Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report
Project Number: 49019-001December 2017
People's Republic of China: Sustainable Management of Fly Ash from Municipal Solid Waste Incineration
Prepared by the China Urban Construction Design & Research Co., Ltd. Beijing, the People's Republic of China
For the Tianjin Municipal Government
This consultant’s report does not necessarily reflect the views of ADB or the Government concerned, and ADB and the Government cannot be held liable for its contents. For project preparatory technical
assistance: All the views expressed herein may not be incorporated into the proposed project’s design.
CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS (as of 20 December 2017)
Currency Unit CNY1.00
$1.00
– yuan (CNY)= $ 0.1514= CNY6.6036
ABBREVIATIONS
ADBAPCBABFBS ENCENCFRDOCDTECEIAEPEPAEUEWCFAFTGBGHGHMAHRGC/HRMS
HxCDDsJISMDLMSWMSWIPNDNRAODPRCUNEPUSA
– Asian Development Bank– Air Pollution Control– Bottom Ash– Bag Filter– British Standard European Norm– European Committee for Standardization– Code of Federal Regulations– Dissolved Organic Carbon– Deformation Temperature– European Commission– Enzyme Immuno Assay– Environmental Protection– Environmental Protection Agency– European Union– European Waste Catalogue– Fly Ash– Flow Temperature– Guo Biao (Chinese National Standard)– Greenhouse Gas– Hot-Mix Asphalt– High-Resolution Gas Chromatography Combined
with High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry– Hexachlorodibenzodioxins– Japanese Industrial Standard– Laboratory Detection Limit– Municipal Solid Waste– Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Plant– No detection– National Rivers Association– Absorbance Values– People's Republic of China– United National Environment Programme– United States of America
RCRARDFSTTATCLPTDSWACXPS
– Resource Conservation and Recovery Act– Refuse Derived Fuel– Softening Temperature– Technical Assistance– Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure– Total Dissolved Solids– Waste Acceptance Criteria– X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
NOTE
In this report, "$" refers to United States dollars.
Asian Development Bank
TA-8963 PRC: Sustainable Management of Fly Ash from Municipal Solid Waste Incineration (49019-001)
Final Report
China Urban Construction Design & Research Institute Co., Ltd.
Dec 20, 2017
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Contents
I
CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS......................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ......................................................................................................... viiiList of Tables ............................................................................................................ xCHAPTER1 PROJECT INTRODUCTION .................................................................... 1
1.1 TA Background .......................................................................................................................
1.2 TA Objective ............................................................................................................................
1.3 TA Scope and Activities........................................................................................................
1.4 TA Deliverables ......................................................................................................................
CHAPTER2 STATUS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FLY ASH IN PRC ................................................................. 4
2.1 Municipal Solid Waste Management Status and Development Process in China
2.1.1 Sources and Generation of Municipal Solid Waste ...........................................
2.1.2 Components and Physicochemical Properties of MSW ..................................
2.1.3 Characteristics of Rural Solid Waste in China ....................................................
2.1.4 Comparative Analysis on Characteristics of Solid Waste between China and Abroad ..................................................................................................................................
2.1.5 Treatment and Disposal of MSW .........................................................................
2.2 Generation and Characteristics of MSWI Fly Ash .......................................................
2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of MSWI Bottom Ash ......................
2.2.2 Characteristics of Generation and Pollution of MSWI Fly Ash .....................
2.2.3 Basic Physicochemical Properties of MSWI Fly Ash ......................................
2.2.4 Heavy Metal Leaching ............................................................................................
2.2.5 Influence of Incinerator Type on Fly Ash Characteristics...............................
2.2.6 Fly Ash Properties of Diverse Flue Gas Treatment Techniques ...................
2.2.7 Effect of Combustion Conditions on Fly Ash Properties ................................
2.2.8 Impact Prediction of Waste Classification on Fly Ash.....................................
2.3 Environmental Impact of Fly Ash .....................................................................................
2.3.1 Pollution of Soluble Salts .......................................................................................
2.3.2 Pollution of Heavy Metals ......................................................................................
2.3.3 Pollution of Dioxins..................................................................................................
2.3.4 Environmental Impact and Control of Secondary Pollution Caused by Transportation Littering of Fly Ash .................................................................................
2.4 Summary ...............................................................................................................................
CHAPTER3 SURVEY AND ANALYSIS OF FLY ASH FROM TYPICAL INCINERATORS IN PRC............................................................................................. 46
3.1 Selection of Typical Incinerators ......................................................................................
3.2 Survey Content .................................................................................................................... 3.3 Sampling and Analysis of Fly Ash ...................................................................................
3.3.1 Fly Ash Sampling .....................................................................................................
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Contents
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3.3.2 Test Methods ............................................................................................................
3.4 Results and Analysis ..........................................................................................................
3.4.1 Fly Ash Sample Numbering ..................................................................................
3.4.2 Result Analysis .........................................................................................................
3.5 Summary ...............................................................................................................................
CHAPTER4 TECHNOLOGIES FOR REUSE, TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF MSW INCINERATION FLY ASH ................................................................................. 67
4.1 Fly Ash Treatment and Disposal Technologies and Reuse Methods ......................
4.1.1 Fly Ash Treatment and Disposal Technologies ................................................
4.1.2 Utilization and Utilization Methods of Fly Ash Resource................................
4.1.3 Fly Ash Pretreatment Technology before Treatment/Disposal ..................... 4.2 Environmental Impacts of Fly Ash Disposal Technologies ........................................
4.2.1 Fly Ash Disposal Technologies.............................................................................
4.2.2 Safe and Sustainable Utilization ..........................................................................
4.3 Cost-benefit Analysis of Typical Technologies..............................................................
4.3.1 Cost-benefit Analysis of Products........................................................................
4.3.2 Environmental Economic Benefits ......................................................................
4.4 Management Status of Municipal Solid Wastes Incineration Fly Ash in China ....
4.4.1 Application Status of MSW Incineration Fly Ash’s Safe Disposal Technology ................................................................................................................................................
4.4.2 The Development of and Problems Faced by the Treatment and Disposal of MSW Incineration Fly Ash in China ........................................................................
4.5 Summary .............................................................................................................................
CHAPTER5 EXISTING POLICIES AND REGULATIONS SYSTEM IN CHINA ...... 1165.1 Regulations on MSWI Fly Ash Management in PRC ...............................................
5.1.1 State Regulations ..................................................................................................
5.1.2 Local Regulations ..................................................................................................
5.2 Environment Supervision Systems and Management Organization Frames of MSW Incineration Fly Ash in China......................................................................................
5.2.1 Ministry of Environmental Protection ................................................................
5.2.2 Local Competent Administrative Departments of Environmental Protection ..............................................................................................................................................
5.3 Standards and Systems about MSW Incineration Fly Ash......................................
5.3.1 MSW Incineration Standards ..............................................................................
5.3.2 Standards for Disposal of MSW Incineration Fly Ash ...................................
5.3.3 Standards for Comprehensive Utilization of MSW Incineration Fly Ash ..
5.4. Summary ............................................................................................................................
CHAPTER6 ADVANCED INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE OF MSWI FLY ASH MANAGEMENT 157
6.1 Japan ....................................................................................................................................
6.1.1 MSW Incinerated and MSWIP Fly Ash Generation and Characteristics..
6.1.2 Mainstream Technologies and Application ......................................................
6.1.3 Policies, Laws, Regulations and Standards ....................................................
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Contents
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6.1.4 Experiences and Lessons ...................................................................................
6.2 Europe..................................................................................................................................
6.2.1 MSW Incinerated and MSWIP Fly Ash Generation and Characteristics..
6.2.2 Mainstream Technologies and Application ......................................................
6.2.3 Policies, Laws, Regulations and Standards ....................................................
6.2.4 Experiences and Lessons ...................................................................................
6.3 United States ......................................................................................................................
6.3.1 MSW Incinerated and MSWIP Fly Ash Generation and Characteristics..
6.3.2 Mainstream Technologies and Application ......................................................
6.3.3 Policies, Laws, Regulations and Standards ....................................................
6.3.4 Experiences and Lessons ...................................................................................
6.4 Summary .............................................................................................................................
CHAPTER7 CHALLENGES FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MSWI FLY ASH IN THE PRC ...................................................................................................... 235
7.1 Comparative Analysis of Gap between International and Domestic Technologies ......................................................................................................................................................
7.1.1 Japan ........................................................................................................................
7.1.2 USA...........................................................................................................................
7.1.3 EU .............................................................................................................................
7.1.4 China ........................................................................................................................
7.2 Technical Challenge ..........................................................................................................
7.2.1 Cement Solidification ............................................................................................
7.2.2 Chemical Stabilization ..........................................................................................
7.2.3 High Temperature Heat Treatment and Solidification Technology .............
7.2.4 Safe Landfill Disposal ........................................................................................... 7.3 Policies and Regulations Challenge .............................................................................
7.3.1 Problems in the Solid Waste Law ......................................................................
7.3.2 Unsound Standards, Norms ...............................................................................
7.4 Summary .............................................................................................................................
CHAPTER 8 ASSESSMENT OF TREATMENT/DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR MSWI FLY ASH 248
8.1 Qualitative Evaluation of Different Treatment Options .............................................
8.2 Quantitative Comparison and Selection of Different Treatment Options .............
8.2.1 Volumetric Reduction Efficiency.........................................................................
8.2.2 Environmental Risks of Treatment / Disposal................................................. 8.2.3 Control Efficiency of Total Heavy Metal Leaching in Product .....................
8.2.4 The Economic Value of Resource Recovery ..................................................
8.3 Summary .............................................................................................................................
CHAPTER 9 TECHNICAL SUGGESTIONS ON THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MSW INCINERATION FLY ASH IN CHINA ............................ 261
9.1 Fly Ash Management and Technology Selection Principles ...................................
9.2 Technology Suggestions Suitable for China’s Current Situation ...........................
9.2.1 Solidification and Stabilization – Sanitary Landfill .........................................
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Contents
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9.2.2 Sintering Technology ............................................................................................
9.2.3 Cement Kiln Co-treatment ................................................................................... 9.2.4 High-temperature Melting ....................................................................................
9.2.5 Heavy Metal Recovery .........................................................................................
9.2.6 Colloidal Filling and Mining Collaborative Resource Utilization Technology ..............................................................................................................................................
9.2.7 Fly Ash Source Reduction Technology .............................................................
9.2.8 Pollutant Reduction Technology - Waste Classification Technology .........
9.3 Prediction on the Environmental Impact ...................................................................... 9.3.1 Mitigation Measures on Environmental Pollutions Caused by Poor Management ..................................................................................................................... 9.3.2 The Environmental Impact of MSWI Fly Ash Storage / Treatment and Disposal Process .............................................................................................................
9.3.3 MSW Incineration Fly Ash Products’ Environmental Influence ..................
9.4 Expectations on the Economic Benefits of the Optimal Practicable Technology’s Application..................................................................................................................................
9.4.1 Cost of Technical Application ..............................................................................
9.4.2 Analysis on Product Value and Market Demand............................................
CHAPTER 10 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT STANDARD AND POLICY SUGGESTIONS OF MSWI FLY ASH IN CHINA ...................................................... 282
10.1 Standard Suggestions....................................................................................................
10.2 Technical and Environmental Standards System of MSW Incineration Fly Ash ......................................................................................................................................................
10.2.1 Standard Draft for MSW Incineration Fly Ash’s Vitrification......................
10.2.2 Technical Specifications for Wastes Incineration Fly Ash’s Safe Disposal and Technical Specifications for MSW Incineration Fly Ash’s Stability...............
10.3 Policy and Management Recommendations............................................................
10.3.1 Recent Policy Recommendations ...................................................................
10.3.2 Future Policy Recommendations ....................................................................
10.3.3 Management Framework Recommendations ..............................................
10.3.4 Recommendations for Regulatory System and Framework .....................
10.3.5 Implementation Plan and Safeguarding Measures .....................................
10.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................
CHAPTER11 DEVELOPMENT OF MSWIP DATABASE AND SERVICE PLATFORM........................................................................................................ 297
11.1 Network Platform Environment Both at Home and Abroad ...................................
11.2 Network Platform Foundation Information Description ..........................................
11.2.1 Project Implementation Progress Statement ................................................
11.2.2 Functional Requirements Project Implementation ......................................
11.2.3 Project Implementation Basic Safety Instructions .......................................
11.3 Instructions of Network Platform Front Shows .........................................................
11.3.1 Instructions of Network Platform Front Designs ..........................................
11.3.2 Web Platform Front Page Description ............................................................
11.4 Project Facilities Management Platform ....................................................................
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Contents
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11.4.1 Network Platform Background Basic Information Description..................
11.4.2 Network Platform Background Instructions ...................................................
11.4.3 Home Page Navigation Management ............................................................
11.5 Test Report ........................................................................................................................ 11.6 Summary ...........................................................................................................................
CHAPTER12 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................. 30812.1 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................
12.2 Recommendations ..........................................................................................................
12.2.1 Strengthening whole-process supervision ....................................................
12.2.2 Enhancing Capability of Utilization and Disposal ........................................ 12.2.3 Raising the Level of Utilization and Disposal ............................................... 12.2.4 Strengthening Source Reduction ....................................................................
References ........................................................................................................ 315Appendices ........................................................................................................ 321
Appendix 1 Summary of Workshops ...................................................................................
Appendix 2 Summary of Surveys .........................................................................................
Appendix 3 Summary of International Study Tour ............................................................
Appendix 4 Draft Technical Specification and Policy for Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Fly Ash..................................................................................................................
Appendix 5 The Engineering Manager System of Waste Processing Plant and Personnel Training in Japan ..................................................................................................
