

%UU%=;$%#U&E&0\9CS%C&0R%T& #%&I0;$%=;Z&5%I%=S0=;^& T%;&9";$#&=%&IC:U%=;%&0"T"=%&]"%U;$9=&0K$=&S%&

K0R9C$U%C& S0R0=;0`%& "=%& T9<<"=$T0;$9=& 9"R%C;%& %;& G9==f;%& %=;C%& U9$`=0=;& %;& I0;$%=;Z& 7=&

<%;;0=;& %=& I#0T%& T%& ;bI%& SF$=;%CR%=;$9=U^& =9"U& U9"G0$;9=U& K0R9C$U%C& "=& %UI9$C& 9C$%=;:& U"C&

#F0;;%$=;%&S%&=9"R%0"N&9\_%T;$KU&S%&R$%&%;&]"$&=%&U%&#$<$;%=;&I0U&E&#0&R9#9=;:&S%&`":C$CZ&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!P&X:K$=$;$9=&U%#9=&#0&.(.X(&O>??ye>??P^&IZ&yceP?Q&J&B&"=%&I%C;"C\0;$9=&S%&#0&T0I0T$;:&S%&C%UU%=;$C&%;&SF$=;:`C%C&#%&U%=U&%;&#%&\";&S%&#0&R$%&E&;C0R%CU&#%U&#$%=U&0R%T&U9$e<f<%^&#%U&0";C%U^&#F0C;^&#0&<"U$]"%^&#0&=0;"C%&9"&"=%&39CT%&8"I:C$%"C%&DZ&c&5ZKZ&0==%N%&@&

@?&5ZK&0==%N%&>!

Page 39: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! I`!

[9"C&K0R9C$U%C&#0&C%#0;$9=&%=;C%&$=K$C<$LC%&%;&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%^&#0&;G:9C$T$%==%&!%0=&u0;U9=&O>??WQ&0&

S:R%#9II:& #0& ;G:9C$%& S"& B*'+"Q& T9=U;$;":%& S%& W& I9U;"#0;U& OIC$=T$I%U^& R0#%"CU& U"C& #%U]"%##%U& U%&

K9=S%=;& #0& ;G:9C$%Q& 0K$=& SFG"<0=$U%C& #%U& U9$=UZ& 2F"=& SF%=;C%& %"N& <%=;$9==%& ]"%& #%& B*'+"Q# %U;&

T9=U;$;":&S%&K0T;%"CU&S%&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&]"$&C:U"#;%=;&S%&#0&U0;$UK0T;$9=&S%&\%U9$=U&G"<0$=UZ&7=&T%&

U%=U^&Y"0b&%;&0#Z&O>?@@Q&IC9I9U%&S$R%CU%U&$=;%CR%=;$9=U&0K$=&SFG"<0=$U%C&#%U&U9$=U&%;&S%&C:I9=SC%&

0"N&\%U9$=U&S"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%Z&5%T$&I%";&"=$]"%<%=;&U%&K0$C%&%=&T9=U$S:C0=;&#%U&<%<\C%U&S%&#0&

K0<$##%&T9<<%&S%U&B&UI:T$0#$U;%U&D& #9CU&S%U&IC$U%U&S%&S:T$U$9=U&%;&%=& #%U&<%;;0=;&E&T9=;C$\";$9=&

O0;;C$\";$9=&S%U&CH#%U&%=&#%"C&S%<0=S0=;&SF0II9C;%C&S%U&9\_%;U&I%CU9==%#U&T9<<%&S%U&IG9;9UQ^&

%=&R0#9C$U0=;&#0&IC:U%=T%&S%U&I%CU9==%U&U$`=$K$T0;$R%U&0$=U$&]"F%=&G9=9C0=;&#%"CU&#$%=UZ&2%&\%U9$=&

S%& #0& K0<$##%& SFf;C%& S0R0=;0`%& $<I#$]":%& S0=U& #%U& U9$=U& IC9S$`":U& %U;& 0"UU$& "=& :#:<%=;& C%#%R:&

S0=U& #F0C;$T#%& S%&.99<%& %;& 0#Z& O>?@WQZ& [9"C& T%& K0$C%^&Y"0b& %;& 0#Z& O>?@@Q& IC9I9U%=;& SF0<:=0`%C&

#F%=R$C9==%<%=;& I9"C& TC:%C& S%U& T9=S$;$9=U& 9I;$<0#%U& E& #0& C%#0;$9=& %=& 0UU9"I#$UU0=;& #%U& CL`#%U&

C%#0;$R%U&E&#0&S"C:%&%;&0"&=9<\C%&S%&R$U$;%"CU&0TT%I;:U&S0=U&#0&TG0<\C%&S"&I0;$%=;&%=&K$=&S%&R$%&

0K$=&S%&K0T$#$;%C&#%U&T9=;0T;U&%;&#0&IC9N$<$;:&0R%T&#%U&IC9TG%UZ&.9"U&I%=U9=U&]"%&T%;;%&$=;%CR%=;$9=&

I%";&f;C%&C:0#$U:%&S0=U&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&<:S%T$=%Z&

&

V=&0";C%&I9U;"#0;&S:R%#9II:&I0C&u0;U9=&O>??WQ&<%=;$9==%&]"%&S0=U&"=%&C%#0;$9=&S%&B*'+"Q^& #0&

I%CU9==%&%U;&0TT%I;:%&=9=&U%"#%<%=;&I9"C&T%&]"F%##%&%U;&0T;"%##%<%=;&<0$U&0"UU$&I9"C&T%&]"F%##%&

I%";& S%R%=$CZ& X%& <f<%& ]"%& Y"0b& %;& 0#Z& O>?@@Q& ]"$& U9##$T$;%=;& #%U& $=K$C<$LC%U& E& R0#9C$U%C& #%&

T0C0T;LC%&"=$]"%&%;&S:K$=$;$K&S%&TG0T"=%&S%U&U$;"0;$9=U&S%& K$=&S%&R$%&%=& $=R$;0=;& #%&I0;$%=;&<0$U&

0"UU$& #%U& <%<\C%U& S%& #0& K0<$##%& E& K0$C%& #%& C:T$;& S%& #0& R$%& S%& #%"C& IC9TG%& I9"C& K0T$#$;%C& #%&

TG%<$=%<%=;&S"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%Z&&

&

[9"C&T9=T#"C%^& #%U&0";%"CU&IC9I9U%=;&0"N& $=K$C<$LC%U&0$=U$&]"F0"N&0";C%U&U9$`=0=;U&SF$=T#"C%&S%U&

`%U;%U& S%& B*'+"Q# S"C0=;& #%U& U9$=U# T9<<%& T9=;$="%C& S%& UF0SC%UU%C& 0"& I0;$%=;& I0C& U9=& =9<^& #%&

IC:R%=$C&0R0=;&SF$=;%CR%=$CZ&.9"U&;C9"R9=U&T%U& $=;%CR%=;$9=U&I%C;$=%=;%U&%;& $=S$UI%=U0\#%U&I9"C&

IC9S$`"%C& S%U& U9$=U& ]"$& C%UI%T;%=;& U0& S$`=$;:& %;& I#"U& I0C;$T"#$LC%<%=;^& #9CU]"%& #F:;0;& S%&

T9=UT$%=T%&S"&I0;$%=;&%U;&0#;:C:Z&&

&

59=T%C=0=;& #%U&\%U9$=U&S"&I0;$%=;^& #%U& 0";%"CU& U9"#$`=%=;& #F$<I9C;0=T%&S%& C%`0CS%C& #0& C:0#$;:& E&

;C0R%CU& #%U& B&#"=%;;%U&D& S"& I0;$%=;& 0K$=& S%& UF$=;:C%UU%C& E& #0& <0=$LC%& S9=;& $#& T0C0T;:C$U%& "=%&

B&\9==%&D&]"0#$;:&S%&R$%Z&59=;C0$C%<%=;&0"N&TC$;LC%U&0UU9T$:U&E&"=%&B&\9==%&<9C;&D&S0=U&=9;C%&

U9T$:;:&9TT$S%=;0#%&O6$=;%C<%b%C^&>??jQ^&=9"U&I%=U9=U&]"F$#U&U9=;&:;C9$;%<%=;&#$:U&E&#F%NI:C$%=T%^&

0"&TG%<$=%<%=;^&%;&E& #0& U$`=$K$T0;$9=&]"%& #%&I0;$%=;&0;;C$\"%&E&U0&<9C;Z&($=U$^& #0& UI$C$;"0#$;:&%U;&

"=%&S$<%=U$9=&E&$=R%U;$`"%C&0"ICLU&S%&TG0]"%&I0;$%=;&%;&I%C<%;&E&#F$=K$C<$LC%&SF$=S$R$S"0#$U%C&U%U&

U9$=U& OY"0b& %;& 0#Z^& >?@@Q& %=& 0S0I;0=;& #%& IC9_%;& S%& U9$=& 0"N& \%U9$=U^& TC9b0=T%U& %;& R0#%"CU& S"&

I0;$%=;eK0<$##%Z&&

&

7=& C:K:C%=T%& 0"N& g& K9=T;$9=U& S%& #F$=K$C<$LC%& S%& X0##0$C%& OIZ& >Wy^& >??PQ& %;& E& #0& K9=T;$9=& S%&

T9##0\9C%C^& =9"U& 0##9=U& S:R%#9II%C& #F$<I0T;& S%& #F%=R$C9==%<%=;& U"C& #0& ]"0#$;:& S%&

Page 40: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! IW!

