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Teachers’ reflections on effectivelymanaging their classroom: a discussionof how two experienced scienceteachers examined their classroommanagement practicesCynthia Deaton aa Clemson University, Teacher Education , Clemson , SC , USAPublished online: 24 Dec 2012.

To cite this article: Cynthia Deaton (2013) Teachers’ reflections on effectively managing theirclassroom: a discussion of how two experienced science teachers examined their classroommanagement practices, Reflective Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 14:2,240-257, DOI: 10.1080/14623943.2012.749229

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Teachers’ reflections on effectively managing their classroom: adiscussion of how two experienced science teachers examined theirclassroom management practices

Cynthia Deaton*

Clemson University, Teacher Education, Clemson, SC, USA

(Received 10 April 2012; final version received 9 November 2012)

This multiple-case study examined two experienced science teachers’ reflectionson their classroom management practice. Specifically, this study examined whatfactors the participants believed influenced their classroom managementapproach and how they define their current classroom management approach.Data collected were interviews, journal entries, informal conversations andmember checks. Microanalysis was used to analyze the data and cross-caseanalysis was used to look for similarities and differences between the cases.Participants identified two themes, axial and peripheral responsibilities, andcorresponding sub-themes, which influenced their classroom management. Theydefined their management approach according to a continuum of classroommanagement approaches ranging from student to teacher-centered. The partici-pants had similar goals with regard to their science classroom yet implementedclassroom management in different ways. This study illustrates implications forfuture research on the factors influencing classroom management.

Keywords: reflection; reflective practice; science teachers; classroommanagement; case study

Literature

Classroom management encompasses aspects of teaching that are central to studentlearning and teacher success. As each school year starts, new teachers arebombarded with a variety of unfamiliar teaching responsibilities and a group ofnew students. Many new teachers have issues managing behaviors in theirclassroom (Fontaine, Kane, Duquette, & Savoie-Zajc, 2012) and often spend moretime managing student behavior than teaching content (Canter, 2010). Whilethey may have a strong understanding of the content they are teaching, noviceteachers often have limited experience managing the content learning of students(Chiappetta & Koballa, 2006). Even experienced teachers have to negotiate newresponsibilities that ensue with each year and the new students that are enrolled intheir class. Faced with these new variables, teachers begin to develop or refinetheir approach to managing a new group of students each year. Issues such as‘how authoritarian to be, especially at the start of a new year’ (Tiene & Buck,1987, p. 261) and what classroom rules and procedures to establish are often

*Email: cdeaton@clemson.edu

Reflective Practice, 2013Vol. 14, No. 2, 240–257, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2012.749229

� 2012 Taylor & Francis

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pondered. As teachers develop their classroom management approach, whichimpacts their overall teaching, they influence the environment of their classroomand, therein, both their own and their students’ experience with school. Sinceteachers’ interactions and experiences with students in their classroom can play animportant role in schooling, such as whether or not teachers decide to stay in theteaching profession (Fontaine et al., 2012) and how students behave (Roache &Lewis, 2011a), it is important to understand how teachers reflect on and view theirclassroom management approaches.

What is classroom management?

Classroom management can be defined as anything a teacher does to promote stu-dent learning and instruction through organizing students, materials, time and space(Wong & Wong, 1998). Decisions regarding classroom management are made bothin advance of and in the midst of a lesson (Chiapetta & Koballa, 2006) in order to‘establish order, engage students, or elicit their cooperation’ (Emmer & Stough,2001, p. 103). Classroom management comprises a teacher’s capabilities to effec-tively implement a management approach, a classroom setting, rules, proceduresand routines, instructional practices, curriculum and discipline interventions. Eventhough classroom management is not entirely defined as discipline procedures, man-aging students is a key aspect of maintaining a more productive learning environ-ment for students. Trowbridge and Bybee (1996) stated that better classroomdiscipline is associated with teachers’ restraint and reflection on their practice. Theskillful execution of classroom management skills is one of the most valuable deter-minants of teaching success (Wong & Wong, 1998) in that it is a critical aspect ofpedagogical knowledge (Emmer & Stough, 2001). A well-managed classroom is anenvironment that is both task-oriented and predictable where the teacher and stu-dents know what to do and what is expected to happen in the class (Wong &Wong, 1998). It is the responsibility of teachers, along with administration and stu-dents, to share in the responsibility of effectively managing classroom and schoolbehavior (Marzano, 2011).