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Abbreviations
vi
ABBREVIATIONS
ADB Asian Development Bank
APC Air Pollution Control
BA Bottom Ash
BF Bag Filter
BS EN British Standard European Norm
CEN European Committee for Standardization
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
DOC Dissolved Organic Carbon
DT Deformation Temperature
EC European Commission
EIA Enzyme Immuno Assay
EP Environmental Protection
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EU European Union
EWC European Waste Catalogue
FA Fly Ash
FT Flow Temperature
GB Guo Biao (Chinese National Standard)
GHG Greenhouse Gas
HMA Hot-Mix Asphalt
HRGC/HRMS High-Resolution Gas Chromatography Combined with High-
Resolution Mass Spectrometry
HxCDDs Hexachlorodibenzodioxins
JIS Japanese Industrial Standard
MDL Laboratory Detection Limit
MSW Municipal Solid Waste
MSWIP Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Plant
ND No detection
NRA National Rivers Association
OD Absorbance Values
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Abbreviations
vii
PRC People’s Republic of China
UNEP United National Environment Programme
USA United States of America
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RDF Refuse Derived Fuel
ST Softening Temperature
TA Technical Assistance
TCLP Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
WAC Waste Acceptance Criteria
XPS X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
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List of Figures
Figure 2-1 MSW Collection Amount in China Increases in Terms of Time
Figure 2-2 China's Rural Domestic Waste Components: (a)The Main Types of Rural
Domestic Waste; (b) Rural Domestic Waste Components
Figure 2-3 Guangzhou Likeng Waste Incineration Plant
Figure 2-4 Shanghai Laogang Wastes Incineration Power Plant
Figure 2-5 Number of MSW Treatment Facilities in PRC
Figure 2-6 Treatment Capacity of Different MSW Treatment Facilities
Figure 2-7 Treatment Capacity of Different Treatment Methods in China (2015)
Figure 2-8 Dry/Semi-dry Fly Ash Treatment and Purification Technique
Figure 2-9 Fly Ash Production Amount from 2010 to 2015
Figure 2-10 Fly Ash Photo
Figure 2-11 Size Distribution of Fly Ash
Figure2-12 Chemical Combining Morphology of Heavy Metals in Incineration Fly Ash
Figure 2-13 XRD Pattern of Fly Ash
Figure 2-14 The Main Composition Distribution of Different Types of Fly Ash: (a) Main
Components Distribution of Grate Boiler Fly Ash; (b) Main Components
Distribution of Fluidized Bed Fly Ash
Figure 2-15 Cl Content of Grate Boiler/Fluidized Bed Fly Ash
Figure 2-16 SO3 Content of Grate Boiler/Fluidized Bed Fly Ash
Figure 2-17 K2O Content of Grate Boiler /Fluidized Bed Fly Ash
Figure 2-16 Na2O Content of Grate Boiler /Fluidized Bed Fly Ash
Figure 2-18 Dry/Semi-dry Fly Ash Treatment and Purification Technique
Figure 3-1 Total Content of Heavy Metals in Incineration Fly Ash from Mechanical Grate
Furnace In Different Areas
Figure 3-2 Dioxin Toxic Equivalent in Incineration Fly Ash from the Same Type of
Incinerators in Different Areas
Figure 3-3 Total Content of Heavy Metals in Incineration Fly Ash from Mechanical Grate
Boilers and Fluidized Beds in Tianjin Area
Figure 3-4 Total Content of Heavy Metals in Incineration Fly Ash from Mechanical Grate
Boilers and Fluidized Beds in Jiangsu Area
Figure 3-5 Total Content of Heavy Metals in Incineration Fly Ash from Mechanical Grate
TA-8963 PRC Final Report List of Tables
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Boilers and Fluidized Beds in Zhejiang Area
Figure 3-6 Dioxin Toxic Equivalent in Incineration Fly Ash from Mechanical Grate Boiler
and Fluidized Bed in the Same Area
Figure 3-7 Impact of Different Flue Gas Treatment Processes on Total Content of
Heavy Metals in Fly Ash
Figure 3-8 Impact of Different Flue Gas Treatment Processes on Total Content of
Heavy Metals and Dioxin Toxic Equivalent in Fly Ash
Figure 3-9 3,2,3,7,8-TCDD Toxicity Response Value (pg • tube-1)
Figure 3-10 PCDD/F Toxicity Response Value (pg • tube-1)
Figure4-1 Cement Plant Fly Ash Pretreatment and Cement Kiln Co-processing
Figure4-2 Microwave Detoxification Demonstration Project Process Chart
Figure 4-3 Dioxins Low Temperature Pyrolysis Process Flow Chart
Figure 4-4 Guangzhou Likeng Waste Incineration Plant
Figure 4-5 Shanghai Laogang Wastes Incineration Power Plant
Figure 4-6 Shenzhen Laohukeng Wastes Incineration Plant
Figure 4-7 Beijing Liulihe Cement Co., Ltd.
Figure 4-8 Sintering Fly Ash Sintering Process Flow Chart
Figure 4-9 Tianjin Yiming Environmental Technology Co., Ltd.
Figure 4-10 Shanghai Plasma Co-disposal Flow Chart
Figure 4-11 Relation Between Fly Ash Generation Amount and Hazardous Wastes
Landfill Capacity Process Flow Chart of Beijing Liulihe
Figure 4-12 Relation Between Fly Ash Generation Amount and MSW Landfill Capacity
Figure 4-13 Beijing Building Materials Group
Figure 6-1 BF + Wet-type System
Figure 6-2 Dry-type + BF System
Figure 6-3 Ash and Residues Generated during MSW Incineration
Figure 6-4 Classification of ash treatment technologies
Figure 6-5 Differential Thermal Analysis
Figure 6-6 Treatment and Recycling Flow of Waste Incineration Ash
Figure 6-7 A Thermal Dechlorination Device for Fly Ash
Figure 6-8 Treatment Flow of Chubu Recycle Co., Ltd
Figure 6-9 Annual Average of Material Balance in Resource Recovery of Chubu
Figure 6-10 Concept Diagram of Eco-Cement Manufacturing
Figure 6-11 Eco-Cement System Flow
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Figure 6-12 Tama Area Waste to Eco-Cement Plant
Figure 6-13 Processing Flow of Non-ferrous Recovery at Smelter
Figure 6-14 Control Flow of Fly Ash (Soot and Dust)
Figure 6-15 Dioxins Control Standards for Fly Ash Landfilling and Final Disposal Site
Figure 6-16 Treatment of Municipal Waste in European Countries in 2014
Figure 6-17 MSW Generation Rates, 1960 to 2014
Figure 6-18 Management of MSW in the United States, 2014
Figure 8-1 Different Disposal Technologies on the Fly Ash Volume Reduction Effect
Figure 8-2 Environmental Risk Sources for the Co-processing of Fly Ash and Cement
Kilns
Figure 8-3 Effect of Different Fly Ash Disposal Technologies on Total Heavy Metal
Leaching Products
Figure 10-1 Flowchart of the Substances and Energy Circulation
Figure 10-2 Comparison of Average Heavy Metal Content in Fly Ash from China and
Japan
Figure 10-3 Cost Structure for Fly Ash Disposal in Japan
List of Tables
Table 2-1 Physical Components of MSW in Major Cities of PRC and Abroad
Table 2-2 Content of Common MSW Compositions
Table 2-3 pH, Moisture Content, Value Heat and Ash Content of Common MSW
Table 2-4 Contrast of Domestic Waste between Rural Area and City
Table2-5 Domestic Waste Component Comparison at Home and Abroad
Table 2-6 Comparison of Three Waste Treatment Methods
Table 2-7 Melting Point and Boiling Point of Several Heavy Metal and Their
Compounds(℃)
Table 2-8 The Physical Composition of MSWI Bottom Ash from Somewhere
Table2-9 Melting Temperature Test Result of Fly Ash (℃)
Table 2-10 Chemical Compositions of Fly Ash(%)
Table 2-11 Heavy Metal Content of Fly Ash(mg/kg)
Table 2-12 Chemical Components of Fly Ash from Different Plants in Different Period
Table 2-13 Impact of Waste Classification on Heavy Metal Content in Fly Ash/Bottom
Ash mg/kg
TA-8963 PRC Final Report List of Tables
xi
Table 3-1 Selected Incineration Plants For Fly Ash Sampling Survey
Table 3-2 Analysis Results of Total Content of Heavy Metals and Dioxin Equivalent in
Fly Ash Samples from Typical Incineration Plants
Table 3-3 Municipal Solid Waste Components in the Northern Typical Area
Table 3-4 Heavy Metal Content and Dioxin Toxicity Equivalent of Incineration Fly Ash
in the Northern Typical Area
Table 3-5 Municipal Solid Waste Components in the Eastern Typical Area
Table 3-6 Heavy Metal Content and Dioxin Toxicity Equivalent of Incineration Fly Ash
in the Eastern Typical Area
Table 3-7 Municipal Solid Waste Components in the Middle Typical Area
Table 3-8 Heavy Metal Content and Dioxin Toxicity Equivalent of Incineration Fly Ash
in the Middle Typical Area
Table 3-9 Municipal Solid Waste Components in the Southern Typical Area
Table 3-10 Heavy Metal Content and Dioxin Toxicity Equivalent of Incineration Fly Ash
in the Southern Typical Area
Table 4-1 Comprehensive Comparison Between Incineration Fly Ash Treatment
Technologies
Table 4-2 Comparative Analysis on Diverse Application Approaches of MSW
Incineration Fly Ash
Table 4-3 Boiling Points of Heavy Metals and Their Chloride
Table 4-4 Overview of environmental impact of different treatment
Table 4-5 The Daily Fly Ash Production and Disposal Technologies in Some Areas
Table 4-6 Leached Pollutants Concentration Limits of Fly Ash’s Cement Solidification
Table 4-6 Pollutant Concentration Limits of Stabilized Leach Liquid Prescribed by
Landfill Pollution Control Standards of Municipal Solid Wastes (GB16889-2008)
Table 4-8 Referential Limits of Heavy Metal Content from Raw Materials in the Kiln
Table 4-9 Maximal Heavy Metal Adding Volume
Table 4-10 Heavy Metal Content Limits from Cement Clinkers
Table 4-11 Heavy Metal Content Limits Leached from Cement Clinkers
Table 6-1 Features of Exhaust Gas Treatment Flow
Table 6-2 Residue Generation Mechanism and its Properties
Table 6-3 Fly Ash Generation Ratio
Table 6-4 Measurement Result of Heavy Metals in Soot and Dusts (unit: mg/kg)
Table 6-5 Exhaust Gas Treatment Methods of Incineration Plants under Survey
TA-8963 PRC Final Report List of Tables
xii
Table 6-6 Properties of Fly Ash of Incineration Plants in Tokyo Metropolitan Area
Table 6-7 Thermofusion Characteristics
Table 6-8 Result of Crucible Test (unit:%)
Table 6-9 Annual Average Value of Bottom ash, Sludge and Fly Ash Generated from
Incineration Plants in Tokyo Metropolitan Area
Table 6-10 Analysis Example of Fly Ash Properties
Table 6-11 Comparison of Notified Four Methods
Table 6-12 Ash Melting Method
Table 6-13 Treatment Methods of Incineration Fly Ash in Japan
Table 6-14 Recycled Amount of Fly Ash Estimated Based on Statistics of Japan
Table 6-15 Ministerial Ordinance for Specific Standard
Table 6-16 Technical Requirements for Fly Ash Treatment Facility, Sintering Facility
Table 6-17 Technical Requirements for Municipal Waste Final Disposal Site
Table 6-18 Changes of Incineration Treatment in European Countries
Table 6-19 Ranges of Total Content of Elements in MSWI Residues
Table 6-20 Leaching Limit Values for Hazardous Waste Acceptable at Landfills for Non-
hazardous Waste
Table 6-21 Leaching Limit Values for Waste Acceptable at Landfills for Hazardous
Waste
Table 6-22 Limit Values for Waste Acceptance in Landfill, as Per Decree N. 36/2003.
Parameter Unit Limit Value
Table 6-23 Limit Values in Eluate for Waste Acceptance in Landfill, as Per Decree N.
36/2003
Table 6-24 Emission Limits from the Netherlands Regulation as Part of the Soil Quality
Decree
Table 6-25 Waste Acceptance Criteria for Non-hazardous Mineral Waste in Denmark
Table 6-26 Limit Values for Content and Leached Amounts in Statutory Order
1662/2010
Table 6-27 Emission Limits from the Netherlands Regulation as Part of the Soil Quality
Decree
Table 6-28 Limit Values for Compliance Leaching Test for Granular Waste from Council
Decision annex 2003/33/EC)
Table 6-29 Limit Values for Compliance Leaching Test for Monolithic Waste from
Council Decision annex 2003/33/EC)
TA-8963 PRC Final Report List of Tables
xiii
Table 6-30 Air Pollution Emission Control Unit in MSWIs
Table 6-31 Maximum Concentration of Contaminants for the Toxicity Characteristic
Table 6-32 Disposal or Reuse Technology of Fly Ash
Table 7-1 Disposal Situation of Incineration Fly Ash in Developed Countries
Table 8-1 Comparison and Selection of Different Fly Ash Disposal Schemes
Table 9-1 The Basic Situation of Heavy Metal Content in Fly Ash from China and Japan
Table 10-1 Heavy Metals Quality Standards of Co-processing Outcomes (Product)
Table 10-2 Standards for Air Pollution Control
Table 10-3 Leaching Toxicity Limits Requirements of Solid Wastes’ Vitrification
Products
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter I
1
CHAPTER1 PROJECT INTRODUCTION
1.1 TA Background
1. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) incineration is a latecomer in the PRC’swaste treatment market with the first plant built in 1989. However, PRC has
devoted in strengthening the construction of MSWIPs since then. The number
and capacity of MSW incineration plant (MSWIP) have been rising dramatically.
In 2015, there were 220 plants under operation, with total capacity of 216,000t/d.
Meanwhile, it’s estimated that the total number could be over 500 by the end of 2020.
2. Although incineration can reduce the volume of the solid waste dramatically
and get additional benefits such as electricity and heat production, it leaves
large amounts of fly ash and bottom ash. The percentage of fly ash generation
by weight of treated waste is about 3-4%, and that of bottom ash is about 20%.
Further reuse and/or sustainable final disposal are required for the fly ash and
bottom ash. In the PRC, pollution control of the MSWIPs and sustainable
management of bottom ash from MSWIPs have already been studied and
applied. However, sustainable use and final disposal of fly ash remain a
challenge. According to present standards such as Solid Waste Incineration
Pollution Control Standard (GB18485-2014) and Technical Code for Projects
of Municipal Waste Incineration (CJJ90-2009), fly ash is categorized as
hazardous waste and treated depending on waste composition and incineration
process. Few standards and regulations are made to the management and
reuse of fly ash. As a result, development of technical guidance,
standardization, and administrative regulations are urgently needed for fly ash
management in the PRC.
3. Solutions to safe management and reuse of fly ash and bottom ash have
been successfully developed and mainstreamed in countries such as Japan,
Germany, the United States, the Republic of Korea, and the United Kingdom.
Thus, fly ash policies and practices in these countries can be lessons to the
PRC MSWIPs.
1.2 TA Objective
4. Through the implementation of this TA project, it is expected to i) set up
technical standards for safe capture, processing, reuse, and sustainable
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter I
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disposal of fly ash; ii) give policy recommendations and implementation action
plan for safe reuse and sustainable disposal of fly ash; iii) improve capacity on
technologies and to establish an information and service center on advanced,
sustainable MSWIP fly ash management in the PRC.
1.3 TA Scope and Activities
1) Project inception
Establishing a consulting expert team with rich experiences in relevant technical,
environmental, policy and regulatory programs;
Setting up the TA research frame and work plan of the project;
Drafting the inception report.
2) Development of technical standards for safe capture, processing, reuse,
and sustainable disposal of fly ash from MSWIPs
To assess state-of-the-art and proven technology and practices on fly ash
processing and reuse in the international context through literature review, web-
based resources and interviews, data collection and review, and demand analysis
for fly ash reuse materials;
To assess and review current application of technologies and practices in the PRC
on managing fly ash;
To develop draft technical standards for methods of safe and sustainable capture,
processing, reuse, and safe final disposal of fly ash;
3) Preparation of policy recommendations and implementation action
plan for safe reuse and sustainable disposal of fly ash from MSWIPs
To review and analyze policies and regulations in the international context and
compare with lessons learned for the PRC;
To develop draft policy recommendations for safe and sustainable reuse and
disposal of fly ash;
To prepare draft implementation action plan, including institutional framework,
rules, and responsibilities of the participating agencies.
4) Improvement of capacity on technologies and establishing an
information and service center on advanced, sustainable MSWIP fly ash
management in the PRC
To organize and carry out workshop for discussions and knowledge sharing on TA
findings with academies, MSWIP operators and regulators;
To train on and assist in developing a web-based database, and an information
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter I
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platform for sustainable fly ash management in the PRC;
To organize final dissemination workshop and deliver TA findings to MSWIP
operators and regulators.
