IB English IV

Supplementary Materials

for Student Success

~compiled by Cynthia Morrison and Paul Villavisanis,

with special thanks to Vicki Murphy and Jan Adkins

Table of Contents

Analyzing Literature:

Color Marking Page 1

Tone Pages 2-3

Diction/Language Pages 4-5

Tone vs. Mood Pages 6-7

Syntax/Sentence Structure Pages 8-9

Imagery Pages 10-11

Point of View/Narration Pages 12-13

Theme Page 14

Prose rhythm Page 15

Writing About Literature:

Using strong word choices Page 16

Verbs to use in analysis Page 17

Transitions Page 18

Using quotations Pages 19-20

Literary terms Pages 21-28

Avoiding common writing errors Page 29

The Examinations:

Individual Oral Commentary Pages 30-34

Paper #1 Pages 35-44

Paper #2 Pages 45-52

IB LANGUAGE A

A WAY IN: Color Marking is a strategy to analyze literature

1. Read the passage or poem.

2. Look for predominate features. Here are possible literary devices/techniques to look for and mark.

*Particular diction (religious, directional, mathematical, morose, joyful etc.) especially unusual or interesting word choices*Key images. One or more words that appeal to one of the 5 senses (visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, gustatory -- visual is always the strongest) plus kinesthetic (soreness, fluidity, stiffness) and organic (what you feel in your gut)*Image pattern. Occurs when there is a repetition of 3 (the magic number!) images that occur close together*Motif. This is a reoccurring symbol, feature or expression that occurs throughout a work or works. For example, the “powerful sword” in many medieval stories is a motif. But, one can also refer to a reoccurring motif within a work of literature, such as the idea of survival in Life of Pi sometimes represented by the color orange.*Literary devices. For example, metaphor, simile, personification, allusion, analogy, paradox, etc.*Sound devices such as rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, sibilance, euphony, cacophony*Syntax. Sentence structures may present a particular effect.*Punctuation. Punctuation may be used to create an effect, especially if it’s unusual.*Repetition. Deliberate repetition of words, phrases, even structures are there for a reason.

3. Using different colors of highlighter or color pencils, make a legend, or a key, on the page labeling what color will denote what literary feature. For example: Yellow = images of the sun Green = nature images

4. After marking, look at what is going on in the passage or poem. Ask these questions:

*Is one color predominant? Why?

*Is there some kind of progression that can be noted? It may be logical or illogical. Why?

*How do the features marked reinforce or illustrate the content of the passage or poem? What is being emphasized? Perhaps the writer is trying to add irony (contradict the content or describe in terms of opposite qualities). Here’s where your interpretation takes over.

*Is there a specific tone (attitude of the writer) or mood (the way a reader feels) created by the marked material?

5. Based on answers to these questions and other observations made from the passage, you can make inferences about the author’s intentions when writing the passage. AND you can make assertions bringing in your own interpretations.

When color marking: NNE Notice>Name>Explain

_ Information from Jan Adkins, IB instructor, Florida 1

Components of Tone

Tone is defined as the writer’s or speaker’s attitude toward the subject and the audience.

Understanding tone in prose and poetry is absolutely essential. To misinterpret tone is to misinterpret meaning. For example, a student who does not recognize irony would not have a correct reading of a poem or prose passage.

What contributes to tone? Diction (the connotation of word choice) Details Imagery Language (the overall use of language, such as formal, clinical, jargon)

Keep in mind that good authors are rarely monotone (monotonous). Here are clues to watch for shifts in tone:

Key words (“but,” “yet,” “nevertheless,” “however,” “although”) Punctuation (dashes, periods, colons) Stanza and paragraph divisions Changes in line length, stanza length, or sentences length Sharp contrasts in diction

Positive Tone WordsAmiable Consoling Friendly PlayfulAmused Content Happy PleasantAppreciative Dreamy Hopeful ProudAuthoritative Ecstatic Impassioned RelaxedBenevolent Elated Jovial ReverentBrave Elevated Joyful RomanticCalm Encouraging Jubilant SoothingCheerful Energetic Lighthearted SurprisedCheery Enthusiastic Loving SweetCompassionate Excited Optimistic SympatheticComplimentary Exuberant Passionate VibrantConfident Fanciful Peaceful Whimsical

Negative Tone WordsAccusing Choleric Furious QuarrelsomeAggravated Coarse Harsh ShamefulAgitated Cold Haughty SmoothAngry Condemnatory Hateful SnootyApathetic Condescending Hurtful Superficial 2

Arrogant Contradictory Indignant SurlyArtificial Critical Inflammatory TestyAudacious Desperate Insulting ThreateningBelligerent Disappointed Irritated TiredBitter Disgruntled Manipulative

UninterestedBoring Disgusted Obnoxious WrathfulBrash Disinterested OutragedChildish Facetious Passive

Humor-Irony-Sarcasm Tone WordsAmused Droll Mock-heroic SardonicBantering Facetious Mocking SatiricBitter Flippant Mock-serious ScornfulCaustic Giddy Patronizing SharpComical Humorous Pompous SillyCondescending Insolent Quizzical TauntingContemptuous Ironic Ribald TeasingCritical Irreverent Ridiculing WhimsicalCynical Joking Sad WryDisdainful Malicious Sarcastic

Sorrow-Fear-Worry Tone/Attitude WordsAggravated Embarrassed Morose ResignedAgitated Fearful Mournful SadAnxious Foreboding Nervous SeriousApologetic Gloomy Numb SoberApprehensive Grave Ominous SolemnConcerned Hollow Paranoid SomberConfused Hopeless Pessimistic StaidDejected Horrific Pitiful UpsetDepressed Horror PoignantDespairing Melancholy RegretfulDisturbed Miserable Remorseful

Neutral Tone/Attitude WordsAdmonitory Dramatic Intimate QuestioningAllusive Earnest Judgmental ReflectiveApathetic Expectant Learned ReminiscentAuthoritative Factual Loud ResignedBaffled Fervent Lyrical RestrainedCallous Formal Matter-of-fact SeductiveCandid Forthright Meditative SentimentalCeremonial Frivolous Nostalgic SeriousClinical Haughty Objective ShockingConsoling Histrionic Obsequious SincereContemplative Humble Patriotic UnemotionalConventional Incredulous Persuasive UrgentDetached Informative Pleading Vexed

Didactic Inquisitive Pretentious WistfulDisbelieving Instructive Provocative Zealous 3

How to Talk about DICTION and LANGUAGE

Q: Why is it bad to say in a commentary “The author uses diction…”?

A: Because ALL authors use diction – it simply means WORD CHOICE, and it GREATLY affects the tone of the poem or prose passage.

So how can I talk about diction in my commentary?

Describe diction by considering the following:

Words can be monosyllabic (one syllable) or polysyllabic (more than one syllable).

Words can be mainly colloquial (slang), informal (conversational), formal (literary), or

old-fashioned.

Words can be mainly denotative (containing an exact meaning, e.g., “dress”) or

connotative (containing a suggested meaning, e.g., “gown”).

Words can be concrete (specific) or abstract (general or conceptual).

Words can be euphonious (pleasant sounding, e.g. “languid,” “murmur”) or

cacophonous (harsh sounding, e.g. “raucous,” “croak”).

Like diction, the language of a passage has control over tone. Consider language to be the entire body of words used in a text, not simply isolated bits

of diction. For example, an invitation to a graduation might use formal language, whereas a biology

text would use scientific and clinical language.

On the back of this page you will find some vocabulary that describes language.

Different from tone, these words describe the force or quality of the diction, images,

and details. These words qualify how the work is written, NOT the attitude or tone.

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Vocabulary That Describes Language

scholarly informal ordinary precise

connotative plain literal colloquial

artificial detached emotional pedantic

euphemistic pretentious sensuous vulgar

exact learned symbolic simple

figurative bombastic obtuse grotesque

concrete poetic moralistic idiomatic

formal cultured prosaic picturesque

homespun provincial trite obscure

exact jargony slang unemotional

But remember…you must ALWAYS emphasize the EFFECT of the

author’s choices on the work as a whole rather than just generating

a list of literary devices that he or she uses (i.e. WHY does the

author use a specific type of diction or language?). What is being

emphasized? What tone is created?

NNE

1. Notice

2. Name

3. Explain

5

Tone vs. Mood

Think of tone as “tone of voice”; tone is the style or manner a speaker expresses in his/her

work.

Think of mood as the overall feeling the work gives YOU as the reader. It is the atmosphere or

state-of-mind created. “Mood” can be synonymous with atmosphere to indicate the prevailing

feeling or frame of mind, especially at the start of a play, poem, or novel. This creates

expectation about what is to follow.

Need some adjectives for mood?

Positive Mood Words:

amused energetic liberating satiated

awed enlightened light-hearted satisfied

bouncy enthralled loving sentimental

calm excited mellow silly

cheerful exhilarated nostalgic surprised

chipper flirty optimistic sympathetic

confident giddy passionate thankful

contemplative grateful peaceful thoughtful

content harmonious playful touched

determined hopeful pleased trustful

dignified hyper refreshed vivacious

dreamy idyllic rejuvenated warm

ecstatic joyous relaxed welcoming

empowered jubilant relieved 6

Negative Mood Words:

annoyed drained insidious pessimistic

anxious dreary intimidated predatory

apathetic embarrassed irate rejected

apprehensive enraged irritated restless

barren envious jealous scared

brooding exhausted lethargic serious

cold fatalistic lonely sick

confining foreboding melancholic somber

confused frustrated merciless stressed

cranky futile moody suspenseful

crushed gloomy morose tense

cynical grumpy nauseated terrifying

depressed haunting nervous threatening

desolate heartbroken nightmarish uncomfortable

disappointed hopeless numb vengeful

discontented hostile overwhelmed violent

distressed indifferent painful worried

drained infuriated

7

Syntax and Sentence StructureAt its simplest level, syntax is word order, or sentence structure. It is the way a writer arranges the words in a sentence or in a line of poetry. Ordinary syntax is an arrangement of words that follows the way people usually speak or write, while unusual syntax is an arrangement of words that deviates from the way that people usually speak and write. For example, the following sentence has ordinary syntax: “She took an apple from under the tree.” The same sentence can also be rearranged in a way that creates unusual syntax. Examples of unusual syntax using the same basic sentence could be “From under the tree she took an apple” or “She, from under the tree, took an apple.”

How Diction and Syntax Interact

The way that the diction and syntax come together and interact with each other plays a large role in conveying tone. The tone, in turn, evokes certain feelings in the reader, creating the poem or prose passage’s mood and often contributing to its theme. In discussing the diction, the reader should examine the effect that the diction has on the syntax and the effect of the syntax on the diction. The writer chooses specific words and arranges them in a particular manner in order to create a specific effect. The effect might be to create a metaphor, establish a particular mood or contribute to the poem or prose passage’s theme. Therefore, understanding the syntax and diction of a piece can have an enormous impact on a reader's understanding.

More about Sentence Structure

Along with commenting on syntax (word order), you might also comment on sentence length:

Staccato -- By far the shortest of the sentence types, it’s a sentence consisting of one to two words (e.g., “Absolutely not.”). Staccato sentences are commonly used by writers to break up the text of a piece of writing to disrupt an event or emphasize the importance of a previous statement (e.g., “The tree that John gazed upon was tall. Very. Very. Tall.”

