*The researcher is a principal in Elementary and Secondary Education, KPK (Pakistan).
TECH-KNOWLEDGY: DEVELOPING A PENDULUM MODEL OF PEDAGOGY AND
ANDRAGOGY IN VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FRAMEWORK (VLEF)
YOUSAF KHAN*
Ph.D Scholar
Department of Secondary Teacher Education, AIOU, Islamabad, Pakistan
Email Address: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The science of teaching children is pedagogy and the art of enabling adults to learn at their own is
andragogy as revealed in the literature on the subject. The era of Information and Communication
Technology in the 21st century has created a pendulum of pedagogy and andragogy due to paradigm shift
from pedagogical teaching model to andragogical self-regulated, continuous and life-long learning in
virtual learning environments and open and flexible educational institution. This new paradigm resulted in
pedagogical innovations and andragogical practices.
The purpose of the study was to develop a model for innovations in teaching and learning through
open and flexible Virtual Learning Environment Frameworks (VLEF) in educational institutions. The
objective of the study was to move on the continuum from pedagogy to andragogy by using ICTs tools
and resources and developing knowledge iterative cycle as discussed by the author in (ICOFE, 2014) and
(ICRA, 2015) that was published by David Publishing Company in 2015.
The methodology of the study was literature review and critical discourse analysis for developing
conceptual framework and analyzing various teaching models, strategies and instructional designs in
educational technologies use and practices.
The findings of the analyzed data revealed that knowledge is dynamically created and iteratively
developed through the use of ICTs in teaching learning process. The motion of a person from information
or knowledge (mean) to application or wisdom (extreme) is just like a pendulum.
So, the researcher concluded that tech-knowledgy model is analogous to the pendulum model of
pedagogy and andragogy in Virtual Learning Environment Framework (VLEF)
Keywords:
Pedagogy
Andragogy
Tech-knowledgy
Virtual Learning Environment Framework (VLEF)
ICT-use
Knowledge / Epistemology
Pedagogical innovations
Andragogical practices
Pendulum model
1
INTRODUCTION
When we move from Pedagogy towards Andragogy by using ICT tools and resources
a pendulum is created because the development of knowledge from lower level information
to higher level wisdom (author, 2014) is spirally and result in iteration of higher order
wisdom in e-learning and Virtual Learning Environment Framework (VLEF).
Papas (2015) has discussed pedagogy Vs andragogy in e-learning design for
instruction and concluded that children and adult requires different instructional design in e-
learning as the requirements of children learning are different from adults. However, due to
the concepts formation strategies and conceptual development models as discussed by Jean
Piaget and Bruner; there is need of sequence and time (scheduling) for each concept to be
developed from lower level information (doubt) to higher level (certainty and clarity).
Moreover, there is need of an art for designing instruction and science of presentation
and development of the lesson for both children and adults due to differences in their mental
and psychical maturities; using pedagogy; and the art of enabling adults to learn at their own
using andragogy; as revealed in the literature on the subject.
In conclusion to the above; we can say that pedagogy is teacher centered learning and
instructional designs and strategies while andragogy is student centered learning and
instructional designs and strategies. But, both cannot be separated for instruction and teaching
of a given concept or skill in a subject or discipline.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The purpose of the study was to bring innovations in teaching and instruction in
Virtual Learning Environment Framework (VLEF).
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The objective of the study was: Tech-knowledgy: Developing a pendulum model of
pedagogy and andragogy in Virtual Learning Environment Framework (VLEF); to move on
the continuum of pedagogy and andragogy when iteratively developing knowledge to
wisdom by using ICT tools, resources and technologies.
2
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
The nature of the study was historical and qualitative. So, the researcher used
literature review and Critical Discourse Analysis for developing conceptual framework and
analyzed various teaching models, strategies and instructional designs in educational
technology use and practice.
LITERATURE REVIEW: ANALYSIS OF TEACHING MODELS AND
STRATEGIES
According to Duncan (1981) as cited in Rashid (2010): there are two types of teaching
models: Historical and Psychological:
The Historical Teaching Models includes:
The Socrates Teaching Model
The Classical Humanistic Model
The Personal Development Model
The Psychological Model of Teaching has four types:
Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model (1962): Classroom Meeting Model
Computer Based Teaching Model: Programmed Instruction (Skinnerian
Model)
A Teaching Model of School Learning (Piaget & Brunner Models)
Interactive Teaching Model (Flander’s Model)
According to Smith (1983) there are two types of Philosophical Teaching Models:
The Impressional Model (John Locke)
The Insight Model (Plato)
The Rule Model (Kant)
According to Habeden (1980) as cited in Rashid (2010): there are four types of
Educational Models which enables the student-teacher to make their teaching effective.