1.4 TA Deliverables
Based on the activities above, the following outputs will be delivered:
Inception report and workshop
Interim report and workshop
Draft final report and workshop
Dissemination workshop
Final report
Contents of the final report include:
Summary of TA implementation
Overview of current management status and characteristics of MSWI fly ash in
PRC
Overview of technologies and policies for reuse, recycle, treatment and disposal
of MSWI fly ash in PRC
Investigation and analysis of MSWI fly ash of typical incinerators in PRC
International best practices in sustainable management of MSWI fly ash
Challenges and recommendations for sustainable management of MSWI fly ash
in PRC
Web-based database and service platform for management of MSWI fly ash
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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CHAPTER2 STATUS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FLY ASH
IN PRC
2.1 Municipal Solid Waste Management Status and
Development Process in China
2.1.1 Sources and Generation of Municipal Solid Waste
5. Municipal solid waste (MSW) refers to solid waste generated from daily life or any
activities that offer services for our daily life, as well as others prescribed by laws and
administrative regulations. It mainly includes kitchen waste, packaging materials,
wasted containers, leaves and weeds, wasted paper, dregs, night-soil, etc. On the
basis of its diverse sources, MSW can be classified into three categories- domestic
household waste, street cleaning waste and corporate waste. Acting as the main part
of household waste occupying the most complicated composition, domestic household
waste originates from those thrown by residents in their daily life. It mainly includes
easily degradable organics, ashes, sediments, plastics, paper fabrics and metals.
Street cleaning waste usually appears while cleaning the roads and streets, whose
composition resembles that of domestic waste but with much more sediments,
deadwood and defoliation as well as packaging materials, and with less easily
degradable organics and lower moisture content. corporate waste refers to waste
originating from the daily life and work of authorities, communities, schools and service
industries. The composition is characterized as simply-composed, low moisture
content, higher heat value and combustible, also varying with its different emergences.
6. It can be seen from above that MSW is an inevitable outcome of social
development and human life. The higher economic development and living standards’ improvement, the more MSW gradually produced. Statistics shows that in 2015, the
collection amount of MSW in China reached 191 million tons with a general collection
rate of 80%-100%. Figure 2-1 illustrates the progressive increase of China’s national waste collection amount from 1998 to 2015. It can be seen that from 1998 to 2009, the
national waste collection had increased from the original 113 million tons to 191 million
tons, hitting an average rate of about 4% year-on-year.
7. The main factors that affect MSW’s production and components include natural
conditions, climate conditions, seasonal variations, urban population, economic
development level, household income and consumption, living habits, urban
household gas rate, geographical conditions, etc. The higher urban economic
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development and living standards’ improvement becomes, the more significantly the components of MSW will change - with an average organic content’s progressive ratio of about 7%, among which, the proportion between food waste and its organic content
will increase correspondingly. According to the statistical data, the content of food
waste in Beijing reaches 37% while that in Tianjin is 54%, Shanghai of 59%, Shenyang
of 62%, Shenzhen of 57%, Guangzhou of 57% and Jinan of 41%.
Figure 2-1 MSW Collection Amount in China Increases in Terms of Time
2.1.2 Components and Physicochemical Properties of MSW
8. MSW is a complexity composed of matters characterized by complex components,
high organic content and poor homogeneity, mainly including kitchen food, vegetation,
plastics, glasses, textiles, paper, metals, rubbers, sediments and other waste. Weight
percentage (the wet basis) is usually adopted to represent MSW’s physical components and its physicochemical properties parameters include moisture content,
amount-weight, elemental composition, devolatilization, heat value, etc., which varies
with the change of the property and proportion of waste components. Table 2-1, Table
2-2 and Table 2-3 illustrate MSW’s physical components, the chemical elements content of common waste components and its physicochemical properties in major
cities at home and abroad.
9. It can be seen from Table 2-1 that MSW’s organic content is much higher than its total inorganic content, reaching over 80%. Its physical components greatly differ in
diverse regions - MSW’s paper content is relatively higher in Europe and America while food content occupies a larger proportion (64%-84%) among the total MSW’s organic content in Beijing, Shanghai and Dalian. The predominant features of MSW in China
are high food content, high moisture content as well as high production.
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Table 2-1 Physical Components of MSW in Major Cities of PRC and Abroad
Components (%) New
York Paris London Beijing Shanghai Dalian
Food 22 00 28.80 28.00 56.10 58.55 73.39
Paper 44.80 25.30 37.00 11.76 6.68 3.37
Glasses 11.60 13.10 10.80 3.84 4.05 2.56
Metals 8.00 4.10 6.00 1.69 2.00 0.51
Plastics 5.10 14.30 5.20 12.60 11.84 5.66
Textiles 4.00 7.10 3.40 2.75 2.26 1.63
Inorganic Matters 4.50 7.30 9.60 8.32 7.54 4.14
10. Table 2-2 shows that the chemical elements constitution of MSW’s components are significantly distinctive, with C, H and O as its main elements and less N, CI as
well as S. During MSW’s biological treatment process, organic C and N offer abundant nutrition and energy for microorganism; while in the incineration treatment process,
MSW with higher CI and S content will produce dioxins and sulfur oxides and cause
terrible environmental pollution or much more fuel gas treatment expenses for pollution
reduction.
Table 2-2 Content of Common MSW Compositions
Name W(N) W(C) W(H) W(O) W(Cl) W(S)
Comprehensive
Waste 1.28 31.40 4.78 22.98 0.44 0.11
Paper 0.31 38.72 5.57 40.64 0.17 0.09
Textiles 0.66 43.33 5.91 41.35 0.23 0.10
Plastics/Rubbers 0.35 60.59 9.80 7.29 0.23 0.14
Woods and Bamboos 0.51 44.65 6.12 41.80 0.05 0.05
Leaves and Grasses 1.67 34.54 5.11 30.86 0.70 0.18
>15mm 1.79 26.48 3.56 22.44 0.42 0.12
15mm 0.80 16.96 1.92 15.37 0.14 0.06
11. It can also be seen from Table 2-3 that the wet basis’ low heat value of any components is far lower than the dry basis’ low heat value, which means moisture content has great influence on the waste’s low heat value - the higher the moisture
content is, the lower the heat value becomes. Besides, the waste of too low heat value
is not suitable or not beneficial for incineration treatment.
MSW’s physical components, chemical elements constitution, moisture content as well
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as its heat value determine its treatment and the judgement of resources utilization.
MSW with high moisture content and perishable food waste should choose the
biological treatment (anaerobic digestion) to dispose the waste and meanwhile
generating power or heating with methane’s heat energy. In case of high organic
content but low moisture content, MSW should be disposed in the way of pyrolysis or
incineration and generate power or heat with its heat energy.
Table 2-3 pH, Moisture Content, Value Heat and Ash Content of Common MSW
Components
pH, Moisture
Content Heat Value and Ash Content
pH Moisture
Content(%)
Dry Basis
Low Heat
Value(J/g)
Wet Basis
Low Heat
Value(J/g)
Dry Basis
Ash
Content(%)
Wet Basis
Ash
Content
(%)
General Waste 7.83 50.73 14653 4565 49.71 31.79
>15mm 7.78 55.99 13430 3874 58.51 24.29
15mm 8.02 38.25 7088 2972 80.88 48.31
Leaves and
Grasses 7.50 68.23 16840 3239 47.45 15.32
Paper —
— 43.50 19936 8409 23.33 11.13
Textile —
— 42.98 19022 7511 19.55 9.08
Plastics/Rubbers —
— 40.17 20848 11157 44.55 23.77
Woods and
Bamboos
—
— 22.51 23648 17057 17.37 12.84
2.1.3 Characteristics of Rural Solid Waste in China
12. The rural population of China accounts for 80% of the total population in the
country, and the amount of rural waste output is about 150 million tons annually. The
following is the Chinese Academy of Environmental Sciences in 2014 on China's rural
waste production and composition of the relevant statistics.
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2.1.3.1 Per Capita Production of Rural Solid Waste in China
13. With the constant development of economy, the income status of peasants in
China has been continuously improved, and the consumption patterns of peasants
have undergone significant changes. Thus, the composition and emission of rural
domestic waste have also formed different new features in the past. Industrial products
are increasing in the lives of peasants, and the composition and content differences
between domestic waste and urban areas are shrinking. In the meantime, the total
amount of domestic waste in rural areas has also increased year by year. The average
daily amount of domestic waste in rural areas is 0.8 kg per day, and the amount of
domestic waste in rural areas is nearly 300 million tons per year. In general, the
composition of domestic solid waste in rural areas is mainly affected by consumption
level of peasants, energy structure and seasonal changes.
14. The per capita amount of solid waste per capita varies widely in different regions,
with 0.77 kg / d in the east, 0.98 kg / d in the middle and 0.51 kg / d in the west, 0.66
kg / d in the south, and 1.01 kg / d in the north, which may be related to the economic
level and population distribution in different regions.
2.1.3.2 Composition of Rural Domestic Waste in China
(a) The Main Types of Rural Domestic Waste
Harmful Waste,
1.73%,
Inorganic Waste,
41.16%
Recyclable Waste,
18.67%
Organic Waste,
38.44%
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(b) Rural Domestic Waste Components
Figure 2-2 China's Rural Domestic Waste Components
15. Due to changes in people's consumption structure and income level, solid waste
components are also complex and volatile. The coarse component of the solid waste
component can be divided into four categories: organic, inorganic, recyclable waste,
and harmful waste. Subdivisions can be divided into kitchen waste, Ash residues,
paper, metal, glass, cloth, plastics and others. Figure 2-2(a) shows that the main types
of domestic solid waste in rural China are mainly organic and inorganic types, of which
38.44% are organic and 41.16% are inorganic, Followed by 18.67% recyclable waste,
and 1.73% harmful waste. Figure 2-2(b) shows that the domestic solid waste in rural
areas of China is mainly residual dirt with complex composition, accounting for 42.38%
of the total amount of waste, mainly including soil residue, fuel fly ash, construction
waste, etc., followed by kitchen waste, accounting for 35.97% of the total amount of
solid waste, whose ingredients are most complex, including leftovers, oil dirt, animal
and plant removal and so on. The remaining parts mainly include plastics 7.10%, paper
4.82%, cloth 2.86%, glass 2.45%, metal 0.62%, and other domestic waste 9.58%. The
content order of the components is ash> kitchen> plastics> other categories> paper>
glass> cloth> metal.
2.1.3.3 Comparison of Domestic Waste between Rural area and City in China
16. In the past, domestic waste in rural areas of China mainly consisted of vegetables,
post-dinner solid waste and paper-based products. However, with the rapid economic
development in China, living standards in rural areas also increased significantly in
recent years, thus leading to a great change of rural living habits. A variety of plastic
bags and disposables waste gradually increased, such as disposable items, old
clothes and all kinds of discarded small appliances and other substances not easy to
degrade.
Kitchen waste, 35.97
Ash residues, 42.38 Paper, 4.82
Metal, 0.62
Cloth, 2.86
Plastics, 7.10 Others, 9.58
Glass, 2.45
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Table 2-4 Contrast of Domestic Waste between Rural Area and City
Waste
Amount
Waste
Sourc
e
Waste
Component
Waste
Property
Transpor
tation
Difficulty
Environme
ntal
Awareness
Waste Impact Environmen
tal Digestion
Capacity
Current
Situation
Processing
Effect
City More, rapid
increasing
Centralized
Inorganic matters,
kitchen organic
and waste
Large
recovery
amount
Easy High,
awareness
of danger
Population,
economy, fuel,
consumption
structure, city
characteristics
Have no
ability to
digest within
the city
Centralized
processing
Harmless,
can prevent
secondary
pollution
Rural
Area
Less, rapid
increasing
Centralized
More organic and
inorganic , less
waste
More
available
matters
Difficult Poor, not
clear harm
Not enough
awareness of
harm
Outdoor have
some ability
to digest
No special
treatment
Destroy the
ecological
environment
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Table 2-4 compares the characteristics of municipal solid waste and rural household
waste in China. The characteristics of rural domestic waste are as follows: 1) The
output is rapidly increasing, and the domestic waste caused by the increase of
consumption also gradually increases; 2) The uneven distribution of waste resulted
from the uneven distribution of residents; 3) The composition is more and more
complex. There are various kinds of household waste in rural area. The proportion of
domestic waste varies greatly and varies constantly. It contains not only kitchen waste,
peel and crop stalks, but also various types of plastic bags that are difficult to degrade,
And other industrial, construction waste and some residual pesticides, used electrical
appliances and batteries; 4) Varying greatly with the seasons changing. There is a
clear difference in the number of domestic rubbish in different seasons, and the
number and composition of rubbish in each season has a stable regularity. These
reasons make the centralized management of rural household waste difficult.
2.1.4 Comparative Analysis on Characteristics of Solid Waste between China and Abroad
According to the literature, comparing with the main components of domestic waste in
the United States, Germany, Italy, Japan, Britain, France, India, Thailand, Brazil and
other countries in China as Beijing, Shanghai, Wuhan, Guangzhou, Hangzhou and
Shenzhen (As shown in Table 2-5). The results show that the developed countries
such as the United States, Germany, Italy, Japan, Britain and France all occupy the
largest proportion of paperboard in their household waste, followed by the kitchen
waste and others. In China and some developing countries such as India, Thailand,
Brazil, the largest proportion of their household waste are kitchen waste. This may be
related to the level of economic development. In relatively developed countries,
people's living standards are higher, and the kitchen waste proportion has been greatly
reduced; In contrast, in developing countries, the people's living standards are so low
that many areas are also struggling to get enough food and clothing, therefore, the
proportion of kitchen waste in their household waste is high. In addition, there is almost
no Wood and Bamboo species in domestic waste in the United States, Germany, the
United Kingdom and France. However, in China, Japan, India, Thailand, Brazil, Italy
and other countries, wood waste still occupies a certain proportion. In western
developed countries, the proportion of metal in the domestic solid waste occupies a
high proportion; while in Chinese urban solid waste, the proportion of metal is relatively
low. These differences may be related to people's living habits in different regions.
Table2-5 Domestic Waste Component Comparison at Home and Abroad
Country/City
Domestic Waste Component Ratio /%
Kitchen
Waste
Paper Wood
and
Bamboo
Plastic Fabric Metal Glass Others
United 22 47 0 5 0 3.0 3.0 20.0
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States
Germany 16 31 0 4 2.0 5.0 13.0 29.0
Italy 31 28 4 14 4.0 3.0 8.0 8.0
Japan 17 35 4 18 6.0 4.0 9.0 7.0
Britain 25 31 0 8 5.0 8.0 10.0 13.0
France 15 34 0 4 3.0 3.0 9.0 31.0
India 49 0 10 0 7.0 0 35.0 0
Thailand 45 13 6 10 11.0 0 15.0 0
Brazil 52.0 19.0 1.0 15.0 6.0 3.0 2.0 2.0
Beijing 51.8 5.4 5.8 10.4 3.0 1.0 5.4 17.2
Shanghai 56.1 4.6 11.6 8.6 2.3 0.9 2.9 13.0
Wuhan 54.2 9.5 1.6 1.9 12.7 0 9.3 10.8
Guangzhou 61.0 6.4 2.4 17.5 4.3 0.8 3.0 4.6
Hangzhou 58.2 13.3 2.6 18.8 1.5 1.0 2.7 2.0
Shenzhen 59.4 11.0 0 14.0 3.9 0 5.0 6.7
17. By contrast, we can find that China's municipal solid waste mainly consists of the
following characteristics:
18. First, high content kitchen waste in domestic waste. Among the domestic waste
components of the major cities in China, the proportion of kitchen waste is over 50%,
which is the most important component of domestic waste. The high water content of
kitchen waste poses a series of problems for its follow-up treatment. On the one hand,
high water content leads to a reduction of waste heat value; on the other hand, high
water content occupies sanitary landfills and leads to large leachate production.