Telegraphic -- A sentence containing fewer than five words, it states the facts outright with no “fluff,” providing all the essential elements without extra words (e.g., “He is very tall.”). The primary function is to report the facts of a story or even directly.

Short – A sentence containing between five and ten words, this is the most commonly used sentence-type in daily speech (e.g., “The charming fellow by the sign is very tall.”).

8

Medium – A sentence containing between fifteen and twenty words, it is typically the most effective in terms of content and descriptiveness, giving the reader more detail (e.g., “While tigers may be beautiful, majestic creatures of the jungle, they can also be deadly.”).

Long – A sentence containing more than twenty words, it is typically more involved than any other type (e.g., “While some people may accuse others of being lazy, I look at it as a more passive lifestyle; one which a person gets to relax and enjoy the little things in life rather than rushing through every event that passes through your life.”).

Ask yourself: Does the sentence length fit the subject matter? What variety of lengths is present? Why is the sentence length effective?

Here are some other ways to comment on sentence structure:

Examine sentence beginnings. Is there a good variety, or does a pattern emerge?

Examine the arrangement of ideas in a sentence. Are they set out in a special ay for a purpose?

Examine the arrangement of ideas in a paragraph or stanza. Is there evidence of any pattern or structure?

Examine sentence patterns

o declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamatory

o simple, compound, complex, compound-complex

o parallel, or balanced (grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of sentences, such as “I came; I saw; I conquered.”)

o juxtaposition (normally unassociated words, ideas, or phrases are placed next to each other, creating an effect of surprise and wit (e.g., “The maiden had a tragic radiance about her.”)

o repetition

o rhetorical question

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ImageryImagery involves the descriptive words and phrases that a writer uses to recreate sensory experiences (i.e., to represent objects, actions and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses).

Usually we think of imagery as creating a visual picture in our mind. However, this idea is only partially correct. Imagery is much more complex than just a picture. Read the following examples of imagery carefully:

It was dark and dim in the forest. – The words “dark” and “dim” are visual images. The children were screaming and shouting in the fields. – “Screaming” and “shouting”

appeal to our sense of hearing (auditory imagery). He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee. – “whiff” and “aroma” evoke our sense of smell

(olfactory imagery). The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric. – The idea of “soft” in this example appeals

to our sense of touch (tactile imagery). The fresh and juicy oranges are very cold and sweet. – “juicy” and “sweet” when

associated with oranges have an effect on our sense of taste (gustatory imagery).

Furthermore, imagery may also be kinesthetic or organic. Kinesthetic imagery recreates the tension felt through muscles, tendons, or joints in the body; organic imagery recreates what you feel “in your gut,” such as hunger, thirst, fatigue, nausea, or pain.

Synesthesia: While the term “synesthesia” literally refers to a medical condition wherein one or many of the sensory modalities become joined to one another (for example, some people see numbers in color), in literature it refers to the depiction of a strong connection, link or bond between the different senses. The following remarks should clarify this definition:

"An expression such as 'warm color' is a classic example of a synesthetic expression. It involves the mapping from the tactile sense referred to by the adjective warm onto the visual referred to by the noun color. On the other hand, warm breeze is not a synesthetic expression, because both warm and breeze refer to the tactile sense, and there is no 'sensory mismatch' in this expression as one sees in warm color."

Yoshikata Shibuya et al., "Understanding Synesthetic Expressions: Vision and Olfaction with the Physiological=Psychological Model." Speaking of Colors and Odors, ed. by Martina Plümacher and Peter Holz. John

Benjamins, 2007 10

Identifying imagery is only part of literary analysis. The bigger question is what effect does the imagery produce?

Imagery conveys tone. Note the author’s or speaker’s tone conveyed in the images of the following lines of poetry:

“My mistress’s eyes are nothing like the sun” (restrained)

“An old, mad, blind, despised, and dying king” (somber, candid)

“He clasps the crag with crooked hands” (dramatic)

“If I should die, think only this of me. That there’s a corner of a foreign field that is

forever England” (poignant, sentimental)

“If we must die, let it not be like hogs / Hunted and penned in an inglorious spot”

(allusive, provocative)

“Love sets you going like a fat gold watch” (fanciful)

“Smiling, the boy fell dead” (shocking)

“You do me wrong to take me out of the grave / Thou art a soul in bliss / But I am bound

upon a wheel of fire / That mine own tears do scald like molten lead” (horrific)

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Point of View / Narration

In both prose and poetry, some individual tells the story, and it is this person who provides the reader with one perspective about the events. The author deliberately determines whose words are being read, where he or she stands in relation to the events, and whether the events are viewed from a fixed or mobile position. A different point of view would change any work significantly, so the author chooses the point of view for its precise effect on the meaning of the work.

Prose narration includes participant and nonparticipant points of view.

Purposes of participant points of view:

The first-person point of view offers immediacy. The reader sees what is perceived by the individual “I.”

o The first-person narrator can approach other fictional characters as closely as one human being can approach another

o The first-person narrator can be an eye-witness, observing what other characters say and do

o The first-person narrator can summarize events and retreat from a scene to meditate on its significance

The first-person point of view allows the reader to be discerning; the reader must determine whether the narrator is trustworthy.

o The first-person narrator understands other characters only by observing what they say and do. This narrator cannot enter the minds of the other characters is unable to grasp their inner thoughts.

o The first-person narrator outlines what a character observes and feels, and thus the narrator’s conclusions may be inaccurate.

o The reader may question the validity and accuracy of the narrator’s opinions.

The first-person point of view may contribute to dramatic irony, since there can be a discrepancy between what the narrator knows and what the reader or audience understands.

Purposes of the nonparticipant points of view:

The omniscient point of view allows great freedom in that the narrator knows all there is to know about the characters, externally and internally.

o The third-person narrator describes what characters are feeling and thinking.

o The third-person narrator describes what characters do.o The third-person narrator may shift focus from the close view to the larger

perspective. 12o The third-person narrator may comment on events and characters, thus

explaining their significance to the reader. The limited omniscient point of view allows for the story to be portrayed through the eyes of

one character with a distance from the other characters.o This is still third-person narration, but the perspective is exclusively grounded to

one charactero This point of view has all of the constraints of first person (all the reader sees is

what this single character sees).o The limited omniscient point of view approximates conditions of life in that only

one character’s thoughts are known; the work is more unified through the use of this point of view.

The objective point of view allows inferences to be made by readers through their observance of dialogue and external action; readers are not directly influenced by a narrator’s statements but are more subtly influenced by the author’s selection of diction and detail.

o Objective point of view involves giving just the facts. o The reader is never allowed into any of the characters’ minds, nor given any of

their feelings or emotions. o The reader has to judge what the character is thinking or feeling by what that

character says, what that character does, and his or her facial expressions - much like real life.

So, to clarify nonparticipant points of view: In objective point of view the reader has access to nobody's head. In third-person limited point of view the reader has access to one person's head at a time. In omniscient point of view the reader has access to everybody's head at the same time.

Poetry utilizes different terms for narration than prose does.

Speaker vs. Persona:

The difference relies upon the use of pronouns in a given poem.

When “I” is used, assume that the poet is using a persona’s voice (rather than the poet’s voice) to render the experience of the poem in a personal, immediate, and engaged manner.

When “he,” “she,” “it,” or “they” is referenced, the voice of the poem is termed “speaker”; this speaker functions in a similar way to a third-person narrator in prose fiction.

The speaker’s voice is less personal, less intimate, and less immediate than the voice of the persona.

13Theme

Think of theme as the author’s observation about life or human behavior.

The theme of a fable is its moral.

The theme of a parable is its teaching.

The theme of a piece of fiction is its view about life and how people behave.

In fiction, the theme is not intended to teach or preach. In fact, it is not presented directly at

all. You extract it from the characters, action, and setting that make up the story. In other

words, you must figure out the theme yourself.

The writer’s task is to communicate ground with the reader. Although the particulars of your

experience may be different from the details of the literature, the universal truths behind the

story may be just the connection that both you and the writer are seeking.

Finding the theme:

Notice repeating patterns and symbols.

What allusions are made throughout the story/poem/novel?

What are the details and particulars? What greater meaning might they have?

Remember also that theme, plot, and structure are inseparable, all helping to inform and

reflect back on each other. Also, be aware that a theme never completely explains the work of

literature. It is simply one of the elements that make up the whole.

A theme should always be expressed in a complete sentence, but here are some common

topics for themes: maturation, love/hate, pride, vengeance, loyalty, good/evil, education,

inequality, transformation-of-self, conformity, social change, death/living, hypocrisy, secrets,

achievement, birth/rebirth, status., politics, history, science, competition, right vs. wrong,

religion, justice, war/fighting, time, dreams, corruption, narcissism, ambition – just about any

idea dealing with the universals of life, society, and human nature.

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Prose RhythmDefinition: the recurrence of stress and emphasis at regular or, much more usually, irregular intervals,

affording to some prose a pleasurable rise and fall of movement.

Prose rhythm is distinguished from the rhythm of verse in that it never for long falls into a recognizable

pattern, for if it does, the prose becomes verse.

Rhythm in prose is essentially an aspect of style. The greater freedom of prose rhythm, as compared

with the rhythm of verse, springs from its wider choice of placing stress: there is no necessity to force a

line to a certain rhythmic or metrical pattern. The normal accent of words first determines the rhythmic

emphasis. However, this is augmented by the secondary accents and increased again by a reader’s

tendency to emphasize certain words importantly placed or rendered significant because of their

meaning.

The rhythm of prose affects action as well as character. For example, actions may occur methodically,

hurriedly, slowly, or even monotonously; characterizations may include passive/calm, nervous/jittery,

sedate/bored, or impatient/frantic – all by the writer’s manipulation of the rhythm of prose.

This manipulation takes many forms, perhaps the most common of which includes arrangements of

grammatical forms in particular sequences to achieve desired effects. Piling up prepositional phrases,

for example, may result in prose that feels heavy or methodical. Another form, syncopation (a term

used in music to label the effect produced by a temporary displacing or shifting of the regular metrical

accent or beat) refers to unexpected stress in syntax, such as “She’s laughing AT you, not WITH you.”

(Here, prepositions are normally unaccented, but special circumstances dictate a departure from the

norm.) In wrenched syntax, another form of the manipulation of prose rhythm, clauses and qualifiers

erupt just as they could erupt from the mind, with the use of standard grammar and conventions of

mechanics set aside. (For example, “I visited this place, one time.”)

The stops and starts of prose rhythm, then, enrich our understanding of the narrative through

reinforcing action, character, emotion, and attitude. One method that might work to enable you to

increase your awareness of the rhythm of prose: Read a passage aloud, and listen. Chances are your

ear will hear the rhythm.

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Using Strong Word ChoicesDon’t rely too heavily on the verb “to be” (am, is are, be, was, were, being, been) – it is a weak verb that blurs your precision! Here are some stronger verbs and some better substitutes for “very.”

