EDU 222: INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS LECTURER: Mr. Karamuzi Johnson Telephone: 0788615600 Email: [email protected]Purpose: To develop student’s understanding of all the techniques, strategies and methods of teaching. Course content - Nature and components of teaching methods. - Draw a distinction between general methods and specific methods. - Problems encountered in teaching methodology and their possible solutions. - Indicators of conducive class and learning process - Strategies for effective teaching and learning. - Methods techniques and procedure of evaluation measuring learning outcomes. - Systems approaches to teaching in classroom and instructional objectives. - Methods of planning schemes of work and lesson planning. - Effective communication in classroom - Individual difference in teaching and learning. - Keeping student records and their importance. Recommended text books i. R Yayprakash (2007); instructional methods in education. Aph Publishing House. ii. Gill Nichollas (2004); introduction to teaching: a hand book for primary and secondary teachers; Routledge/ falmer Text Books for further Reading. 1
Purpose: To develop student’s understanding of all the techniques, strategies and methods of teaching.
Course content
- Nature and components of teaching methods.- Draw a distinction between general methods and specific methods.- Problems encountered in teaching methodology and their possible solutions.- Indicators of conducive class and learning process- Strategies for effective teaching and learning.- Methods techniques and procedure of evaluation measuring learning outcomes.- Systems approaches to teaching in classroom and instructional objectives.- Methods of planning schemes of work and lesson planning.- Effective communication in classroom- Individual difference in teaching and learning.- Keeping student records and their importance.
Recommended text books
i. R Yayprakash (2007); instructional methods in education. Aph Publishing House.ii. Gill Nichollas (2004); introduction to teaching: a hand book for primary and
secondary teachers; Routledge/ falmer
Text Books for further Reading.
i. UNESCO (2009); Instructional methods in education: An approach to teaching using ICT modes.
ii. Bennars G.A Otiende J.E and Boisvent R (1994); Theoyot H.O and Patel M.M (1992); Instructional methods (General methods); Nairobi EREP).
Students work to achieve curricular objectives in order to become critical thinkers.
Students complete activities designed by the teacher to achieve academic success.
Students respond to positive expectations set by the teacher as they progress through activities.
Students are given extrinsic motivators like grades and rewards to encourage them keep focused to the “main thing”.
Students’ work is evaluated by the teacher.
A teacher centered approach recognizes that children require achievable expectations and that students must have a solid foundation before learning a new concept e.g. in order to learn multiplication properly, a student must understand repeated addition and grouping. This process cannot be discovered by most students without the direction of a teacher.
Firestone 2012 states that, “traditional teaching is based on teaching style, focuses on content and is driven by the teacher.”
Other teaching methods under Teacher - centered approach;
a) Lecture method
Under this method the teacher stands in front of the class giving information to students and students listen to the teacher and take notes. (The teacher prepares a lecture and presents information)
Here a student learns by observing and listening thus he/she learns individually.
Preparations of a lecture
- Requires adequate aid and careful planning.
- First consider the objectives you would like to be realized.
Note: Begin with an end in mind.
- If a lecture is intended to arouse reaction or certain types of emotions, strong persuasive language may be necessary.
- Advance preparation for illustrative materials is vital in this method.
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- Develop a list of questions that they pose to students.
Introduction of a lecture
A good introduction must be challenging
It should create an expectant mood in the students to get them listen attentively.
A short thought provoking question could be used to get the lecture started.
A story related to the topic or a brief explanation of how you are going to treat the topics is important.
Systematically note down the points as the lecture develops.
Lecture presentation
The development of the topic should follow a logical order.
Illustrative materials should be used at the appropriate time
Repetition of concepts or ideas stated in ways will help the teacher to emphasize a point and drive home this point.
A little humor is necessary to help ease the tension of students in their efforts to get as much out of your lecture as they can.
The use of living examples could make theories and ideas more concrete and meaningful.
When to use the Lecture method
When introducing a new topic or unit or when giving a well organized over view.
It may be used to clarify an information or to expand content and to motivate the students
May be used when presenting important information that is not easily obtained.
When summarizing important points after a unit of study.
When attempting to cover a lot of materials in a short time.
Note: When delivering his lecture, a teacher can indicate by his facial expression, gestures and tones the exact meaning that he wishes to convey. He may shift or change positions and using simple illustrations he can deliver his lesson effectively.
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Advantages of the Lecture method
It supplements and enriches materials found in text books (materials not readily available in print can be presented by the lecturer)
It economizes time and saves effort. Students’ time and effort are not wasted trying to look or discover things for themselves.