Therefore, a high percentage of kitchen waste should be classified and collected, and
be treated separately;
19. Second, high content of recyclables in domestic waste. Although many Chinese
families have a tradition of collecting and selling recyclables such as cardboard,
newspapers and cardboard boxes, the recyclables flowing into the city collection and
transportation system, such as paper, plastic and glass, Metal content is still high,
which can be seen from Table 2-4. If this part of the resources can be recycled and
reused, it will be able to effectively reduce the amount of rubbish and save the primary
energy exploitation.
2.1.5 Treatment and Disposal of MSW
20. The constitution of MSW’s components is influenced by the region’s economic development level, natural conditions, living habits, etc. while such constitution is the
essential factor that determines the treatment and resources utilization. However,
MSW treatment and disposal are also restricted by the economic development level,
technology level, natural geographical conditions, etc. Different countries, even
different regions in the same country adopt distinctive approaches and techniques for
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MSW treatment. Currently, optional waste treatment methods contain sanitary landfill,
aerobic compost, incineration, anaerobic fermentation, gasification, pyrolysis,
biotransformation (such as earthworm biological treatment), comprehensive treatment,
etc. The MSW treatment technology in China mainly employs sanitary landfill,
incineration and other treatment technologies (such as compost, etc.).
21. Comparative treatment analysis on three common waste - sanitary landfill,
incineration and compost - is shown as Table 2-6.
Table 2-6 Comparison of Three Waste Treatment Methods
Item Sanitary Landfill Compost Incineration
Technological
Reliability
Mature and reliable,
known as common
technology
Reliable, with practice
experience
Relatively reliable,
known as mature
technology overseas
Area Relatively large,
500~900m2/t Medium, 110-150m2/t
Relatively small, 60-
100m2/t
Applicable
Condition
With no strict
demands for waste
components
Over 40% of
biodegradable
organism
Low heat value
higher than
4180kJ/kg
Secondary
Pollution
Secondary pollution
on both water and air
Slight pollution on
soil, surface water
and air
Grave air pollution
Resources
Utilization
Methane power
generation, heating
Composted manure
used for fertilization
Fuel gas, oil power
generation, heating
Final
Disposal
Belonging to final
disposal itself
Sediments requires
landfill
Sediments requires
landfill
Treatment
Cost
26-45 yuan/t
(secondary emission
standard)
35-40 yuan/t
(dynamic compost) 50-90 yuan/t
22. The technology development of MSW’s sanitary landfill in China was relatively late and treatments like high-temperature compost and naked pile-up in suburban areas
(the so-called natural attenuation landfill site) were the main choices, without any
standard landfill site in the early 1980s. In the middle and late 1980s, naked waste pile-
up brought plenty of mosquitos as well as flies, making everywhere filled with reek
while landfill leachate was not properly disposed and flew randomly - all these had
polluted the environment badly. However, such situation didn’t conform to the cities’ rapid development and could never meet the public’s environmental requirements.
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Therefore, since the middle and late 1980s, Chinese government initiated the planning
and building of a standard MSW landfill. Hangzhou Tianziling Waste Treatment Plant
was the first standard sanitary landfill plant in China at that time. While it came to the
middle and late of 1990s, the country placed more emphasis on environmental
sanitation and invested more on waste treatment, successively building sanitary landfill
plants for large and middle cities. As shown in Figure 5-6, the number of sanitary landfill
plants built in China was stably increasing over time - from 324 plants in 2006 to 660
in 2015.
Figure 2-3 Guangzhou Likeng Waste Incineration Plant
Figure 2-4 Shanghai Laogang Wastes Incineration Power Plant
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23. Since the establishment of China’s first MSW incineration power plant - “Shenzhen Qingshuihe Waste Incineration Plant” - in 1989, incineration treatment for MSW had
been formally introduced to China. Till 1997, the self-developed waste incineration
power plant of circulating fluidized bed had been successfully built in Hangzhou,
indicating that China’s MSW incineration treatment technology had entered to a new home-made era. However, local governments didn’t start to pay attention on the application of waste incineration power technology until 2001. From 2001 to 2005,
about one third provinces built their first local waste incineration power plant and
brought it into operation, marking China’s first waste incineration power plants’ construction hot. Encouraged by “The ‘Eleventh Five-Year’ Plan on the Facilities Construction for Domestic Cities’ MSW Harmless Treatment” issued in 2007, the
number of MSW’s incineration treatment in 2009 had increased 30% compared to that in 2008. “The ‘Twelfth Five-Year’ Plan on The Facility Construction for Domestic Towns’ MSW Harmless Treatment” highlighted, “during the 12th five-year period, over 35% of
harmless MSW treatment chooses incineration while 48% from the eastern areas
makes the same choice as well.” Over 20 years’ development, the incineration technology nationwide had been greatly promoted with its market share increasing
rapidly. As shown in Figure 2-5 and 2-6, by the end of 2015, there had been 220 MSW
incineration power plants being built and put into operation, with a total treatment scale
of 189,000 tons/day and a total installed capacity of 3890MW.
Figure 2-5 Number of MSW Treatment Facilities in PRC
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Figure 2-6 Treatment Capacity of Different MSW Treatment Facilities
Figure 2-7 Treatment Capacity of Different Treatment Methods in China (2015)
24. With the development of social and economic technology in China, the proportion
of diverse waste treatment methods have been greatly changed - the proportion of
sanitary landfill and compost have been gradually decreasing while that of incineration
have increased slowly. Figure 2-6 indicates the amount change of the total harmless
MSW treatment, sanitary landfill as well as incineration and compost from 2003 to 2015.
25. It can be analyzed from Figure 2-6and Figure 2-7 that from 2003 to 2015, China’s harmless MSW treatment amount had been gradually increasing, from 75.447 million
tons to 180.13 million tons, among which, the harmless treatment amount of sanitary
landfill had increased successively from 64.04 million tons to 114.813 million tons just
with a relatively smaller proportion; that of incineration had increased significantly from
3.699 million tons in 2003 to 61.755 in 2015, with its treatment capacity occupying 34%
of the harmless treatment of MSW in Chinese cities and was expected to exceed 50%
within 2020. It was the result driven by rapid social and economic development,
significant increasing of waste production amount, and worsen waste crisis as well as
Sanitary
Landfill
64%
Incineration
34%
Others
2%
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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other factors.
26. Since incineration requires small areas, short treatment period and brings
significant waste decrease, relatively absolute harmlessness and high-efficient energy
recycling, it will gradually become the predominant technology for China’s MSW treatment.
2.2 Generation and Characteristics of MSWI Fly Ash
2.2.1 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of MSWI Bottom Ash
2.2.1.1 Waste Incineration Ash Classification
27. Figure 2-8 shows that residues from incineration of municipal solid waste are
classified as Bottom ash and Fly ash, consisting primarily of metal oxides, hydroxides
and carbonates, sulfates, and phosphoric acid Salt and other substances. Bottom ash
is discharged from the hearth rear incineration residue, whose specific content is
related to the type of waste, incinerator type, burning conditions. Fly ash refers to the
fine particles collected by the air pollution equipment, usually through the cyclone dust
collector, electrostatic precipitator or bag filter collected by the neutralizing reactants
such as CaCl2, CaSO4 and incomplete reaction of alkaline agents such as Ca(OH)2
and so on. The physical and chemical properties of MSW incineration ash residues are
related to the incineration devices and working conditions of the incineration plant. Ash
generated by grate incinerators accounts for about 15-20% of MSWI, of which fly ash
accounts for 3-5% of MSWI, accounting for about 5% of ash residues, bottom ash
accounting about 95% of residues; the ash generated by the fluidized bed incinerator
accounts for about 20-25% of the total amount of MSWI, wherein the fly ash accounts
for more than 10% of the amount of MSWI, accounting for about 20% of the ash residue,
and the bottom ash accounts about 80%.
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Figure 2-8 Dry/Semi-dry Fly Ash Treatment and Purification Technique
28. Waste incineration fly ash is contaminated with waste incineration pollutants,
mainly inorganic salts, heavy metals and dioxins, and is defined as hazardous waste.
Therefore, to completely decontaminate waste, fly ash must be properly disposed of.
The general bottom ash is non-toxic and harmless to the current standards in China.
It can be paved, filled and piled up. The study found that the bottom ash of the
composition of a variety of complex materials, bottom ash in the melting block and ash
leachate heavy metal concentration is very low, far less than the standard identification
of solid waste leaching toxicity, which can be considered basically no toxicity.
Therefore, the bottom ash can be sent directly to the landfill for landfilling, or used as
a roadbed and building material without causing any environmental damage. As
opposed to fly ash, the bottom ash has the characteristics of composition of diverse
and complex, small toxicity, in accordance with the general solid waste treatment.
Bottom ash is more in line with the many technical requirements for aggregate and
gravel, and its heavy metal leaching is small, low organic content, suitable for recycling.
2.2.1.2 Physical Property of Bottom Ash
29. Bottom ash (also known as the bottom slag) is the main part of ash residues,
accounts for about 80-90%(by mass) of residues. Bottom ash is an inhomogeneous
mixture of slag iron and other metals, ceramic fragments, glass and other non-
flammable materials, and unburned organic materials. When the bulk of the material
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is removed, it looks similar to porous, light gray sand and gravel. Electron microscopy
results showed that there are many holes in the bottom ash, very rough and rugged
surface with irregular angular, high porosity, and relatively large pore diameter. There
is no trace of melting and particle binding on the microstructure, which is the product
of bulk inorganic materials that undergo calcination at high temperatures in the furnace.
30. Bottom ash moisture content of 18.9%, water absorption was 14.97%. The bottom
ash particle size distribution mainly concentrated in the range of 20-50 mm (61.1-
77.2%), less than 0.074 mm particles less than 0.6%, and the bottom ash density was
1.17-1.54g/cm3, which was only 81% of sand density, Bottom ash friction angle up to
46.5°, and have the same order of magnitude of permeability with sand. Basically,
bottom ash meets the grading requirements of road building materials (aggregate,
graded gravel or graded gravel, etc.), which require that the material with uniform
grading is generally better stability, and the compressive strength is larger, easy to
compaction to a state of high bearing capacity. It is pointed out that fine grained
particles have good frost resistance and this graded nature of bottom ash is beneficial
to its resource utilization.
2.2.1.3 Chemical Property of Bottom Ash
31. The study found that the major elements of bottom ash(referred to as
concentration>10000 mg/kg or 1%) were O, Si, Fe, Ca, Al, Na, K and C. Bottom ash
contains a large number of soluble salts, with 3%-14% solubility.
32. The study on the leaching toxicity of bottom ash found that the concentration of
heavy metals in the bottom ash leachate is very low, which is far less than the
identification standard of leaching toxicity of solid wastes and can be regarded as
basically non-toxic. The harm to the environment caused by disposal or utilization is
not significant . From Table 2-7, it can be seen that most of the low-boiling heavy
metals and chlorides enter the fly ash when the incinerator hearth temperature is
between 800 and 1000 °C, which makes the fly ash a hazardous waste, and the flue
gas treatment system collect, store, and then transport for safe handling separately.
Therefore, the content of heavy metals in the bottom ash is relatively small. Chinese
regulations show that the bottom ash is general solid waste, and incineration fly ash is
classified as hazardous waste and needs to be handled separately.
Table 2-7 Melting Point and Boiling Point of Several Heavy Metals and Their
Compounds(℃)
Element Simple Substance Oxide Chloride Melting Point
Boiling Point
Melting Point
Boiling Point
Melting Point
Boiling Point
Zn 419 907 1975 2360 290 732 Pb 327 1749 886 1470 501 950 Cu 1083 2567 1326 2000 620 993 Cr 1857 2672 2435 3000 877 947
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Cd 321 767 1426 1500 570 960 Ni 1455 2730 1955 1984 1001 1980 Hg -39 357 500 Uncertain 275 301
2.2.1.4 The Danger of Bottom Ash
33. As can be seen in Table 2-8, the main components of fresh bottom ash are slag,
as well as ceramic fragments and masonry pieces, glass, iron wire and other metals
and unburned substances. The melting block accounted for about 60% of the total
mass, followed by glass、ceramic fragments 15%, non-ferrous metals and ferrous
metals about 20%, about 1% of organic matter also found, indicating the bottom ash
combustion is not sufficient , So easily volatile metal elements such as Pb, Zn and Cd
will remain in the bottom ash. And non-volatile metal elements such as Cu, Cr, Ni and
Mn remain in the bottom ash. Therefore, while most of the bottom ash leaching toxicity
test results show that the concentration of heavy metals in the bottom ash leachate is
very low, far below the identification criteria for solid waste leaching toxicity, however,
trace amounts of heavy metals are still present in the bottom ash, making the bottom
ash potentially threatened solid waste.
Table 2-8 The Physical Composition of MSWI Bottom Ash from Somewhere
Component Glass、Ceramic
Fragments
Magnetic Metal
Non-Magnetic
Metal Organic
Melting Block
Total
Proportion/% 15.1 11.4 8.1 1.2 64.2 100
2.2.2 Characteristics of Generation and Pollution of MSWI Fly Ash
34. Waste incineration is usually composed of various complicated thermal and mass
transmissions such as pyrolysis, melting, evaporation and chemical reactions,
producing a great amount of fuel gas which is required to be discharged after standard
APC treatment. Fly ash refers to those solid particulates collected from the fuel gas
purification system and utilization system of waste heat recovery (such as heat
recovery boiler, etc.) via dust collectors (cyclone dust collector, electrostatic collector,
or bag collector), which contains plenty of hazardous substances such as heavy metals
and dioxins.
35. Since incineration fly ash is the by-product produced from MSW incineration
process and exists in accompany with MSW. Its production amount must increase in
terms of the increasing of the scale and treatment capacity of MSW incineration
treatment. Figure 2-9 indicates that the amount of incineration fly ash from MSW had
increased successively from 2006 to 2015 and the incineration amount in 2015 was
about 61 million tons while the fly ash amount reached 3.95 million. The total amount
of hazardous waste was over 30 million tons in 2015 released by environmental
statistics with the amount of visible fly ash accounting for 13% of the total.
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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Production of Fly Ash (10,000 tons) with years
Figure 2-9 Fly Ash Production Amount from 2010 to 2015
2 Characteristics of Incineration Fly Ash from MSW:
(1) Huge production. MSW incineration has two mainstream incinerator types in
China, including mechanical grate incinerator and fluidized bed incinerator, with its
treatment capacity accounting for 2/3 and 1/3 respectively of the total capacity. The
former produces less fly ash, about 3%-5% of the total amount from the incinerator
while the later produces more, about 10%-15% of the total amount from the incinerator.
(2) Abundant heavy metals and dioxins. Most of the heavy metals and dioxins
from MSW incineration fuel gas will be intercepted by the purification system, leading
to them enriched in fly ash. Fly ash is therefore a significant “assembly” of heavy metals
and dioxins, also hazardous waste listed into “National Hazardous Waste Inventory”, which is applicable to mechanical grate incinerator as well as fluidized bed incinerator
with no need to further identify its properties. Such properties must be explicitly upheld,
or it will bring about the environmental supervision and market competition of MSW
incineration into chaos.
(3) High content of volatile elements. The properties of incineration fly ash from
MSW change in accordance with the change of waste components, season,
incineration condition, fuel gas purification level, etc. However, its main chemical
components, such as calcium, silicon and aluminium can be used as the material basis
for construction materials’ recourses utilization if they are approaching closely to
ordinary Portland cement. Besides, high content of volatile elements in fly ash such as
chlorine, sulfur, potassium and sodium greatly affects its treatment and utilization. In
particular, the incineration of chlorine containing plastics and high salt content kitchen
waste in incinerator causes obviously higher chlorine content in China’s fly ash than countries such as Europe, America and Japan, which has greatly increased the
141163
225
286
329
395
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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difficulty of fly ash treatment and utilization. Hence, future technologies such as waste
sources classification and pre-sorting will change the components and property of
incineration fly ash from MSW.