Taba’s Model of Teaching
Turner’s Model of Teaching
A Model of Variation in Teacher Education
Fort Lipitt’s Model
3
If we analyze all the models of teaching and instruction there are common basic
elements that guide a teacher-student and instructor in achieving the instructional objective
and educational goals of a subject or discipline.
The Glaser’s Basic Teaching Model (1962) consists of four elements: Instructional
Objectives, Entry Behavior, Instructional Procedure and Performance Assessment while the
Herbartian Model has focus “syntax”; preparation and presentation, comparison and
abstraction, association and generalization as Herbartian steps for instruction and pedagogy.
It has a “social system” as authorities, “support system” as books and literature with
an “evaluation system” to focus recall, recognition and retention: the basic components of
memory and thinking.
Morrison et al (1969); who were the proponents of teaching models focus on
developing mastery over the content and to provide substantial knowledge of the subject
matter. The steps include: Exploration, Presentation, Assimilation, Organization and
Recitation. In “social system” the teacher behavior is not autoreactic but democratic. In
“support system” the Audio-Visual Aids can be used while the “evaluation system” consists
of different types of testing: objective and subjective.
Bigge & Hunt (1974) as cited in Rashid (2010): defined the reflective level teaching
as careful and critical examination of an idea in the light of testable evidence that support it.
Hunt (1974) as cited in Rashid (2010): model present focus on Problem Solving, Independent
Thinking, Critical Outlook and developing attitudes and beliefs.
There are two types of approaches to personal problematic situation:
Dewy’s Problematic Situation, and
Kurt Lewin’s Problematic Situation
The Dewy’s Problematic Situation is used in “Forked Path Situation” when the person
is learning two equally attractive material and the person is learning in achieving these goals.
While Kurt Lewin (2007) assumes that the individual lives in the environment and he tries to
adjust in that (life space). There are physical environment, social consumers and
psychological (pulls and pushes) in environment for individuals.
In the “social system” the teacher should be corrective and tactful and there is
democratic environment. The learner is active participant in the learning situation. In the
“support system” there is already existing literature and the other social and education
4
sources to help in knowledge development. While the “evaluation system” includes Viva
Voce besides objective and subjective testing.
Hence, we conclude that in any teaching model there is a focus (syntax), social
system, support system and evaluation system as its basic elements to plan a lesson or
instruction in these models. So, while teaching in Virtual Learning Environment Framework
(VLEF) for developing tech-knowledgy; these elements must be considered; inorder to teach,
adjust and plan instruction according to students’ needs and content level of difficulty.
Planning is required for maximum utilization of resources in effective and efficient
manner. So, the teaching is planned for maximum utilization of educational resources and
getting the instructional objective, educational aims and goals.
Gagne (1989) nine events of instruction can be used effectively to plan and design
lesson through both pedagogy and andragogy in e-learning or Virtual Learning Environment
Framework (VLEF). The steps include: Gain attention, inform learner of objectives,
simulating recall of prior learning, present the content, provide learning guidance, Elicit
performance, provide feedback, assess performance and enhance retention and transfer to the
job or other content (Wolfolk, 2004).
Hence, we can say that Gagne’s nine events of instruction are best for using as
teaching model or instructional design strategy in tech-knowledgy. The adult learning theory-
andragogy was presented by Malcolm Shepard Knowles (1913 – 1997) according to
Wikipedia (2017) and he has termed andragogy as synonymous to adult learning. He has
given principles of adult learning that include:
Adults must want to learn (intrinsic motivation)
Adults will learn only when they feel there is need to learn (learning is need-
based and contextualized)
Adults learn by doing (Behavioristic engagement and active involvement)
Adults learning focuses on problem solving (cognitive and constructive
approach)
Experiences effects adult learning (influence of previous or prior learning i.e.
ZPD is considered)
Adults learn best in informal situation (when there is use of ICT or non-ICT
tools and interaction as well as communication)
Adults wants guidance and consideration as equal partners in the learning
process (simulation and modeling as well as scaffolding)
5
According to www.ispringsolution.com: Andragogy i.e. adult learning theory is
important in that it clearly outline the differences in learning characteristics between children
and adults. So, it seems that it is particularly useful to authors of e-learning modules.