It can be used to teach large classes.
The teacher has complete control over the choices of knowledge the students learn.
It enables more ground to be covered in a given period of time.
Disadvantages of a Lecture method
i) It violates one of the principles of learning; that is, learning through active involvement as advocated by a number of scholars like Brunner, Sutchman, Austel e.t.c. It should therefore be used sparingly.
ii) It reduces students to passive recipients of ideas and does not encourage the inquiring or creative mind. It could at worst produce students who are mere listeners and not thinkers.
iii) It does not provide students with enough opportunities to practice their oral communication skills.
Suggestions for improving lecturing
a. The teacher’s personality
In the lecture method, the teacher is the key person. All eyes are focused on you for a period of 30 – 45 minutes.
During this period your weaknesses and strengths can easily be noticed. Endeavour therefore to take care of your personal appearance, your manner of dressing, mannerisms and so on.
The way you speak counts a teacher with an unpleasant voice is therefore advised to refrain from using this method in its pure form.
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b. Talk to your students
Learn to guide your eyes across the room attempting to look into the eyes of your students (Don’t talk to the ceiling, the table or floor). This is an effective way of catching pupil’s attention especially those whose minds tend to wonder off to other things.
c. Constantly check on students’ understanding
Observe students’ reactions during the course of your Lecture. Their behavior indicates whether they have understood or not constant checking of the watch, yawning, forced coughing, unnecessary shifting of the feet or even blank stares may be signs that they are not following or they are bored.
d. Adopt language to level of students’ understanding
When lecturing to younger students, use; clear, simple and easy to understand language. Terms which need explanation or elaboration should be adequately treated. High sounding words may be impressive but they can result in misunderstanding.
e. Avoid too long lectures
f. Entertain some queries from students
g. Summarise main points
h. Use of teaching aid and illustrate materials.
i. Teacher should be humorous
j. Complement it with other methods.
Conclusion
At the end of the lecture students should be able to identify how the idea you have presented are related to each other as a complete whole.
This focuses on the needs of a student rather than those of other involved in Educational process such as teachers and administrators.
It seeks to empower and enable students to take autonomy for their own learning thus relying less on the teacher.
Students are required to set their own learning goals and determine resources in order to actively produce their own knowledge and not rely on the teacher as a dictator of knowledge (Pederson)
It is focused on each student’s needs, abilities and learning styles placing the teacher as a facilitator of learning.
This method of teaching acknowledges student voice as central to the learning experience for every learner and differs from many other learning methodologies.
This method requires the teacher to relinquish their role as the source of information and rather encourage students to develop the skills to become active, responsible participants in their own learning.
The teacher views the student as an intellectual contributor to the world’s Knowledge who is able to work in partnership with a teacher to construct knowledge (Jones).
Appraisals for student centered learning
Strengthens student motivation
Promotes peers communication
Reduces disruptive behavior.
Builds student – teacher relationship
Promotes discovery / active learning
Responsibility for one’s own learning
Note: When a teacher allows their students to make inquiries or even set the stage for his/her academic success, learning becomes more productive.
Thus with the openness of a student centered learning environment, knowledge production is vital when providing students the opportunity to explore their own learning styles.
It enhances student learning process greatly and demonstrates their competences in the performance of skills.
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Enables a student to establish his/her unique learning objectives in relation to their learning bases and needs.
It enables the teacher to give a honest and timely feedback on individual progress.
Through effective communication skills the teacher is able to address student needs, interests and over all engagement in the learning materials which encourages self discovery and Education.
According to James Henderson there are three basic principles of democratic living which he says are not yet established in our society in terms of Education.
The three basic tenets which he calls the 3 S’s of teaching for democratic living are;
Subject learning – students learn best from subject matter thoughtfully presented.
Self learning – one must engage oneself in the generative process.
Social learning – empathy is wealth in this regard, social interaction with diverse others the target for generosity.
To implement a student learning environment, attention must be given to the following;
What the child is curious about learning?
Teaching strategies to accommodate individual needs, intellectual and emotional aspects.
Students’ social needs; collaboration, communication, peer approval.
Curriculum goals over all.
Assessment of student – centered learning
One of the most critical differences between student – centered and teacher centered learning is that in student centered learning students participate in evaluation of their learning. This means that students are involved in;
- Decision making on how to demonstrate their learning
- Developing assessments that support learning.
Note: Motivation is essential to the success of student – centered approaches.
Activity:
Qn: (a) What are the likely challenges of student centered learning in secondary schools in Rwanda?