2.2.3 Basic Physicochemical Properties of MSWI Fly Ash
36. Fly ash is a kind of irregular substance converged by particulates, de-acid reactant,
unreacted substance as well as condensate, with a rough surface, irregular angularity,
high porosities and a large specific area, making metals produced from waste
incineration easy to condense on its surface. Fly ash’s physical and chemical
properties vary with different types of incineration plants’ purification system.
2.2.3.1 Physical Properties
1) Fly Ash Physical Properties And Particle Size Distribution
37. As shown from Figure 2-10, fly ash sample is white or yellowish tiny powders with
large specific surface area. The
specific surface area is 4.8-
13.7cm2/g, and the thermal ablation
rate is generally between 0.35-
14.45%(w/w). Figure2-9 shows that
the particle size is basically normal
distribution trend between range of
0.05-700μm, the main distribution range of 2-700μm. The average particle size is 79μm and fly ash with a size range of
38.5-74μm taking up 50% of its total amount. Besides, fly ash size larger than 154μm or smaller than 30μm account for 11% and 8% respectively while fly ash size smaller
than 74μm reaches 73%. Compared with slag, its characteristics can be illustrated as
follows:
Figure - Fl Ash Photo
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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➢ Hygroscopicity:
38. To remove harmful fumes such as hydrogen chloride, etc. in the incineration
equipment, alkaline components like hydrated limes are injected to the waste gas with
an amount of 1-2 folds of the harmful components. Since fly ash contains calcium
chloride formed by the reaction of hydrogen chloride and hydrated limes, it is therefore
hygroscopic and easy to absorb moisture from the air to produce absorption and
solidification.
➢ Floatation:
39. The particle diameter of fly ash is much smaller than that of slag, from several
micrometers to hundreds of micrometers with a low apparent density of about 0.2 to
0.5. It has a large size and is easy to float.
2) Melting Characteristic Temperature
40. Melting characteristic temperature is an important parameter for heat treatment of
fly ash. Incineration fly ash softening temperature, deformation temperature and flow
temperature can determine the melting temperature range of fly ash. The three melting
characteristic temperatures of incineration fly ash were measured with reference to the
standard of the black metallurgical industry of the People's Republic of China (YB /
T186-2001): deformation temperature (DT), softening temperature (ST) and flow
temperature (FT). Table2-9 lists the melting characteristic temperature. It can be seen
that incineration fly ash flow temperature is very high, while the melting temperature is
1324 ℃.
Table2-9 Melting Temperature Test Result of Fly Ash (℃)
Softening Temperature Flow Temperature Melting Temperature
1068 >1477 1324
Figure - Size Distri utio of Fl Ash
Volu
me
Perc
enta
ge(%
)
Particle Diameter(μm)
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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2.2.3.2 Chemical Properties
41. Incineration fly ash is mainly composed of chemical compounds of Si, Al and Ca
and volatile metal chloride, with Ca, Cl, K, S and Si as its chief elements. This is quite
similar to the composition of general mineral elements and belongs to the system of
CaO - SiO2 - Al2O3 - Cl - SO3; It has many Cl, Pb, Cd, Sb and Se compounds and
monomer concentrates. Direct fly ash landfill will render soluble harmful components
opportunities to immerse into the underground water after rain saturation. Though the
heavy metals’ types and contents differ from each other, they still focus on Pb, Zn, Cu, Mn, Cr, etc. In addition to amorphous and glassy substances, there are also various
other compounds and mineral components in fly ash while NaCl, KCl, SiO2, CaSO4,
CaCO3, CaClOH, etc. make up the primary compound forms of incineration fly ash.
➢ As the temperature grows higher and higher, the fly ash’s loss on ignition is gradually increasing.
➢ With the heat-raising and time-extension of the melting, salts like SO3 and Cl
in the fly ash will greatly volatilize and the produced harmful gas like SO3 and
Cl2 will bring about heavy environmental pollution.
42. Table 2-10 presents the results of the X-ray fluorescence spectrometer analysis
of the major chemical compositions (oxides) of incineration fly ash.
Table 2-10 Chemical Compositions of Fly Ash(%)
Oxides CaO SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 Cl Content/% 49.98 7.39 1.58 0.97 2.16 14.54
Oxides Na2O K2O MgO P2O5 MnO SO3
Content/% 7.25 4.47 1.40 0.44 0.098 5.40
1) Heavy Metal Content and Chemical Morphology in Fly Ash
43. Although there are some differences in the types and contents of heavy metals,
Pb, Zn, Cu, Mn and Cr are the main ones. Table 2-11 shows the heavy metal content
of incineration fly ash, showing relative high levels of Zn, Pb, Cu and Sb in incineration
fly ash.
Table 2-11 Heavy Metal Content of Fly Ash(mg/kg)
Heavy Metal
Zn Pb Cu Sb Sn Ba Sr Cr
Content 5278.50 2251.40 1426.50 650.50 534.85 274.90 125.65 103.21
Heavy Metal
Cd Ni W As Co Mo Zr Hg
Content 96.97 73.25 22.14 20.34 21.43 17.14 11.17 9.45
Heavy Metal
Ag Bi Nb Ga Ce La Nd
Content 8.12 6.66 5.42 2.46 0.39 0.28 0.08
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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44. The magnitude of heavy metal toxicity in incineration fly ash is not only related to
its total amount, but also closely related to its chemical form. The bioavailability and
toxicity of heavy metals in the environment can not be fully characterized by the total
amount of heavy metals in the environment. The heavy metals that are absorbed by
the organisms and enriched are active in the environment. By analyzing the chemical
combination forms of heavy metals, we can more effectively identify the toxic effects
of heavy metals in incineration fly ash in the environment. Using the BCR continuous
extraction method, the final residue was digested according to the standard test
method (ASTMD6357-00a). and the concentration of heavy metals in each step of
extraction was determined by ICP-MS. Using this method to determine the chemical
forms of heavy metals in fly ash, the results are shown in Figure2-12.
Figure2-12 Chemical Combining Morphology of Heavy Metals in
Incineration Fly Ash
45. It can be seen that the proportions of chemical forms of various heavy metals in
incineration fly ash vary greatly. Only a certain proportion of Pb and As exist as acid
extractable state in the six kinds of heavy metals, while Cu, Zn, Pb and Sb exist in the
residual form Mainly, indicating that Pb and As of incineration fly ash partly leached
out in a weak acid environment. However, Cd is mainly reducible, while As is mainly
oxidizable. This shows that heavy metals in incineration fly ash will have a certain
proportion of leaching under the conditions of oxidation and reduction, thus bringing
about environmental hazards.
Cu Zn Pb Cd As Sb0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140 酸可提取态 可还原态 可氧化态 残渣态
分布
(%)
重金属Heav Metal
Dist
riut
io%
A id E tra ta le
Redu i le o idiza le Residue
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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2.2.4 Heavy Metal Leaching
46. Fly ash is abundant with harmful heavy metals such as Hg, Cd, Pb, As, etc., which
is because heavy metals with a relatively low boiling point would be captured into fly
ash after incineration and volatility and they are easy to leach out. Fly ash also
occupies high dissolved salt content with much more alkali metals and alkaline-earths
such as potassium, sodium and calcium than the slag. If improperly disposed, heavy
metals will gradually leach out under the effect of environmental factors such as acid
rain and enter to a fresh-new environment to pollute the underground water sources.
2) Mineral Analysis of Fly Ash
47. The use of X-ray diffraction instrument for the analysis of mineral morphology of
incineration fly ash, the diffraction pattern is shown in Figure 2-13. The analysis shows
that the crystals of incineration fly ash mainly exist in the form of SiO2, NaCl and KSO4,
and a small amount of calcite (CaCO3).
Figure 2-13 XRD Pattern of Fly Ash
48. The mineral phase in incineration fly ash can be divided into three categories:
chloride salts, mainly NaCl, KCl; incinerator flue gas purification process generated
substances, including sulfates and carbonates, such as CaCO3, CaSO4 and CaClOH;
Species formed by recrystallization of minerals during combustion in the
combustion process include glass phase materials, quartz, Ca-Al feldspar (Ca2Al2SiO7)
and aluminosilicates. Calcium cations are present in the form of complex silicates or
aluminosilicates, the composition of which varies widely depending on the combustion
conditions, and the compounds overlap in the spectrum. Some scholars using X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) found that the general aluminosilicate is mainly
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 700
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
3
3
3
3
55
55
5
77
7 666
6
6
6
6
6
6
1
1
1
19
9
9
9
9
9 Pb5O
8
2222
2
2
888
8
8
8
4
4
4 8 Ca(OH)2
Inte
nsit
y
2θ °
5 KCl 4 NaCl
2 CaCO3
3 CaSO4
6 CaClOH
1 SiO2
7 Ca2Al
2SiO
7
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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distributed in the fly ash particles inside and Na, K, S, Zn are distributed in the fly ash
particles surface. Fly ash particles from the polycrystalline polymer, amorphous glassy
substance, amorphous glass up to 70%, these amorphous and crystalline substances
are enriched in volatile elements such as heavy metals, which will be released soon in
acid or Alkaline environment.
3) Chemical Composition of MSWI Fly Ash
49. Fly ash components of six representative MSWI power plants in Tianjin (Plant No.
1, 2, 3, 5, 6) and Beijing (Plant No. 4), measured in August (A) or September (S) of
2016, is illustrated as Table 2-12. Main components are Fe2O3, SiO2, Al2O3, CaO and
MgO, for which the content is expressed by weight (w%), whereas contents of trace
elements (Zn, Cd, Pb) are expressed in mg/kg because its content is too small to be
express by weight percentage.
TA-8963 PRC Draft Final Report Chapter II
28
Table 2-12 Chemical Components of Fly Ash from Different Plants in Different Period
Plant No. – Date
(Day/Month)
Fe2O3
w% SiO2
w% Al2O3
w% CaO w%
MgO w%
Total Main Components
w%
Na2O w%
K2O w%
Zn mg/kg
Cd mg/kg
Pb mg/kg
Cl w%
Sulfide w%
Total w%
1-26/A 1.29 15.73 4.4 38.77 3.64 63.83 4.27 3.42 4023 82.9 854 15.52 0.59 87.63
1-27/A 0.98 10.28 3.38 40.27 3.01 57.92 4.19 3.82 3998 91.6 949 19.7 0.37 86
1-29/A 1.19 12.25 3.84 40.21 3.19 60.68 4.08 3.59 4945 87.6 982 18.49 0.48 87.32
1-30/A 1.19 12.46 3.84 40.76 3.08 61.33 3.96 3.35 4491 77.4 842 17.66 0.36 86.66
1-31/A 1.04 11.15 3.56 33.26 2.64 51.65 3.16 2.87 3609 64.6 726 13.58 0.55 71.81
1-1/S 1.57 16.12 6.57 35.11 3.66 60.30 3.59 3.05 4442 69.5 893 14.14 0.32 81.4
1-2/S 1.15 11.92 3.62 39.04 3.27 59 4.15 4.08 4181 89.5 919 9.18 0.68 77.09
2-26/A 2.42 25.45 16.21 26.85 4.21 75.14 3.47 2.03 4677 34 606 4.02 0.82 85.48
2-27/A 2.61 26.48 12.99 24.84 3.88 70.8 3.46 2.02 4539 32.5 613 4.64
0.35 81.27
6.49 83.12
2-28/A 2.5 27.06 14.33 24.41 3.75 72.05 3.72 2.02 4224 26.6 589 5.1
0.68 83.57
6.78 85.25
2-29/A 2.47 26.99 14.71 25.06 3.91 73.14 3.19 2.02 4383 28.2 585 3.94
0.57 82.86
6.03 84.95
TA-8963 PRC Draft Final Report Chapter II
29
Plant No. – Date
(Day/Month)
Fe2O3
w% SiO2
w% Al2O3
w% CaO w%
MgO w%
Total Main Components
w%
Na2O w%
K2O w%
Zn mg/kg
Cd mg/kg
Pb mg/kg
Cl w%
Sulfide w%
Total w%
2-30/A 2.37 23.24 14.23 25.22 3.58 68.64 2.99 2 4426 31.7 575 6.69 0.63 80.95
2-31/A 2.48 24 13.61 23.87 3.51 67.47 2.98 1.98 4645 29.7 585 6.78 0.58 79.79
2-1/S 2.35 27.38 14.56 22.53 3.66 70.48 2.72 1.86 4069 21.3 441 6.56 0.1 81.72
3-26/A 1.77 18.12 3.73 36.34 5.01 64.97 2.85 2.9 4717 48.3 1360 11.42
0.65 82.79
15.79 87.16
3-27/A 1.8 19.99 3.99 33.89 5.75 65.42 2.43 2.98 4975 50.3 1287 14.84 0.21 85.88
3-30/A 2.11 18.31 4.2 34.02 4.89 63.53 2.31 2.8 5139 50.1 1417 16.42 0.97 86.03
3-1/S 1.81 17.54 3.91 34.29 4.78 62.33 2.28 2.77 5157 46.3 1294 15.72 0.24 83.34
3-2/S 1.84 17.08 4 33.64 4.66 61.22 2.18 3.44 4391 49.3 1195 14.3 0.24 81.38
3-3/S 1.7 15.7 3.63 36.96 4.17 62.16 2.04 3.22 4660 55.5 1296 4.18 0.53 72.13
3-5/S 1.56 14.13 3.43 38.51 3.96 61.59 2.24 3.4 4575 50.6 1245 9.61 0.64 77.48
4-27/A 0.45 3.62 1.01 51.17 1.52 57.77 3.29 2.66 2996 63.5 634 13.11
0.38 77.21
16.84 80.94
4-1/S 0.59 7.01 1.68 49.73 1.91 60.92 3.42 3.12 3829 57.5 687 18.55 0.46 86.47
TA-8963 PRC Draft Final Report Chapter II
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Plant No. – Date
(Day/Month)
Fe2O3
w% SiO2
w% Al2O3
w% CaO w%
MgO w%
Total Main Components
w%
Na2O w%
K2O w%
Zn mg/kg
Cd mg/kg
Pb mg/kg
Cl w%
Sulfide w%
Total w%
4-3/S 0.52 5.19 1.36 48.93 1.73 57.73 3.75 4.2 3806 60.6 786 11.49 0.39 77.56
4-5/S 0.46 4.52 1.21 49.19 1.66 57.04 3.62 3.9 3798 76 745 19.59 0.15 84.3
4-7/S 0.52 5.23 1.37 50.06 1.77 58.95 3.75 4.06 3604 69.5 738 19.36 0.48 86.6
4-8/S 0.48 4.82 1.25 50.25 1.76 58.56 3.52 3.71 3452 77.7 749 17.69 0.45 83.93
4-9/S 0.52 4.72 1.43 47.36 1.71 55.74 3.66 3.86 3767 76 793 17.88 0.2 81.34
5-9/S 0.88 4.61 3.31 33.12 2.29 44.21 7.45 8.74 7546 194.8 2313 14.94 0.62 75.96
5-10/S 0.58 4.22 1.23 41.7 2.24 49.97 6.38 7.43 7067 174.3 2130 22.16 0.66 86.6
5-15/S 1.75 3.88 2.08 68.82 0.55 77.08 3.35 3.64 4282 107.8 1252 8.88 0.98 93.93
5-17/S 1.65 3.84 1.97 62.14 0.49 70.09 3.3 3.62 3991 94.5 976 13.14 0.47 90.62
5-22/S 3.69 10.42 4.39 53.26 1.51 73.27 6.08 4.16 2964 77.3 1140 11.86 0.83 96.2
5-23/S 3.68 10.31 4.38 53.33 1.51 73.21 6.08 3.98 3135 80.9 963 10.07 0.42 93.76
6-10/S 1.54 16.79 3.08 39.77 3.85 65.03 5.61 4.32 3569 68.9 1118 18.21 0.96 94.13
TA-8963 PRC Draft Final Report Chapter II
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Plant No. – Date
(Day/Month)
Fe2O3
w% SiO2
w% Al2O3
w% CaO w%
MgO w%
Total Main Components
w%
Na2O w%
K2O w%
Zn mg/kg
Cd mg/kg
Pb mg/kg
Cl w%
Sulfide w%
Total w%
6-11/S 1.09 8.24 2.3 40.89 3.23 55.75 5.4 4.43 3964 83.7 1149 22.12 0.29 87.99
6-15/S 1.35 9.55 2.64 42.24 3.45 59.23 4.6 3.67 3219 61.9 972 15.43 0.16 83.09
6-16/S 1.28 12.8 2.9 40.04 3.46 60.48 4.89 3.56 2588 81.2 777 18.92 0.48 88.33
6-19/S 1.38 11.95 3.11 40.07 3.88 60.39 5.16 3.84 2891 59.4 913 17.5 0.38 87.27
6-18/S 1.45 11.98 2.92 39.48 4.28 60.11 5.08 4.32 3726 68.4 1165 18.21 0.77 88.49
6-20/S 0.52 3.46 1.1 51.17 1.27 57.52 3.4 3.84 4453 100.3 1184 11.76 0.17 76.69
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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50. Pollution characteristics of fly ash samples from 15 MSWI plants in China were
investigated and analyzed. The results show that the total amounts of Zn, Pb, Cu, Cr,
Cd and Ni in 15 typical municipal solid waste incineration fly ash are 782.6-9901,
728.0-2162, 232.0-716.2, 83.67-525.0 and 140.7-378.63 mg/kg respectively.