#F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;& I0##$0;$K& $=K$C<$%C& 0$=U$& ]"%& #%U& 0<:=0`%<%=;U& C:0#$U0\#%U& 0K$=& S%& C:I9=SC%&

0"N&\%U9$=U&S"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%Z&

7=&T%&U%=U^&Y0`=9=&%;&0#Z& O>?@jQ&9=;&C%TG%CTG:& #%U& K0T;%"CU&9C`0=$U0;$9==%#U&]"$& _9"%=;&"=&CH#%&

U"C& #0&IC$U%&%=&TG0C`%& $=K$C<$LC%&S%U&I%CU9==%U&%=&K$=&S%&R$%Z&20&T"#;"C%&<:S$T0#%&]"$&G0\$;%&T%&

T9=;%N;%& $=K#"%=T%& #%U& $=K$C<$LC%U& E& IC$9C$U%C& S0R0=;0`%& #%U& \%U9$=U& IGbU$]"%U& S%U& I0;$%=;U& %=&

U9$=U& 0$`"U& I0C& C0II9C;& 0"N& 0";C%U& \%U9$=U& OC%#0;$9==%#U^& UI$C$;"%#U^& %;TZQZ& 7=& T%& U%=U^& #%U&

$=K$C<$LC%U&0KK$C<%=;&]"%& #%& ;%<IU& C%#0;$9==%#&%U;&S$KK$T$#%<%=;& _"U;$K$0\#%&S0=U&"=&T9=;%N;%&]"$&

R0#9C$U%& #%U& U9$=U& ;%TG=$]"%U& %;& #%U& $=;%CR%=;$9=U& R$U0=;& E& B&`":C$C&DZ& +9";%K9$U^& #%& T9=;%N;%&

U%<\#%C0$;&=%&I0U&f;C%& #%& U%"#&9\U;0T#%&E&T%#0Z&7=&%KK%;^& #%U& $=K$C<$LC%U& C%T9==0s;C0$%=;&]"%&B&#%&

<0=]"%& S%& ;%<IU&D& 0UU9T$:& E& #0& B&]"0=;$;:& S%U& U9$=U& ;%TG=$]"%U&D& U9=;& ";$#$U:U& T9<<%& S%U&

U;C0;:`$%U&SF:R$;%<%=;Z&

&

(& #0& T9=U;0;0;$9=&S%& T%U& C:U"#;0;U^&=9"U& C:0#$U9=U&]"%& T%& ;bI%&S%&IC$U%&%=& TG0C`%&IC9R9]"%&S%&

#F0=`9$UU%&TG%w& #%U& $=K$C<$LC%U&%;& #%U&%=T9"C0`%=;&E&";$#$U%C&S%U& U;C0;:`$%U&I9"C& #0& C:S"$C%Z&X0=U&

T%;;%& $S:%^& #%U& 0";%"CU& S%& #F0C;$T#%& <%;;%=;& %=& :R$S%=T%& ]"%& #%U& %NI:C$%=T%U& I%CU9==%##%U& S%U&

$=K$C<$LC%U& 0$=U$& ]"%& #%"CU& C%UU9"CT%U& I%CU9==%##%U& I%"R%=;& f;C%& S%U& :#:<%=;U& U"C& #%U]"%#U&

;C0R0$##%CZ&X%U&T9==0$UU0=T%U&T#$=$]"%U&T9=T%C=0=;&#%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%;&#%"C&<$U%&%=&k"RC%^&"=%&

T9==0$UU0=T%&S%&U9$&%;&S%U&0";C%U^&S%U&G0\$#%;:U&T9<<"=$T0;$9==%##%U&%;&C%#0;$9==%##%U&U9=;&S%U&

T9<I:;%=T%U&]"$&#%U&0$S%C0$%=;&E&0T]":C$C&S%&#F0$U0=T%&S0=U&#0&`%U;$9=&S%U&U$;"0;$9=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%Z&

2%U&0";%"CU&%NI#$]"%=;&]"%& #F0IIC%=;$UU0`%&S%&T%U& T9<I:;%=T%U&%U;&9I;$<$U:& U$& #F%=U%$`=%<%=;&

S9==:&IC%=S&S0R0=;0`%&%=&T9=U$S:C0;$9=&#%"CU&%NI:C$%=T%UZ&&

&

8%#9=&#%U&$=K$C<$LC%U&S%&TG$C"C`$%&%;&<:S%T$=%^&#%U&T9=;C0$=;%U&IGbU$]"%U&S%&#F%=R$C9==%<%=;&S%&

;C0R0$#&T0C0T;:C$U:%U&I0C&"=&<0=]"%&SF$=;$<$;:&%;&SF%UI0T%&IC$R:&#$<$;%=;&#%U&I9UU$\$#$;:U&S%&<%;;C%&

%=&I#0T%&S%U&U9$=U&:<9;$9==%#U&%;&UI$C$;"%#UZ&7=&%KK%;^&#F:R0#"0;$9=&S%U&\%U9$=U&S"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&

0$=U$&]"%&#%&B&;C0R0$#&:<9;$9==%#@@&D&=Fb&U9=;&I0U&K0T$#$;:UZ&5%U&:#:<%=;U&T9CC9\9C%=;&#%U&C:U"#;0;U&

S%& #F0C;$T#%& I9C;0=;& U"C& #F%NI:C$%=T%& S%U& K0<$##%U& 0"N& U9$=U& $=;%=U$KU& O.99<%& %;& 0#Z^& >?@WQZ& 2%U&

K0<$##%U&=%&U%&U%=;$C0$%=;&I0U&U"KK$U0<<%=;&E&#F0$U%&I9"C&I9"R9$C&#0$UU%C&#%"CU&:<9;$9=U&0II0C0s;C%&

#9CU]"%&]"F$#U&=%&S$UI9U%=;&I0U&SF"=&%UI0T%&IC$R:Z&&

&

[9"C& C:I9=SC%&E& T%;&0UI%T;^& 8#0b;%C^&[$%=00C^&u$##$0<U^&[C9T;9C&%;&6%{$;;& O>?@gQ&IC:T9=$U%=;& #0&

TC:0;$9=&SF"=&`C0=S&%UI0T%&U:T"C$U0=;&%;&IC$R:Z&5%#"$eT$&0$S%C0$;&E&IC:U%CR%C&#0&S$`=$;:&S%U&I0;$%=;U&

]"$&IC:U%=;%=;&S%U&Ub<I;H<%U&B&%<\0CC0UU0=;U&D&R$UeEeR$U&S%U&0";C%U&I0;$%=;U&;9";&%=&K0R9C$U0=;&

#%& C%UI%T;& S%& #%"C& T"#;"C%^& #%"CU& C$;%U& %;& ;C0S$;$9=UZ& [0C& 0$##%"CU^& #%U& I0;$%=;U& S%& #F"=$;:& U%C0$%=;&

IC:U%CR:U&S"&S%"$#&%;&S%&#0&U9"KKC0=T%&%=`%=SC:%&I0C&#0&K$=&S%&R$%&SF0";C"$Z&

7=&;C0=UK:C0=;&#0&TC:0;$9=&SF"=&%UI0T%&IC$R:&E&"=&U%CR$T%&S%&<:S%T$=%^&=9"U&I%=U9=U&]"F$#&UF0`$;&

SF0<:=0`%C& S$KK:C%<<%=;& "=& %UI0T%& IC:%N$U;0=;Z& 7=& %KK%;^& $#& %N$U;%& S%U& U0##%U& S%U;$=:%U& 0"N&

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!@@&5C:0;$9=&SF"=&<9<%=;&SF:TG0=`%&%=;C%&I0;$%=;eU9$`=0=;&

Page 41: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! JX!

I%;$;%U& $=;%CR%=;$9=U& TG$C"C`$T0#%U& ]"$& U9=;& KC:]"%<<%=;& $=";$#$U:%U& 9"& %=T9C%^& S%U& U0##%U&

I%C<%;;0=;& 0"N& I0;$%=;U& SF0TT"%$##$C& #%"C& K0<$##%Z& X0=U& "=& IC%<$%C& ;%<IU^& T%U& %UI0T%U&

I%C<%;;C0$%=;&S%&TC:%C&"=%&$=;$<$;:&C%#0;$9==%##%&]"$&=%&U%&#$<$;%C0$;&I0U&E&"=%&$=;$<$;:&IGbU$]"%&

TC::%& I0C& S%U& B&C$S%0"N& ;$C:U&DZ& 5%& =9"R%#& %UI0T%& K0R9C$U%C0$;& 0$=U$& "=%& S$UT"UU$9=& 9"R%C;%& %;&

G9==f;%&0R%T&#%&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%Z&5%T$&I%";&f;C%&IC9I9U:&I0C&#F$=K$C<$LC%&#9CU&S%U&R$U$;%U&<:S$T0#%U&

9"& #9CU]"%& #%U& I0;$%=;eK0<$##%& <0=$K%U;%=;& "=& \%U9$=& S%& C%T%R9$C& S%U& $=K9C<0;$9=U&

T9<I#:<%=;0$C%U& 9"& %=T9C%^& "=& \%U9$=& S%& I0C#%C& S%& #%"C& R:T"Z& X0=U& "=& S%"N$L<%& ;%<IU^& T%;&

%UI0T%&U%C0$;&0<:=0`:&0K$=&S%&I9"R9$C&IC9I9U%C&0"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&"=&%UI0T%&IC$R:&U"C&"=%&I#"U&