Literature has identified and described an array of classroom managementapproaches that teachers employ in the classroom. Classroom management canrange from learner-centered to teacher-centered styles with a continuum of mixedstyles in between. Approaches such as student-oriented (Gordon, 1975) and group-oriented models (Dreikurs, Grunwalk, & Pepper, 1982; Lewis, 2001) allow studentsto have a role in the management of their behavior by individually implementing aplan to guide their own behavior (i.e. self-regulate) or collaborating with their peersand teacher to develop guidelines. In contrast, teacher-centered approaches give theteacher the ultimate authority in making behavior guidelines and deciding onconsequences and rewards (Roache & Lewis, 2011b). This model of control (Lewis,2001) upholds a more traditional classroom dynamic of teacher control. Somevariations of a teacher-centered approach, which incorporates connecting withstudents by attending to their emotional and individual needs and negotiatingbehaviors, are considered relational approaches (Gregory & Ripski, 2008) or teacherinfluenced models (Lewis, 2001). Through these approaches, teachers create posi-tive relationships with students in their classroom by earning student cooperationand trust while still being viewed as the legitimate authority in the classroom(Gregory & Ripski, 2008). Overall, the amount of teacher and student input on

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classroom guidelines varies according to the classroom management model beingimplemented and teachers’ beliefs about coercion, rewards and punishment, andnegotiation (Lewis, 2001). While there are multiple variations of teacher-orientedand student-oriented classroom management approaches, those mentioned above arejust a few ways that researchers, as well as teachers, have commonly defined andviewed classroom management practices.

As this study discusses the classroom management approach of two secondaryscience teachers, it will note evidence of three classroom management approaches –model of control, model of teacher influence and model of group managementapproaches (Lewis, 2001) – that vary from a very teacher-centered model (model ofcontrol) to one where the teacher encourages student behaviors and negotiates withstudents (model of teacher influence), to a very student-centered model wherestudents manage their behavior (model of group management). Because this studyexamined what experienced secondary science teachers describe as effectiveclassroom management practice, it is imperative to create a working definition ofeffective classroom management. For this study, effective classroom management isdefined as the development of a learning environment through the following: (a)carefully sequencing, planning and implementing instructional activities; (b) valuingand recognizing students as individuals; (c) promoting a positive culture of commu-nity of learners where academic and behavioral expectations are well-known; and(d) encouraging student responsibility (Lewis, 2001) and self-control (Froyen &Iverson, 1999).

Why examine teachers’ reflections on their classroom management approach?

Reflection is a crucial component of reviewing one’s practice and ‘taking time tostep back and to ponder the meaning of what has happened, the impact of it andthe direction one is taking’ (Higgins, 2011, p. 584). As a systematic and purposefulmethodology for examining ones’ own practice, reflection makes it possible tounderstand and resolve conflicting situations and expectations through inquiry(Richardson, 1994; Weiss & Weiss, 2001). In addition, reflection helps to maketeachers’ beliefs, theories and knowledge about teaching and learning explicit (Day& Pennington, 1993; Schön, 1983). Although teachers hold previous knowledgeand beliefs about teaching and learning and utilize those beliefs and knowledge ona daily basis, they are often unable to articulate what and how they know certaininformation (Shulman, 1987). While inquiring about and reviewing their practicethrough reflection, teachers can begin to make their understandings and beliefsabout teaching explicit because reflective practice requires the ‘active, persistent,and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge’(Dewey,1991, p. 6).

Teacher beliefs are major indicators of teachers’ success and behavior as theyform the framework for decision making and are a reliable indicator of classroombehavior (Ramey-Gassert, Shroyer, & Staver, 1996). Science teachers, whether pre-service or in-service teachers, bring to their work setting their own learning experi-ences, as well as beliefs about various aspects of their teaching practice (Abell &Bryan, 1997). Teachers rely heavily on their prior knowledge and beliefs to makedecisions about their teaching (Artzt, 1999; Bean & Stevens, 2002; Bryan & Abell,1999; Driver, Guesne, & Tiberghien, 1985; Goodlad, 1984; Osborne, 1998) whichcan affect how well they implement various plans of actions and deal with different

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teaching predicaments. Teachers’ beliefs about and knowledge of their practicemake up the practical knowledge that they need to examine. These beliefs are extre-mely important in teachers’ selection and employment of certain classroom manage-ment approaches and their ability to effectively manage their classroom. Teachersuse these beliefs to guide decision making in their classroom as they synthesizetheir planned direction along with the situations and spontaneous factors foundwithin the classroom (Trowbridge & Bybee, 1996). However, teachers need tounderstand their beliefs about classroom management in order to effectively makedecisions about the teaching and learning in their classroom. Research hasemphasized the link between teacher beliefs and teacher actions (Tobin, Tippins, &Gallard, 1994). Engaging in reflective practice will support teachers in understand-ing their beliefs about teaching and therefore become more secure in their ability tomake effective decisions about their classroom management strategies.

The focus of this qualitative study is to examine experienced secondary scienceteachers' beliefs about classroom management during their in-service career. As ascience teacher educator and former secondary science teacher, I am interested inthe development and implementation of classroom management approaches thatinfluence students’ learning and interest in high school science and are identified bypracticing teachers as being effective. With the constant emphasis on classroommanagement as being a critical component to the success of novice teachers, it wasevident that a deeper understanding of how teachers, who are classified as havingeffective classroom management approaches, negotiate and define classroom man-agement was needed. Hence, this study addressed the following research questions:(a) what factors influence their classroom management practices? and (b) how dothese teachers describe their classroom management approach? In addressing thesequestions, I examined the themes that arose as teachers described their beliefs aboutclassroom management and their current classroom management approach.