Concentrations of Zn, Pb and Cu are substantially one order of magnitude greater than
those of Cr, Cd and Ni. The concentration orders ranged from large to small: Zn> Pb>
Cu> Cr> Cd> Ni; dioxin matters were all contained in MSW incineration fly ash samples.
1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD and 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF contributed significantly to the toxic equivalent
of fly ash samples, accounting for 16%-25% and 16%-28%, respectively, mainly due
to The concentrations and toxic equivalency factors of these two monomers are
relatively high compared to other monomers. The concentration of PCDDs in fly ash
samples ranged from 1.1 to 51ng/g and the average concentration was 37ng/g. The
highest concentrations of PCDDs in most samples were hexachlorodibenzodioxins
(HxCDDs) at a concentration range of 0.34-36ng/g and an average concentration of
22ng/g, accounting for 7%-25% of the total PCDDs and PCDFs concentrations.
2.2.5 Influence of Incinerator Type on Fly Ash Characteristics
51. The nature of incineration fly ash directly related to the type of waste, incinerator
type, incineration process conditions, flue gas purification processes and other factors.
Currently, there are three main types of boilers used in China's waste incineration
technologies: mechanical grate boilers, fluidized beds and other small incinerators (eg
small vertical boilers, small chain boilers and pyrolytic boilers). As of 2014, the number
of incineration plants using grate boilers, fluidized beds and other small incinerators
accounted for 60%, 37% and 3% respectively.
52. Here mainly summarizes two types, including the grate boiler and fluidized bed, in
China on the impact of incineration fly ash.
2.2.5.1 Oxide Properties of Grate Boiler / Fluidized Bed Fly Ash
53. The main oxide properties of the main grate boilers and fluidized bed incineration
fly ash in China are summarized and are given in ternary phase diagrams (see Figure
2-12(a) and Figure2-12(b)). The upper right corner of the phase diagram shows the
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
33
area where the major components of fly ash from 31 major coal-fired power plants in
China are located. The lower left corner of the phase diagram is the area where the
major components of limestone are located in the five major mining areas in Jiangsu.
As China uses mostly semi-dry flue gas purification process incinerator, the tail of a
large number of spray calcium, so incineration fly ash higher CaO content, followed by
SiO2 content, in Figure2-14(a), SiO2 does not exceed the limit of 50% , Al2O3 content
is the least. Fluidized bed incinerators can be blended with coal, although the relevant
regulations limit the proportion of coal blending not higher than 20%, however, in
practice, in order to maintain the stability of the combustion conditions, the proportion
of blending is often greater than the prescribed value. In the incineration process, the
content of SiO2 in the fly ash increases with the participation of coal. As shown in
Figure2-12(b), the content of SiO2 in the ternary phase diagram of incineration fly ash
is about 50% except one point at the lower left, which is obviously higher than that of
the grate boiler incineration fly ash, making the nature of fluidized bed incineration fly
ash close to the coal-fired fly ash. In addition, as the flue gas flow rate of the fluidized
bed is significantly higher than that of the grate boiler, some of the ash that should
have remained in the bottom ash is transferred to the fly ash. The result present as the
fluidized bed incinerator fly ash (15-20%) is higher than the grate boiler fly ash (3-5%).
Figure (a) Main Components Distribution
of Grate Boiler Fly Ash
Figure (b) Main Components Distribution
of Fluidized Bed Fly Ash
Figure 2-14 The Main Composition Distribution of Different Types of Fly Ash
2.2.5.2 Chlorine, Sulfur, Alkali Content of Grate Boiler/Fluidized Bed Fly Ash
54. Chloride salt in incineration fly ash mainly are in the form of NaCl, KCl and CaCl2.
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
34
Figures 2-15 and 2-16 show the Cl and SO3 contents of grate boiler and fluidized bed
incineration fly ash in our country. As can be seen from Figure 2-13, the chlorine
content of fly ash from grate boiler is higher, and the lowest and the highest values
were 0.88% and 30%, respectively, most of them distributed 10 -20% with an average
value of 15.41%. This was mainly related to the nature of domestic waste, working
conditions of incineration and flue gas purification equipment. The main source of
chlorine in incineration fly ash is a large amount of kitchen waste and plastic materials,
etc.. During the high-temperature heat treatment, chlorine salts will cause a large
number of heavy metals volatile. Chlorine content of fluidized bed incineration fly ash
is in smaller fluctuations, with an average of 1.71%, obviously lower than the grate
boiler fly ash, the reason is due to fluidized bed incineration with coal.
Figure 2-15 Cl Content of Grate Boiler/Fluidized
Bed Fly Ash
Figure 2-16 SO3 Content of Grate Boiler/Fluidized
Bed Fly Ash
Figure 2-17 K2O Content of Grate Boiler /Fluidized
Bed Fly Ash
Figure 2-18 Na2O Content of Grate Boiler /Fluidized
Bed Fly Ash
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Cl C
on
ten
t(%
)
Fly Ash
Grate Boiler
Fluidized Bed
0 5 10 15 20 25 0
5
10
15
20
Grate Boiler
Fluidized Bed
SO
Co
nte
nt(
%)
3
Fly Ash
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0
5
10
15
20
Grate Boiler
Fluidized Bed
Fly Ash
K2O
Co
nte
nt(
%)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0
5
10
15
20
Fly Ash
Na
2O
Co
nte
nt(
%)
Grate Boiler
Fluidized Bed
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55. Figure 2-17 and Figure 2-18 for the incineration fly ash alkali content, K2O and
Na2O content close to each other, the average K2O and Na2O concentration of grate
boiler incineration fly ash 6.06% and 5.33%, the average content of fluidized bed
incineration fly ash 2.43% and 2.63 %, the content difference of alkali is less than that
of chlorine, sulphur in two type incineration fly ash.
2.2.6 Fly Ash Properties of Diverse Flue Gas Treatment Techniques
56. The direct factor that affects fly ash characteristics is the flue gas treatment
process. Most large-scale waste incineration plants adopt the approaches of dry/semi-
dry fuel gas treatment system and wet fuel gas treatment system and ash from the
scrubber reactant ash and bag collector is usually collected together. Therefore, the
mix incineration fly ash comes into being. Mix incineration fly ash contains the products
produced by the reaction with acid gas (such as CaCl2, CaSO4, etc.) and some other
unreacted alkaline agent (such as Ca(OH)2).
2.2.6.1 Characteristics of Fly Ash Processed via Dry/Semi-dry Flue Gas Treatment
57. Currently, dry/semi-dry treatment technique is applied to most purification systems
of municipal solid waste incineration plants (MSWIPs) in China.
58. Dry purification technique injects lime dust into the cooling tower’s outlet pipes via
the injecting system and the injected lime dust will then contact with acidic gas around
the sack dust remover to generate some solid compounds. Such compounds will be
captured and collected together with the fly ash by the dust remover afterwards. Since
alkaline solid can’t contact with gas for too long and the effect of mass transfer
performs badly, therefore, to improve the reacting speed, the actual alkaline solid used
reaches about 3-4 times more than the original amount required by the reaction
demand.
59. Semi-dry technique injects in lime solution with certain concentrations via the
sprayer to react with acidic gas and controls the reaction temperature through water
injection as well. Moisture evaporates through the absorption and neutralization
reaction process while fly ash in larger particles sinks to the bottom of the vessel to be
discharged. Fly ash in fine particles is then captured and collected by the dust remover.
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It means that between the alkaline absorbent solution and acidic gas from flue gas, the
adequate mass and heat transfer will improve the efficiency, as well as drying those
reaction products and finally generating several manageable dry powder products.
Two times of the theoretical lime powder dosage is used and achieves a purification
efficiency of 95%-99%.
60. Chlorine from the fly ash mainly originates from waste plastics (mainly PVC
plastics), kitchen waste, waste rubber products, etc., among which, PVC plastics are
primarily organic while kitchen waste are inorganic. Heavy metals from fly ash mainly
originate from industrial solid waste mixed into MSW as well as batteries, pigments,
construction materials and other poisonous and harmful waste from MSW.
61. Dividing MSW into “harmful waste”, “recyclable waste”, “kitchen waste” and
“general waste” first and then incinerating those “general waste” will achieve the
reduction and recyclable utilization of waste sources. Firstly, the MSW entering to the
incinerator will be reduced and the production of incineration fly ash is therefore
reduced as well to alleviate f ly ash’s disposing pressure; secondly, the moisture
content will also be reduced to improve the waste incineration heat and temperature,
increasing the resources’ utilization efficiency and decreasing the generation of dioxins;
thirdly, the heavy metal content of the waste will be reduced as well so that there will
be less heavy metals in the fly ash. Obviously, sources classification can directly
reduce the dioxins’ generation matrix and breaks its forming condition. Meanwhile,
waste classification helps the incineration treatment to reduce the amount (reduce the
waste treatment amount), to reduce the emission (reduce the pollution emission
amount), to increase the quality (improve combustion operation) and to improve the
efficiency (improve power-generating efficiency), etc.
62. It has been proved that with the improvement of urbanization rate, MSW’s organic
content is increasing in general while the inorganic content such as sediments is
gradually decreasing. Besides, the average organic and inorganic content tends to
remain stable with less components changes; the proportion of recyclable materials
such as paper, plastics and rubbers has greatly increased, so has the waste utilization
value; there is also more combustible content with higher heat; as the gradual initiation
of waste bagging in various cities, rain erosion has been reduced and together with
the change of people’s living habits, waste’s moisture content will be gradually reduced.
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Figure 2-19 Dry/Semi-dry Fly Ash Treatment and Purification Technique
63. Alkaline substances injected to the fuel gas via dry/semi-dry method are usually
lime which is used to remove harmful acid substances within the fuel gas such as HCI,
HF, SOx, etc. Produced fly ash contains reactant that comes from the reaction with
acid gas in the fuel gas (such as CaCl2, CaSO3, CaSO4, CaF2, etc.) and some
unreacted alkaline. Mostly fly ash is alkaline, pH up to 12.8. It occupies a high-level
calcium content and large fly ash production amount. Besides, since the mass fraction
of CaCl2 (the reactant of lime and HCI) in fly ash is relatively high, CaCl2 is therefore
soluble and heat-labile. If isn’t removed before, it will block the solidification and
stabilization of fly ash.
2.2.6.2 Fly Ash Properties via Wet Fuel Gas Treatment
64. Wet purification technique usually adopts electrostatic collectors to remove the
dust and reduces the fuel gas temperature to 60-70℃ in the quencher, then enters to
the wet scrubber to conduct alkaline cleaning process so that the acid pollution in the
fuel gas can be removed. The commonly-used absorption potion is NaOH solution and
a little Ca(OH)2 to avoid scaling. Wet de-acid purification has high efficiency and the
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HCI removal rate reaches 99% while that of SO2 is over 90% as well. However, waste
water vented from the scrubber is supposed to be discharged after proper treatment
and the resulting sludge should be well-processed.
65. Different from the combinative technique of dry + dust removing and semi -dry +
dust removing and purifying, wet purification technique removes the dust with collector
and then applies wet technique to the pollutant. Incineration fuel gas from the
incinerator enters to the collector to remove particles from the fuel gas after cooling
down in the thermoregulation tower and therefore captures fly ash with higher acidity.
Currently, only a few MSW incineration fuel gas treatment and purification techniques
adopt the wet method. Incinerator in operation includes the waste incineration project
of Shanghai Laogang.
2.2.7 Effect of Combustion Conditions on Fly Ash Properties
66. Dioxins’ forming mechanism during the waste incineration process is divided into
two: one is precursor synthesis and diverse organic precursors are formed by
incomplete combustion and uneven catalytic reaction while the other is de novo
synthesis. Macromolecular carbon and organic chloride or inorganic chloride from the
fly ash matrix will be catalyzed into dioxins by certain catalytic components (such as
Cu, Fe and other transition metal or its oxide) under the temperature of 250-450℃.
Both mechanisms can be attributed to the fly ash surface heterogeneous catalytic
reaction at low temperature.
67. The incinerator operation’s effect on the production of dioxins: during the
incineration, improving the incineration condition and ensuring stable and complete
combustion can reduce the generation of dioxins. Favourable combustion condition
proposed by American EPA is one of the best approaches to control the discharge of
dioxins. The most optimal generation temperature of dioxins is 300-400℃, but dioxins
also exist while the temperature is over 500℃. However, dioxins will be completely
decomposed when the temperature is higher than 800℃. Modern waster incinerator’s
design adopts the principle of “3T+E” to control the discharge of dioxins, which means
to keep the combustion temperature (T) over 800℃; and to insert air for the second
time in the hot zone and fully agitate to increase the turbulence (T); to extend gas’s
retention time (T) in the hot zone (Time>2s) as well as to remain excess air (E). It
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shows that the incinerator’s temperature is a significant parameter to regulate dioxins’
discharge.
68. In the incineration process, it is easy to produce pyrolysis of chlorine-containing
substances. In the flue gas of iron chloride, copper chloride and other catalytic role
with the flue gas in the HCl near 300 ℃, they will quickly re- Dioxins. If the incinerator
to take intermittent operation, it will inevitably increase the possibility of material
through the low temperature zone, increasing the chances of dioxin formation. As far
as possible, the continuous operation of the incineration system should be stabilized,
the number of start-up and shutdown of the incinerator should be reduced, and dioxin
should be reduced due to abnormal working conditions. At the same time, shorten the
cooling process of flue gas in the temperature range of 300-500 ℃, control the exhaust
temperature below 200 ℃, to avoid dioxin re-synthesis temperature zone.