Acknowledges

Adds

Addresses

Admits

Advocates

Affirms

Agrees

Alleges

Applies

Argues

Arranges

Articulates

Assents

Assesses

Asserts

Assumes

Assures

Attests

Claims

Compresses

Comments

Compares

Convinces

Critiques

Debates

Decides

Defines

Determines

Describes

Devises

Dictates

Directs

Discloses

Divulges

Elaborates

Emphasizes

Employs

Encourages

Entreats

Establishes

Estimates

Explains

Exposes

Expresses

Formulates

Heightens

Hints

Illustrates

Implements

Implies

Incorporates

Indicates

Infers

Introduces

Instructs

Maintains

Mentions

Narrates

Notes

Objects

Observes

Persuades

Places

Points out

Portrays

Posits

Presents

Reassures

Recounts

Refutes

Relates

Repeats

Responds

Restates

Reveals

Specifies

States

Stipulates

Strengthens

Suggests

Summarizes

Targets

Thinks

Underscores

Uses

Utilizes

Writes

Substitutes for “very”:

Absolutely

Bitterly

Chiefly

Dramatically

Especially

Exceedingly

Extremely

Excruciatingly

Fully

Immeasurably

Incredibly

Immensely

Infinitely

Intensely

Largely

Mightily

Obsessively

Overly

Powerfully

Profusely

Richly

Ridiculously

Severely

Shockingly

Slightly

Surely

Surprisingly

Truly

Unusually 16

Verbs to Use in Analysis(Note how verbs can connect the author’s device, the “tools,” to the total effect)

AUTHOR OR NARRATOR TOOLS TO >>>>> EFFECT

alludes to history evoke connotationsalters syntax alert tone shiftscreates narrators juxtapose themesclarifies plot produce comparisonconjures up imagery ignite pityconnotes chaos suggest dangerconveys motives develop charactersproduces diction stir emotions depicts irony elicit laughterdescribes actions produce shockelaboratesemphasizesenhancesestablishesexplainsexploresforeshadowshintsimploresjuxtaposesportrayspredictspunctuatesrefutesreiteratesrelatesrepudiatesshiftssuggestssupports twists underscores utilizes 17

Transitional Words and Phrases

In a similar way

In view of this

Another point is

Similarly

Also

Moreover

Likewise

In addition

Furthermore

Another example

Besides

In fact

In other words

Next

Nevertheless

On the other hand

However

Consequently

For example

For instance

On the contrary

In contrast

Yet

Still

In spite of

Despite

Therefore

Thus

Then

As a result

Accordingly

Finally

Since

To sum up

In brief

In short

In fact

Indeed

In other words

All things considered

Clearly

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Q-Tips(Tips on Integrating Quotations)

Lead-ins:

When working quotations into your writing, the quotation must not only be set up to support your point,

but it must also be positioned naturally within a sentence. Your goal is to create a flow from your writing,

into the quotation, and back to your writing. Quotations should never seem like they’ve been “dropped

in.”

All quotations must have a lead-in – they cannot stand alone as complete sentences in your paper, so

never drop a quotation into a sentence or paragraph without a proper lead-in! The lead-in links the

quotation to what surrounds it in the context of your paper.

o Bad Example : This quotation reveals that Reverend Parris is concerned about money. “I

am not some preaching farmer with a book under my arm; I am a graduate of Harvard

College…Mr. Corey, you will look far for a man of my kind at sixty pound a year!”

o Good Example : Reverend Parris reveals his concern for economic and social status by

degrading the ideal of being a merely a “preaching farmer,” but, more importantly, “a

graduate of Harvard” that should be given more than the yearly salary of “sixty pound.”

Three main types of lead-ins:

The “somebody said” lead-in

o Example: Reverend Hale guiltily screams, “There is blood on my head…cannot you see

the blood on my head?”

The “blended” lead-in provides more flexibility. In this kind of lead-in, some of the quoted material is left

out, and what is retained blends in with your sentence. The sentence must, however, read as a complete

statement without being awkward. Capitalization and punctuation of the original quotation may be

changed to fit the grammatical structure of your sentence.

o Example : Mary Warren tells the courts that she “signed the devil’s book” after the girls

turn on her in court.

The “sentence” lead-in is another effective technique. This lead-in is followed by a colon. 19

o Example : Reverend Hale unfalteringly admits that the works of the devil are precise: “We

cannot look to superstition in this.”

Punctuation specifics:

When using parenthetical citation, the punctuation goes outside the parentheses. If your quotation ends

in an exclamation point or a question mark, keep it that way, but still punctuate the entire sentence after

the parentheses.

o Example : Abigail says, “If I have to answer that – I will leave this courtroom!” (Miller 104).

Ellipses (…) should be used when you wish to borrow only part of sentence and combine it with your own

words. To do so, use the ellipses to indicate that words are being omitted.

o Example : Danforth’s firm belief in the court is obvious when he states, “…a person is

either with this court or must be counted against it.”

o Example : Danforth shows this when he tells Francis Nurse, “But, you must understand,

sir…there be no road in between.”

Brackets – not parentheses – can be used to clarify things for the reader.

o Example : Abigail, afraid of Hale’s hard questioning, shouts, “[Tituba] made me do it!”

(The passage originally reads, “She made me do it!” Use brackets to substitute the name

Tituba for she.)

o Using brackets also helps the writer to maintain consistent verb tense – remember to use

PRESENT TENSE when writing about literature!

Alternatives to “says”:

When adding a quotation to your work, it is easy to use the word “says” as the introduction to the

speaker’s/writer’s words. Here are some replacements:

Argues examines mentions

Asserts explores notes

Concludes focuses on points out that

Contends has determined that reports

Discusses highlights the fact that states

Emphasizes maintains suggests

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Literary Terms

l. abstract and concrete terms- Abstract terms are words and phrases that refer to intangible qualities, ideas, or general classes; abstractions have no specific physical reality that is readily apparent to any of the senses. Examples of abstract terms are justice, peace, and hope. Concrete terms stand for objects that can be perceived by the senses.

2. adage- a proverb or familiar wise saying: “Early to bed, early to rise/Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.”

3. allegory- a literary form in which some or all of the characters are embodiments or abstract ideas. It is a story which carries a second symbolic meaning along with its surface story. An allegory is a figurative treatment of one subject under the guise of another – a story of a journey, for example, which is really a story of spiritual growth. Animal Farm is a political allegory.

4. alliteration- the repetition of identical or similar consonant sounds, normally at the beginnings of words. “Gnus never know pneumonia” is an example of alliteration since, despite the spellings, all four words begin with the “n” sound.

5. allusion- a reference in a work of literature to something outside the work, especially to a well-known historical or literary event, person, or work. When T.S. Eliot writes, "To have squeezed the universe into a ball" in "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," he is alluding to the lines "Let us roll our strength and all/ Our sweetness up into one ball" in Marvell's "To His Coy Mistress."

6. ambiguity- the lack of clarity that beclouds meaning when more than one interpretation is highly possible. “Margie told Fran that she had won the prize.” (Who won? Margie or Fran?)

7. anachronism- a device describing something placed in an inappropriate period of time. It may be an unintentional error, or it may be used deliberately for effect. The references to clocks in Julius Caesar are anachronistic.

8. anagnorisis- recognition, specifically of the hamartia (see hamartia)

9. anecdote- a brief, pointed, or humorous story; sometimes it is included in a larger piece of writing. It lacks the complicated plot of a short story. It is an effective device for driving home a specific point.

10. antagonist- the main force that is in conflict with the author’s principal character (the protagonist). The antagonist may be another person, an aspect of the physical or social environment, or a destructive element in the protagonist’s own nature.

11. anticlimax- the arrangement of details in such an order that the unimportant suddenly appears at the point where the most important or serious details should be found. Anticlimax can be an effective device in humorous material. “My boyfriend broke up with me, I flunked AP English, I wrecked the car, and now – to top it all off – there’s no Diet Coke.”

12. antihero- a protagonist who carries the action of the literary piece but does not embody the classic characteristics of courage, strength, and nobility. Holden Caulfield and Meursault are considered to be antiheroes.

13. antithesis- a figure of speech characterized by strongly contrasting words, clauses, sentences, or ideas, as in “Man proposes; God disposes.” Antithesis is a balancing of one term against another for emphasis or stylistic effectiveness.

14. aphorism- a short, pithy statement of a principle or precept. “Better to wear out than to rust out.”

15. apotheosis- elevating someone to the level of a god

16. apostrophe- a figure of speech in which someone absent or dead or something nonhuman is addressed as if it were alive and present and could reply

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17. archetype- a character, situation, or symbol that is familiar to people from all cultures because it occurs frequently in literature, myth, religion, or folklore

18. aside- a short speech or remark made by an actor in a play to the audience rather than to the other characters, who do not hear him or her

19. assonance- the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds. “A land laid waste with all its young men slain” repeats the same “a” sound in “laid,” “waste,” and “slain.”

20. atmosphere- the prevailing mental and emotional climate of a story; something the reader senses or feels. Setting and mood help to create and heighten atmosphere. Edgar Allan Poe is noted for creating stories of atmosphere.

21. blank verse- unrhymed iambic pentameter. Blank verse is the meter of most of Shakespeare’s plays.

22. cacophony- a harsh, unpleasant combination of sounds or tones. It may be an unconscious flaw in the poet’s music, resulting in harshness of sound or difficulty of articulation, or it may be used consciously for effect, as Browning and Eliot often use it. See, for example, the following line from Browning’s “Rabbi Ben Ezra”: “Irks care the crop-full bird? Frets doubt the maw-crammed beast?”

23. caesura- a pause, usually near the middle of a line of verse, usually indicated by the sense of the line, and often greater than the normal pause. For example, one would naturally pause after “human’ in the following line from Alexander Pope: “To err is human, to forgive divine.”

24. catharsis- an emotional cleansing or feeling of relief; purgation. According to Aristotle, a successful tragedy must arouse pity and fear in its audience, and afterwards, those unpleasant feelings are purged because they are replaced by admiration for the greatness of the tragic hero’s soul

25. characterization- the techniques an author uses to develop the personality of fictional characters so that they seem believable, act consistently, and speak naturally. These methods include characterization through:

a. direct analysis by the author or a character’s thoughts, feelings, and actionsb. physical descriptions of a character’s appearancec. description of a character’s surroundings, such as the room in which he or she lives or worksd. the speech or conversations of a charactere. the behavior or actions of a characterf. a character’s reactions to events, situations, or other peopleg. the responses or reactions of other people in the work to a character’s behavior, and, in some cases, their remarks

and conversations about the characterh. the presentation of a character’s thoughts through a stream of consciousness; that is, the author attempts to

produce the uninterrupted flow (stream) of thoughts, feelings, associations, and memories that might take place in a character’s mind (consciousness) at any given moment

i. a combination of two or more of these methods

26. climax- the turning point in a plot structure; the moment when the reader’s interest and emotional intensity reach a peak; the climax often results in a change in the characters or a solution to the conflict

27. colloquial- of or relating to slang or regional dialect, used in familiar everyday conversation. In writing, an informal style that reflects the way people speak in a distinct time and/or place.

28. comedy- a dramatic work that is light and often humorous in tone, usually ending happily with a peaceful resolution of the main conflict; a comedy differs from a farce by having a more believable plot, more realistic characters, and less boisterous behavior.