Methods

Context and participants

This pilot study focused on experienced teachers’ reflections on effective classroommanagement for the science classroom. Using the qualitative constructivist theoreti-cal perspective (Patton, 2002), this study aimed to examine ‘what are the partici-pants’ reported perceptions, ‘truths’, explanations, beliefs, and worldview’ (Patton,2002, p. 132) about their classroom management approach. More specifically, thisstudy focused on how two in-service, high school science teachers reflected on theirclassroom management approach. The participants, Adam and Susan, were selectedthrough purposeful sampling (Patton, 2002) to show the reflections of two exem-plary high school science teachers. They were selected because their students, peersand other science educators have described Adam and Susan as being effective sci-ence teachers. They are both second-career science teachers who began teachingafter years of service in other professions and both teach at the same high schoollocated in the southern United States. Adam, a Caucasian male with 10 years ofteaching experience, taught advanced science courses. Susan, a Caucasian femalewith six years of teaching experience, taught the non-advanced science courses.Both Adam and Susan were graduate students who were enrolled in a PhD program

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in Science Education and openly talked about their views of classroom managementin their graduate coursework when the topic arises.

Data collection and analysis

Due to the participants’ work, school and personal schedules, data collectionoccurred within a three-month time span during a fall semester. For both partici-pants, the fall semester is the first semester of their two-semester long classes. Eachparticipant also had five, 1-hour long, science classes that they taught each day.

Data collected for this study included reflective writings, interviews about theparticipants’ classroom management practice, informal conversations and memberchecking. Three interviews were conducted with each participant. Even though thesame initial interview questions (see Appendix) were used with each participant,different prompting questions were used depending on the participants’ responses.Throughout my contact with the participants, multiple informal conversationsoccurred and information from those conversations, which related to classroommanagement, was documented in researcher notes. The participants were also askedto develop at least five journal entries throughout the three-month period to discussany aspect of classroom management of interest to them. Adam developed five jour-nal entries and Susan developed six entries. Journal prompts were not provided forthe reflective writings. The participants were asked to discuss any aspects or issuesof classroom management that arose during their teaching or were of interest tothem. After the completion of each case, member checking was conducted by hav-ing the participants read and provide feedback on their case. Susan even providedadditional feedback on her case after she watched her case being presented at aregional research presentation.

Through microanalysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1990), a combination of open codingand axial coding, participants’ words from the interview transcripts and journalentries were coded for initial categories to emerge and be defined. These larger cat-egories were created through convergence of data when initial categories weregrouped together. Categories and subcategories were reviewed to search for internaland external homogeneity among the categories. These categories were examinedfor larger themes that were used to guide the development of a case for each partic-ipant. Themes that emerged related to factors influencing classroom managementwere axial responsibilities, teacher imposed responsibilities that teachers identifiedas directly focusing on their students, and peripheral responsibilities, which wereresponsibilities that were imposed by their administration. Themes related to partici-pants’ definitions of their classroom management approach were student-centeredand teacher-centered approaches. These themes were further examined to identifyexamples of Lewis’ (2001) model of control, model of teacher influence, and modelof group management within the continuum of student-centered and teacher-centered approach that were described by each participant.

A multiple case study (Yin, 2003) was implemented using the two participantcases in order to provide a rich story about each participant’s individual beliefs aboutand descriptions of their classroom management. Cross-case analysis (Merriam,1998; Patton, 2002) was used to examine and identify common themes between thecases (see Table 1). The findings in this study are the result of the cross-case analysis.

Through the data analysis described above, an understanding of how the teach-ers defined and implemented classroom management was developed. I was also able

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to develop understanding of how they viewed classroom authority and how rela-tions were negotiated and influenced by their teaching approach (Pace, 2003). Theseunderstandings emerged through the participants’ own words. Grandy (1997)explained how individuals cannot directly access another individual’s constructionof knowledge. Since we cannot directly access an individual’s construction ofknowledge, we need to access the discourse or writing that represent an individual’sknowledge and understanding about their practice. These data are not reality buttraces of reality that represents the situation being researched (Altrichter, Posch, &Somekh, 1993). In the case of this study, the teachers’ reflective discourse via inter-view transcripts and their journal entries are used to represent the reality of eachteacher’s view of their classroom management practice.

Findings

Data analysis identified participants’ beliefs about classroom management and theirpersonal approach to managing their science classroom. This section is organizedaccording to the research questions guiding this study: (a) what factors influencetheir classroom management practices? and (b) how do these teachers describe theirclassroom management approach?

Table 1. Cross-case analysis themes for Susan and Adam.

Factors influencing classroom management

Factor Types

Axial responsibilities – directly dealwith students and student learningand teacher imposed

• Planning• Seeing students as individuals• Establishing a comfortable environment• Eliciting authority

Peripheral responsibilities – imposedby administration

• Addressing non-science related topics (e.g.advising students)

• Extraneous paperwork

Defining their classroom management approach

Approach Examples

Student-centered approach • Susan focused on interactions with and influ-ence on individual students and the class as awhole

• Adam focused on interactions with and influ-ence on individual students

Teacher-centered approach • Susan-focused on providing students with someboundaries and motivating them on an individ-ual or group level to make correct decisionsabout behavior.