2.2.8 Impact Prediction of Waste Classification on Fly Ash
2.2.8.1 Impact of Waste Classification on Fly Ash Dioxins
69. Fly ash is the main source of dioxins, and the metal, metal oxide or metal chloride
in fly ash promotes the formation of dioxins. The study found that the dioxin content of
fly ash is proportional to chlorine content. Fly ash is a by-product of waste incineration,
in which the content of each pollutant is directly related to the composition of the refuse.
(1) Waste Composition’s Effect on Dioxins
70. From the perspective of the forming mechanism, incinerating chlorine-containing
materials with metal salts is the main reason to produce dioxins. Organic chloride in
the waste includes vinyl chloride, benzyl chloride, pentachlorophenol and other
substances while the inorganic chloride is mainly chloride salt. Chloride donor reacts
with O2 and HCl in proper temperature under the catalysis of copper, iron, nickel, etc.
and produces dioxins via molecular rearrangement, free radical integration, de-
chlorination and other processes. To control chloride is an effective way to control the
production of dioxins. Organic chloride in the waste mainly originates from plastics,
leathers, rubbers, etc., among which, the plastic components have a great variety,
usually including polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, Eps propylene, etc.;
inorganic chloride in the waste mainly originates from kitchen waste.
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71. Plastic, leather and rubber all belong to recyclable waste and we can not only
achieve wasted resources recycling via waste-sorting, but also effectively control the
pollutants production during the incineration process. Before throwing waste into the
incinerator, pre-sorting technique can be adopted to sort out the transition metals like
copper, iron, nickel, etc. Reduce the quantity of chloride as well as the chloride sources
of dioxins from the beginning to reduce the generation chance and concentration of
dioxins. Chlorine in fly ash comes mainly from waste plastics (mainly PVC plastic),
kitchen waste, waste rubber products, etc. Among them, PVC plastic is dominated by
organic chlorine while kitchen waste is mainly inorganic chloride.
(2) Effect of Moisture Content on Dioxin Production
72. The components of MSW are quite complicated and the moisture content changes
greatly in accordance with the season - summer has larger moisture content while
winter has relatively smaller one. Though pre-treatment before incineration will
somewhat reduce the moisture content of the waste, certain moisture is still inevitably
carried while throwing the waste into the incinerator, which has definite effect on the
combustion and the production of dioxins. During the incineration process, moisture’s
existence will affect the production of dioxins and the distribution of derivatives, forming
a complicated impact on dioxins’ production. On one hand, moisture offers the
hydrogen sources, oxygen sources and sources of hydroxyl radicals that are required
for the reaction of dioxins’ production to promote such production; on the other hand,
moisture competes with organism for the active sites on the reactive surface to change
the balance of Deacon reaction and constrain dioxins’ formation. In actual operation,
the heat and moisture of the waste is perfectly balanced to contribute to the operation’s
stability and reduce dioxins’ production amount.
2.2.8.2 Impact of Waste Classification on Heavy Metals in Fly Ash
73. All kinds of metal wastes contained in the mixed primary waste, such as various
metal products, batteries, and printing paper containing heavy metals, such as Cu, Cr,
Cd, Zn, Hg and so on. In the incineration process, heavy metals will occur migration
and transformation, and can distribute in a variety of ash in the waste incineration
system ultimately. Due to the high temperature in the incinerator, the heavy metals in
the refuse will be released in various forms. Under the presence of Cl2, SO2, O2 and
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other gases, heavy metals will experience six processes to achieve migration from
primary waste to fly ash: (1) metal evaporation; (2) chemical reactions; (3) particle
entrainment; 4) Condensation of metal vapor and particle coagulation; 5) wall
settlement of steam and particle; 6) particle capture of flue gas purification system. In
the process of heavy metal migration, its own form is also undergoing a series of
complex morphological transformation, among chloride state, oxidation state, sulfide
state, elemental state and other complex forms.
74. The heavy metals in fly ash are mainly from toxic and hazardous waste mixture
such as batteries, pigments, as well as industrial solid wastes.
Table 2-13 Impact of Waste Classification on Heavy Metal Content in Fly
Ash/Bottom Ash mg/kg
Heavy
Metal Classified Waste Mixed Waste
Boiler Dust Bag Filter
Ash Boiler Dust
Bag Filter
Ash
Pb 415 1416 344 1169
Cd 6.4 57 5.70 17
Cu 316 261 189 160
Zn 2665 2274 3053 2084
Cr 212 79 186 70
Ni 70 24 72 40
Mn 1286 251 1047 253
As 73 267 64 222
Hg 0.10 7.70 0.11 4.80
75. Table 2-13 shows that the contents of volatile heavy metals, such as Pb, Cd, Zn,
As and Hg, in the classified and mixed waste incineration fly ash are significantly higher
than those of the bottom ash. While Cu, Cr, Ni and Mn are mainly present in the bottom
ash. Since the bottom ash generated by MSWI is generally regarded as non-hazardous
waste and is widely used in building materials, it is necessary to ensure that its heavy
metal content is sufficiently low to reduce environmental risks. Compared with mixed
waste incineration, whether in the incineration bottom ash or fly ash, the heavy metal
content is lower in classified fly ash, thus indicating the classification of refuse helps to
reduce fly ash and bottom ash in the heavy metal content.
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2.3 Environmental Impact of Fly Ash
2.3.1 Pollution of Soluble Salts
76. Kitchen waste and plastic content usually occupy a relatively high proportion of
about 40%-75% and 20% respectively, leading to a high soluble chlorine salts content
in the fly ash up to 37.3%. It mainly includes the chloride of Ca, Na and K. If improperly
disposed, underground water and natural water will be polluted. At the same time, large
quantity of chloride will increase the solubility of other pollutants - for example, the
solubility of Pb and Zn will increase while the pH value, ionic intensity and chloride
content are all high. In addition, inorganic chlorine salt brings difficulty to fly ash’s
solidification and stability as well as the resources’ utilization process. Consequently,
the harm of chlorine salts in fly ash is never negligible.
2.3.2 Pollution of Heavy Metals
77. Heavy metals are significant pollutants in fly ash. If improperly disposed during its
storing and transporting process, it will be transferred and transformed gradually while
entering to the environment and also pollutes the underground water and air due to its
un-degradability, bringing great harm to the environment rather than damaging the
health of human as well as other animals and plants via the food chains. Fly ash
occupies many heavy metals such as Cu, Pb and Zn, followed by Cr and least Cd
content. Once taken in, they will lead to pathological changes and cancer. When
human take in heavy metals like Pb and Cd via their respiratory and digestive tract,
they will suffer from several diseases. Pb will particularly impact human’s kidney, liver,
nervous system and hematopoietic function due to hard excretion and thus increase
blood pressure, obstruct the kidney function and reproductive function and finally
cause brain injury. The clinical manifestation of chronic poisoning of Cd is pulmonary
emphysema, bone mineralization, anemia and even paralysis.
➢ Burned in high-temperature, heavy metals in fly ash (such as Zn, Pb, Ni, Cd,
etc.) will volatilize into the atmospheric environment and threaten the
environmental safety.
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➢ The leaching concentration of heavy metals like Pb, Zn and Cd in fly ash is
far higher than the standard national limits. If piled-up randomly, the leaching
solution of incineration fly ash will pollute natural water and even do harm to
human health.
➢ Heavy metals such as Pb, Zn, Cr and Cd in fly ash mainly exist in a
combinative form of carbonate state and ferromanganese oxides. Such form
is not stable enough and can easily pollute the environment via the soil or
water.
2.3.3 Pollution of Dioxins
78. Dioxins are the collective name of a group of substances that can be combined
with aryl hydrocarbon receptors and generate various biological and chemical changes.
They belong to persistent organic pollutants. Incomplete waste combustion or low-
temperature hetero-phase catalysis caused by waste composition, ventilation, etc.
during the process of MSW’s incineration will produce organic pollutants such as
dioxins, furans, etc. that are mainly concentrated on fly ash’s particles.
79. The poisonousness of organic pollutants such as dioxins and furans are primarily
manifested in its biotoxicity, which is non-biodegradable and is concentrated on the
food chains, severely threatening the environment and health and having become an
environmental problem and public sanitary problem for general concern worldwide.
Dioxins are poisonous and terribly harmful to human health. They can enter to one’s
body via the skin, respiratory tract and the digestive tract, but 90% of those entering to
human body via the digestive tract are caused by food, especially lipids, being
accumulated in the fat as well as liver and badly affecting human body while it reaches
up to a certain extent. More importantly, the immune function declines, the reproductive
and genetic function change and the malignant tumor becomes much more susceptible.
Even slight ingestion for a long period will cause stubborn diseases such as cancer,
known as the first-grade carcinogen. Besides, dioxins will also cause symptoms like
headache, birth defects, etc. with long-term effect.
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2.3.4 Environmental Impact and Control of Secondary Pollution Caused
by Transportation Littering of Fly Ash
80. There exists potential danger during fly ash’s transportation process, and
discarded fly ash will enter to water and soil on the way, turn to floating dust, and then
float into the air, which will not only increase the dust content in the air, but also
aggravate fog haze’s ecotoxicity, bringing terrible harm to human health as well as the
environment.
81. Article 9 of “Technical Polices on the Prevention and Treatment of Hazardous
Waste” (State Environmental Protection Administration, 2001) in China clearly
stipulates, “MSW’s incineration fly ash must be transported after necessary
solidification and stability treatment in the productive place and the transportation
requires transportation tools for exclusive use as well. Such tools should be airtight as
well.” Fly ash transportation unit must obtain business license for hazardous waste
transportation and strictly conform to the above-mentioned rules during the
transportation process. It should also strengthen its management to avoid secondary
pollution caused by transportation discarding. Meanwhile, improved emergency plans
such as repairing preparing, rescue mechanical equipment and routine drills should be
formulated to control accident risk for any possible discarding accidence.
2.4 Summary
1) With the improvement of urbanization rate and living standards, MSW’s collection
amount increases progressively at an average rate of 4% annually in China.
2) As residents’ requirements toward ecological environment become higher and
higher and their environmental protection consciousness increases gradually, China’s
MSW management becomes much more normative and scientific. Currently, though
the main MSW treatment approach is sanitary landfill, incineration treatment
technology will be proved to be essential techniques for MSW treatment, viewing from
the changes of the number of finished waste treatment constructions and the treatment
scale capability.
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3) As the by-product of MSW’s incineration treatment, the production of fly ash will
increase annually in accordance with the waste incineration amount.
4) Fly ash is listed into hazardous waste in China and its disposal as well as resources
utilization should strictly comply with corresponding regulations and standards.
5) Since the fly ash composition and its properties vary with the change of incinerated
waste components, incineration operation and fuel gas treatment and purification
techniques, harmless treatment or resources utilization technique should therefore be
adopted in term of the fly ash’s components and properties to achieve normative and
economically feasible treatment.
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CHAPTER3 SURVEY AND ANALYSIS OF FLY ASH
FROM TYPICAL INCINERATORS IN PRC
3.1 Selection of Typical Incinerators
82. The incineration treatment technology in China can be classified into three
categories: grate-type technology, fluidized-bed technology and other incineration
technologies (small vertical and chain incinerator, pyrolysis incinerator, etc.). Since
part of small incinerators made in China occupy a small treatment scale and unstable
operation mode, their application is therefore terribly limited with an extremely low
market share. Consequently, the incineration fly ash production or properties of these
kinds don’t have any universalities; however, the property of long-term continuous and
stable operation of grate-type and fluidized-bed incinerators has made them two
mainstream incinerators adopted by MSW’s incineration plants in China, among which, mechanical grate-type incinerator has a much higher market share. Accordingly, this
research on typical incineration plants in China mainly targets at mechanical grate-
type and fluidized-bed incinerators.
83. In addition, MSW’s components, incineration operation of incinerators, fuel gas
treatment and purification system, etc., all directly affect the properties of incineration
fly ash. Thus, as a huge geographical country, MSW’s components in diverse regions in China greatly differ from each other and the fuel gas treatment technology adopted
by MSW incineration plants focuses on dry/semi-dry and wet treatment techniques
while wet treatment technique is relatively rare, only adopted by Laogang MSW
Incineration Plant’s Phase One Operation in Shanghai; by the end of 2015, there had
been 220 incineration plants in operation in China. Due to the limitation of researching
on these 220 incineration plants one by one in detail within the execution period lasting
for 18 months, the choice of typical MSW incineration plants for this fly ash properties
research conforms to the following principles:
1) Choose plants in southern China, eastern coast, central inland and northern
areas from south to north based on regional characteristics;
2) Choose dry/semi-dry and wet treatment techniques based on fuel gas
treatment purification system;
3) Choose mechanical grate-type and fluidized-bed incinerators based on the
incineration types.
84. According to the above principles, a total of 16 typical incineration plants were
selected for this survey, of which 3 were incineration plants of fluidized bed type and 1
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were wet-type incineration plant for flue gas treatment. The others were mechanical
grate furnace with flue gas treatment process of the dry / semi-dry method. List of the
selected plants are as Table 3-1:
Table 3-1 Selected Incineration Plants For Fly Ash Sampling Survey
No. Province City Scale Incineration
Type Flue Gas Purification
System Area
1 Liaoning Dalian 1500t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter +Activated Carbon North
2 Hebei Shijiazhuang 1000 t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter +Activated Carbon South
3 Tianjin Tianjin 700 t/d Fluidized Bed Semi-Dry +Dry+ Bag
Filter+ Activated Carbon North
4 Tianjin Tianjin 1000 t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter +Activated Carbon North
5 Beijing Beijing 1600 t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry + Bag Filter+
Activated Carbon +SNCR North
6 Shanghai Shanghai 3000 t/d Grate Boiler Wet Eastern Coast
7 Jiangsu Nanjing 2000 t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter +Activated Carbon Eastern Coast
8 Jiangsu Rugao 1500 t/d Fluidized Bed Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter +Activated Carbon Eastern Coast
9 Zhejiang Ningbo 1500 t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter Eastern Coast
10 Zhejiang Hangzhou 1300 t/d Fluidized Bed Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter
Eastern
Coast
11 Hunan Yiyang 700 t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter Inland
12 Sichuan Chengdu 2000 t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter Inland
13 Chongqing Chongqing 1200 t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter Inland
14 Shenzhen Shenzhen 4200 t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter South
15 Guangdong Zhuhai 2000 t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter +Activated Carbon South
16 Guangdong Foshan 3000 t/d Grate Boiler Semi-Dry +Dry +Bag
Filter +Activated Carbon South
3.2 Survey Content
85. Approaches like on-site interview, questionnaire answering and sample analysis
are adopted to conduct field research on the targeted typical MSW landfill plants. The
questionnaire mainly includes the incineration’s basic information, fly ash dioxins
monitoring, heavy metal content of the fly ash, properties of sediments and fly ash, etc.
(Details as per the Attachment 2 Questionnaire)
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3.3 Sampling and Analysis of Fly Ash
3.3.1 Fly Ash Sampling
86. In China, MSW is defined as hazardous wastes and its fly ash sampling should
strictly comply with the standards required by “Identification Standards for Hazardous
Wastes” (HJ/T 298) and “Specifications on Industrial Solid Waste’s Sampling and Sample Preparation” (HJ/T 20). “Sampling & Sample Preparation and Test for
Incineration Sediments from MSW” (2016 Draft for Comment) hasn’t been formally implemented and can therefore act as a reference.