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29. comic relief- a humorous scene inserted in a serious or tragic work to relive tension and thereby heighten the tragic emotion by contrast

30. conceit- an ingenious and fanciful notion or conception, usually expressed through an elaborate analogy, and pointing to a striking parallel between two seemingly dissimilar things. A conceit may be a brief metaphor, but it also may form the framework of an entire poem. A famous example of a conceit occurs in John Donne’s poem “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,” in which he compares his soul and his wife’s to legs of a mathematical compass.

31. connotation- the associated or suggested meaning(s) of a work, in addition to its literal meaning (see denotation)

32. consonance- the repetition of similar consonant sounds in a group of words. The term usually refers to words in which the ending consonants are the same but the vowels that precede them are different. Consonance is found in the following pairs of words: “add” and “read,” “bill and ball,” and “born” and “burn.”

33. couplet- a two-line stanza, usually with end-rhymes the same.

34. denotation- the dictionary or literal meaning of a word or phrase (compare to connotation)

35. denouement- the outcome or clarification at the end of a literary work; the winding down from climax to ending

36. deus ex machina- literally, when the gods intervene to resolve a seemingly impossible conflict. It refers to an unlikely or improbably coincidence

37. devices of sound- the techniques of deploying the sound of words, especially in poetry. Among devices of sound are rhyme, alliteration, assonance, consonance, and onomatopoeia. The devices are used for many reasons, including to create a general effect of pleasant or of discordant sound, to imitate another sound, or to reflect a meaning.

38. diction- the choice and arrangement of words in a literary work. Diction may be described as formal (the level of usage common in serious books and formal discourse), informal (the level of usage found in the relaxed but polite conversation of cultivated people), colloquial (the everyday usage of a group, possibly including terms and constructions accepted in that group but not universally acceptable), or slang (a group of newly coined words which are not acceptable for formal usage as yet).

39. elegy- a sustained and formal poem setting forth the poet’s meditations upon death or another solemn theme. Examples include Thomas Gray’s “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”; Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s In Memoriam; and Walt Whitman’s “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d.”

40. end-stopped- a line with a pause at the end. Lines that end with a period, a comma, a colon, a semicolon, an exclamation point, or a question mark are end-stopped lines.

True ease in writing comes from Art, not Chance,As those move easiest who have learn’d to dance.

41. enjambment- the continuation of the sense and grammatical construction from one line of poetry to the next. Milton’s Paradise Lost is notable for its use of enjambment, as seen in the following lines:

…Or if Sion hillDelight thee more, and Siloa’s brook that flow’dFast by the oracle of God…

42. epiphany- a sudden flash of insight; a startling discovery; a dramatic realization

43. exposition- the part of a literary work that provides the background information necessary to understand characters and their actions; it introduces the characters, describes the setting, and summarizes significant events that took place before the action begins 23

44. extended metaphor- an implied analogy, or comparison, which is carried throughout a stanza or an entire poem. In “The Bait,” John Donne compares a beautiful woman to fish bait and men to fish who want to be caught by the woman. Since he carries these comparisons all the way through the poem, these are considered “extended metaphors.”

45. euphemism- a rhetorical device for conveying a harsh or unpleasant concept in a more pleasant or gentle way; using “pass away” instead of die, for example.

46. euphony- a style in which combinations of words pleasant to the ear predominate. Its opposite is cacophony. The following lines from John Keats’ Endymion are euphonious:

A thing of beauty is a joy for ever:Its loveliness increases; it will neverPass into nothingness; but still will keepA bower quiet for us, and a sleepFull of sweet dreams, and health, and quiet breathing.

47. eye rhyme- rhyme that appears correct from spelling, but is half-rhyme or slant rhyme from the pronunciation. Examples include “watch” and “match,” and “love” and “move.”

48. falling action- the resolution which occurs after the climax to reveal the final outcome of events and to tie up any loose ends

49. farce- a kind of comedy that depends on exaggerated or improbably situations, physical disasters, and sexual innuendo to amuse the audience

50. feminine rhyme- a rhyme of two syllables, one stressed and one unstressed, as “waken” and “forsaken” and “audition” and “rendition.” Feminine rhyme is sometimes called double rhyme.

51. figurative language- writing that uses figures of speech (as opposed to literal language or that which is actual or specifically denoted) such as metaphor, irony, and simile. Figurative language uses words to mean something other than their literal meaning. “The black bat night has flown” is figurative, with the metaphor comparing night and bat. “Night is over” says the same thing without figurative language.

52. foil- a character who serves by contrast to emphasize the qualities of another character. For example, the appearance of a particularly lazy, shiftless, and unenterprising character will strengthen the reader’s impression of an active, ambitious, and aggressive character. The foil may be completely opposite to the protagonist, or he or she may be very similar with one key difference.

53. foreshadowing- the author’s use of hints as to what is to come; it is sometimes noticeable only in hindsight, but usually it is obvious enough to set the reader wondering.

54. free verse- poetry which is not written in a traditional meter but is still rhythmical. The poetry of Walt Whitman is perhaps the best-known example of free verse.

55. Freytag’s pyramid- exposition, complication, climax, falling action, denouement

56. hamartia- tragic flaw or error in judgment that a tragic hero makes which brings about his or her own suffering or demise

57. heroic couplet- two end-stopped iambic pentameter lines rhymed aa, bb, cc with the thought usually completed in the two-line unit. See the following example from Alexander Pope’s Rape of the Lock:

But when to mischief mortals bend their will,How soon they find fit instruments of ill!

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58. hubris- insolence, arrogance, or pride; in Greek tragedy, the protagonist’s hubris is usually the tragic flaw that leads to his or her downfall

59. hyperbole- a deliberate, extravagant, and often outrageous exaggeration. It may be used for either serious or comic effect. Macbeth is using hyperbole in the following lines:

…No; this my hand will ratherThe multitudinous seas incarnadine,Making the green one red.

60. iamb- a metrical foot consisting of one accented syllable followed by one accented syllable (for example, re ‘hearse)

61. iambic pentameter- a line of poetry composed of five feet, each of which is an iamb, having one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Each line of iambic pentameter is ten syllables long.

62. imagery- the images of a literary work; the sensory details of a work; the figurative language of a work. Imagery has several definitions, but the two that are paramount are the visual auditory, or tactile images evoked by the words of a literary work or the images that figurative language evokes. When an AP question asks you to discuss imagery, you should look especially carefully at the sensory details and the metaphors and similes of a passage. Some diction is also imagery, but not all diction evokes sensory responses.

63. in medias res- a work that begins in the middle of the story

64. interior monologue- a literary technique that reveals a character’s unspoken thoughts and feelings; it may be presented directly by the character or through a narrator

65. irony- the contrast between actual meaning and the suggestion of another meaning. Verbal irony is a figure of speech in which the actual intent is expressed in words which carry the opposite meaning. Irony is likely to be confused with sarcasm, but it differs from sarcasm in that it is usually lighter, less harsh in its wording though in effect probably more cutting because of its indirectness. The ability to recognize irony is one of the surer tests of intelligence and sophistication. Among the devices by which irony is achieved are hyperbole and understatement.

66. internal rhyme- rhyme that occurs within a line, rather than at the end. The following lines contain internal rhyme:Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary,Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore—While I nodded, nearly napping… suddenly there came a tapping…

67. irony- a situation, or a use of language, involving some kind of incongruity or discrepancy. Three kinds of irony are the following:

a. verbal irony: a figure of speech in which what is said is the opposite of what is meantb. dramatic irony: an incongruity or discrepancy between what a character says or thinks and what the reader knows

to be true (or between what a character perceives and what the author intends the reader to perceive)c. situational irony: a situation in which there is an incongruity between appearance and reality, or between

expectation and fulfillment, or between the actual situation and what would seem appropriate

68. litotes- affirmation of an idea by using a negative understatement; the opposite of hyperbole. For example, “She is no saint.”

69. lyric poem- any short poem that presents a single speaker who expresses thoughts and feelings. Love lyrics are common, but lyric poems have also been written on subjects as different as religion and reading. Sonnets and odes are lyric poems.

70. malapropism- an error in diction caused by the substitution of one word for another which is similar in sound but

different in meaning. “On our camping trip, we cooked all our food with profane gas.” 25

71. masculine rhyme- rhyme that falls on the stressed and concluding syllables of the rhyme-words. Examples include “keep” and “sleep,” “glow” and “no,” and “spell” and “impel.”

72. metabasis- a “reversal of fortune”; in tragedy, the change of fortune is always for the worse

73. metaphor- a figurative use of language in which a comparison is expressed without the use of a comparative term like “as,” “like,” or “than.” A simile would say, “night is like a black bat”; a metaphor would say, “the black bat night.”

74. meter- the repetition of a regular rhythmic unit in a line of poetry. The meter of a poem emphasizes the musical quality of the language and often relates directly to the subject matter of the poem. Each unit of meter is known as a foot.

75. metonymy- a figure of speech which is characterized by the substitution of a term naming an object closely associated with the word in mind for the word itself. In this way we commonly speak of the king as the “crown,” an object closely associated with kingship.

76. narrative poem- a non-dramatic poem which tells a story or presents a narrative, whether simple or complex, long or short. Epics and ballads are examples of narrative poems.

77. objective correlative- an object in a literary work that serves a symbolic purpose. It’s an everyday item that possesses some thematic presence, or conjures an image, or elicits an emotional response from the reader, implying a meaning larger than what is actually there

78. octave- an eight-line stanza. Most commonly, octave refers to the first division of an Italian sonnet.

79. Octet- an eight-line stanza

80. onomatopoeia- the use of words whose sound suggests their meaning. Examples are “buzz,” “hiss,” or “honk.”

81. oxymoron- a form of paradox that combines a pair of contrary terms into a single expression. This combination usually serves the purpose of shocking the reader into awareness. Examples include “wise fool,” “sad joy,” and “eloquent silence.”

82. parable- a short, simple story containing a moral lesson

83. paradox- a situation or action or feeling that appears to be contradictory but on inspection turns out to be true or at least to make sense. The following lines from one of John Donne’s Holy Sonnets include paradoxes:

Take me to you, imprison me, for IExcept you enthrall me, never shall be free,Nor ever chaste, except you ravish me.

84. parody- a satirical imitation of a poem or other writing

85. parallelism- a similar grammatical structure within a line or lines of poetry. Parallelism is characteristic of Asian poetry, being notably present in the Psalms, and it seems to be the controlling principle of the poetry of Walt Whitman, as in the following lines:

…Ceaselessly musing, venturing, throwing, seeking the spheres toconnect them.Till the bridge you will need be form’d, till the ductile anchor hold,Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul.

86. pathetic fallacy- the attribution of human feelings and responses to inanimate things or animals, especially in art and literature.

2687. pathos- the quality in writing that prompts the reader’s feeling of sympathy or pity for a character

88. peripetia- a metabasis which accompanied by a reversal of intent (meaning that the choices and actions of a character aimed at bringing about a specific result ironically bring about the exact opposite of what was intended)

89. personification- a kind of metaphor that gives inanimate objects or abstract ideas human characteristics.