The author (2014) has discussed Cognitive Apprenticeships as an effective pedagogy
for enabling students to use toolkits in Virtual Learning Environment Framework (VLEF).
Collen et al (1989) has proposed Cognitive Apprenticeships model consisting of six major
steps in instruction and teaching: Modeling, Coaching, Scaffolding, Articulation, Reflection
and Exploration. Liu (2004) has discussed web-based cognitive apprenticeships model having
three phases for pre-service teaching training program: Modeling-Observing, Scaffolding-
Practicing and Guide-Generalizing.
Collins et al (1991) have discussed four processes of traditional model of
apprenticeships that include: Modeling (initiation), Scaffolding (support and guidance),
Fading (withdrawing support gradually); and Coaching (developing and guiding by masters
and experts).
Cognitive Apprenticeships is based on Vygotsky’s (1978) research and is also related
to other conventional apprenticeships; where master of a skill demonstrate and model that
skill to an immature learner and thus developing that skill gradually by withdrawing the
support and the learner become expert in that skill as well as become self-regulated learner to
advance the skill and competence by using andrological methods independently.
The researcher (author) in his paper presented in ICORE IER (2016) has discussed
Advanced Cognitive Apprenticeships in which the step of “creativity” is included after
exploration. Thus, the Advanced Cognitive Apprenticeships can be used as best methods of
instruction in e-learning, traditional learning, blended learning, as well as in Virtual Learning
Environment Framework (VLEF) i.e. Open and Flexible Institutions.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
While using advanced cognitive apprenticeships model in Virtual Learning
Environment Framework (VLEF) there is development and use of both pedagogy and
andragogy in the form of a pendulum just as a pendulum moves back and forth to complete
vibrations in simple Harmonic Motion and a wave-form is resulted. In the same analogy
while using advanced cognitive apprenticeships a wave of knowledge and concept or skill
development will be produced as a result of vibratory motion from the extreme of pedagogy
on one hand to the extreme of andragogy on the other. The mean position in this vibration
6
will be Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) or existing knowledge of the individual learner
as discussed by Vygotsky (1978) in his theory of social constructivism. So, the theoretical
base of advanced cognitive apprenticeship is constructivism (individual, social and
communal) for contextualization of learning in a community of practice by using the modern
tools, technologies, sources and resources of ICT and Computer Assisted Learning Programs
and Software Applications.
CONCLUSION
From the above discussion and findings we conclude that Tech-knowledgy model is
analogous to the pendulum model of pedagogy and andragogy in Virtual Learning
Environment Framework (VLEF). This model is discussed below and presented in Figures
(1 – 4).
When using this new model in Open and Flexible Virtual Learning Environment
Framework (VLEF) in educational institutions; we can develop the knowledge and skill of
the individual from basic level (concept) to higher level (wisdom and creativity) through
iterative cycles in a subject and discipline as discussed by the author in (ICOFE 2014) and
(ICRA 2015) and the researcher paper published in The Journal of Mathematics and System
Sciences (2015) by David Publishing Company, USA.
The pendulum model of instruction is as given below:
Figure 1: Pendulum of Pedagogy and Andragogy
Pedagogy (Knowledge / Concept) ZPD of the Learning (Mean) Andragogy (Wisdom / Creativity)
7
Figure 2: Continuum of Pedagogy and Andragogy to develop knowledge to wisdom
Figure 3: Spiral development of knowledge to wisdom as well as pedagogy to andragogy
Andragogy Wisdom
Pedagogy Knowledge
Pedagogy (Knowledge / Concept) ZPD of the Learning Andragogy (Wisdom / Creativity)
Knowledge Development &
Transformation
Transfer of Knowledge and
Generalization
8
Virtual Learning Environment Framework (VLEF) : A Theoretical Relativistic
Framework
Figure 4: Iterative cycles from knowledge to wisdom
Virtual Knowledge Virtual
Knowledge
Virtual Knowledge Virtual Knowledge
Tools (ICT or non ICT)
Student Teacher
Person
Rules Role
Global Education (Virtual and Online)
Virtual Knowledge
Field independent
thinking (in virtual space)
Real knowledge in lesson (place)
Real knowledge in subject (classroom)
Real knowledge in curriculum (school)
Real knowledge in discursive practice
(professional)
Real knowledge (Interdisciplinary models): Global
Field independent
thinking (in life space)
S
W E
N Line framework
Iterative cycles
of virtual
knowledge
9
RECOMMENDATION
On the basis of findings and conclusion the researcher recommended that the
pendulum of pedagogy and andragogy be used in Virtual Learning Environment Framework
(VLEF) to make the institution and learning efficient and effective.