#9=`"%&S"C:%Z&[9"C&T%&K0$C%^&O%=&C:K:C%=T%&0"&T9=T%I;&S%&#F0,4%6*6?Q^&=9"U&I%=U9=U&=:T%UU0$C%&S%&

K0$C%& R0#9$C& T%&\%U9$=&SF$=;$<$;:& 0"ICLU&S%U& 0";C%U&IC9K%UU$9==%#U& 0$=U$& ]"F0"ICLU&S%U& $=U;0=T%U&

U"I:C$%"C%U&0K$=&S%&=:`9T$%C&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&SF"=&;%#&%UI0T%Z&[9"C&C:0#$U%C&T%T$^&U9=&CH#%&U%C0$;&S%&

C%TG%CTG%C& 0"& U%$=& S%& U9=& U%CR$T%& <0$U& :`0#%<%=;& S0=U& #%U& U%CR$T%U& R9$U$=U^& S%U& %UI0T%U&

0<:=0`%0\#%UZ&

7=& C%R0=TG%^& T%U& 0";%"CU& U9"#$`=%=;& #F$<I9C;0=T%& S%& I9C;%C& "=%& 0;;%=;$9=& I0C;$T"#$LC%& 0"N&

\%U9$=U& S%& TG0]"%& I0;$%=;eK0<$##%& 0K$=& SF:R$;%C& "=%& K0"UU%& $=;%CIC:;0;$9=Z& 7=& T%& U%=U^&u0;U9=&

O>??WQ& S:K$=$;& #F%=R$C9==%<%=;& S%& 6*'+"Q& S0=U& #F"=& S%& U%U& I9U;"#0;U^& T9<<%& I%C<%;;0=;& #%&

S:R%#9II%<%=;& S"& I9;%=;$%#& S%& #0& I%CU9==%& ;9";& %=& #"$& #0$UU0=;& #0& #$\%C;:& S%& TG9$U$C& #F0T;$9=&

]"F%##%& _"`%& #0&<%$##%"C%&E&"=&<9<%=;&IC:T$UZ&7=&SF0";C%U&;%C<%U^&"=&\%U9$=&S%&IC9N$<$;:&=9=e

$=R%U;$`":&I0C& #%U& $=K$C<$LC%U&9"&C%UU%=;$&%=&TG0<\C%&$=S$R$S"%##%&I0C& #%&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&I9"CC0$;&

K0R9C$U%C&"=&U%=;$<%=;&SF$U9#%<%=;&%;&SF0\0=S9=Z&5%;&:#:<%=;&T9v=T$S%&0R%T&#%U&T9=U;0;0;$9=U&S%&

Y"0b&%;&0#Z&O>?@@Q&]"$&C:I9=S%=;&%=&I0C;$%&E&T%;;%&IC9\#:<0;$]"%&%=&IC9I9U0=;&]"%&#F$=K$C<$LC%&

I#0=$K$%&S%U& U"CR%$##0=T%U& C:`"#$LC%U&0"ICLU&S"&I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&%;& K0R9C$U%&S%& KC:]"%=;U&T9=;0T;U&

R$U"%#U&0R%T&%"NZ&&

6$=;%C<%b%C& O>??jQ^& IC:T:S%<<%=;& S:R%#9II:& S0=U& #0& IC9\#:<0;$]"%^& %NI#$]"%&]"%& =9"U&

:R9#"9=U&S0=U&"=%&U9T$:;:&S0=U&#0]"%##%&#0&<9C;&%U;&S$UTCL;%^&R9$C%&%NI:S$;$R%&]"$&T9=;C$\"%C0$;&E&

"=%&I%C;%&S%& U%=U& %;& "=%& 0"`<%=;0;$9=&S%& #F0=`9$UU%Z& 7=&IC9I9U0=;& "=& %UI0T%&I#"U& $=;$<%& 0"&

I0;$%=;eK0<$##%^&=9"U&U9"G0$;9=U&C:I9=SC%&E&"=&\%U9$=&%NIC$<:&I0C&T%"NeT$&%;&=9=&I0U&T9=;C$\"%C&

E&B&T0TG%C&#0&<9C;&D&0"N&C%`0CSU&S%U&0";C%U&I0;$%=;UZ&

WZ>Z![%CUI%T;$R%U&I9"C&#0&C%TG%CTG%&

8"$;%& E& #F0=0#bU%& S%U& C:U"#;0;U& %;& C%T9<<0=S0;$9=U& S%U& 0C;$T#%U^& =9"U& 0##9=U& IC9I9U%C& S%U&

I%CUI%T;$R%U&S%& C%TG%CTG%&I9"C&S%&=9"R%##%U& :;"S%UZ&.9"U& 0R9=U& C%T"%$##$& S%U&S9==:%U& U"C& #%U&

T9=S$;$9=U&K0R9C0\#%U&E&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&SF"=&0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K&S%&]"0#$;:&%=&U%CR$T%&S%&

U9$=U&0$`"UZ&(K$=&SF0IIC9K9=S$C&=9;C%&U"_%;^&=9"U&I%=U9=U&]"F$#&U%C0$;&$=;:C%UU0=;&]"%&S%U&:;"S%U&

I9C;0=;& U"C& #F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K& $=K$C<$%C&S0=U&S%U& U%CR$T%U& ;%#U&]"%&S%&<:S%T$=%&%;&S%&

TG$C"C`$%&U9$%=;&C:0#$U:%U&%=&8"$UU%Z&7=&%KK%;^&#0&I#"I0C;&S%U&:;"S%U&I9C;0=;&U"C&#F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&

U9=;& C:0#$U:%U&S0=U& #%& T9=;%N;%&S%& U9$=U& $=;%=U$KU& 9"&S%&<0=$LC%&I#"U& `:=:C0#%^& %=& U9$=U& 0$`"UZ&

5%T$& 0II9C;%C0$;& "=%& R$U$9=& I#"U& UI:T$K$]"%& S%U& \%U9$=U& S%U& I0;$%=;U& U9$`=:U& S0=U& T%& ;bI%& S%&

U%CR$T%&%=&8"$UU%Z&

Page 42: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! JG!

u$;;%=\%C`e2b#%U&%;&0#Z&O>?@?Q&C%#LR%=;&#F$<I9C;0=T%&S%&UF$=;:C%UU%C&0"&CH#%&S%&T9<<"=$T0;%"C&S%&

#F$=K$C<$LC%Z& 7=& %KK%;^& $#U& IC9I9U%=;& SF%KK%T;"%C& S%U& C%TG%CTG%U& I9C;0=;& U"C& S%U& $=;%CR%=;$9=U&

O<9SL#%U&%;&0;;$;"S%UQ&K0R9C$U0=;&#0&T9<<"=$T0;$9=&%=;C%&#F$=K$C<$LC%&%;&#%&I0;$%=;&#9CU&S%&#0&<$U%&

%=&I#0T%&S%U& U9$=U&I0##$0;$KUZ& 5%U&:;"S%U&I%C<%;;C0$%=;& 0"N& $=K$C<$LC%U&S%&<$%"N& U%&I9U$;$9==%C&

S0=U&T%&CH#%&%;&S%&#%&K0$C%&R0#9$C&0"ICLU&S%U&0";C%U&IC9K%UU$9==%#UZ&&

&

7=& C:K:C%=T%& E& #F0C;$T#%& S%& 50U%b& %;& 0#Z& O>?@@Q^& #F0"`<%=;0;$9=& S%& #0& S$R%CU$;:& %;G=$]"%& S%& #0&

I9I"#0;$9=&U9$`=:%&]"%U;$9==%& #%U&0";%"CU& U"C& #0&<0=$LC%&S%& K9"C=$C&S%U&U9$=U&S%& K$=&S%&R$%&S%&

]"0#$;:&E&S%U&I0;$%=;U&0II0C;%=0=;&E&S$R%CU%U&%;G=$%UZ&7=&%KK%;^&=9"U&0R9=U&I"&T9=U;0;%C&#9CU&S%&

=9U&U;0`%U&]"%&=9"U&U9<<%U&C:`"#$LC%<%=;&0<%=:%U&E&IC9S$`"%C&S%U&U9$=U&E&"=%&I9I"#0;$9=&S%&

I#"U&%=&I#"U&S$R%CU$K$:%Z&[9"C&T%;;%&C0$U9=^&S%U&:;"S%U&I9C;0=;&U"C&#0&T"#;"C%&S%U&U9$=U&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&

=9"U&I%C<%;;C0$%=;&S%&IC9I9U%C&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&$=K$C<$%CU&I#"U&0S0I;:UZ&&

&

X"&C%U;%^&=9"U&=F0R9=U&I0U&;C9"R:&S%&S$C%T;$R%U&I9C;0=;&U"C& #0&<0=$LC%&S%&<%;;C%&%=&k"RC%&#%U&

U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%=&U9$=U&0$`"UZ&.9"U&;C9"R%C$9=U&$=;:C%UU0=;&S%&S:R%#9II%C&S%U&C%TG%CTG%U&I9C;0=;&

U"C&#0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&S%&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&S0=U&T%&;bI%&S%&S9<0$=%Z&