90. poetic foot- a group of syllables in verse usually consisting of one accented syllable and one or two unaccented syllables associated with it. The most common type of feet are as follows:

iambic u /trochaic / uanapestic u u /dactylic / u upyrrhic u uspondaic / /

91. protagonist- the main or principal character in a work; often considered the hero or heroine

92. pun- a play on words that are identical or similar in sound but have sharply diverse meanings. Puns can have serious as well as humorous uses. An example is Thomas Hood’s:" They went and told the sexton and the sexton tolled the bell.”

93. quatrain- a four-line stanza with any combination of rhymes.

94. refrain- a group of words forming a phrase or sentence and consisting of one or more lines repeated at intervals in a poem, usually at the end of a stanza.

95. rhyme- close similarity or identity of sound between accented syllables occupying corresponding positions in two or more lines of verse. For a true rhyme, the vowels in the accented syllables must be preceded by different consonants, such as “fan” and “ran.”

96. rhythm- the recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables. The presence of rhythmic patterns lends both pleasure and heightened emotional response to the listener or reader.

97. rising action- the stage of a plot in which the conflict develops and story events build toward a climax; during this stage, complications arise that make the conflict more intense, and tension grows as the characters struggle to resolve the conflict.

98. satire- a type of writing which ridicules or denounces human vices and frailties, usually through humor and exaggeration

99. sestet- a six-line stanza. Most commonly, sestet refers to the second division of an Italian sonnet.

100. simile- a directly expressed comparison; a figure of speech comparing two objects, usually with “like,” “as,” or “than.” It is easier to recognize a simile than a metaphor because the comparison is explicit: my love is like a fever; my love is deeper than a well. (The plural of “simile” is “similes” not “similies.”)

101. slant rhyme- a rhyme based on an imperfect or incomplete correspondence of end syllable sounds

102. soliloquy- a character’s speech to the audience, in which emotions and ideas are revealed. A monologue is a soliloquy only if the character is alone on the stage.

103. sonnet- normally a fourteen-line iambic pentameter poem. The conventional Italian, or Petrarchan sonnet is rhymed abba, abba, cde, cde; the English, or Shakespearean, sonnet is rhymed abab, cdcd, efef, gg.

104. stanza- usually a repeated grouping of three or more lines with the same meter and rhyme scheme. 27

105. stock character- a stereotypical character; a type. The audience expects the character to have certain characteristics. The wicked stepmother and the absent-minded professor are examples of stock characters.

106. stream of consciousness- a form of writing which replicates the way the human mind works. Ideas are presented in random order; thoughts are often unfinished (see interior monologue)

107. style- the mode of expression in language; the characteristic manner of expression of an author. Many elements contribute to style, and if a question calls for a discussion of style or of “stylistic techniques,” you can discuss diction, syntax, figurative language, imagery, selection of detail, sound effects, and tone, using the ones that are appropriate.

108. symbol- something that is simultaneously itself and a sign of something else. For example, winter, darkness, and cold are real things, but in literature they are also likely to be used as symbols of death.

109. synecdoche- a form of metaphor which in mentioning a part signifies the whole. For example, we refer to “foot soldiers” for infantry and “field hands” for manual laborers who work in agriculture.

110. syntax- the ordering of words into patterns or sentences. If a poet shifts words from the usual word order, you know you are dealing with an older style of poetry or a poet who wants to shift emphasis onto a particular word.

111. tercet- a stanza of three lines in which each line ends with the same rhyme.

112. terza rima- a three-line stanza rhymed aba, bcb, cdc,etc. Dante’s Divine Comedy is written in terza rima.

113. theme- the main thought expressed by a work. In poetry, it is the abstract concept which is made concrete through its representation in person, action, and image in the work.

114. tone- the manner in which an author expresses his or her attitude; the intonation of the voice that expresses meaning. (Remember that the “voice” need not be that of the poet.) Tone is described by adjectives, and the possibilities are nearly endless. Often a single adjective will be enough, and tone may change from stanza to stanza or even line to line. Tone is the result of allusion, diction, figurative language, imagery, irony, symbol, syntax, and style.

115. tragedy- a dramatic work that presents the downfall of a dignified character who is involved in historically, morally, or socially significant events. The events in a tragic plot are set in motion by a decision that is often an error in judgment caused by a tragic flaw (see below). Succeeding events are linked in a cause-and-effect relationship and lead inevitably to a disastrous conclusion, usually death (physical, psychological, emotional, or spiritual).

116. tragic flaw- traditionally, a defect in a hero or heroine that leads to his or her downfall

117. understatement- the opposite of hyperbole. It is a kind of irony that deliberately represents something as being much less than it really is. For example, Macbeth, having been nearly hysterical after killing Duncan, tells Lenox, “’Twas a rough night.”

118. unities- limiting the time, place, and action of a play to a single spot and a single action over a 24-hour period

119. verisimilitude- the quality of realism possessed by plot, setting, or character

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Avoiding Common Writing Errors

Write in active, not passive voice (e.g., The information confused the student instead of The students was

confused by the information).

Avoid contractions so that you never confuse its and it’s and your and you’re.

Avoid using there is, there are, there was, there were (weak constructions that can ALWAYS be avoided).

Punctuate compound sentences correctly to avoid comma splices and run-ons. Remember that a comma

cannot combine two complete sentences; a semicolon must be used instead.

Avoid announcing your intentions (“This commentary will show…”)

Develop your paragraphs; one or two sentences cannot form a developed paragraph.

Vary your sentence pattern by combining sentences to create a balance of patterns.

Avoid redundant rhetoric (“focus in on,” “exact same”) and clichés.

Eliminate empty phrases (“in my opinion,” “due to the fact that”)

Place commas and periods inside quotation marks; place semicolons outside.

Put the titles of short works in “quotation marks” (poems, short stories); italicize or underline the titles of

long works (novels, plays).

Refer to an author’s full name only when it is initially used; thereafter, use last name only.

Use present tense when discussing a literary work (“Hamlet is,” not “Hamlet was”).

Spell out all numbers of one hundred and below or any number that is the first word of the sentence.

Distinguish between narrator’s or speaker’s voice from the author’s voice.

Reserve the term quote as a verb, the term quotation as a noun.

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The Individual Oral Commentary (IOC)The Individual Oral Commentary (IOC) counts for 15% of your overall IB English score and is a fundamental part of the literature course. Not only is it a valuable exercise in expressing and developing your oral proficiency; it also helps you in your preparation for Paper 1. However, there is one essential difference: the IOC implies the reader is not coming upon the text for the first time (as in Paper 1) but has studied it, discussed it in class, and can relate the passage to the entire work.

Here is the breakdown: You will be required to speak about a poem we have studied (but you won’t know which one until twenty minutes beforehand) for eight minutes on your own, then for another two minutes in response to your teacher’s questions (ten minutes total); then, you and your teacher spend ten more minutes discussing one of the two full-length works you have studied.

Although there is no one way to guarantee a 7 on the individual oral commentary, some of the following tips help to ease the nerves and keep focus on the purpose of the task.

1. The basics: To prepare well for the IOC, make sure that you go through all of the poems that might come up on the day of the

IOC and have a few ideas ready for each, including some original insights, a short summary of what the poem is about and an idea of the key literary devices that are at work.

Report to the PAC lobby at your scheduled arrival time, where a proctor will give you instructions. Bring a pencil, pen, highlighters and/or colored pencils for writing and marking. If you arrive early, you MAY bring any and all materials to the reading area to review, but you may not bring anything

except writing tools into the room. At the start of the preparation period, you will choose a folder and discover which poem you are to comment on.

Your poem will be accompanied by two guiding questions. You do not have to answer them and should not feel pressured into shaping your commentary around them, especially if they do not seem to be helping the type of analysis you wish to make. However, you should also remember that they are there to help you and should be asking for a response on issues that are central to the study of the text. Examples of the poetry guiding questions:

o How does the punctuation of the poem influence its meaning?o In what ways does the tone shift throughout the poem?

You are given 20 minutes of supervised time to work on your poem analysis. Annotate the poem (color-mark, etc.) and prepare VERBATIM your opening remarks; this will give you a sense of

confidence. Just as in a written commentary, your IOC needs a focused introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Have a guiding idea (usually a theme) around which your IOC is focused.

The intro should contain three clear elements:o Identification of the poem (“The poem “The Tyger” by William Blake is a vivid and atmospheric

account of a tiger that asks questions of how and by whom the creature was created.”) – this should take only 30 seconds or so

o Statement of your argument (“This commentary will investigate the idea that the devil is ultimately the creator of the tiger…”)

o An indication of how your commentary is going to proceed (“…through an analysis of the use of rhetorical questions, imagery, rhythm, and symbolism.”)

The argument (thesis statement) should be clear and concise. Remain within the logic of this argument throughout the main body of your commentary, coming back to it frequently and quoting extracts from the poem that illustrate it appropriately. Make sure that you have highlighted and annotated so you can write up a good plan.

Once you have explored the bigger picture of a text and placed it within its context, you will want to “zoom in” and look at the literary features in detail, commenting on their effects on their target audience. When analyzing poetry, you can focus on the various levels of sound and structure. Here are 6 levels of analysis:

1 - Letter level (alliteration / consonance / onomatopoeia / etc.)

2 - Syllable level (iambic, spondaic, etc.) 30

3 - Verse level (pentameter, trimeter, etc.)4 - Rhyme (couplets / terza rima / etc.)5 - Poem structure (English sonnet / Italian sonnet / lyric / etc.)6 - Conceptual devices (imagery / metaphor / etc.)

The main body is detailed, demonstrative (you are demonstrating your points) and well-illustrated. Develop fully rather than merely state facts or make observation. This part will take up the bulk of your talk time.

The conclusion should not be a simple repetition of your introduction or a re-stating of the main body, but a summation of your principal findings. You should remind the listener how your argument has been demonstrated. You might be able to synthesize the author’s choices into some sort of pattern. It is also good to end with a strong sentence about the universal significance of the text, to show some deeper understanding of its place as a great piece of literature. Don’t forget the conclusion! This is an important but often overlooked element of the IOC. You will not score a 5 for criterion C if you simply stop talking without any thoughtful concluding statement.

*Remember: It is not enough to simply include literary terms, concepts and devices. One must explain why authors have employed certain devices. This requires a degree of interpretation that goes beyond summation. Students need to consider the how as well as the what .

There are essentially two ways of approaching a text in the commentary: linear or thematic. Remember that the linear approach, also known as a line-by-line or chronological analysis, is one that follows the text as it comes. It is as if you are running your finger along the text, following it sentence by sentence and giving a running commentary as you do this. The second approach is thematic. This is when you extract the themes, stylistic choices, messages, ideas and developments of the text, and then use them to discuss the work using your own organized structure.

Here are some things to consider for each:

Linear analysis Can cover the poem in great detail, because you have left nothing to chance by following the words as you read

them Can make any line you don’t understand a glaring omission (bad thing!) Can cause you to repeat yourself and struggle to go beyond paraphrasing (bad thing!)

Thematic analysis Allows you to develop a structured argument so that your points flow from one to the next Can cause you to run the risk of missing some of the details in the text, so be careful to sustain the all-important

close-reading skill as you comment Gives you more of an opportunity to prove that the author used specific techniques to create an effect.