• Adam focused on using and organizing class-room tasks and activities as well as rules tomaintain order

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Factors influencing classroom management practices

Participants noted two factors that influenced their classroom management approach– responsibilities that directly deal with students and those that are demanded orimposed by their administration. These responsibilities were labeled as axialresponsibilities, those that directly deal with students and student learning, andperipheral responsibilities, those that are imposed by the administration (Table 1).The following sections will discuss how these two responsibilities influencedparticipants’ classroom management.

Managing axial responsibilities

As noted above, axial responsibilities were teaching responsibilities that directlyimpacted students and student learning. These responsibilities were ones thatAdam and Susan imposed on themselves and believed were crucial to being aneffective teacher and managing their classroom. When reflecting on their classroommanagement, Adam and Susan examined issues related to classroom managementand how they influenced students and student learning. In discussing these issues,four categories of axial responsibilities emerged: (1) planning; (2) seeing studentsas individuals; (3) establishing a comfortable environment; and (4) elicitingauthority.

Planning. Effective lesson planning and preparation is one issue that arose dur-ing the participants’ description of classroom management strategies they used intheir classroom. Both teachers were aware of the different backgrounds and learningneeds of their students and attempted to address these issues to enhance studentlearning. Susan noted: ‘My kids differ in ability, maturity, motivation, commitment,etc. They have backgrounds and home-lives that are different from my own’. BothAdam and Susan used their understanding of their students to determine how theyorganize and implement their lessons. Susan wanted to provide them withopportunities to talk and collaborate with their peers as well as have time to receiveindividual assistance from her as she went around the room.

I try to limit the time that, that I need their undivided attention to 15 or 20 minutesmax [sic] so that they can have an opportunity to interact with each other and interactwith me on a, you know, more of one-to-one basis … because of, you know, theirattention spans. (Susan, Interview)

Susan organized her classroom activities to reduce opportunities for students to getbored or off-task. In addition, she provided time where students could collaboratewith peers or receive one-to-one support from her. She believed this would enhancestudent motivation and engagement in the class. Likewise, Adam understood thathe needed to be implement certain strategies and activities to allow students tograsp abstract concepts. He had a strong understanding of science content and howprevious students reacted to certain concepts and activities. Adam stated: ‘I kind ofknow now what steps and what techniques the kids are going to struggle with andso I’m able to go in and give those extra attention’ (Interview). Adam tried to iden-tify and address parts of activities or processes that he thought might be confusingor frustrating to students. Once he identified those activities or processes, he madea point of spending more class time discussing those items and making surestudents understood them. By doing this, Adam attempted to address issues of

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frustration or lack of engagement with future activities that were related to items heidentified as confusing.

Both Adam and Susan combated classroom management issues by using theircontent knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge for teaching science. Theyunderstood where students might easily struggle during a certain lesson or more tra-ditional structured science classes (e.g. teacher-centered classes). They believed thatbeing proactive and effectively planning their lessons allowed them to meet theneeds of their students and alleviate some classroom management issues, such asoff-task behavior, that arise when students are frustrated, confused and notinterested in the lesson.

Seeing students as individuals. Susan and Adam were adamant about showingtheir students that they valued and respected them. As Adam stated, it is importantto ‘develop a two-way respect with kids … by recognizing them as individualsinstead of seat A4 in [my second period class]’. Susan and Adam believed that byrecognizing their students as individuals they were able to value both the experi-ences that each student brings to their class and students’ participation in science.Through her interviews and reflective writings, Susan focused on this aspect ofmanaging students more than Adam. She emphasized the value of learning abouther students and identifying something that was important to each student. Susanstated:

I try to learn something personal [about each student]. If I have a student that’s in theband or a student that’s president of a club, I want to acknowledge that … It makesthem feel like you care about them, not just as a student, but as a person.

From Susan’s excerpt, it is obvious that her vision of classroom management incor-porated respecting and valuing students’ interest both in and outside of science. Sherealized that looking at the whole student, and not just the academic side of thatstudent, was critical to forming strong relationships with her students. She, as wellas Adam, made a point of getting to know each student and used that knowledge toguide how they negotiated teacher-student relationships and interacted withstudents.

Establishing a comfortable classroom environment. Recognizing the students asindividuals made it easy for Susan and Adam to create an inviting classroom envi-ronment. By creating a comfortable classroom environment they were able to maketheir students feel safe and relaxed while providing them with opportunities to learnscience. Susan stated:

[the most important thing is] having an environment, you know, contained within thefour walls of my classroom where my students have at least an opportunity to learnsomething … it could mean making sure there are no discipline problems, where onestudent is distracting another student from paying attention. It could be making itpsychologically safe.