&

WZAZ!2$<$;%U&S%&#0&C%R"%&S%&#$;;:C0;"C%&

2%U&#$<$;%U&S%&=9;C%&C%R"%&S%&#$;;:C0;"C%&IC:U%=;%=;&I#"U$%"CU&:#:<%=;UZ&2%&IC%<$%C&:#:<%=;&%U;&

]"%&=9"U&0R9=U&I%"&SF%NI:C$%=T%&S0=U& #0&T9=S"$;%&SF"=%&C%R"%&S%& #$;;:C0;"C%Z&5F%U;&I9"C&T%;;%&

C0$U9=&]"%&=9U&T9<I:;%=T%U&<:;G9S9#9`$]"%U&U9=;&C%U;C%$=;%UZ&

&

.9"U& 0R9=U& S:K$=$& =9;C%& ]"%U;$9=& S%& C%TG%CTG%& U"C& #F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;& $=K$C<$%C& ]"$& C%U;%& "=&

T9=T%I;&`#9\0#Z&[0C&T9=U:]"%=;^&=9"U&0R9=U&S%U&C:U"#;0;U&]"$&C%U;%=;&I0CK9$U&I%"&UI:T$K$]"%UZ&X%&

I#"U^& #%U& :;"S%U& IC9R$%==%=;& S%& S$KK:C%=;U& I0bU& %;& C%=S%=;& S$KK$T$#%& "=%& `:=:C0#$U0;$9=& S%U&

S9==:%U&%;&I0C;$T"#$LC%<%=;&%=&8"$UU%&T0C&#%U&UbU;L<%U&S%&U0=;:&%;&#%U&K9C<0;$9=U&S$KKLC%=;&U%#9=&

#%U&I0bUZ&

&

5G0]"%& U%CR$T%&I9UULS%& U0&IC9IC%& T"#;"C%&S%& U9$=U& %;& U%U& R0#%"CUZ& 5%T$& T9=U;$;"%&"=%& =9"R%##%&

#$<$;%&E&#0&`:=:C0#$U0;$9=&S%&=9U&IC9I9UZ&[0C&0$##%"CU^&#F:TG0=;$##9==0`%&#$<$;:&E&c&0C;$T#%U&C:S"$;&#0&

TC:S$\$#$;:& S%&=9U& C:U"#;0;UZ&V=&0";C%& :#:<%=;& %U;& T%#"$& S%& #0& #0=`"%Z& 20& ;C0S"T;$9=&S%U& 0C;$T#%U&

0=`#0$U&%=&KC0=m0$U&0&I"&#0$UU%C&I#0T%&E&=9;C%&$=;%CIC:;0;$9=&S%U&IC9I9U&S%U&0";%"CUZ&&

&

7=K$=^&=9"U&0R9=U&U:#%T;$9==:&S%U&0C;$T#%U&I9C;0=;&U"C&#0&I%CT%I;$9=&S%U&U9$`=0=;Ue$=K$C<$LC%U^&S%U&

K0<$##%U&%;&S%U&I0;$%=;U&T9=T%C=0=;&#%U&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&S%&K$=&S%&R$%&0K$=&S%&;C$0=`"#%C&#%U&C:U"#;0;U&

%=&T9<I#%N$K$0=;&#F:#0\9C0;$9=&S%&#0&S$UT"UU$9=&S%U&C:U"#;0;UZ&5%I%=S0=;^&=9"U&I%=U9=U&]"%&T%;;%&

U;C0;:`$%& 0& I%C<$U& SF%=C$TG$C& =9U& IC9I9U& %=& =9"U& I%C<%;;0=;& SF9\;%=$C& "=& C%`0CS& TC9$U:& U"C& #0&

IC9\#:<0;$]"%Z&X%&<0=$LC%&`:=:C0#%^&#%U&0C;$T#%U&UT$%=;$K$]"%U&=%&S9==%=;&]"F"=%&R$U$9=&I0C;$%##%&

S%&#0&C:0#$;:&S"&;%CC0$=Z&

Page 43: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! JH!

yZ! 59=T#"U$9=&

[9"C& ;%C<$=%C& T%& ;C0R0$#^& =9"U& 0##9=U& %NI9U%C& #%U& T9=T#"U$9=U&S%&=9;C%& C%R"%&S%& #$;;:C0;"C%^& #%U&

0IIC%=;$UU0`%U&]"%&=9"U&0R9=U&C:0#$U:U&S"C0=;&T%;;%&C%TG%CTG%&%;&#%"C&$<I9C;0=T%&S0=U&#F%N%CT$T%&

S"&CH#%&$=K$C<$%CZ&[9"C&T9=T#"C%^&=9"U&%NI9U%C9=U&#%U&0T]"$U&I%CU9==%#U&%;&IC9K%UU$9==%#U&]"%&T%&

;C0R0$#&S%&40TG%#9C&=9"U&0&0II9C;:UZ&&

&

[9"C& C:0#$U%C& T%;;%& C%R"%^& =9"U& =9"U& U9<<%U& IC:9TT"I:%U& S%& #0& <0=$LC%& SF9KKC$C& "=&

0TT9<I0`=%<%=;& I0##$0;$K& $=K$C<$%C& S%& ]"0#$;:& E& S%U& I%CU9==%U&<9"C0=;%U& S0=U& "=& U%CR$T%& S%&

U9$=U&0$`"UZ&2F";$#$U0;$9=&S"&T0SC%&S%&C:K:C%=T%&S%&X0##0$C%&O>??PQ&0_9";%&"=%&I#"UeR0#"%&E&=9;C%&

;C0R0$#& T0C& $#& I%C<%;& SF9C$%=;%C& %;& S%& S9==%C& "=& U%=U& E& =9U& C:U"#;0;U& S%& C%TG%CTG%Z&X%&I#"U^& #0&

;G:9C$%& S"& B*'+"Q& O>??WQ& 0II9C;%& "=%& 0IIC9TG%& ]"$& U%& \0U%& U"C& S%U& R0#%"CU& G"<0=$U;%U& %;&

C%#0;$9==%##%U& S"& U9$=& ]"$& C%UI%T;%=;& #0& S$`=$;:^& ]"$& K0R9C$U%=;& #0& T9##0\9C0;$9=& %;& #F"=$T$;:& S"&

I0;$%=;eK0<$##%&I#";H;&]"F"=%&R9#9=;:&SF9\_%T;$R%C^&S%&T9=;CH#%C&%;&S%&T0;:`9C$U%C&#%&I0;$%=;Z&.9"U&

0R9=U&";$#$U:&T%;;%&0IIC9TG%&T0C&%##%&C%_9$=;&=9;C%&T9=T%I;$9=&S"&U9$=&%;&S%&#0&C%#0;$9=Z&&

&

7=& C%`0CS& S%& =9U& C%T9<<0=S0;$9=U& $UU"%U& S%& =9U& C:U"#;0;U& S%& C%TG%CTG%^& =9"U& I%=U9=U& ]"F$#&

=F%N$U;%&I0U&]"F"=%&U%"#%&K0m9=&S%&<%;;C%&%=&0II#$T0;$9=&T%U&$=;%CR%=;$9=U&T0C&=9;C%&T9=T%I;$9=&

S%U&U9$=U&$=K#"%=T%&T%;;%&<$U%&%=&0II#$T0;$9=Z&&

&

yZ@Z![#0T%&S%&#0&C%TG%CTG%&S0=U&#F%N%CT$T%&S"&CH#%&$=K$C<$%C&

7=&C%`0CS&S%&#0&IC9K%UU$9=&$=K$C<$LC%^&=9"U&0R9=U&IC$U&T9=UT$%=T%&S%&#0&=:T%UU$;:&S%&S:R%#9II%C&#0&

C%TG%CTG%& %=& U9$=U& $=K$C<$%CU& %=& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KUZ& X"& C%U;%^& #F";$#$U0;$9=& SF:;"S%U& UT$%=;$K$]"%U&

I%C<%;&E&#F$=K$C<$LC%&IC9S$`"0=;&"=&0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K&S%&\0U%C&U%U&$=;%CR%=;$9=U&U"C&S%U&

S9==:%U&IC9\0=;%U&%;&0$=U$^& #%U& K0$C%&R0#9$C&0"ICLU&S%U&0";C%U&T9##0\9C0;%"CU&S%&U9$=UZ&5F%U;&I0C&

T%U&$=;%CR%=;$9=U&]"%&=9"U&TC9b9=U&]"%&#F$=K$C<$LC%&I%";&_"U;$K$%C&#%"C&=:T%UU$;:&S0=U&#%&T9=;%N;%&

S%U& U9$=U& 0$`"UZ& 7=& C%R0=TG%^& $#& %N$U;%& ;9"_9"CU& "=& :T0C;& %=;C%& #0& ;G:9C$%& %;& #0& IC0;$]"%& ]"$&

T9=U;$;"%& "=& S:K$& E& C%#%R%C& T0C& =9"U& `0CS9=U& E& #F%UIC$;& ]"%& #0& =0;"C%& G"<0$=%& C%U;%& \$%=&

T9<I#%N%Z& 7=& %KK%;^& #%U& 0C;$T#%U& UT$%=;$K$]"%U& $=R$;%=;& #%U& $=K$C<$LC%U& E& S:R%#9II%C& "=%& IC0;$]"%&

C:K#%N$R%Z&5%;&%N%CT$T%&$<I#$]"%&SF0_"U;%C&#%U&C%T9<<0=S0;$9=U&%;&;G:9C$%U&E&#0&C:0#$;:&S"&;%CC0$=&

0$=U$& ]"FE& #0& U$=`"#0C$;:& S%U& I%CU9==%U& ]"%& #F9=& 0TT9<I0`=%Z& .9"U& I%=U9=U& ]"%& TF%U;& I0C& T%&

IC9T%UU"U&]"%&#F:R9#";$9=&S%U&IC0;$]"%U&S%U&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU&%=&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&I%";&U%&K0$C%Z&[#"U&