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(b) Identify various practical suggestions for implementing student centered learning.
Examples of teaching methods under Student – centered teaching approach
i) DISCUSSION METHOD
When two or more people interact with each other verbally, we say that they are involved in a discussion. It is characterized by increased involvement and active participation of members of the class.
Unlike the lecture method where the teacher is dominant person, in the discussion the teacher says very much in the background. The teacher poses the problem, initiates interaction, allows interaction, allows students to pursue the discussion towards the attainment of the goal.
Note: This approach is not suitable for presenting new information. It is appropriate for a debatable problem or for a problem requiring solutions.
This approach has 2 important attributes:-
1. It helps students to develop willingness to talk about his ideas openly and listen and respond to the ideas of other students/people.
2. In Economics it helps the students to learn to apply theory to solutions of problems.
Qualities of a good discussion
a. Topic should be interesting and interest stems mainly from familiarity with the subject. The topic chosen therefore should be within the range of student’s experiences as well as within their ability to discuss. That is to say topic should be relevant to the lives of the students.
b. Pupils should be able to present their views logically and support them as well hence they should be given adequate time to prepare themselves before hand.
- Give source information
- Guidelines – how to go about the topic of discussion.
c. All students should be active. No students should be allowed to monopolize the discussion.
d. The teacher and students should recognize the point at which the discussion must be interpreted, so that they may get additional information that is needed before moving to the next point.
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e. Rules of conduct to be observed during the discussion should be clearly spelt out.
E.g. – Listening when someone is talking,
- Respect for other members’ points of views,
- Talking when you are given the floor,
- Guarding against turning into a personal conflict or fight.
Some guidelines or rules which are likely to make the discussion technique effective
1) Ensure that every member of the class participates. Direct questions to the students in the classroom.
2) Encourage slow thinkers by promoting, giving them a hint, give them time to think, rephrase questions, simplify.
3) Refrain from answering questions that you ask, and seek answers from the class.
4) Ensure the discussion keeps to the point.
5) Prevent cross – talk, insist on one speaker at a time.
6) To stimulate lively discussions invite comment or clarification on statements made by other students.
7) Avoid questions that can be answered by ‘yes’ or ‘No’ e.g. Do you agree? But simply say “what is your comment.”
8) Deal with irrelevant statements tactfully (diplomatically) and choose your words carefully.
9) Finally sum up by nothing suggestions made, integrate them, and at the end of the discussion be able to indicate whether the discussion has led to a settled satisfactory conclusion.
Disadvantages/ Constraints of the Discussion Approach
- Some topics are debatable
- Students may not have access to the necessary reference materials e.g. text books.
- In large classes not every student gets a chance to speak bbut this can be solved by forming small Group discussion such that each group can then chose a representative for the general discussions.
- Domination of the bright student
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- Class control may become a problem if not well organized.
- It takes a lot of time/time consuming not good for single lessons/period.
- Some students may not participate at all but this can be solved by picking the students at random.
Advantages of discussion
- It allows active participation of students and stimulates them tot hink individually and teaches them to express themselves freely – developing their oral communication skills.
- It helps the teacher to evaluate student’s interests by learning and encourages them to develop clear thinking, self assurance and sometimes leadership.
- It gives students practice in critical thinking and listening which are often neglected by the teacher.
ii) STUDY TRIPS AS A TEACHING METHOD
These consist of planned organized visits to points of interest outside the classroom such as factories, agricultural projects, cooperative societies, banks, e.t.c. Trips are often planned to places where the students will be able to see in practice on reality what they have studied in class.
Steps to take
a. Preparation of study tour
Prepare the class to arouse interests of the students in the study trip. Inform / tell the students about where they will be going.
Why they are going there
What to expect or see there
What relationship is there between what they have studied and what they are going to see.
Where students are going in a group they should be given certain rules of conduct to avoid accidents and to prevent unnecessary damage to property.
b. Administrative arrangements
The school authorities should be informed well in advance.
The company or institution in question or to be visited should be written to for permission.
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Written permission to parents should be sent well in advance
Teacher concerned must be courteous to inform fellow teachers in advance.
c. Activities during the trip
Students should observe, listen and note down what they have seen or heard.
Students should be asked to make a report on what they saw and what they enjoyed and what they feel they learnt from the trip. A set of questions may be given as guide.
For further reference the teacher should try to access whether the trip was successful or not and in what ways.
Lastly, letters of acknowledgements / thanks should be written to various people who made the trip possible.