She believed it was her role to effectively manage her classroom so that studentscan learn away from extensive classroom distractions (e.g. constant disruptions fromother students). Susan and Adam both emphasized the need to nurture student learn-ing in a safe and welcoming environment that was psychologically safe. Thecreation of a comfortable and safe classroom environment allowed these teachers tocreate learning opportunities that would be better received and utilized by the

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students. Susan and Adam believed that after establishing an appropriate learningenvironment students are more able to focus on learning each day and enjoyscience.

An important part of creating a comfortable classroom environment that bothparticipants noted was creating positive interactions with students. Adam stated:

[I want to] give off the aura that I really am here to help you even if I might be fussingat you right this minute or I gave you half credit on something ‘cause you turned it inlate. I’m still here to help you. Come see me after school if you have questions. [I wantto] make sure [students] are not afraid to [come to me with questions or problems].

Adam, like Susan, believed in showing students that he was there for them both inand outside of class and that he wanted to help them if they were struggling inclass. He illustrated this to students as he encouraged them to let him know if theyneeded additional help or would like to meet with him at another time to discussthe course content. By making this explicit to their students, Adam and Susanattempted to help students focus on learning science without the fear of failure orthe fear of being looked down upon by their teacher. To further aid in students’enjoyment of their class and create positive interactions, both participants readilyused humor in their lessons. Adam believed humor ‘lightens the mood’ and Susanbelieved that students appreciate that fact that she infused humor in the class. Theybelieved that the interjection of witty comments allowed students to appreciate the‘human’ side of teachers and aided in the establishment of the teacher-students rap-port. Through witty comments, explicitly letting students know that they would helpthem with the content, and by creating a comfortable classroom, Adam and Susanagain tried to proactively address classroom management issues that arise from stu-dent frustration, insecurity, or a feeling of being disconnected from the class andteacher.

Eliciting authority. Another aspect of the teacher-student rapport is classroomauthority. In order for teachers to be viewed as authority figures, Susan and Adambelieved they needed to use certain strategies to relay their position to the students.To introduce her expectations of her students and classroom guidelines at the begin-ning of the year, Susan related the role of the teacher and student to that of businessemployees.

[At the beginning of the semester,] we discuss how being in a classroom setting issimilar to being in a business were you have a boss, who would be the teacher or theauthority figure and then you have the employees, which would be the students. And,so we come to some kind of mutual understanding [about everyone’s roles]. (Susan,Interview)

By discussing the roles of the teacher and the roles of the students in her classroom,Susan explicitly stated her expectations for classroom behavior. She and the stu-dents then talked as a group about the roles of each member of the class (i.e. tea-cher and student) and how they should treat each other. Adam also made a point ofdiscussing his classroom expectations with his students. He noted:

The big thing about classroom management in terms of the disciplinary component isteacher presence and letting the kids know that they can try something with you butthey’re probably not going to get away with it.

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While he explicitly stated his expectations to students, he did not allow them to dis-cuss the roles of each classroom member (i.e. students and teachers) or have inputon classroom interactions. This idea of authority is inextricably connected withteaching and learning in school classrooms (Pace, 2003). Even though Susan andAdam elicited authority in slightly different ways, they both understood the impor-tance of having an authority figure in the classroom. The participants believed thatby controlling behavior and positioning yourself as an authority figure in the class-room you can continue to create a comfortable classroom environment and keep thestudents focused on learning.

Managing peripheral responsibilities

In addition to axial responsibilities, both Adam and Susan identified other responsi-bilities which were imposed upon them that also impacted their classroom manage-ment. These peripheral responsibilities were not the core of what Adam and Susanbelieved was the ultimate responsibility and goal of a teacher, which they believedwas working with students. While they noted that these responsibilities were part oftheir job requirement due to being imposed by their administration, Adam andSusan viewed them negatively due to the time they took away from the axialresponsibilities they valued. Adam and Susan had negative views about many ofthe ‘unnecessary’ duties that are assigned to teachers by school administration andhow they impacted their science teaching. For example, Susan discussed advisingsessions that their school administration made them implement during their scienceclass every six weeks.

We do these advisement sessions with students about once every six weeks and ittakes away from [science] instruction time to have a 30-minute session with studentsto tell them things like how to balance a checkbook. [These sessions are] not [science]content driven. (Susan, Interview)

By focusing on non-science content, both Susan and Adam viewed it as a distractionto the students, the science classroom, and how they implemented their scienceinstruction. ‘[These non-science activities] are important things and the students needto know [these skills], but it shouldn’t be their science teacher that teaches it tothem’ (Susan, Interview). Susan and Adam believed the advisement topics (e.g. bal-ancing a checkbook and applying for college), should be taken on by other schoolfaculty members in a setting away from the science classroom. By taking on theseresponsibilities in their science classroom during their science lessons, they believedthey were devaluing some of the content and activities that they normally do in sci-ence, showing that it is okay to not focus solely on science during their class.