`#9\0#%<%=;^& #F";$#$U0;$9=&S%&T%U& C%TG%CTG%U& K0R9C$U%& #0& C%T9==0$UU0=T%&S"& ;C0R0$#&S%& #F$=K$C<$LC%&

0"ICLU& S%U& $=U;0=T%U& U"I:C$%"C%UZ& 5%T$& I%";& I%C<%;;C%& S%& _"U;$K$%C& #0& S9;0;$9=& S"& I%CU9==%#&

$=K$C<$%C& %;& U9=& 0"`<%=;0;$9=& I9"C& %KK%T;"%C& S%U& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KU& S%& ]"0#$;:Z& ($=U$^& #F0IIC9TG%&

I0##$0;$R%& I%";& f;C%& R0#9C$U:%Z& X%& I#"U^& =9"U& T9=U;0;9=U& ]"%& T%U& :;"S%U& I%C<%;;%=;& S%& K0$C%&

:R9#"%C& =9U& IC0;$]"%U& %=& K9=T;$9=& S%& #0& I9I"#0;$9=& 0T;"%##%& OI9I"#0;$9=& R$%$##$UU0=;%& %=&

0"`<%=;0;$9=Q^&S%U&0R0=T:%U& ;%TG=9#9`$]"%U^&S%U&T9=;C0$=;%U& K$=0=T$LC%U&%;&\"S`:;0$C%U&%;&S%U&

TG0=`%<%=;U& S%U& R0#%"CU& U9T$0#%UZ& 2%& S:R%#9II%<%=;& S"& CH#%& 0";9=9<%& $=K$C<$%C& %;& S%& #0&

Page 44: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! JI!

C%UI9=U0\$#$;:&S%& #F$=K$C<$LC%& #9CU&S%& #0&<$U%&%=&I#0T%&S%U& U9$=U&I0##$0;$KU& C%U;%& #%&S:K$&]"%&=9"U&

U9"G0$;9=U&C%#%R%C&S0=U&=9;C%&K";"C%&IC0;$]"%&$=K$C<$LC%Z&&

&

yZ>Z!X:R%#9II%<%=;&I%CU9==%#&%;&IC9K%UU$9==%#&

X"&I9$=;&S%&R"%&I%CU9==%#^&T%&;C0R0$#&=9"U&0&0IIC$U&E&T9##0\9C%C&U"C&#%&#9=`&;%C<%^&E&0C`"<%=;%C&

=9U&IC9I9U&<0$U& 0"UU$& E& ;C9"R%C&S%U& T9=U%=U"UZ& 2%& ;C0R0$#& %=&:]"$I%&=9"U&0&I%C<$U&SF0II9C;%C&

S%"N&C%`0CSU&U"C&#%U&S$KK:C%=;%U&:;0I%U&S%&=9;C%&;C0R0$#&%;&0$=U$&%=C$TG$C&=9U&C:K#%N$9=UZ&("&;%C<%&

S%&T%&;C0R0$#^&=9"U&C:0#$U9=U&]"%&#F:R9#";$9=&S%&=9;C%&]"%U;$9==%<%=;&=9"U&0&0<%=:&E&:#0\9C%C&

#%U&T9=S$;$9=U&=:T%UU0$C%U&E&#F0TT9<I0`=%<%=;&I0##$0;$K&$=K$C<$%C&S%U&I%CU9==%U&%=&K$=&S%&R$%&S0=U&

"=&T9=;%N;%&S%&U9$=U&0$`"UZ&&

&

("& =$R%0"&IC9K%UU$9==%#^& =9"U& 0R9=U& %"& #F9II9C;"=$;:& S%& =9"U& %N%CT%C& E& #0& T9=U;C"T;$9=& SF"=%&

IC9\#:<0;$]"%& S%& U0=;:Z& 7=& C%TG%CTG0=;& S%& #0& #$;;:C0;"C%& UT$%=;$K$]"%^& =9"U& 0R9=U& I"& =9"U&

U%=U$\$#$U%C& E& #F";$#$U0;$9=& S%U& \0U%U& S%& S9==:%U& %;& #0& <:;G9S9#9`$%& =9"U& 0& I%C<$U& SF:R0#"%C&

#F$<I9C;0=T%&S%&S:R%#9II%C&"=%&C$`"%"C&<:;G9S9#9`$]"%&0K$=&S%&U:#%T;$9==%C&#%U&0C;$T#%U&#%U&I#"U&

I%C;$=%=;U&%;&K$0\#%U&I9"C&=9;C%&C%R"%&S%&#$;;:C0;"C%Z&7=&%KK%;^&#%U&T9"CU&S9==:U&U"C&#F0=0#bU%&S%U&

0C;$T#%U&UT$%=;$K$]"%U&=9"U&0&I%C<$U&S%&S:R%#9II%C&=9;C%&C%`0CS&TC$;$]"%Z&X"C0=;&#0&C:S0T;$9=&S"&

;C0R0$#^&=9"U&0R9=U&%=;C0s=:&=9;C%&T0I0T$;:&E&Ub=;G:;$U%C&#%U&S9==:%U&$UU"%U&S%&=9;C%&C%TG%CTG%Z&

X%&I#"U^&=9"U&0R9=U&I"&%N%CT%C&S%&=9"R%##%U&T9<I:;%=T%UZ&2%&CH#%&SF%NI%C;%&%=&U9$=U&$=K$C<$%CU&0&

I"&f;C%&<$U&%=&k"RC%&%=&\0U0=;&=9U&C%T9<<0=S0;$9=U&U"C&S%U&S9==:%U&IC9\0=;%U&%=&UF0II"b0=;&

U"C&S%U&0C;$T#%U&UT$%=;$K$]"%UZ&X%&I#"U^&=9"U&0R9=U&%"&#F9TT0U$9=&SF%N%CT%C&#%&CH#%&S%&<0=0`%C&%=&

C%TG%CTG0=;& #%U&\%U9$=U&S%U&I0;$%=;UeK0<$##%U&0K$=&SF0<:#$9C%C& #0&]"0#$;:&S%U& U9$=U&IC9I9U:UZ&7=&

C%=S0=;& R$U$\#%& =9;C%& ;C0R0$#& I0C& :TC$;^& =9"U& I%C<%;;9=U& #%& I0C;0`%& =9U& T9==0$UU0=T%U& U"C& #%U&

C:U"#;0;U&S%&C%TG%CTG%U&0K$=&S%&IC9<9"R9$C&#%&CH#%&SF0IIC%=0=;%&%;&S%&K9C<0;C$T%Z&

&

7=& T9=T#"U$9=^& T%& ;C0R0$#& =9"U& 0&S9==:& #F9II9C;"=$;:&SF0IIC9K9=S$C&=9U& T9==0$UU0=T%U&%=& U9$=U&

I0##$0;$KU&T0C&T%&;bI%&SF0IIC9TG%&C%U;%&I%"&;C0$;:&S"C0=;&=9;C%&K9C<0;$9=&SF$=K$C<$LC%Z&.9"U&0##9=U&

I9"R9$C&";$#$U%C&T%U&=9"R%0"N&U0R9$CU&I9"C&0KK$C<%C&=9;C%&I9U$;$9==%<%=;&IC9K%UU$9==%#&0"&U%$=&

SF"=%& :]"$I%& I#"C$S$UT$I#$=0$C%& %;& IC9<9"R9$C& S%U& U9$=U& S%& ]"0#$;:& S0=U& =9;C%& K";"C%& IC0;$]"%&

$=K$C<$LC%Z&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

Page 45: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! JJ!

PZ! 4$\#$9`C0IG$%&

PZ@Z!2$U;%&S%&C:K:C%=T%U&\$\#$9`C0IG$]"%U&

(##$=^&(Z5Z&O>?@gQZ&d-9'/3-"5*5+%"#,&#5'*4*+7#,-#U*61-7%':&20"U0==%^&8"$UU%&J&,=U;$;";&%;&60";%&7T9#%&S%&#0&80=;:&20&89"CT%&20"U0==%Z&

&(={0C^& XZ& /& 59C\0w^& [Z& O>??cQZ& 2F:;G$]"%& S0=U& #%& T9=;%N;%& S%& U9$=U& I0##$0;$KUZ&_&+,-# ,-3# 3%+"3#

9*77+*5+D3#,&#./,-6+"#4*&,%+3^&@@Z&&(UU9T$0;$9=eS:R%#9II%<%=;& S%U& 89$=U& [0##$0;$KU& K9=S0;C$T%& O>?@WQZ& !"-# 4+3+%"# 1&.*"+35-# ,-# 7*#

./,-6+"-Z&'%I:C:&E&G;;IJdd{{{Z0UIK9=S0;C$T%Z9C`d0UU9T$0;$9=eU9$=UeI0##$0;$KUd<$UU$9=Ue0UU9T$0;$9=e0UIeK9=S0;C$T%d&

&50U%b^&XZ^&-"CIGb^&)Z^&.$&2%$<%^&(Z^&20Ch$=^&[Z^&[0b=%^&8Z^&(&3C9``0;;^&)Z^&/&*F8G%0^&7Z&O>?@@QZ&Xb$=`&