FURTHER RESEARCH
The researcher suggested that when the pendulum of pedagogy and andragogy is
swinging it will create iterative cycles of knowledge development. Hence, transformational
learning model of teaching and instruction is needed to be explored in the next paper.
10
REFERENCES
Ausbel, D (1963). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal
learning. New York: Grunne Stratton
Bandura, A (1977). Social learning theory (3rd
Edition). Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall
Bruner, J.S (1961). The art of discovery. Harvard Educational Review Vol. 31, Pp. 21 – 32. Harvard
University Press, Harvard
Collins, A, Brown, J.S & Newman, S.E (1987). Cognitive apprenticeship: University of Illinois.
Flanders, N.A (1966). Interaction analysis in classroom. A manual for observers, Michigan: Ann-
Arber University
Gagne, R (1989). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction (4th edition). New York : Holt
Rinehart and Winston Inc.
Glaser, R (1971). The nature of reinforcement. Graduate school of arts and science.
Khan, Y (2013): ICT-Integration in Teacher Education of Pakistan: A Case Study. AAOU (2013),
AIOU, Islamabad. Published in Pakistan Journal of Education Vol. XXIX, Issue I & II, 2012
(Publishing Year 2015) ISSN 1818 - 334458 Faculty of Education, Allama Iqbal Open
University, Islamabad.
Khan, Y (2014): Cognitive Apprenticeship: An Effective Pedagogy in Open and Flexible Schooling.
ICOFE, 2014, Open University of Hong Kong (OUHK).
Khan, Y (2014): Developing Theoretical Framework for Research in Open and Flexible Learning
Environment in ICT-rich Environment: A New Trend in Educational Research. Program
proceeding ICOFE (2014), Open University of Hong Kong.www.ouhk.edu.hk
Khan, Y (2014): Factors Affecting Blended Learning in Virtual Learning Environment Framework,
ICORE-IER (2016), University of The Punjab, Lahore.
Khan, Y (2015): Developing a Relativistic Framework for Open and Flexible Learning. A New Trend
in Educational Research. Journal of Mathematics and System Sciences, David Publisher,
USA.
Khan, Y (2016): Emerging Factors Affecting Blended Learning in Virtual Learning Environment
Framework. Sino-US English Teaching, March 2016, Vol. 13, No. 3, 197-203
doi:10.17265/1539-8072/2016.03.004, David Publisher, USA.
Khan, Y & Yousaf, H (2016): Developing Web Textbooks for Teacher Education in Pakistan: An
Innovative Approach for effective e-learning. David Publishing Company. US-China
Education Review A. December, 2016. Vol 6. No.12
11
Knowles, M (1970): The modern practice of adult education. New York: McMillan Publishing
Company
Kurt-Lewin (2007). Principles of topological psychology. London & New York: McGraw Hell
Lui, M (2004). Examining the performance and attitudes of sixth graders during their use of a
problem-based hypermedia learning environment. Computer in human behaviour 20 (3), 357
– 379 Morrison, A & McIntyre, D (1967). The educational opinion of teachers in training.
British Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology Vol. 6 (1)
Patsula, P.J (1999). Applying Learning theories to online Instructional design. Sookmyung women’s
University, Seoul. http://www.gwu.edu/tip/
Piaget, J (1926). The language and thought of the child (1st Edition). New York: Harcourt Brace,
Piaget, J (1985). The Principles of genetic epistemology. London: Rough ledge & Kegan Panli
Rosenshine, B (1976). Recent research on teaching behaviours and student achievement. Journal of
Teacher Education 27 (1), 61 – 64
Rosenshine, B & Meister, C (1994). Reciprocal teaching: A review of research. Review of
Educational Research 64, 4788 – 5306
Skinner, B.F (1968). The technology of teaching. New York: Application-century-crofts
Smit, B.O (1983). Elements of teaching. Columbia Teachers College Press
Stone, E & Morrison, S (1972). Teaching practice, problems and perspectives. London: Methuevy &
Co Ltd
Vygotsky, L (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processers (Ed. By
M.Cole, V, john-Steiner, S.Scriber & E.Souberman). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Wolfolk, A (2004). Educational psychology (IX Edition). New Delhi: Pearson Education
Xong, X (2002). The implications of constructivism theory on teaching. Research on Education
Tsinghua University No.1, P.132