As noted above, Adam and Susan believed that many peripheral responsibilitiestook time away from their actual classroom time and thus, away from supportingstudents in learning science. Susan stated, ‘the best things about teaching involvethe students and the worse things about teaching seem to not involve students’(Interview). Adam and Susan identified their school district as ‘proactive and will-ing to jump on the latest technology and [education trend]’(Adam). Extraneouspaperwork, such as filling out the same form twice (hardcopy and computer form)in an attempt to use new software or go paperless, did not provide them with extratime to engage their students in science.

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You have 10 pieces of paper sitting on your desk and you really need to address all10 of them in some way today … you can’t pick them up and go through them fiveminutes at a time and do it in a hour and you’re done. One of them might involvethree hours and then you don’t get to the other ones. And oh yeah, by the way, I’msuppose to also teach five classes today and grade all of those students’ papers.(Adam, Interview)

Again, Adam and Susan did not view all of these responsibilities as unimportant orunnecessary. They simply viewed these extra responsibilities as ‘sidetracking’ themfrom their ultimate responsibility – effectively engaging students in learning scienceand becoming scientifically literate. They also noted that by being labeled as aneffective teacher or competent teacher, they are often given more work or responsi-bility than other teachers. ‘It seems a there is a trend … [for] people who are com-petent. Their competency earns them responsibility’(Adam, Interview). For them,the idea of being effective in managing their classroom results in having to con-stantly address more peripheral responsibilities due to their administrators’ highregard for their science teaching. These peripheral responsibilities end up takingaway from their effective implementation of their science lessons and time theyneed to appropriately support their students in learning science.

Describing their classroom management approach

Overall, Adam and Susan concluded that classroom management entailed more thanjust discipline. While they noted specific discipline issues that arose in theirclassroom and how they responded to these issues, they were also adamant aboutportraying classroom management as a means to create an inviting and safeclassroom. Even though their end goal was the same, Adam and Susan imple-mented different paths for creating an engaging and well-managed classroom. Theirapproaches differed in the focus of their approach, whether it was student-centeredor teacher-centered and how they moved between these approaches on a continuumof classroom management approaches (Table 1). Nonetheless, they both feltcomfortable with their teaching and classroom management abilities. They attributedthis to their previous teaching experience and personality traits, such as beinghumorous and organized, they employed as classroom management strategies.

‘Having an environment contained within the four walls of my classroom where mystudents have an opportunity to learn something’

Susan mainly used a student-centered approach to classroom management in thather approached focused on getting her students to be active in the classroom andexplicitly valuing their participation. Her discussions of classroom managementfocused on nurturing students and allowing them to participate in classroomdecision making that is often indicative of a group management or teacher influencemodels (Lewis, 2001) (see Figure 1). By using aspects of these classroom manage-ment models, Susan presented herself as an authority figure while allowing studentsto negotiate and have a say in classroom interactions. She believed this approachallowed the students to have some ownership in the classroom, which often resultedin motivating students to learn science. She stated, ‘ motivation … [is] making astudent feel good about themselves because they actually conquered whatever itwas that you were trying to teaching them’. This notion of making students feel

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good about their work was reiterated throughout her journal entries and interviews.Susan constantly tried to develop a classroom that was respectful, welcoming andcomfortable. By providing students with ownership in her classroom, she employedboth teacher-encouraged and self-initiated motivation techniques that helped to keepstudents engaged in science.

To show respect to students, she made a point to not single out students duringclass if they did something inappropriate. The goal of her discipline approach wasto avoid public confrontation and provide opportunities for one-to-one conversationswith students about inappropriate behavior. To do this, she would talk with problemstudents in the hall and away from other students so that she could individualizeher discussion for each student and allow them to share any personal informationthat may impact the discussion. Instead of having a dispute with students in frontof the class, Susan would give them a chance to talk to her one-to-one to resolve ordiscuss conflicts. Susan placed a lot of value on giving her students a forum toexpress their opinions and feelings. When she talked with students, Susan would‘try to have dialogue that indicated to them that they are welcome to express theiropinions and that even if I disagree with them, it’s okay for them to have a beliefthat’s different from mine’ (Journal). She approached student conversations fromthis viewpoint and believed it made her classroom environment one that was bothcomfortable and open for discussions and debates.

Susan also offered her students ownership over their discipline at the beginningof each year. She would present each new class with a scenario where they had toplace themselves in the role of an authority figure and decide on the expectationsthat they would have of those working under them and of themselves as the author-ity figure. Susan used the students’ discussion of the employee-employer scenarioto develop classroom guidelines and expectations for her classes while giving stu-dents some ownership in those guidelines and expectations. She felt comfortablewith her ability to effectively mange student behavior and believed the classroommanagement strategies that she employed supported her philosophy of teaching,

Figure 1. Susan and Adam’s continuum of classroom management. This figure shows thecontinuum of classroom management approaches that Susan and Adam move along duringtheir teaching.

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which was to create a nurturing environment that support students in learningscience.