{%##J&K0T;9CU&;G0;&$=K#"%=T%&;G%&IC9R$U$9=&9K&`99S&%=Se9Ke#$K%&T0C%&K9C&9#S%C&I%9I#%&$=&0T";%&0=S&#9=`eU;0b&T0C%&U%;;$=`U&$=&,C%#0=SZ&P%&'"*7#%D#B7+"+6*7#Z&'3+"Q(#`a^&@P>j|@PAAZ&

&59##$LC%^&-Ze3Z^&O>??@QZ&I%+Q"-'i#T-#9'-.+-'#*'5#,-#7*#4+-Z&[0C$U^&3C0=T%J&-0UU9=Z&&59II%N^& [Z^& X%& 8$<9=%^& 2Z^& X"%;w& 8TG<"Th$^& -Z^& 7bTG<�##%C^& 8Z^& 3#9;C9=^& 8Z^& Y0UU%C^& 5Z& /& R9=&

u0C;\"C`^& 2Z& O>?@jQZ& B*,'-# Q/"/'*7# ,-3# 3%+"3# 9*77+*5+D3# -"# I&+33-#<# ,/D+"+5+%"3# ,*"3# 7-#,%.*+"-# ,-3# 3%+"3# 9*77+*5+D3# ,*"3# 7)%95+2&-# ,-# 7*# .+3-# -"# %-&4'-# ,-# 7*# =# I5'*5/Q+-#

"*5+%"*7-# -"# .*5+V'-# ,-# 3%+"3# 9*77+*5+D3# AZ& '%I:C:& E&G;;IJdd{{{Z\0`Z0S<$=ZTGd;G%<%=d`%U"=SG%$;UI9#$;$hd@AyWjd@AyWPd@jc?>d$=S%NZG;<#M#0=`�KC&

&59C%U#9T& O>??yQZ& F'*4*+7# ,-# U*61-7%'# <# 6*,'-# Q/"/'*7# ,-# '/*7+3*5+%"# -5# ,)/4*7&*5+%"Z& 20"U0==%^&

8"$UU%&J&678e8*Z&&

X0#`00CS^& )e-Z^& +G9CU%##^& YZ& /& X%#<0C^& 5Z& O>?@?QZ& ,S%=;$Kb$=`& ;C0=U$;$9=& $=& ;%C<$=0#& $##=%UU&;C0_%T;9C$%U& J& 0& TC$;$T0#& K0T;9C& $=& G9UI$;0#e\0U%S& I0##$0;$R%& T0C%Z& ;"5-'"*5+%"*7# P%&'"*7# %D#Y*77+*5+4-#Z&'3+"Q(#Jb#O>Q:#

#

X0##0$C%^& 5Z^& O>??PQZ& T-# 3*4%+'# +"D+'.+-'<# j&# 6k&'# ,-# 7*# ,+36+97+"-# -5# ,-# 7*# 9'%D-33+%"Z&-9=;C:0#^&50=0S0J&Y0�;0=&-9C$=Z&

&X%\9";^&5Z&O>?@>QZ&(SR9T0Tb&O="CU$=`&0SR9T0TbQZ&X0=U&-Z&39C<0C$%C&/&2Z&!9R$T&OiSUQ^&T-3#6%"6-953#

-"#36+-"6-3#+"D+'.+V'-3#O>L<%&:SZ^&IIZ&gAeggQZ&2b9=^&3C0=T%&J&-0##%;&59=U%$#Z&&X9=0\%S$0=^& (Z& O@cWWQZ& 7R0#"0;$=`& ;G%& ]"0#$;b& 9K& <%S$T0#& T0C%Z& O+7C*"l# O-.%'+*7# [%&",#

>&*'5-'7?(#ffOAQ^&@WWe>?AZ&&Y0`=9=^& !Z& /& u%=Sb^& XZ& O>?@jQZ& +G%& IC9R$U$9=& 9K& %=Se9Ke#$K%& T0C%& \b& <%S$T0#eU"C`$T0#& ="CU%U&

{9Ch$=`&$=&0T";%&T0C%J&0&#$;%C0;"C%&C%R$%{Z&Y*77+*5+4-#*",#I&99%'5+4-#B*'-(#J`^&AcAej?PZ&

Page 46: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! JL!

Y0##0`G%C^& (Z^& 49"UU9^& 'Z^& -T50C;Gb^& !Z^& )9G#%=^& 6Z^& (=SC%{U^& +Z^& [0`0=$=$^& -e5Z^& ZZZ& [0S$#G0^& )Z&O>?@jQZ&.%`9;$0;%S&C%9C$%=;$=`&J&(&`C9"=S%S&;G%C9Cb&9K&="CU%UF&%=S&9K&#$K%&S%T$U$9=e<0h$=`&$=&;G%&$=;%=U$R%&T0C%&"=$;Z&;"5-'"*5+%"*7#P%&'"*7#%D#Z&'3+"Q#I5&,+-3(#c`OjQ^&ycjeP?AZ&

&Y"0b^&XZ^&-$TG0"S^&5Z&/&-0;G$%"^&2Z&O>?@@QZ&X%&B&\9=U&U9$=U&D&I0##$0;$KU&0"N&U9$=U&$=;%=U$KU&J&"=%&

I%CUI%T;$R%&$=K$C<$LC%Z&d-61-'61-#-"#3%+"3#+"D+'.+-'3(#c^&A@ejAZ&&&

6$=;%C<%b%C^&[Z& O>??jQZ& 2%U&TC$;LC%U&S"&\$%=&<9"C$CZ&[%",*5+%"#Z*5+%"*7-#,-#_/'%"5%7%Q+-(#JaL(#Me^LMZ&

&69%=`%C& %;& 0#Z& O>?@AQZ# Y'%Q'*..-# 6*"5%"*7# ,-# ,/4-7%99-.-"5# ,-3# 3%+"3# 9*77+*5+D3# <# C+7*"#

7/Q+37*5&'-#`aaM^`aJ`:#'%I:C:&E&&G;;IJdd{{{ZU9$=UeI0##$0;$KUeR0"SZTGd{IeT9=;%=;d"I#90SUd>?@Ad?yd'0II9C;eIC9`C0<<%e#%`$U#0;"C%e>??ye>?@>e_0=R$%Ce>?@AZISK&&

!0T]"%<$=^& XZ& /& S%& 4C9"Th%C^& XZ& O>?@jQZ&O*"&-7# ,-# 3%+"3# 9*77+*5+D3& OjL<%& :SZQZ& [0C$U^& 3C0=T%&J&X"=9SZ&

&!%0=`"%=0;^&-Z^&X%U0"##%U^&5Z&/&(##$=^&(Ze5Z^&O>??PQZ&F'*4*+7#,-#U*61-7%'#<#.%,*7+5/3#39/6+D+2&-3#0#7*#

R*&5-#S6%7-#,-# 7*#I*"5/#T*#I%&'6-Z&20"U0==%^&8"$UU%&J&60";%&7T9#%&S%& #0&80=;:&20&89"CT%&20"U0==%Z&

&!9";%0"e.%R%U^&5Z&/&-0#0]"$=e[0R0=^&7Z&O>?@AQZ&T)+"D+'.+-'H-N#-5#7-3#3%+"3#9*77+*5+D3<#Y'-",'-#3%+"3<#

/51+2&-#-5#9'*5+2&-3:&[0C$U^&3C0=T%J&7#U%R$%C&-0UU9=Z&&)$%K%C^& 4Z& O>?@>QZ& T+55/'*6+-# -"# 3*"5/# -5# m-C# `:aZ& '%R"%& -:S$T0#%& 8"$UU%Z& '%I:C:& E&

G;;IJdd{{{ZC%R<%SZTGdC<Ud>?@>d'-8eAWjd2$;;%C0;$%e%=eU0=;%e%;eu%\e>Z?&&20<0"^&-Ze2Z&O@ccWQZ&2%&CH#%&IC9IC%&S%&#F$=K$C<$LC%Z&O*"&-7#,-#3%+"3#9*77+*5+D3&O@LC%&:SZ^&IIZ&>WcQZ&

[0C$U^&3C0=T%&J&X"=9SZ&&-$UG%#^&-Z6Z&/&5#0b;9=^&-Z3Z&O>??PQZ&+G%9C$%U&9K&V=T%C;0$=;b&$=&,##=%UUZ&,=&-Z!Z&8<$;G^&/&[Z'Z&2$%GC&

O7SUQ^& O+,,7-# d*"Q-# F1-%'?# D%'# Z&'3+"Q& O>L<%& :SZQ& OIIZ& ggePjQZ& .%{& �9ChJ& 8IC$=`%C&["\#$UG$=`&59<I0=bZ&

&-$N&/&'%<$N&O>??PQZ&j+,-#*&#3&+6+,-#,*"3#7-3#SOI#<#4-'3#7*#D+"#,)&"#5*C%&Z&'%I:C:&E&&

G;;IJdd{{{Z$=KC0C9"`%ZTGd$CdU<UeA??ej&&-9C$=^&XZ&O>?@@QZ&a"0#$;:&S%U&U9$=UJ&S:K$U&%;&I%CUI%T;$R%UZ&T-C*"-3-P%&'"*7#%D#Z&'3+"Q(#`^&@@e@AZ&&.(.X(&$=;%C=0;$9=0#&O>??ye>??PQZ&n+*Q"%35+63#+"D+'.+-'3#<#,/D+"+5+%"3#-5#67*33+D+6*5+%"3Z&

[0C$U^&3C0=T%J&7#U%R$%C&-0UU9=Z&&

.99<%^&-Z^&49"h_%&-Z^&2%%"{%=S^&7Z&/&1#9%;^&2Z&O>?@WQZ&7NI#9C$=`&K0<$#b&%NI%C$%=T%U&9K&="CU$=`&0UI%T;U& 9K& %=S& 9K& #$K%& T0C%& $=& ;G%& ,5VJ& (& ]"0#$;0;$R%& U;"SbZ& ;"5-"3+4-# *",# B'+5+6*7# B*'-#Z&'3+"Q(#ee(#gWeWjZ##

Page 47: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! JM!