Advantages of a study trip
1) It provides a sound and concrete basis fro conceptualization / internalization of knowledge.
2) Pupils get knowledge and information difficult to get in classrooms.
3) It provides first hand learning experiences i.e. direct observation living examples of theoretical prepositions.
4) It reinforces past learning to facilitate future learning.
5) It gives an opportunity for improving social relationship between students and teacher and among the students.
6) Pupils may come to realize that reality doesn’t vary much but differs from what text books say.
7) Pupils acquire skills of observation and listening. They develop confidence to relate with adults who are not in position of authority over time.
Disadvantages
1) It can be time consuming in terms of planning and organization as well as in what is learnt.
2) It involves additional expenses
3) Travelling in itself can be a risk.
4) It requires a lot of administrative work.
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iii) DISCOVERY APPROACH
This involves an individual to use his mental process to medicate (discover) some concept or principle. It is based on the idea that content is not given to learners in a finished form, rather it is discovered by the learners before they can internailse it i.e. the learner actually generates the knowledge to be learnt and is thus able to see information come into existence.
Advantages
- Students are actively engaged in the process of acquiring knowledge instead of being passive listeners.
- Students are taught concepts on principles which are more easily remembered than isolated facts.
- Students are more interested and remember better things they have found out themselves.
Note: Read and make notes on; guided inquiry, free inquiry and modified inquiry, role play simulation, project work, case studies giving advantages and disadvantages.
iv) QUESTION AND ANSWER TECHNIQUE
This method prevents students from playing a passive role. Things to note about questioning;
i. A good question should challenge thinking and invite solutions. It should stimulate the student to formulate his own point of view. He shouldn’t recite written material or memorized facts.
ii. It should be clear and easily understood, and for this reason it is advisable to ask specific questions and use as a few words as possible.
iii. It should enlist a kind of response that will contribute to the progress of the lesson.
How to ask questions in class
i. Address questions to the whole class, give pupils enough time to formulate their responses before appointing the person to answer.
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ii. Make questions self-explanatory students should not have problems of interpreting your question.
iii. Avoid double or triple questions like how, why and when.
iv. Avoid questions whose responses are ‘yes’ or No e.g. Do you agree?
How to treat pupils answers
i. Acknowledge pupils’ answers – credit them for their participation no matter whether the answer is correct or wrong.
ii. For wrong answers, give credit for the attempt in order not to discourage the students.
v) DEBATE
- Two groups of students competitively discuss (debate) certain topic.
- Teacher observes and facilitates the debate
- The students here learn by interacting, talking, listening, solving problems, learns in groups and real experiences.
vi) PANEL
- Here small group of students present and discuss information or research.
- The teacher observes and makes comments
- The student here learns by presenting, talking, listening, solving problem, observing and more so learns in groups.
vii)ROLE PLAYING
- Students act out roles or situations.
- They present idea or opinion by acting out
- The teacher observes and facilitates discussion.
- Here they learn by doing, imitating, real experiences and by playing. They also learn from groups.
viii) COOPERATIVE LEARNING
- Students work in mixed – ability groups on one or more tasks.
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- The focus is what groups NOT individuals can do.
- The teacher helps each group.
- Learners interact with each other by solving problems and doing in large groups.
ix) INQUIRY
- Student decides on his/her own procedure for solving a specific issue and the teacher gives guidance when students ask for help.
- They learn by experimenting by doing, solving problems, investigating and they learn both as individuals and in groups.
x) GAMES
- Remember that young children learn many things by playing.
Note: This does not stop on the first day of school.
- Games can be used to illustrate or practice certain ideas and concepts where the teacher observes and participates when necessary.
xi) MASTERY LEARNING
- A teacher organizes step by step learning procedure in which students move through at their own pace.
- Students work on one step at a time.
- Here the role of a teacher is to create and organize learning materials and give support to the students.
xii) INDEPENDENT STUDY
- Here a student chooses or a teacher gives a student a research.
- Students gather information and present it.
- Learning in this case is carried out with little guidance from the teacher.
- The teacher here supports students individually and they learn both by doing and as individuals.
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How to decide which method to use?
Four things should be carefully thought about before deciding which teaching method to use.
Content and objectives of the lesson
Teacher characteristics (personal teaching style)
Student - characteristics (learning strategies, learning styles and stage of development)
Classroom setting and materials.
Note:
- Every lesson must have a purpose;
What is the purpose of your lesson?
What do you want students to learn? E.g. if you are trying to teach problem solving then the lecture method is not a useful approach.