‘Students play the role of the student and let the teacher play the role of a teacher’

Adam used an approach to classroom management that focused more on organiz-ing activities and having firm classroom guidelines and consequences. This type oftask-oriented approach was guided by the organization of this classroom environ-ment and the structure of each class session. Even though the way he describedhis approach as being somewhat rigid, he still aimed to value and develop mean-ingful relationships with his students. His approach was illustrative of a controland teacher influence model of classroom management (Lewis, 2001) in that theteacher was the driving force for classroom management. The only student-cen-tered aspect of his classroom management approach was illustrated by how heguided or influenced students to adhere to certain guidelines (see Figure 1). Thisis unlike Susan, whose student-centered approach employed strategies where shewould guide students to behave certain ways and strategies that allowed studentsto have control over their own behavior and actions in the classroom. Adam’scomments about classroom management focused on his activities more than on hisstudents’ and unlike Susan, Adam did not emphasize engaging students in a col-laborative conversation about classroom management. He concentrated on having apurpose for each activity and structuring his classroom to keep students on thetask and learning. One way he described doing this was by creating an environ-ment where students are led to do something through a technique he referred to asa ‘behaviorist approach’. Adam stated: ‘I try to foster an environment where [thestudents] do what I want them to do but they do it, at least in their minds,because they’re choosing to do it’ (Interview). This behaviorist approach mani-fested itself through his system of presenting classroom roles. Adam believed thatstudents and activities play a specific role in the classroom and that studentsshould take on their appropriate role by learning and doing what they are sup-posed to do. While he believed they have a certain role, he understood the needfor teachers to use strategies, such as prompting students to stay on task orreviewing confusing content, to proactively manage student behavior instead ofhaving to attend to student aggression that could arise through frustration. Adamalso believed ‘the teacher has [to have a] plan for everything that the kids aregoing to do’ because there is a ‘purpose for everything that happens in the class-room’(Interview). He argued that each activity in the classroom should link toanother activity or concept and be purposeful.

Even though Adam constantly emphasized the need for structure and purposethroughout his interviews, he also identified the importance of respecting his stu-dents and recognizing them as individuals. His many years of teaching experienceand his previous career in law enforcement allowed Adam to be secure with hismanagement abilities and develop this task-oriented approach. Adam felt confidentabout his teaching responsibilities, the structure and atmosphere that his classroommanagement strategies created, and the ‘strong teacher voice’ (Canter, 2010) heused to assertively communicate with students. By presenting himself as the mainauthority in the classroom, he was able to emphasize the need for students to followhis classroom structure and provide students with what he considered a comfortableenvironment where students knew what to expect and how to behave.

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Discussion

Studies have shown that teachers use a contradictory blend of approaches to gainstudent cooperation (Pace, 2003). ‘Accommodation and friendly relations thatacknowledge students’ autonomy offset the tacit traditional authority manifested inteachers’ approach to curriculum’ (Pace, 2003, p. 1579). In this study, participantsalso used a variety of approaches to give their students ownership in certainclassroom responsibilities while keeping the ultimate authority for themselves. Bygiving students ownership in the classroom and valuing student contributions, theteachers exhibited qualities of effective teachers in the creation of a respectfulclassroom environment (Stronge, Ward, & Grant, 2011). Although they believedthat classroom management should not be strictly viewed as discipline, they did,however, maintain its importance to their definition of classroom management.Their views of what determines classroom management reiterated Pace (2003,p. 1580) in that ‘authority is fundamental to classroom functioning while itembodies the dilemma between the requirement of teachers to impose on andevaluate students as well as create affective bonds to encourage them to learn’(Bidwell, 1965; Waller, 1961). This aspect of teaching is an issue that many newand experienced teachers face on a day-to-day basis. Teachers such as Adam andSusan negotiate classroom management in order to support students learning andvalue all students.

For the most part, Adam and Susan used positive strategies to manage studentbehavior by involving them in the classroom and individually discussing behaviorissues with students (Roache & Lewis, 2011b). At times, both Susan and Adam dis-cussed using a more control-oriented approach (Lewis, 2001) where the teacher wasresponsible for keeping students focused and aware of classroom consequences forbehavior. For example, Adam’s teacher-oriented model of classroom management,while often recognizing the value of respecting students, mainly focused on the useof authority and using polite mechanisms (i.e. behaviorist approaches) to encouragestudent positive behaviors. His mainly teacher-centered approach mixed the teacherinfluence model (Lewis, 2001) with the model of control (Lewis, 2001) to negotiateclassroom interactions. Even though he wanted to be the main authority figure inthe classroom, Adam adjusted his approach to seem more student-centered at timesin order to support all students in behaving and acting appropriately in class. Thesefindings, while common for many teachers, show the need for teachers to constantlymove along a continuum of classroom management approaches to suit the needsand changing context of their classroom.