*C`0=$U0;$9=&-9=S$0#%&S%&#0&80=;:&O>??>QZ&n/D+"+5+%"#,-3#3%+"3#9*77+*5+D3#9*'#7)gOI:#'%I:C:&E&&G;;IJdd{{{ZUK0IZ9C`dUbU;%<dK$#%UdS%Ke9<UZISKG;;IJdd{{{ZUK0IZ9C`dUbU;%<dK$#%UdS%Ke9<UZISK&

&[:;C%<0=S^&XZ^&4$`#%C^&!Z&-Z^&4�TG%^&XZ&/&3"TGU^&3Z&2Z&5Z&O>?@?QZ&d-6%..*",*5+%"#I%+"3#Y*77+*5+D3#-5#

I%+"3#I9+'+5&-73(#B%"3-"3&3#9%&'#=#C-35#9'*65+6-#A#-"#I&+33-Z&'%I:C:&E&&G;;IJdd{{{ZI0##$0;$R%`%=%R%ZTGd{IeT9=;%=;d"I#90SUd>?@>d?jd4$`9C$9�>??P�8I$C$;"0#$;%ZISK&

&[G0=%"K^&-Z& O>?@AQZ&T)-.9%h-'.-"5#&"-#"/6-33+5/#9%&'# 7-3#67+-"53#-"#3%+"3# +"D+'.+-'3Z&'%I:C:&E&

G;;IJdd{{{ZIC%=SC%U9$=Z9C`d{IeT9=;%=;d"I#90SUd>?@Ad?>d2F%<I9{%C<%=;e"=%e=:T%UU$;:eI9"Ce#%UeT#$%=;Ue%=eU9$=Ue$=K$C<$%CUZISK&

&'$R$%C^&7Z^&8";%C^&5Z^&/&69=`#%C^&+Z&O>??PQZ&20&UI$C$;"0#$;:&%=&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KUZ&_&+,-#,-3#3%+"3#9*77+*5+D3#

,&#./,-6+"#4*&,%+3^&gZ&&&80"=S%CU^&5Z&O@cPyQZ&,&{0U&U$Th&0=S&b9"&R$U$;%S&<%Z&B1'+35+*"#Z&'3-#;"5-'"*5+%"*7^&AOjQZ&&8%CR$T%& S%& U0=;:& I"\#$]"%& S"& 50=;9=& S%& 10"S& O>?@jQZ& T)-33-"5+-7# 3&'# 7-3# ,'%+53# ,-3# 9*5+-"53Z&

'%I:C:&E&G;;IJdd{{{ZRSZTGd;G%<%UdU0=;%dUbU;%<%eS%eU0=;%dSC9$;Ue<%S$0;$9=e%;eI#0$=;%Ud#%UU%=;$%#eU"Ce#%UeSC9$;UeS%UeI0;$%=;Ud&&

8#0;b%C^& 8Z^& [$%=00C^& 5Z^&-Z&u$##$0<U^&(Z^& [C9T;9C^& )Z^&/&6%{$;;^& 2Z& O>?@gQZ& 3$=S$=`&IC$R0Tb& KC9<&0&I"\#$T&S%0;GJ&0&]"0#$;0;$R%&%NI#9C0;$9=&9K&G9{&0&S%S$T0;%S&UI0T%&K9C&%=Se9Ke#$K%&T0C%&$=&0=&0T";%&G9UI$;0#&$<I0T;U&9=&Sb$=`&I0;$%=;U&0=S&;G%$C&K0<$#$%UZ&P%&'"*7#%D#B7+"+6*7#Z&'3+"Q(#`f^&>@Wj|>@yjZ&&

+9"C=%\$U%^& +Z& O=ZSZQZ& S5*C7+33-.-"5# ,-# 3%+"3<# R&.*"+3-'# 7*# D+"# ,-# 4+-Z& '%I:C:& E&G;;IJdd{{{Z<0$%"U;G%U$%ZT9<dTG%<$=�0T;$9=�K9C<0;$9=d;G%<%UdK$=�S%�R$%ZG;<G;;IJdd{{{Z<0$%"U;G%U$%ZT9<dTG%<$=�0T;$9=�K9C<0;$9=d;G%<%UdK$=�S%�R$%ZG;<G;;IJdd{{{Z<0$%"U;G%U$%ZT9<dTG%<$=�0T;$9=�K9C<0;$9=d;G%<%UdK$=�S%�R$%ZG;<&

&1$CS"=^&5Z^&2"Th%;;^&+Z^&X0R$SU9=^&[Z&/&[G$##$IU^&!Z&O>?@gQZ&Xb$=`&$=&;G%&G9UI$;0#&U%;;$=`&J&(&UbU;%<0;$T&

C%R$%{&9K& ]"0=;$;0;$R%& U;"S$%U& $S%=;$Kb$=`& ;G%& %#%<%=;U& 9K& %=Se9Ke#$K%& T0C%& ;G0;& I0;$%=;U&0=S&;G%$C&K0<$#$%U&C0=h&0U&\%$=`&<9U;&$<I9C;0=;Z&Y*77+*5+4-#O-,+6+"-(#`KOcQ^&yyjeycW:#

#

19=&u0C;\"C`^&2Z&/&.xK^&3Z&O>?@>QZ&I5'*5/Q+-#"*5+%"*7-#-"#.*5+V'-#,-#3%+"3#9*77+*5+D3#`aJe^`aJc#<#

U+7*"#,-#7*#35'*5/Q+-#"*5+%"*7-3#-"#.*5+V'-#,-#3%+"3#9*77+*5+D3#`aJa^`aJ`#-5#*65+%"3#'-2&+3-3#

,-#`aJe^`aJcZ&4%C=%^&8"$UU%&J&*38[&%;&5X8Z&&

u0;U9=^&!Z&O>??WN:#!%0=&u0;U9=&;G%9Cb&9K&G"<0=&T0C$=`Z&X0=U&-Z&7Z&[0Ch%C&OiSZQ^&Z&'3+"Q#51-%'+-3#o#"&'3+"Q#9'*65+6-&O>L<%&:SZ^&IIZ&>cge&A?>QZ&[G$#0S%#IG$0^&7;0;UeV=$UJ&3Z(Z&X0R$UZ&&

u%\%C&-Z&O@cgcQZ&T-#3*4*"5#-5#7-#9%7+5+2&-Z&[0C$U^&3C0=T%&J&[#9=Z&&

Page 48: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! JR!

u$;;%=\%C`e2b#%U^& 7Z^& Y9#SU<$;G^& !Z^& /& '0`0=^& 'Z& O>?@?QZ& +G%& UG$K;& ;9& %0C#b& I0##$0;$R%& T0C%J& 0&;bI9#9`b&9K&$##=%UU&_9"C=%bU&0=S&;G%&C9#%&9K&="CU$=`Z&B7+"+6*7#P%&'"*7#%D#g"6%7%Q?#Z&'3+"Q(#JcOAQ^&A?jeA@?Z&

&

PZ>Z! 2$U;%&\$\#$9`C0IG$]"%&

4"Th#%bZ^&!Z&O>?@@QZ#I%+"3#9*77+*5+D3<#&"-#*99'%61-#Q7%C*7-Z&4C"N%##%U^&4%#`$]"%J&S%&\9%ThZ&&50U;C0^&-Z&O>??AQZ#U+-"#.%&'+'<#3%6+%7%Q+-#,-3#3%+"3#9*77+*5+D3:&[0C$U^&3C0=T%J&[C%UU%U&V=$R%CU$;0$C%U&

S%&3C0=T%Z&&X0=%0"#;^& 8Z& O>??yQZ& T*# 9%&'3&+5-# ,)&"-# C%""-# .%'5# -35^-77-# &"-# &5%9+-# p:& '%I:C:& E&

G;;IUJdd{{{Z%C"S$;Z9C`dC%R"%dKCd>??ydR>?d=@d?@ycjj0CZISK&&X"KK%;^& 4Z^& !%0=<9"`$=^& 5Z& /& [C"SG9<<%& 5Z& O>?@AQZ& Z%&4-*&8# ,%33+-'# ,-# 7)+"D+'.+V'-<# 3%+"3#

9*77+*5+D3#-5#,-#D+"#,-#4+-Z&[0C$U^&3C0=T%J&-0#9$=%Z&&30RC%^& .Z& /& )C0<%C^& 5Z& O>?@AQZ& T*# '-61-'61-# ,%6&.-"5*+'-# *&# 3-'4+6-# ,-3# 36+-"6-3# +"D+'.+V'-3<#