- Every teacher has a unique personnel experience, back ground knowledge, teaching skills and personality that make him/her more comfortable and effective with certain teaching methods than others. Teachers often use methods that they are most comfortable with.
- Each method allows students to learn using their different learning strategies and styles. Thus by using different types of teaching methods, you allow students to learn using all of their natural learning strategies and learning styles.
- Also you should use specific methods to match the maturity level and experiences of your students. E.g. you won’t use lecture method with young children or with students who have trouble paying attention for long periods of time. Students like teachers feel comfortable and learn better when the method matches their abilities, needs and interests.
KEEPING STUDENTS’ RECORDS
Assessment results have to be recorded and presented to their proper audiences i.e; parents, guardians and sponsors need to know how their children are progressing. Thus you need to keep proper records and make good reports.
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1) Keeping information for use to improve day – day teaching.
2) Passing on information within a school to other teachers and to the Head teacher.’
3) Sending information when a child goes to another school during the same stage or level (transfer)
4) Pointing out problems related to education e,g, methods used.
5) Helps in following up individual students (special costs at times) to improve their performances.
6) Giving reports to parents, guardians and sponsors when necessary.
7) Providing information for outside agencies such as doctors or counselors (welfare)
8) Helps in career guidance e.g. when students have to specialize in certain courses at different stages in education e.g. choosing subject combinations after O’ level.
9) Its also important in developing a learner’s portfolio.
NB: A portfolio is a collection of the learner’s record of work and assignments that help to reveal the learner’s achievement in particular subjects and progress made.
Any care giver can trace and follow the trend of activities and see the progress made in the child’s development of concepts, skills and values.
NOTE:
- Effective record keeping enables us to plan to organize and create the best learning environment for each child.
- It is an effective tool for tracking contributions made by individual students in your classrooms for assessing students’ growth over time.
- Teachers should create their own record keeping systems to fit the environment in which they teach and the system may be different in every classroom.
Effective communication in a classroom
How effective we are as teachers has a great deal to do with how we communicate. We communicate ideas, information and expectations in a variety of ways – through speaking, gestures and body language and through the written words.
NOTE: - Communicating effectively means using a variety of modes (spoken, visual e.t.c) to reach students who learn in different ways.
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- Our body language and other non – verbal cues are important modes of communication and we can use these to promote a positive classroom environment.
- While technology can make communication easier and more convenient, students generally value the opportunity for personal contact and conversion with the instructor as well.
The communication cycle
Communication process is both purposive and interacting. The process of communication has four components namely:
i. Source / sender “encoder”
ii. Medium / channel of communication
iii. Message / signal
iv. Receiver / destination
Every human communication has a source which could be a person (teacher, learner) with a purpose. The purpose is expressed inform of a message which is changed into a code e.g. gestures, verbal, written. This process is called encoding.
The message is carried through a channel (medium). The channel transmits the message to the receiver for whom the information is intended. The receiver retranslates or decodes the message into the form that is understood by him. This is done by reading, thinking, listening e.t.c.
When the receiver gets the message understands it and generates a response, the response is also called Feedback depends on the way the receiver understands the message.
The illustration below summarizes the above explanation
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Levels/types of communication:
Interpersonal – This is communication that takes place between two persons. It can also be called a dialogue.
Intrapersonal – this takes place within the person him/herself. This is referred to as monologue.
Societal – This is communication involving the teaching of social values by formal or informal means.
Public – it is the type that is between an individual and many persons or between many and many persons.
Barriers to effective communication
Contradicting the verbal and non verbal message
Effective verbal communication should be accompanied by verbal message that suit it. In some cases, the non-verbal messages have contradicted with the verbal commuinciation for instanc when one communicates sadness and smiles it may sense the problem he is putting across.
1. Variation in age
The age difference between the sender and the receiver can constitute a barrier. The message transmitted by the sender, in most cases the teacher, may not be in the learner’s interests because of age.
2. Sender’s lack of prior knowledge about the receiver (s)
This is common when the sender does not know the background, interests , and needs of the learners. We need to be well versed with the students’ background information to communicate to them effectively.
3. The receiver’s capacity
Some learners’ capacity to comprehend and grasp what is communicated by the teacher is still waiting. It is therefore very important for teachers to establish the ability of the students to recall, memorise and articulate points, before he communicates.
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4. Difference in the language itself
Some people use language full of difficult words, unfamiliar (strange and foreign) or bearing ambiguity. Such language distorts the meaning and creates a barrier in the communication process.