Some strategies for the planning stage: Color-marking Using acronyms as triggers: STAMPIN (symbols, tone, atmosphere/mood, metaphor, punctuation (or syntax),

imagery, narrative structure and STOPBADFIT (symbol, theme, organization, progression, Big Three – speaker, audience, situation--, atmosphere, diction, figurative language, imagery, tone)

Using this pattern: What…through…effect…meaning What is the poem saying? (theme/argument)Through which techniques, type of language, structure, style, and shape? (writer’s choices) What effect does this have on the reader? How does this contribute to the overall meaning?

Every student must be recorded. IBO will select the samples that will be sent for moderation. You will have a timer in front of you; we will both be able to see it. While you’re giving your commentary, I will be making notes – ignore this! Do not interpret it as a criticism or negative evaluation. My notes will help me help you at the end when I have to engage you in discussion. 31

When you are done with your eight minutes, we will enter into the discussion stage. Look at these last two minutes of the poetry commentary as an opportunity for you to develop the points you made earlier. Remember, however, that this is still part of your formal commentary and will contribute to the way that you are assessed, so avoid answering the questions superficially. I may come back to the guiding questions during the interaction, so make sure that you have at least considered them beforehand. Here are some of the types of questions that you might find yourself answering:

Explain what you meant about something that was said earlier. Give an example of something that you said in the commentary. Consider a theme that you did not discuss in your commentary. Say something general and philosophical about the poem, such as why it is important to study in this work in the

context of today’s world, and what it is saying about the human condition.

Remember, try to give generous, rounded, and detailed answers to the questions, and avoid one-worded, undeveloped, and flat responses.

The IOC rubric appears on the next page, but here is some elaboration on each criterion:

Criterion A: Knowledge and understanding of the poem Have you gotten to the core of the poem and really shown what it means at a deeper level? Have you been able to account for its subtleties and nuances, or is your reading superficial and merely stating the

surface meaning?

Criterion B: Appreciation of the writer’s choices Have you considered typical elements of poetry such as meter and sound, rhyme and rhythm, even the shape of the

poem? Are you merely identifying these features or showing how they contribute to the poem’s meaning and how they

inform your argument?

Criterion C: Organization and presentation Does your commentary start with some sort of statement of intent and/or argument? Does the main body progress either according to your statement of intent or, if chronological, do you connect your

ideas with transitional devices? Do you conclude effectively?

Criterion D: Knowledge and understanding of the work used in the discussion During the discussion on the remaining Part 2 work, are you able to show that you have understood the text well,

and can you relate to elements such as theme, characterization, narrative, plot?

Criterion E: Response to the discussion questions Are you listening to the questions carefully and providing reflective, dynamic answers, or are you merely answering

with the bare minimum? Are your answers well-crafted or muddled?

Criterion F: Language Are you speaking with flair and precision, technical prowess and a high literary standard, or do you get by with

informal, colloquial statements?

32

Internal Assessment Criteria – Oral Component

1 2 3 4 5

Criterion A: Knowledge and understanding of the poem

How well is the student’s knowledge and understanding of the poem demonstrated by their interpretation?

There is limited knowledge and little or no understanding, with poor interpretation and virtually no relevant references to the poem.

There is superficial knowledge and some understanding, with limited interpretation occasionally supported by references to the poem.

There is adequate knowledge and understanding, demonstrated by interpretation supported by appropriate references to the poem.

There is very good knowledge and understanding, demonstrated by careful interpretation supported by well-chosen references to the poem.

There is excellent knowledge and understanding, demonstrated by individual interpretation effectively supported by precise and well-chosen references to the poem.

Criterion B: Appreciation of the writer’s choices

To what extent does the student appreciate how the writer’s choices of language, structure, technique and style shape meaning?

There are few references to, and no appreciation, of the ways in which language, structure, technique and style shape meaning in the poem.

There is some mention, but little appreciation, of the ways in which language, structure, technique and style shape meaning in the poem.

There is adequate appreciation of the ways in which language, structure, technique and style shape meaning in the poem.

There is very good appreciation of the ways in which language, structure, technique and style shape meaning in the poem.

There is excellent appreciation of the ways in which language, structure, technique and style shape meaning in the poem.

Criterion C: Organization and presentation of the commentary

To what extent does the student deliver a structured, well-focused commentary?

The commentary shows little evidence of planning, with very limited structure and/or focus.

The commentary shows some structure and focus.

The commentary shows evidence of a planned structure and is generally focused.

The commentary is clearly structured and the focus is sustained.

The commentary is effectively structured, with a clear, purposeful and sustained focus.

Criterion D: Knowledge and understanding of the work used in the discussion

How much knowledge and understanding has the student shown of the work used in the discussion?

There is little knowledge or understanding of the content of the work discussed.

There is some knowledge and superficial understanding of the content of the work discussed.

There is adequate knowledge and understanding of the content and some of the implications of the work discussed.

There is very good knowledge and understanding of the content and most of the implications of the work discussed.

There is excellent knowledge and understanding of the content and the implications of the work discussed.

Criterion E: Response to the discussion questions

How effectively does the student respond to the discussion questions?

There is limited ability to respond meaningfully to the discussion questions.

Responses to the discussion questions are sometimes relevant.

Responses to the discussion questions are relevant and show some evidence of independent thought.

Well-informed responses to the discussion questions show a good degree of independent thought.

There are persuasive and independent responses to the discussion questions.

Criterion F: Language

How clear, varied and accurate is the language?

How appropriate is the choice of register and style? (“Register” refers, in this context, to the student’s use of elements such as vocabulary, tone, sentence structure and terminology appropriate to the commentary.)

The language is rarely clear and appropriate, with many errors in grammar and sentence construction and little sense of register and style.

The language is sometimes clear and appropriate; grammar and sentence construction are generally accurate, although errors and inconsistencies are apparent; register and style are to some extent appropriate.

The language is mostly clear and appropriate, with an adequate degree of accuracy in grammar and sentence construction; the register and style are mostly appropriate.

The language is clear and appropriate, with a good degree of accuracy in grammar and sentence construction; register and style are effective and appropriate.

The language is very clear and entirely appropriate, with a high degree of accuracy in grammar and sentence construction; the register and style are consistently effective and appropriate.

33

Sample IOC Document:

English A

Individual Oral Commentary and Discussion

Part 1

You have twenty (20) minutes to prepare a commentary on the (Part 2) poem. Be sure to provide an interpretation of the poem with close analysis of language, structure, technique, style and their effects in a coherent structure. Be sure to comment on the poem’s relation to other poems you have studied by the poet. Incorporate into your commentary answers to the guiding questions, but do not restrict yourself to answering these questions only. You should aim to provide an approximately 8-minute commentary. This will be followed by approximately two minutes of subsequent questions. The commentary, taped, will last ten (10) minutes.

Guiding Questions

“Shooting Stars” What effect does the title have on your understanding of the poem? What is the significance of the persona’s characterization to the poem’s theme(s)?

Part 2

Please engage in a critical discussion of one other Part 2 work with your teacher, who will ask you questions.

34

Paper #1

Students are expected to display an understanding of the complexities of a prose passage or poem and to develop a convincing argument using the text to support interpretations and judgments. There is no answer that is a formulaic “correct” answer and students are encouraged to explore their own ideas and insights—but also to support these with textual evidence so that they are not merely guesses. Good commentaries typically show independent engagement with the text and a keen understanding of the effects of the author’s use of various literary techniques. The maximum mark for Paper #1 is 20. You have two hours to write this paper.

In whatever language students are studying language A: literature, they are expected to use language appropriate to literary discussion, and this will usually include accurate reference to commonly used literary terms. Discussing the effectiveness of the writer’s choice of literary techniques is even more important; mere listing and naming of literary terms will not attract high marks.

In the assessment criteria for paper 1, there is no requirement for students to make reference to other texts that may be associated with the genre of the prose passage or poem chosen.

What is literary commentary?

As used in the language A: literature course, the terms “commentary” or “literary commentary” refer to literary analysis: a detailed examination of a piece of literature. The exercise of commenting on a piece of literature involves the following:

close reading literary appreciation reading between the lines an understanding of the effects of literary features.

At HL students are required to structure their literary analysis in the form of an essay (also referred to as a “commentary” or “literary commentary”). The prose passage or poem on the examination paper is unlikely to be familiar to the students, so this exercise is often referred to as an “unseen commentary.” The best commentaries will put forward a persuasively organized argument that is coherently developed and effectively structured.

Students are assessed on their ability to do the following:

show they understand the prose passage or poem through well-supported interpretation identify language usage, structure, technique and style used by the author discuss the effects that arise from the author’s choices present their ideas in a formally organized and coherently developed piece of writing.

35

How to Write Commentary Essays (Adapted from James Richmond)1. Commentary is NOT summary.

2. Commentary concentrates wholly on literary devices and creative structure. You should be using words such as theme, conflict, epiphany, imagery, symbolism, diction, form and such from the myriad of terms you have been taught.3. The whole point of commentary is to determine WHY the author chose to develop the work by using a particular literary device. How do the devices relate to the work as a whole? How do they develop the plot, theme, imagery, or character? 4. You should make extensive use of literary terms, but do so with CAUTION because you must use them in intelligent, meaningful ways in order to show your understanding of the passage and of the author's probable intentions.

Figurative language- metaphor (including simile and personification) - repetition- alliteration- hyperbole- understatement- euphemism-allusion

Irony- dramatic (readers know more than at least one character) - verbal (a character says one thing but means something different)- situational (a situation turns out differently than readers expected)

Imagery- visual- auditory (the soundtrack)- tactile (the “touch” track)- olfactory (the “odor” track)- gustatory (the “taste” track)- kinesthetic (movement)- synesthesia: (unexpected blending of two sense, e.g., “the yellow cocktail music)- motifs (patterns that recur throughout a piece)

Plot devices- flashback- foreshadowing- suspense- the Hero’s Journey (quest)- deus ex machina (“God from the machinery” – the day is saved by the intervention of an unexpected force)- catalyst characters, who propel the plot forward - scene/act designations

Characterization techniques- direct characterization (the author tells us directly “Tom is cruel.”)- indirect characterization: - what a character says - what a character does - what a character thinks - what others say and think about a character - stage directions - epiphany

Point of view- first person (“I”)- second person (“you”)- third person (he/she/them) - objective: a roving camera describes sights and sounds – no thoughts are ever revealed - omniscient: the author can enter the thoughts of any character - limited omniscient: the narrator enters the thoughts of only one or two key characters

SOME ADVICE FROM IB EXAMINERS

“The student must discuss how the author creates the effect” “We do not want set patterns or prepared responses. We want a fresh, lively, clear, involved, sprightly,

engaged response. We are looking for ‘signs of life’” “The student must talk about not only ‘what’ is said, but ‘how’ it is said” “The student must be precise in his/her use of language and must be able to make careful distinctions”

REMEMBER: A commentary is NOT a paraphrase or summary of the work. A commentary is a close examination of a passage in which the student makes salient comments on the craftsmanship of the writer, discusses the literary

effects achieved in the passage and how they are achieved. 36

Paper 1: Literary Commentary Rubric (HL)

0 1 2 3 4 5

Criterion A: Understanding and interpretationHow well does the student’s interpretation reveal understanding of the thought and feeling of the passage?

How well are the ideas supported by references to the passage?