Through proactive techniques such as identifying and addressing times whenstudents may become frustrated or disengaged in class, Adam and Susan adjustedtheir classroom to reduce negative interactions with students. Therefore, they aimedto encourage and reinforced positive relationships within their classroom anddevelop a more relationship-oriented classroom. For example, by getting to knowthe students and using a relationship-oriented approach, Susan employed elementsof culturally response teaching (Gay, 2010) as she attempted to understand andbuild on the strengths of her students. While Adam did not note that this was oneof his specific management strategies, he attempted to meet the needs of his diversestudents through presenting opportunities to receive additional help in science bothin and out of class. While the level of relationship-oriented classroom differedbetween them, they both attempted to create an environment that valued positive

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interactions in the class and a mutual understanding of expectations and conse-quences in a non-aggressive manner.

Since culture and experience play an important part in our actions and views, itis necessary to examine personal and public opinion about teaching, authority andclassroom management along with how teachers develop and define their own class-room management approaches. Authority plays a vital roll in the school’s responsi-bility to prepare students for a democratic society (Pace, 2003). The way in whichauthority is acted out says a lot about each teacher’s personal beliefs about teachingand learning. My participants initially believed their goal as a teacher was to be anadvocate for science and went into the profession to positively influence students tolearn science. This belief and others have slightly changed during their teachingcareer with the onset of additional responsibilities and their experiences with stu-dents. They still value the ability to engage students in science and help studentsapply science skills, attitudes and knowledge outside of their classroom, whether itbe to make informed decisions on a voting issue or help them problem-solve some-thing in another class. They have also realized, however, that being viewed as aneffective science teacher can also influence the type and amount of other non-sci-ence teacher responsibilities that are given to them.

Conclusion

Adam and Susan realized that their interactions with students through their class-room management approach greatly impacted students’ behavior, (Roache & Lewis,2011a) and ultimately students’ interest and understanding of science. They createdclassroom environments that ‘minimized student misbehaviour, reduced teacherstress and built an essential stock of goodwill between students and teach-ers’(Roache & Lewis, 2011a, p. 144) while promoting student engagement in sci-ence. While their approaches differed, they both identified their approaches as beingsuccessful with their current student population. Both also noted the drawback ofbeing identified as an effective teacher by their administration and how peripheralresponsibilities imposed on them because they were effective influenced their class-room activities and impacted their classroom management approach. AlthoughAdam only slightly used elements of a student-centered approach, both he andSusan were able to appropriately navigate the continuum of classroom managementapproaches, which ranged from student-centered to teacher-centered, to suit theirscience teaching style, philosophy of teaching and needs of their students.

Implications

Successfully managing a classroom is crucial to the success of both students andteachers. In science, it is also crucial to the safety and understanding of processesand skills need for science investigations and implementation of effective scienceteaching methods (e.g. inquiry teaching). Research on teachers’ beliefs aboutteaching and classroom management will help teacher educators determine whatexperiences and knowledge included in science education courses and professionaldevelopment will best facilitate teachers’ development of classroom managementskills. Further research on the influences of classroom management, such as theperipheral and axial responsibilities noted in this study, can provide an understand-ing of how in-service teachers are supported in effectively managing their classroom

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and the ever-changing responsibilities of a teacher. These insights would be of valueto teacher educators and school administrators in that they illustrate the need foradministrative support in developing and implementing more student-centered class-room management strategies to support self-motivated students and reducing behav-ior issues. Findings from this study also provide insight for pre-service and novicescience teachers on management approaches that have been recognized by expertteachers as being effective and how to go about implementing these approaches.Since this study examine two experienced teachers’ understanding and definitionsof classroom management, it suggests the need for more extensive research onclassroom management approaches of effective, experienced science teachers inorder to continue to examine links between their management style, understandingof classroom management, and teacher retention.

Notes on contributorCynthia Deaton is an assistant professor of Science Education at Clemson University. Herresearch interests are reflective practice, science teacher education, and the use of technologyfor teacher reflection (e.g. video analysis tools and mobile learning).

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Appendix1st Interview

1. Describe your teaching experience.2. How did you feel about entering into the role as a science teacher?3. How do you feel about the role of a science teacher now?4. Tell me what you like and dislike about the teaching career.5. Give me an example of an effective teacher you’ve had.6. How would you define classroom management?7. Tell me about the classroom management skills that you currently implement

in your science classroom?8. Which aspects of classroom management do you feel most prepared for?

Which aspects of classroom management do you feel least prepared for?9. Tell me why you think you do or do not feel prepared to deal with those

aspects.

2nd Interview

1. How do you feel about your classroom management abilities?2. Give me an example of the training that you received regarding classroom

management.3. Which personality traits, that you possess, do you believe will contribute to

your success with certain classroom management practices? Why?4. Which personality traits do you believe will contribute to your failure with

certain classroom management practices? Why?5. What would you like to change about your classroom management skills?6. How has learning the responsibilities of a teacher changed your outlook on

the teaching profession?

3rd Interview

1. How has your current experiences of using classroom management skillschanged your view of your teaching abilities?

2. How do you think your classroom environment and students will changewith the integration different teaching practices?

3. Give an example of how previous teaching experiences has changed youruse of certain teaching strategies?

4. How prepared do you feel about the responsibilities of a full time teacher?5. Which teaching responsibilities/classroom management issues do you think

are the hardest for a first year teachers to deal with? Why?

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