5. Unfavourable conditions in the environment
The learning environment which in most cases is the classroom may favor effective communication process. Incase there is poor lighting, and ventilation; the learners may not perceive the message transmitted by the teacher the proper way they would.
USE OF VISUAL AIDS
A Chinese proverb teaches us that one picture is equivalent to a thousand words. Visual aids refer to materials that are used to promote teaching and learning situation where the matter to be taught or learnt is viewed or seen directly by the learner or the teacher.
Visual aids are tools that are visible to the teacher that he uses to illustrate ideas and information in the learning process. To realize proper use of visual aids for classroom communication, the venue requires prior inspection to ensure that it has the necessary facilities for the selected aids. Such aids include;
Black board or white board
Over head projector
Posters and pictures
Maps
Exhibits
Models
Flip charts
Maps
Specimens
Historic e.g Drama and films e.t.c
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Advantages of visual aids
- They make learning more permanent because the picture or the chart which is exposed to the students will be implanted in their minds for quite a long time.
- They offer a reality of experience which stimulates self activity on the side of the students.
- They develop a continuity of thoughts or ideas; this is especially true of the slides and motion pictures.
- They contribute to the growth of meaning and advance to vocabulary development.
- They supply a concrete basis for conceptual thinking.
- They reduce meaningless word responses from students.
- They provide experiences which are not easily obtained through other materials and they contribute to the efficient depth and variety of learning.
- They also arouse interest; they are motivating and trend to stimulate questions.
- They are provocative i.e. they arise questions, supply information and ideas which contribute a great deal to learning. Hence visual aids encourage participation especially if students are allowed to manipulate the materials used in the hands of a good teacher.
- Visual aids convey information accurately.
Note: - They should be used side by side with the traditional teaching methods.
- They bridge the gap between the very bright and less gifted students. They also have an added advantage in that they make the lesson student centered. With the use of visual aids teaching becomes more vivid and clearer.
- Visual aids elaborate points and clear technicalities which normal oral teaching may not achieve.
- Visual aids reinforce and add effectiveness to the teacher. They give him a degree of confidence and they make him an authority in what he is actually talking about.
Note: It is better to use visual aids which will convey direct information to the students and which will make learning more permanent.
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- Visual aids overcome when effectively used the limitations of the class room and the need to take students outside the class room to greater spheres.
Disadvantages of visual aids
- Visual aids are not a solution of a poor teacher.
- They are demanding and the teacher should be in position to understand and comprehend issues and he should be able to use his critical judgment in determining the appropriateness of the visual aid to be used.
- There is a tendency of the teacher putting too much focus on the material to be used and not on the learning task.
- There is always a problem of inadequacy of visual aids i.e. (not being available)
- They are sometimes too costly.
- The other difficulty arises in the selection and skillful handling of the visual aid.
Characteristics of good teaching aids
They should be meaningful and purposeful.
They should be accurate in every respect.
They should be simple.
They should be cheap.
They should be large enough to be properly seen by students to whom they are intended.
Speaking and presenting.
Standing in front of any group to speak even when you are the “authority” usually generates fear and anxiety yet as teachers we inevitably spend a fair amount of our time in front of the class, presenting information or giving students information.
Basics of effective communication.
1. Building your presentation skills.
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- Plan a head.
To convey ideas or concepts effectively to your students you need to have a clear good for each class aid a plan for how to reach that goal.
- Practice.
This might be talking to yourself in front of the mirror or reciting your lecture. Though this seems awkward yet the best presentations come as a result of practice. Even professors who have been teaching for 30 years still need to aside time before class to practice their lecture, mastering ideas and the gestures before they enter the classroom.
-Observe and talk with teachers you respect.
We learn to teach by watering those around us and those whose skills we admire.
-Be observed or tape yourself. Feed back is essential to continuous improvement even seasoned teachers benefit from having a colleague watch them teach and after feedback particularly if you are new.
2. Engaging your audience.
Having basic presentation skills is one thing but engaging your audience in the learning experience is another. Below is a list of things you can do to keep your presentation from being a mountainous one:
-Plan mini-lectures.
Note: The average student has an intentia span of ten to twenty minutes (Davis, 1993) if you try to present for longer you will almost certainly lose some of your students attention. Involve students for example in small groups.
-Use multiple presentation techniques.
Note: some need to hear ideas, others need to see things written on the board, some need to discover concepts and applications while others prefer to be shown and given a chance to practice.
-Know your audience.
Know who your students are and what knowledge they have. Anticipate what they already know, what concepts will cause them particular trouble and what examples will have meaning for them.