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors.

There is a basic understanding of the passage but virtually no attempt at interpretation and few references to the passage.

There is some understanding of the passage, with a superficial attempt at interpretation and some appropriate references to the passage.

There is adequate understanding of the passage, demonstrated by an interpretation that is supported by appropriate references to the passage.

There is a very good understanding of the passage, demonstrated by sustained interpretation supported by well-chosen references to the passage.

There is excellent understanding of the passage, demonstrated by persuasive interpretation supported by effective references to the passage.

Criterion B: Appreciation of the writer’s choicesTo what extent does the analysis show appreciation of how the writer’s choices of language, structure, technique and style shape meaning?

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors.

There are few references to, and no analysis or appreciation of, the ways in which language, structure, technique and style shape meaning.

There is some mention, but little analysis or appreciation, of the ways in which language, structure, technique and style shape meaning.

There is adequate analysis and appreciation of the ways in which language, structure, technique and style shape meaning.

There is very good analysis and appreciation of the ways in which language, structure, technique and style shape meaning.

There is excellent analysis and appreciation of the ways in which language, structure, technique and style shape meaning.

Criterion C:Organization and developmentHow well organized, coherent and developed is the presentation of ideas?

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors.

Ideas have little organization; there may be a superficial structure, but coherence and development are lacking.

Ideas have some organization, with a recognizable structure; coherence and development are often lacking.

Ideas are adequately organized, with a suitable structure; some attention is paid to coherence and development.

Ideas are effectively organized, with very good structure, coherence and development.

Ideas are persuasively organized, with excellent structure, coherence and development.

Criterion D:LanguageHow clear, varied and accurate is the language?

How appropriate is the choice of register, style and terminology? (“Register” refers, in this context, to the student’s use of elements such as vocabulary, tone, sentence structure and terminology appropriate to the commentary.)

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors.

Language is rarely clear and appropriate; there are many errors in grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction, and little sense of register and style.

Language is sometimes clear and carefully chosen; grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction are fairly accurate, although errors and inconsistencies are apparent; the register and style are to some extent appropriate to the commentary.

Language is clear and carefully chosen, with an adequate degree of accuracy in grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction despite some lapses; register and style are mostly appropriate to the commentary.

Language is clear and carefully chosen, with a good degree of accuracy in grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction; register and style are consistently appropriate to the commentary.

Language is very clear, effective, carefully chosen and precise, with a high degree of accuracy in grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction; register and style are effective and appropriate to the commentary.

37Sample Paper #1 Test Booklet (see hardcopy for this)

38, 39, 40

Paper #1: The Poem

Read the poem once for a quick overview, a second time to get a feel for the language, and a third time after having planned your paper to see if it still works.

Use 15-20 minutes max to plan your paper. How are you going to structure your ideas? What key lines must you talk about?

Recognize and note 1-3 key ideas of the poem and the dominant impression they create, and expand upon them through the other aspects of your written response.

Some strategies for the planning stage: Mark up the poem, and create a legend. Use acronyms such as STAMPIN and STOP BAD FIT to help you remember what to look for. Utilize this patterns: what…through…effect…meaning

What is the poem saying? (theme/argument)Through which techniques, type of language, structure, style, and shape? (writer’s choices) What effect does this have on the reader? How does this contribute to the overall meaning?

PEE (point out, give an example/evidence, and EXPLAIN) You probably won’t be able to achieve a level 7 without commenting on TONE, STRUCTURE (FORM), and

TENSION Don’t ignore ambiguity. Remember that a favorite poetic device is fruitful ambiguity, an apparent confusion that

forces your awareness of several plausible interpretations. Identify the speaker/persona. How do you know? Look for patterns and breaks in patterns. How does the poem use the space on the page? Are the line and stanza breaks by idea, or does the poet use

enjambment to connect lines? What effect does the placement of words on the page achieve?

Remember that what you say about any of these techniques must all link back in some way and illuminate your central idea(s).

Be sure to pay attention to the following: the title pace diction (Simple or complex? Denotation and connotation? Words that reoccur? Words that seem unexpected or

out of place?) syntax (word order) sound (assonance, alliteration) imagery (Color? Darkness/light? Patterns/motifs?) theme (Whys has it been written? What is the underlying message?) “So what?” (Explain the dominant effect created by these techniques – the implications, the importance)

Writing the introductionYour introduction should contain three clear elements:

1. Identification of the poem2. Thesis statement (a statement of your argument, what you will be proving)3. An indication of how your commentary is going to proceed.

41Here are two sample thesis statement templates and a more detailed example of an introductory paragraph:

“[Author] uses literary techniques X, Y, and Z in this [excerpt or poem] in order to [fill in the blank]. The implications of this are…”

“[Author] uses literary techniques X and Y to [fill in the blank] and literary technique Z to [fill in the blank], both of which contribute to [particular theme]…”

“Smith’s ‘Alone’ works primarily as an expression of an unwritten story of isolation and alienation. All elements of the prose – sparse, scientific diction, staccato rhythm, structure, and imagery – reflect this unified effect. Yet equally, and more subtly, undercutting ironies and emotional subtleties provide tension within the dominant thrust…”

For example:“The Tyger” by William Blake is a vivid and atmospheric account of a tiger, a poem that poses questions of how and by whom the creature was created. Through the use of rhetorical questions, imagery, rhythm, and symbolism, Blake implies that the devil is ultimately the creator of the tiger.

Other reminders: Avoid narration. Remember analysis rather than summary. Show how meaning is created. The reader

needs to be led to see “the hand of the writer.” Assess the effects of literary features. Be sensitive to the effect created by the author’s choice of words,

and remember that the lines that prove resistant to paraphrase are often those that are essential to meaning, the “heart” of the poem or prose passage, and what you may offer as an interpretation of the writer’s message may lie within them.

Use language appropriate to the commentary. Be conscious of the difference between prose and poetry. Adopt a neutral, objective voice without losing your own personal flair. Use specific references, and integrate them seamlessly (see handout entitled “Blending Quotes”) Remember to conclude; aim for a thoughtful exit. Edit and revise as much as time allows.

42

Paper #1: The Prose PassageThe prose passage is given to you in isolation, without context.

You will need to recognize 1-3 key ideas of the passage and enlarge upon them through other aspects of your written response. What you say about content, interpretation, tone, pace, form, syntax, contrast, tension, figurative language and other literary devices will all link back in some way and illuminate your key idea(s).

Read the passage once for a quick overview, a second time to get a feel for the language, and a third time after having planned your paper to see if it still works.

Use 15-20 minutes max to plan your paper. How are you going to structure your ideas? What key lines must you talk about? How does the beginning of the passage connect to the ending? Make sure the order in which you talk about these things is intentional, not accidental.

Recognize and note 1-3 key ideas of the passage and the dominant impression they create, and expand upon them through the other aspects of your written response.

Thesis statement formats for the prose passage option for Paper #1:

Note how in each example the thesis statement addresses three things:

1. The specific literary techniques used2. The dominant/direct effects of the techniques3. The larger implications/importance

Format A:

[Author] uses literary techniques X, Y, and Z in this excerpt from [the work] in order to [fill in the blank]. The implications of this are …

Format B:

This excerpt from [the work] [implies…and contributes…to the whole] through its use of [fill in the blank], which is created by the author’s use of literary techniques X, Y, and Z.

Format C:

[Author] uses literary techniques X and Y to [fill in the blank] and literary technique Z to [fill in the blank], both of which inform/imply/contribute to [particular theme of whole work].

Two examples:

1. In this excerpt from The Metamorphosis, Kafka uses progressively hazy imagery, dream symbolism, and distorted sense of time to create a dream-like atmosphere for both his protagonist, Gregor, and the reader. By creating this dream-like atmosphere, Kafka not only addresses the constant haze through which Gregor has been living his life but enables the reader to feel and experience the “dream” as well.

2. This passage from Upwards Rising by Jennifer DiMarsico works primarily as an expression of a story of isolation and alienation. All elements of the prose – sparse, scientific diction, staccato rhythm, structure and imagery – reflect this unified effect. Yet equally, and more subtly, undercutting ironies and emotional subtleties provide tension within the dominant thrust.

43

Consider commenting on these:

Title Speaker/Narrator/POV Situation/purpose Setting (Place? Inside or outside? Season? Time of day? Past or present? Period of history? How

much time does the passage or poem cover?) Characterization (how does the author handle it – description? dialogue? actions? Tone/Mood Pace Style Diction (Simple or complex? Denotation and connotation? Words that reoccur? Words that seem

unexpected or out of place?) Syntax Structure/form (How many paragraphs? Does each one deal with a different aspect? Are the

layout and meaning closely related? Look at sentence structure. Are the sentences long or short? Repetition/prose rhythm/assonance/alliteration Tension (contrasts, conflicts, irony) Figurative language (metaphors, allusions, etc.) Imagery (color? darkness/light? patterns/motifs?) Theme (Why has it been written? What is the underlying message?) “So what?” (explain the dominant effect created by these techniques – the implications, the

importance)

Remember that what you say about any of these techniques must all link back in some way and illuminate your central idea(s).

Avoid narration. Remember analysis rather than summary. Show how meaning is created. The reader needs to be led to see “the hand of the writer.”

Assess the effects of literary features. Be sensitive to the effect created by the author’s choice of words, and remember that the lines that prove resistant to paraphrase are often those that are essential to meaning, the “heart” of the poem or prose passage, and what you may offer as an interpretation of the writer’s message may lie within them.

Use language appropriate to the commentary. Be conscious of the difference between prose and poetry.

Adopt a neutral, objective voice without losing your own personal flair.

Use specific references, and integrate them seamlessly (see handout entitled “Blending Quotes”)

Remember to conclude; aim for a thoughtful exit.

Edit and revise as much as time allows.

*Use color-marking to help you identify image patterns, motifs, unusual or interesting word choices and sound devices such as rhyme, rhythm, and alliteration. Based on your color-marking, ask yourself these questions: Is one color predominant? Why? Is there some logical progression of imagery/motif, from one type to another? Is the progression illogical? Why?

44

Paper #2 You will have two hours to answer one question based on at least two of the Part 3 works you have

studied. Choose a question from ONLY the genre category you have studied this semester – that means

DRAMA! If you answer a wrong genre question, the highest you can score is a 3. Remember that the questions have been written for literally tens of thousands of candidates. You have

to “tailor” your response to your specific Part 3 texts you have studied (or should have studied!). You must find a focus that you can deal with in two hours.

You absolutely must write in BLACK BALLPOINT PEN.

Approaching the question:

Read the question very carefully and make sure that you understand all parts of it. Identify which aspect or aspects of the text the question is about - use the key words approach

o Identify the key words and the focus of the question: circle or underline the key words or phrases, and then jot down in a few words of your own what the question is asking you to focus on

Analyze the question and note down the key topic areas it deals with. Don’t rush into writing. Use 15-20 minutes to briefly plan how you intend to deal with these areas -

this may mean only three or four points each, summed up in a few words. The main thing is that you will have a checklist of the points you are going to cover before you begin writing your essay, and you will avoid relying on confusing crossings-out, arrows, asterisks, etc. that are necessary when poor planning leads to drastic commentary changes later on.