./51%,-3#-5#'-33%&'6-3Z&[0C$U^&3C0=T%J&20<0CC%Z&&39"T0"#;^& 5Z& /& -9=`%0"^& 8Z& O>??cQZ& T)*'5# ,-# 3%+Q"-'# -"# 3%+"3# 9*77+*5+D3<# 9-'39-65+4-# +"D+'.+V'-:&

-9=;C:0#^&50=0S0J&2%U&[C%UU%U&S%&#FV=$R%CU$;:&S%&-9=;C:0#Z&&YUTG{$=S^&6Z&O>?@AQZ#T-#'q7-#,-3#3%+"3#9*77+*5+D3Z&[0C$U^&3C0=T%J&2F60C<0;;0=Z&&29$U%##%^&5Z&YZ^&[C9K%;;9e-TYC0;G^& !Z^&[9#$;^&XZ&3Z&/&4%Th^&5Z&+Z& O>??yQZ&O/51%,-3#,-#'-61-'61-#-"#

36+-"6-3#+"D+'.+V'-3<#*99'%61-3#2&*"5+5*5+4-3#-5#2&*7+5*5+4-3Z&a":\%T&J&7'[,Z&&u9U$=Uh$^& !Z& O>?@jQZ& d-61-'61-# 2&*7+5*5+4-<# 51/%'+-# -"'*6+"/-& �[9{%C[9$=;�Z& 20"U0==%& J& 60";%&

7T9#%&S%&#0&80=;:&20&89"CT%Z&&&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

&

Page 49: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

"#$%$&'!()!*$+,)'-#!.!/01.12!3$!1-4#+)! 5!*&)6.7-4#&#!8!9!':,;<&=$'!>!46)!$??$&#)!&6?&#7&@#)!A!

B4'&)!C$D-=-$#&7$6$6$!E!B4'&$!F$''-=-6! ! J`!

cZ! (==%N%U&

(==%N%&@&J&*";$#&8[,'&

&

89"CT%&J&'$R$%C^&7Z^&8";%C^&5Z^&/&69=`#%C^&+Z&O>??PQZ&20&UI$C$;"0#$;:&%=&U9$=U&I0##$0;$KUZ&_&+,-#,-3#3%+"3#

9*77+*5+D3#,&#./,-6+"#4*&,%+3^&gZ&&

(==%N%&>&J&*";$#&6*[7&

&

89"CT%&J&[:;C%<0=S^&XZ^&4$`#%C^& !Z&-Z^&4�TG%^&XZ&/&3"TGU^&3Z&2Z&5Z& O>?@?QZ&d-6%..*",*5+%"#I%+"3#

Y*77+*5+D3#-5#I%+"3#I9+'+5&-73(#B%"3-"3&3#9%&'#=#C-35#9'*65+6-#A#-"#I&+33-Z&'%I:C:&E&&

G;;IJdd{{{ZI0##$0;$R%`%=%R%ZTGd{IeT9=;%=;d"I#90SUd>?@>d?jd4$`9C$9�>??P�8I$C$;"0#$;%ZISK&

Page 50: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

!"#$#%&'()'*#+,)&-"'.'/01.12'3#'1-4"+)' ' ' 5'*%)6.7-4"%"'8'9'&:,;<%=#&'>'46)'#??#%")'%6?%"7%@")'A'

B4&%)'C#D-=-#"%7#6#6#'E'B4&%#'F#&&-=-6' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' GH'

!""#$#%&%'%()*++#%,-.".+/0#%12.+*3.3*4#%

Page 51: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

!"#$#%&'()'*#+,)&-"'.'/01.12'3#'1-4"+)' 5'*%)6.7-4"%"'8'9'&:,;<%=#&'>'46)'#??#%")'%6?%"7%@")'A'

B4&%)'C#D-=-#"%7#6#6#'E'B4&%#'F#&&-=-6' ' GH'

!""#$#%&%'%()*++#%,-.".+/0#%12."3*3.3*4#%

!"#$$%&'%&$%()*"%&("#)#+*%&,-*"&%)*'%.&+*/0)#)/)#1%.&

!"#(4%=)')='%6I<%"J)'()'>'K"%=%+#&'C)$%)L'M-"7'N'O4#6=%=#=%$)'1=4(%)I'3#LP'QRP'1=)L#"=P'SRP'T-&&-+DP'URP'

3)==IP'3R'*-I+,P'BRP'E'V)I=7-"&#6(P'QR'.'Q+Q#I=)"'W6%$)"I%=X'<#"'&#'<"-?)II)4")'KR'*-"&-Y'

(2343256& '

783&9:&;<=389:&

K&#%"'A'

'24%'

'U-6'

3%I=)Y'&)ZI['\4=ZI['()'&:J=4()P'I%'$-4I'#$)Y'46']4)I=%-66)7)6=')6']4-%''X'

"J<-6()6=.%&IA''

$233=>438>:&

3#'")$4)'()'&%==J"#=4")'

)I=.)&&)'+-6+&4#6=)'A'

'24%'

'U-6'

K-77)6='&)I'#4=)4"I'#"^47)6=)6=.%&I'&#'6J+)II%=J'()'&)4"'J=4()'9'&#'

&47%@")'()'&#'")$4)'()'&%==J"#=4")'A'

':?2@&

O4#6=P']4#&P'7%_=)R'

S)I+"%<=%?P')_<&-"#=-%")P'

)_<&%+#=%?P'<"J(%+=%?P')=+R'

SJ+"%$)Y'&#'7J=,-(-&-^%)'()'")+,)"+,)R''

'

`$)Y.$-4I'%()6=%?%J'()I'\%#%I'A'S#6I']4)&'I)6I'%6?&4)6+)"#%)6=.%&I'&:J=4()'A'

%AB4632;;56&

U'a'bcc'Zdef'()'&#'

<-<4&#=%-6'#++)II%\&)['

0I=.%&'(J+"%=')6'(J=#%&'A'

'24%'

'U-6'

0+,#6=%&&-66#^)'Z]4%g'+#"#+=J"%I=%]4)Ig'+-7\%)6'g'7J=,-()'

(:J+,#6=%&&-66#^)A['1%'<&4I%)4"I'^"-4<)IP'&)4"I'I%7%&%=4()I'-6=.)&&)I'J=J'

=)I=J)I'A'

'

K-77%II%-6'(:J=,%]4)'Z+-6I)6=)7)6='J+&#%"J'-\=)64['A''

C:@8>:@&

F#&%(%=J'A'

M%#\%&%=J'A'

O4#6(')=h-4'9']4)&&)'?"J]4)6+)'&)I'7)I4")I'-6=.)&&)I'J=J'"J#&%IJ)I'A'

O4)&&)I'$#"%#\&)I'I-6='7)I4"J)I'A'

'

Page 52: TB Rakotoarimanana J. Valloton J. 2016 · b4’&)!c$d-=-$#&7$6$6$!e!b4’&$!f$’’-=-6! ! ‘! @!!!!! @ ...

!"#$#%&'()'*#+,)&-"'.'/01.12'3#'1-4"+)' 5'*%)6.7-4"%"'8'9'&:,;<%=#&'>'46)'#??#%")'%6?%"7%@")'A'

B4&%)'C#D-=-#"%7#6#6#'E'B4&%#'F#&&-=-6' ' Ge'

#63:>?:63256&

3:%6=)"$)6=%-6')I=.)&&)'

(J+"%=)')6'(J=#%&'A''

'24%'

'U-6'

'T#I'(:%6=)"$)6=%-6'

i'#.=.%&'()I'?#+=)4"I'

+-6?-6(#6=I'A'

'24%'

'U-6'

'B)'6:)6'%()6=%?%)'<#I'

SJ+"%")'&:%6=)"$)6=%-6'Z?-+4I'A'<#"']4%')I=.)&&)')??)+=4J)'A'9']4)&&)'

?"J]4)6+)'A'(#6I']4)&'+#(")'A'&:%6=)"$)6=%-6'<-4""#%=.)&&)'j=")'"J<&%]4J)'

9'<#"=%"'()I'%6?-"7#=%-6I'+-6=)64)I'(#6I'&:#"=%+&)'A[R'

'

'

"=@8;343@&

Q)6=%-66)6=.%&I'&#'

I%^6%?%+#=%$%=J')=h-4'&)I'kK'

A'

'24%'

'U-6'

3)I'%7<&%+#=%-6I'+&%6%]4)I'

I-6=.)&&)I'7)6=%-66J)I'A'

'24%'

'U-6'

SJ+"%$)Y'&)I'"JI4&=#=IR'1-6=.%&I'I=#=%I=%]4)7)6='I%^6%?%+#=%?I'Z%R)RP'<'l'

HRHG[A''

3)I'(%??J")6+)I')6=")'^"-4<)I'I-6=.)&&)I')_<&%]4J)I')='I=#=%I=%]4)7)6='

%6=)"<"J=#\&)I'A'

(56A;8@256@&:3&

2DE;2A43256@&

3)I'#4=)4"I'"J<-6()6=.%&I'

9'&)4"ZI['

]4)I=%-66)7)6=ZI[''

O4)&&)I'I-6='&)I'+-6+&4I%-6I'()'&:J=4()'A'O4)&&)I'+-6IJ]4)6+)I'<-4"'&#'

<"#=%]4)'A'O4)&&)I'&%7%=)I'-4'\%#%I')7<j+,)6='46)'^J6J"#&%I#=%-6'A'

'

%


Recommended