-Check in with your audience from time to time. Even in large courses, the most distinguished teachers continuously obtain feed back from their students by asking questions and giving space for them to ask questions.
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-Avoid reading your presentation.
The best talks are those that seem to be spontaneous but have been practiced in advance.
3. Developing a class room presence.
Speaking well is only part of effective teaching. How you say some thing can be more important than what you actually say. Some experts say that in a verbal exchange, the words we use are only 7% effective while the tone of our voice is 43% effective and non-verbal sues are 50% effective.
Regardless of the percentages, the point is an important one, teaching is about more than simply saying the right words.
It is about using your entire person to promote learning.
-Being aware of your emotions, gestures and location in a class room allows you to establish a presence.
Create variations in your voice. Practice changing the tone, piteu, rythym loudness and inflection of your voice. Play with using pauses to punctuate points or receptive student attention. Whisper or repeat points of for emphasis. Experienced speakers use these and other tools to make key points, emphasize ideas and keep the audience engaged.
Be aware of your body and its language.
Qns: - Are you always talking with your hands or they are continuing stuffed in your pocket?
- Do you nod, smile and look at students when they are asking a question or making a point?
Use the physical space in the classroom. Moving around the classroom can convey energy and enthusiasm on your part and it brings you into contact with all parts of the room. It can also help keep students attention and even quit students who are talking or restless. However be careful since too much movement can also be irritating / annoying.
Keep a sense of humor. We are not talking about using jokes here. Some instructors can do this quite well and others simply find it is not for them. In this case we mean you should keep your ability to laugh at yourself and the situation though not at your students. This kind of relaxed atmosphere is conducive to learning.
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Using Technology to communicate.
Technology provides opportunities to expand your interaction with students. However before you decide to use technology you should ask yourself a simple question. If I use this technology, will it improve the quality of student learning?
Use email to interact with students. Email is among the most basic technologies used to communicate with students and at least two benefits;
i. Students may find it helpful to write carefully and think through a question rather than as you directly in class or office hours. They can also do so any time of day or night.
ii. Written communications with students provide you with a record of interactions, some things that can be useful if you are having problems with students.
Listserv is a useful for large – scale communication. Listserv is simply a compilation of all students email addresses grouped under one address. When a message is sent to that one address, it goes to all students in the class. These can be useful when;
i. You want students to be able to interact with one another as a group, outside class.
ii. You need to remind your students of upcoming deadlines, changes in class location or any special requests you have of them.
iii. Frequently asked questions arise. You can pose the most common questions and write responses to them – reaching all students in the process.
Note: Technology does not address all communication needs. Students value opportunities to have personal interactions with their teachers. And to be an effective teacher, you must be skilled at communication in many different ways.
Evaluation and measuring learning out comes
Evaluation is a system of quality control which helps to determine along every step of the process whether the process is successful or not. Its primary purpose is to determine the extent to which previously stated objectives have been achieved.
Educationists believe that evaluation is a method of acquiring and processing information which is needed to improve the students learning and teaching. It is a process for determining the extent to which students are developing in varied
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ways. It is most frequently used for the purpose of grading and classifying students. Evaluation must take place throughout the entire teaching and learning process. It is classified into 3 aspects.
A. Diagnostic evaluation
This is usually in term of a test and it often occurs before the learning experience. The teacher tries to determine what knowledge the students bring to the classroom. The purpose here is to for streaming/ placement of the individual.
It helps the teacher to understand the readiness of the students for the learning task.
It is also used to determine the place or point of entry in the learning experience in order to know the kind of preparations to undertake before introducing students to a new hint.
It can be in form of a pre – test or in form of observations using a check list.
B. Formative evaluation
This occurs throughout the learning experience. It can be called progressive or continuous evaluation.
The purpose is not to grade the students but to determine the differences/weaknesses in order to rectify them.
It occurs at intervals whenever a topic has been completed. The teacher should not proceed to another topic before Mastering of the previous task has been accomplished.
It provides feed back to both the teacher and the student.
C. Summative evaluation
It is concerned with an overall assessment of student’s achievements and its primary purpose is the assignment of marks / grades e.g. end of term examination.
Effective evaluation must be diagnostic, formative and summative in scope.
Evaluation must not only keep students continuously under examinations but it should be able to re-assess the objectives and strategies / methods as well.
Diagnostic and formative evaluations are all related to each other. Formative and diagnostic evaluations are involved in determining areas where students have weakness and need to be helped.
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The teacher should be concerned with 3 basic questions:
i. What do I evaluate?
ii. How do I evaluate?
iii. How do I use the results of evaluation to improve teaching and learning?