No matter what the question asks, the criteria are the same. Make sure you are scoring on them by demonstrating knowledge and understanding, responding to the question, demonstrating appreciation of literary features, providing a coherent structure to your argument, and using formal, literary language. What you’re really answering is “What? How? and Why?”

Writing your commentary:

Always begin by addressing the question directly; use some of the words of the question in your introduction. Your introduction should give a general indication of your response to the question or summarize the approach you intend to take, perhaps stating your viewpoint; however, keep it brief and never include biographical information or plot summary.

An alternative way to begin your essay: start with a strong, perhaps contentious idea that captures the reader’s attention immediately.

Develop your points clearly, using evidence and references to the text to support your ideas. Assume that the examiner has read the text you are writing about; don’t explain the plot or who the

characters are. Deal with all parts of the question. Be relevant at all times. Use quotations that are short and relevant.

Provide transitions within and between paragraphs. 45

Don’t forget that it’s a comparative essay (what’s similar, what’s different, why does this matter in relation to the question?). To take it over the top, MEASURE an aspect of one text against another, rather than simply describing the aspect in each text. Describing similarity or difference and evaluating similarity or difference are not the same thing. Consider: How is the work representative of the genre? What links the works together? In what different ways have the writers approached the topic/link? How have the authors used the literary conventions of drama?

Sum up your arguments and analysis. It is often through the conclusion that the relevance of certain points you have made is brought into focus and the essay is given a sense of unity and completeness.

That you know the “facts” about a text, the story line, who the characters are, etc. is taken for granted . The emphasis is much more on showing judgment, analysis, sensitivity, and perception in your responses.

Length:

marks are not awarded for the length of your essay but for what you have achieved in your writing create a balanced answer: essays that are very short often lack sufficient depth in the development of

ideas; over long essays can become repetitive, rambling and lacking in a coherent response

Technical accuracy:

Punctuation: poor punctuation can mean that your ideas are communicated to the reader less effectively

Sentences: avoid long, convoluted ones Paragraphing: avoid one-sentence paragraphs and excessively long paragraphs Vocabulary: vary your vocabulary without becoming verbose; make sure that you are spelling the titles

of texts, the names of the characters, and the names of the authors correctly. Cliché, flattery, and slang: avoid them Quotation: If you are using quotation, make sure it is as accurate as possible.

o Make sure that the quotations are relevanto Weave them into the fabric of your writing

Assessment of your work: In reading the descriptors [in the rubric] you will see the key features that can bring you success. If you are to achieve success there are certain things that you must do. You must make sure that:

you have read your texts carefully several times you know your texts thoroughly you are fully aware of the issues, ideas, themes, etc. they contain you are aware of the stylistic features of the texts you have studied you can support your ideas and comments effectively

Know your material and know what you think about it. If you can show through your responses that you possess independent opinions and you can use these to express your "knowledge" and "understanding" of the works, then you will have every chance of achieving success.

Source for most of this information: Druce, Elizabeth and Hannah Tyson. IB English A1 Course Companion: International Baccalaureate Diploma

Program. Oxford University Press: 2007. Print. 240-251. 46

More Tips for Paper #2 Plan, plan, plan!

o Use 15-20 minutes to outline your response to the prompt.o If you “wing it,” you are bound to end up with arrows and asterisks (and a frustrating essay for the

evaluators to read).o Use this opportunity to jot down quotations that you can use, as well as examples of figurative

language, plot devices, irony, imagery, characterization techniques, and dramatic techniques.o Use this opportunity to formulate some kind of comparison between the two plays you will use in your

response.

Use the introduction as a “road map” to the organization of your paper as well as a means to score a little higher on Criterion A (knowledge about the plays):

o Include full titles (underlined!).o Include authors.o Include year of publication.o Include setting and some BASIC background (avoid plot summary, though)o Include the main aspects of the writer’s craft that you will investigate (tone? conflict? stage

directions?).o DO NOT begin with “In the play…”

Consider which organizational method you plan to use:o Block method (write completely about one play, then about the other, embedding your comparison

within those sections OR bringing it out afterwards)o Point-by-point method (go back and forth with each play as you move through your paper)o Remember that the whole paper does NOT have to be comparison – you just need to have an element

of comparison within the paper.o To earn the highest marks, however, you must EVALUATE (in other words, measure aspects of one play

against the other)o Don’t forget the conclusion! Don’t just restate the intro; take it one step further. Use this opportunity

to give your paper a sense of unity and completeness.

Remember to focus on AUTHOR’S CHOICES and AUTHOR’S PURPOSE:o Meet the requirements of Criterion C: What literary devices does the author use, and what purpose do

they serve? In other words, HOW is meaning created?o Pay special attention to DRAMATIC TECHNIQUES, such as the following: monologue, dramatic irony,

gesture, props, scenery, lighting, sound effects, music, staging, stage directions.

Make sure that you provide DETAILS:o Be specific!o Use quotations! Even if you don’t remember exact wording, you won’t be penalized as long as you

come close and maintain the essence of the quotation.o Don’t worry about perfect citations – if you can place the quotation within a particular scene or act,

that’s great; otherwise, do your best to place it within the action.

When you are done writing…o Make sure that you have addressed all aspects of the prompt.o Proofread for glaring errors.

o Check to see that your register is appropriate (no slang terminology, no clichés, literary terms where appropriate – for example, “diction” instead of “words,” “symbolizes” instead of represents, etc.). 47

Dramatic StrategiesClose reading of a play involves observing these stylistic strategies of the writer and determining their effects:

1. In stage directions, playwrights can establish full or partial descriptions of characters and state the way that actors should deliver specific lines. In addition, descriptions of costumes, facial expressions, and gestures enable a reader to have a clearer visual picture of the characters on stage. As a reader, you have to imagine the tone of voice of a character with the help of specific stage directions.

2. While playwrights make use of monologues, soliloquies, and asides, the primary vehicle of expression on stage is dialogue. Pay attention to those moments when one character dominates the stage. Is that domination a result of the frequency of his or her speech or something else? Does the use of questioning have a significant function? Does the use of questioning establish tension? Is there a power struggle between two or more characters?

3. Dramatic action includes physical movement of the characters, such as when and where they enter or exit a scene. Pay attention to characters that are referred to even though they are off-stage. Sound effects can accompany these off-stage scenes, and the audience will be particularly curious about what they hear but cannot see, or what they see but cannot hear. Also be aware of the “fourth wall,” the imaginary wall that separates the spectator/audience from the action taking place on stage. In a traditional theatre setting (as opposed to a theatre in the round) this imaginary wall has been removed so that the spectator can “peep” into the fictional world and see what is going on. If the audience is addressed directly, this is referred to as “breaking the fourth wall.”

4. Themes can emerge directly or indirectly. Characters can serve as the mouthpiece of the playwright. Without biographical insights, however, denoting a character as a mouthpiece is purely speculative. Remember, too, that themes develop and build as the play unfolds.

5. Irony, particularly dramatic irony, has a powerful function in drama. As a reader you must also be sensitive to those characters that use sarcasm or speak in asides.

6. Stage props can have symbolic value. While some symbols are traditional – darkness as a symbol of hopelessness, a cross as a symbol of Christianity, water as a symbol of rebirth, light as a symbol of insight or understanding – other symbols are particular to a text. Symbolic value is only established by the frequency and significance of use within the dramatic action of the play.

7. The events of the play and the ordering of those events determine the plot. Be aware that subplots often function in comparison or contrast to the main plot for purposes of character or thematic development.

8. The design of the stage set and the use of lighting and sound effects are all functional elements of the drama. Changes to the set in scene changes, the use of lighting or sound effects (including music) must be noted. The decision of the playwright to include these elements at a particular moment in the dramatic action is important. What effects are produced in the audience? How do these effects impact on meaning or understanding?

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Paper 2: Essay Rubric (HL)

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Criterion A: Knowledge and understandingHow much knowledge and understanding has the student shown of the part 3 works studied in relation to the question answered?

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors.

There is some knowledge but virtually no understanding of the part 3 works in relation to the question answered.

There is mostly adequate knowledge and some superficial understanding of the part 3 works in relation to the question answered.

There is adequate knowledge and understanding of the part 3 works in relation to the question answered.

There is good knowledge and understanding of the part 3 works in relation to the question answered.

There is perceptive knowledge and understanding of the part 3 works in relation to the question answered.

Criterion B: Response to the questionHow well has the student understood the specific demands of the question?

To what extent has the student responded to these demands?

How well have the works been compared and contrasted in relation to the demands of the question?

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors.

The student shows little awareness of the main implications of the question, and ideas are mainly irrelevant and/or insignificant. There is little meaningful comparison of the works used in relation to the question.

The student responds to some of the main implications of the question with some relevant ideas. There is a superficial attempt to compare the works used in relation to the question.

The student responds to most of the main implications of the question with consistently relevant ideas. There is adequate comparison of the works used in relation to the question.

The student responds to the main implications and some subtleties of the question, with relevant and carefully explored ideas. The comparison makes some evaluation of the works used in relation to the question.

The student responds to all the implications, as well as the subtleties of the question, with convincing and thoughtful ideas. The comparison includes an effective evaluation of the works in relation to the question.

Criterion C: Appreciation of the literary conventions of the genreTo what extent does the student identify and appreciate the use of literary conventions in relation to the question and the works used?

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors.

Some literary conventions are identified but there is limited development relevant to the question and/or the works used.

Examples of literary conventions are sometimes correctly identified and developed, with some relevance to the question and the works used.

Examples of literary conventions are satisfactorily identified and developed, with relevance to the question and the works used.

Examples of literary conventions are clearly identified and effectively developed, with relevance to the question and the works used.

Examples of literary conventions are perceptively identified and persuasively developed, with clear relevance to the question and the works used.

Criterion D: Organization and developmentHow well organized, coherent and developed is the presentation of ideas?

The word does not reach a standard described by the descriptors.

Ideas have little organization; there may be a superficial structure, but coherence and/or development are lacking.

Ideas have some organization, with a recognizable structure, but coherence and development are often lacking.

Ideas are adequately organized, with a suitable structure and attention paid to coherence and development.

Ideas are effectively organized, with a very good structure, coherence and development.

Ideas are persuasively organized, with excellent structure, coherence and development.

Criterion E: Language

The work does not

Language is rarely clear and appropriate; there

Language is sometimes clear

Language is clear and carefully

Language is clear and carefully

Language is very clear, effective,

How clear, varied and accurate is the language?

How appropriate is the choice of register, style and terminology? (“Register” refers, in this context, to the student’s use of elements such as vocabulary, tone, sentence structure and terminology appropriate to the task.)

reach a standard described by the descriptors.

are many errors in grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction, and little sense of register and style.

and carefully chosen; grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction are fairly accurate, although errors and inconsistencies are apparent; the register and style are to some extent appropriate to the task.

chosen, with an adequate degree of accuracy in grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction despite some lapses; register and style are mostly appropriate to the task.

chosen, with a good degree of accuracy in grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction; register and style are consistently appropriate to the task.

carefully chosen and precise, with a high degree of accuracy in grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction; register and style are effective and appropriate to the task.

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Sample Paper #2 test booklet (see hardcopy for this)

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