Learning out comes
Learning outcomes are broad statements of what is achieved and assessed at the end of a course of study.
The concept of learning outcomes and outcome based education is high on today’s education agenda.
- Learning outcomes, if set out appropriately are user friendly. They can be used easily in curriculum planning, in teaching and in assessment.
- Learning outcomes represent what is achieved and assessed at the end of a course of study and not only the aspirations or what is intended to be achieved.
According to Melton (1997) the term “Learning outcome” is simply an alternative name for objective.
CLASS ROOM MANAGEMENT AND CREATING A CONDUCIVE CLASS AND LEARNING PROCESS
This is about creating orderliness and discipline.
Class management and control is basically to do with maintaining order and discipline in the class room.
It is the process of conducting a class so that it is efficient and effective and thus resulting in maximum student learning. Successful class management requires:
- Careful lesson planning.
- A pleasant and supportive environment for learning ie an environment that creates interest and desire to learn.
- The proper physical classroom arrangement.
- Class room display ie should contain instructional based visual aids and resources like content posters, student produced work and displays.
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- The teacher should establish control to avoid disciplinary disturbances and promote effective student learning. Learning does not usually occur in disorderly and noisy classes.
- Class rooms display exhibit student work to establish quality control expectation for various tasks and assessments like note-taking, home work and quizzes with problem solving steps.
- Following classroom schedules are well organized and transitions between activities are smooth.
- Clear expectations for acceptable student behavior and class room procedure are established, communicated, modeled and maintained.
- In class room management a good beginning makes all the difference. Therefore the teacher should appear for class well prepared and confident.
- Students are encouraged to express their ideas without fear due to honest mistakes which may be made.
- Students should not be intimidated as to prevent them from thinking for themselves. However misbehavior should not be tolerated.
- The teacher should take full charge of the class room and students should not have any doubt that he is the person in change and that their behavior is governed by his parameters or rules that have been set up by the teachers approval.
Note: The teacher then should exhibit an examporaly behavior – we don’t demand for respect but we win it from those we teach.
- Positive peer interaction is expected and re-in forced
- Class rooms are task oriented while the social and emotional needs of students are met through mutual respect.
- Various learning styles are presented ie could be auditory and visual.
- Content materials are available in a variety of formats.
- Giving room for supplement materials to offer further breadth and depth to the lesson.
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Strategies for effective teaching and learning
1) Use of practical examples.
This involves connecting theory with applications.
Note: Using practical examples does not imply an elimination of theory but rather an enhancement of the theory taught in the classroom. It is important to simultaneously develop a theoretical and a practical base since neither is useful without the other.
The target here is to help illustrate and explain new concepts being introduced.
Also helps students to be able to apply their knowledge of the course material to new situations.
2) The show and Tell technique (Reversing student roles)
This is where a student or a group of students explain a given theory to rest of the class and demonstrate a physical example that helps visualize the phenomenon. However for the concept to be explained by the students it should be relatively simple and straight forward.
The purpose of this exercise is to challenge students to come up with a creative solution to the problem at hand without overwhelming them.
3) Use of case studies
(Bringing “Real life’s scenarios into the classroom)
Here students are given written material regarding a case and asked to head it and answer a series of questions pertaining to various aspects of the case. The students can be required to work either individually or in groups. The following should be considered when using a case study.
- The case study questions may increase the amount of work the students have to do outside class. Care must be taken to balance this extra work load against other home work assignments.
- When using case studies found in the library, do not stick to using the questions given with the case. Generate new questions that directly fit the topics covered in the class.
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- While the questions that are assigned from the basis of the discussion, be prepared with other questions in order to guide the discussion.
- The goal of the case should be kept in the mind at all times. Keep the discussion from drifting from this goal.
- Above all be thoroughly prepared for the discussion. Poor preparation will lead to frustration among the students.
4) Guided design projects
(Introducing practical design experience in classrooms)
These aim at bringing practical design into the class room often conducted over a period of a semester which give students an opportunity to work in a team environment and apply theory learned in the classroom.
5) Use open – ended quizzes
These help students to move away from memorization.
7) Use of question and answer method which encourage students’ participation and active involvement.
8) Being committed to continuous teaching improvement i.e. monitor your progress.
9) Fast feedback.
10) Use approaches that cause students to think e.g. open ended labs.
Open ended laboratory classes can be broadly defined as classes where the students are encouraged to design their own experiments or devise their own experimental strategy rather than required to follow set of experimental guidelines.