87. Besides, due to the incompetence of China’s MSW treatment, almost all current incineration plants are continuously in operation for 330 days annually with about 3
days as overhaul period every month. Once the overhaul is finished, the incinerators
should be activated at once. Since the activation period is rather short, there will just
produce limited amount of fly ash during this period, accounting for a quite small
proportion of the total fly ash amount. And its properties are not universal. Hence, fly
ash sampling should be conducted during the incineration plants’ continuously stable period and specifications or guidelines based on the treatment technology and
resource utilization of the fly ash’s universality research could be much more widely applicable with the significance of worldwide promotion and application.
88. During the incineration plants’ actual operation process, one-time fly ash test
requires at least 24-hour fly ash amount from incinerators as a batch. Then, choose
the smallest sample based on the batch, among which, heavy metal should be tested
at least once a month while dioxins tested once or twice a year. Every time, the
sampling must choose at least 8 samples and it should also be conducted once an
hour with 1kg as each sample’s quantity. Once the sampling is less than 1kg, it can be divided into several times until the final sample quantity is reached. Besides, these
samples should be selected from diverse periods as much as possible to ensure the
representativeness.
89. Suitable sampling approaches should be chosen under the strict sampling
standards and based on the specific waste incineration plants’ actual techniques. The following works should be guaranteed:
❖ Before the on-site fly ash sampling, operators should protect themselves
perfectly. For example, they should wear the protective equipment such as
safety helmets, masks and gloves to ensure the sampling operators’ safety in one hand and keep the incineration plants’ regular operation in the other.
❖ The preferred sampling location is the inner part of the blending device. Other
locations such as the fly ash hopper can also be selected as the sampling
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point if convenient. One thing needed to be ensured is that the sampling
sample is original fly ash.
❖ While sampling, materials in the blending device should be evacuated at first.
After pouring fly ash from fly ash hoppers or other fly ash measuring devices
into the blending device and before adding stabilizer, hardener, moisture and
other materials, the incineration plant’s device operator should stop the blending device’s operation and then, the sampling personnel could open the
sampling door of the device. After that, he can collect samples with a sampler
from the place where samples are piled up and avoid side and skin materials.
Take out the sampler after the collection and put it into the prepared sample
bag, sealed for conservation. Till now, the sampling will be completed. Clear
possible material deposit from the sampler to get prepared for the next
sampling. Mark the sample with its origins, sampling time, sample properties
(raw fly ash) and number. Conduct the following sampling activity according
to the time requirement.
3.3.2 Test Methods
90. Detection of heavy metals (Pb Cd Cu Zn Ni As Cr Mn): solid waste or solid
waste leachate after acid digestion, into the plasma emission spectrometer nebulizer
atomized by argon carrier gas into the plasma torch, the target Elements are gasified
in a plasma torch, ionized, excited and radiated out of the characteristic line. The
intensity of the characteristic spectrum is proportional to the amount of the element to
be measured in the sample within a certain range. Test will be conducted according to
standard methods in HJ781-2016 Solid Waste–Determination of 22 Metal Elements–Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry.
91. Detection of mercury: Solid waste and leachate sample after microwave
digestion, enter the atomic fluorescence spectrometer, in which the mercury element
in the potassium borohydride solution to reduce the role of mercury vapor generated.
The gas forms a ground state atom in the argon-hydrogen flame and generates atomic
fluorescence upon excitation of the elemental light (mercury) emission. The atomic
fluorescence intensity is proportional to the elemental content in the sample. Test will
be conducted according to standard methods in HJ702-2014 Solid waste–Determination of Mercury, Arsenic, Selenium, Bismuth, Antimony— Microwave
Dissolution / Atomic Fluorescence spectrometry.
92. Dioxins test: The sample is extracted, purified and solvent exchanged into the
EIA tube. The PCDD/Fs in the sample bind specifically to the PCDD/Fs antibody on
the inner surface of the tube. The PCDD/Fs antibody in the EIA tube is in excess and
the remaining unbound PCDD/Fs antibody binds to the addition of a competitive
enzyme label. The amount of PCDD/Fs antibody in each EIA tube is constant and the
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amount of PCDD/Fs in the sample can be calculated by measuring the amount of
enzyme label bound to the PCDD/Fs antibody. This standard using TEQ value to
characterize the amount of PCDD/Fs of the sample. Test is conducted with reference
of DB12/T 403-2008 Solid waste - Determination of dioxins - Enzyme immunoassay.
3.4 Results and Analysis
3.4.1 Fly Ash Sample Numbering
93. The fly ash sample shall be numbered as follows based on different areas of
municipal solid waste incineration plant, incinerator types and treatment processes:
94. For example, NGD-DL means the fly ash is from the municipal solid waste
incineration plant located in Dalian City in northern China and the plant adopts
mechanical grate boiler and dry method /semi-dry method for flue gas treatment.
3.4.2 Result Analysis
3.4.2.1 All Survey Results
95. At present, the testing and analysis of 16 samples are completed with the testing
and analysis results shown in Table 3-2. According to Table 3-2, the data of such 16
samples has obvious data jumpiness and contingency without significant regularity,
because fly ash characteristic is influenced by many factors, such as solid waste
contents, actual incineration operating conditions and flue gas treatment process.
Despite the data jumpiness, the order of magnitudes shows that total content of heavy
metals and dioxin toxic equivalent of most samples are at the same order and the
contents of all heavy metal elements are less than 2%, which are basically the same
as the research statistic values. It can be seen from this that the contents of Zn in f ly
ash in China is the highest, followed by Pb, Cu and Mn, the concentrations of other
heavy metal elements are relatively low and dioxin toxic equivalent fundamentally
remains at 30-70 pg TEQ/g.
* * * * * -- - Acronym of city name
flue gas treatment process: D-dry method/semi-dry method W-wet method.
Incinerator type: G- grate furnace, F- fluidized bed
Facility location: N- Northern China (northeast China and north China) E- Eastern coast of china (Shanghai, Zhejiang and Jiangsu) S- Southern China (Shenzhen and Guangdong) M- Middle of China (Hunan, Sichuan and Chongqing)
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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Table 3-2 Analysis Results of Total Content of Heavy Metals and Dioxin Equivalent in Fly Ash Samples from Typical Incineration Plants
Sample number
Total content of heavy metals, mg/Kg Dioxin toxic equivalent
(pg TEQ/g) Pb Cd Cu Zn Ni As Cr Hg Mn
NGD-
DL 1773 182 487 12565 23.9 30.6 536 10.8 253 38
NGD-
SJZ 1456 189 571 2791 10.7 26 40.8 8.3 120 67
NFD-TJ 488 37 377 3256 33.9 18.7 122 4.2 573 52
NGD-TJ 881 80.4 443 4241 204 36.5 226 10.2 776 54
NGD-BJ 1040 74.8 256 3487 28.9 24.8 123 5.5 332 13
EGD-NJ 1296 115 507 4660 38.5 28.3 166 6.7 263 48
EFD-
RG 731 20.2 861 3452 114 11.9 359 3.6 619 58
EGD-
NB 1254 108 539 4416 40.6 54.6 129 6.6 191 46
EGW-
SH 3605 23.5 975 11531 0 47.0 117 9.3 183 79
EFD-HZ 687 29.7 437 3219 48.3 29.7 198 1.9 586 49
MGD-
HN 107 13.1 69 888 19.6 21.3 82.4 0.8 166 3.5
MGD-
CQ 2119 163 685 6318 31.7 50.3 202 2.5 315 65
MGD-
CD 1146 94.8 605 4968 73.5 39.3 195 2.1 209 58
SGD-SZ 1540 134 1552 8197 59.8 31.7 151 8.6 234 36
SGD-
ZH 976 50.1 842 4539 108 24.3 319 4.8 326 44
SGD-FS 1244 62.0 688 5786 243 28.2 1562 15.5 800 32
3.4.2.2 Impact of Different Areas on Total Content of Heavy Metals and Dioxin Toxic Equivalent in Fly Ash
96. Figure 3-1 shows the change in total content of heavy metals in incineration fly
ash from mechanical grate boilers adopting the same flue gas treatment process in
different areas. According to Figure 3-1, the highest total Zn content in incineration
fly ash from mechanical grate boilers of all incineration plants surveyed is 12,565mg/kg,
followed by Pb and Cu. The Zn content in fly ash from eight different urban areas
surveyed changes significantly, so do other heavy metal contents. The solid waste
components are different in various areas because of different economic levels and
living habits of residents, and thus the properties of fly ash compositions change
significantly after municipal solid waste incineration.
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Figure 3-1 Total Content of Heavy Metals in Incineration Fly Ash from
Mechanical Grate Furnace In Different Areas
Figure 3-2 Dioxin Toxic Equivalent in Incineration Fly Ash from the Same
Type of Incinerators in Different Areas
97. Similarly, Figure 3-2 shows dioxin toxic equivalent in incineration fly ash from the
same type of incinerators in different regions. According to Figure 3-2, the order of
magnitudes of dioxin toxic equivalent in the incineration plants in Hunan area in the
middle of China is relatively stable and remains in the range of 30-70, except for that
of an incineration plant (MGD-HN). Therefore, the location of municipal solid waste
incineration facilities has some impact on the dioxin toxic equivalent, but the impact is
not significant.
3.4.2.3 Impact of Different Types of Incinerators on Total Contents of Heavy Metals and Dioxin Toxic Equivalent in Incineration Fly Ash
98. Figure 3-3, 3-4 and 3-5 show the total content of heavy metals in incineration fly
0102030405060708090
二噁英毒性当 值 pg TEQ/gDioxin Toxic Equivalent (pg TEQ/g)
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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ash from mechanical grate boiler and fluidized bed in Tianjin area and Jiangsu area
respectively. According to Figure 3-3, 3-4 and 3-5, the total content of heavy metals in
incineration fly ash from mechanical grate boiler is higher than that from fluidized bed,
which is basically the same as the statistical result of previous research, but the
difference between them is not higher than the statistical result of previous research.
The statistical results show that the content of heavy metal in incineration fly ash from
mechanical grate boiler is higher than that from fluidized bed, by the maximum of over
10 times and the average of 7 times with regard to Zn content, the maximum of 7 times
and the average of 3 times with regard to Cu, the average of 7, 4, 4, 1.5 and 0.3 times
with regard to Cd, Pb, Cr, Ni, and Hg. It indicates that the difference between total
contents of heavy metals in incineration fly ash from mechanical grate boiler and
fluidized bed is becoming smaller and smaller after the standard and meticulous
management is conducted the operation of for municipal solid waste incinerator,
accounting for the increasingly high environmental protection effect.
Figure 3-3 Total Content of Heavy Metals in Incineration Fly Ash from
Mechanical Grate Boilers and Fluidized Beds in Tianjin Area
Figure 3-4 Total Content of Heavy Metals in Incineration Fly Ash from
Mechanical Grate Boilers and Fluidized Beds in Jiangsu Area
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
Pb Cd Cu Zn Ni As Cr Hg Mn
NFD-TJ
NGD-TJ
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
Pb Cd Cu Zn Ni As Cr Hg Mn
EGD-NJ
EFD-RG
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Figure 3-5 Total Content of Heavy Metals in Incineration Fly Ash from Mechanical Grate Boilers and Fluidized Beds in Zhejiang Area
Figure 3-6 Dioxin Toxic Equivalent in Incineration Fly Ash from Mechanical Grate Boiler and Fluidized Bed in the Same Area
99. Figure 3-6 shows the dioxin toxic equivalent in incineration fly ash from mechanical
grate boiler and fluidized bed in Tianjin area and Jiangsu area respectively. According
to Figure3-6, the difference between dioxin toxic equivalents in incineration fly ash from
mechanical grate boiler and fluidized bed is not large. Under standard management
conditions, the dioxin toxic equivalent in fly ash may not be used as the reference for
incinerator type selection.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
Pb Cd Cu Zn Ni As Cr Hg Mn
EGD-NB
EFD-HZ
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
NFD-TJ NGD-TJ EGD-NJ EFD-RG EGD-NB EFD-HZ
二噁英毒性当 值 pg TEQ/gDioxin Toxic Equivalent (pg TEQ/g)
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3.4.2.4 Impact of Different Flue Gas Treatment Processes on Total Content of Heavy Metals and Dioxin Toxic Equivalent in Fly Ash
Figure 3-7 Impact of Different Flue Gas Treatment Processes on Total Content of
Heavy Metals in Fly Ash
Figure 3-8 Impact of Different Flue Gas Treatment Processes on Total Content of
Heavy Metals and Dioxin Toxic Equivalent in Fly Ash
100. From Figure 3-7, it can be seen that under the same raw material and
incinerator type, wet gas treatment process is more efficient in collecting most heavy
metals in flue gas, especially for the Pb, Cu and Zn with content of 3605mg/kg, 975
mg/kg and11531 mg/kg, respectively, all of them are over 2 times more than dry
method. Meanwhile, as is shown in Figure 3-8, wet method also captures more dioxins
than dry method, with wet method captured 79 pg TEQ/g dioxins whereas dry method
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
Pb Cd Cu Zn Ni As Cr Hg Mn
EGW-SH
EGD-NJ
EGD-NB
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
EGW-SH EGD-NJ EGD-NB
二噁英毒性当 值 pg TEQ/gDioxin Toxic Equivalent (pg TEQ/g)
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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only 47 pg TEQ/g.
101. Above all, wet flue gas treatment method is more efficient in the capture of
heavy metals and dioxins in flue gas. But wet method requires large consumption of
water and the process is severely corrosive for equipment and the generated waste
solid and liquid are hard to dispose, causing secondary pollution. As a result wet
method is still not applied widely.
3.4.2.5 Description of Dioxins Toxicity Determination Methods
102. At present, the most widely used method to detect dioxins is chromatography,
especially high-resolution gas chromatography combined with high-resolution mass
spectrometry (HRGC/HRMS). This method requires complex sample preparation
processes, long test cycles, sophisticated instrumentation, a good experimental
environment, professionally trained operators, and qualitative and quantitative
standards. The detection method of dioxins costs as much as $ 1,000, and for the
detection of dioxins produced during incineration, their sampling methods can not fully
reflect the generation of dioxins.
103. Dioxins have high affinity to Ah receptors of organisms and can specifically
induce cytochrome P450 enzymes, which can be determined by EROD enzyme
activity. The method has a linear dose-response relationship within a certain
concentration range and can be used for the determination of dioxins in samples. At
present, Enzyme Immuno Assay (EIA) is mainly used in the field both at home and
abroad, and the immunization kit has been sold. The cost for testing each sample is
$60-80. EIA method has the characteristics of short analysis period and low analysis
cost, and the detection limit of the sample can reach the level of pg/g or ng/L. Therefore,
EIA can be used as a rapid screening method for a large number of samples and is
particularly suitable for carrying out large-scale dioxin background investigations.
Dioxins in this project using enzyme immunoassay for biological testing. The principle
and method of testing can refer to the literature (Li Wen, et al. Rapid quantitative
screening of dioxin contaminants in environmental samples using the EIA bioassay
method. Environmental science, 2000,21(4): 70-73).
(1) The Standard Curve, Detection Limit and Linearity Detection Range of EIA
Detection Method
104. A series of standard working solutions of 0, 3.2, 10, 32 and 100 pg • tube - 1
were prepared from methanol with 2,3,7,8 – TCDD, and analyzed absorbance
values(OD) by EIA separately, and then a dose-response standard curve for 2,3,7,8-
TCDD was made. As shown in Figure 3-9, the standard curve is inverted "S" with
equation: y = (64.4 / (1 + (x /12.5) 1.89)) + 34.1 ,and R2 is 0.996. The half-effect dose
I50 was 22.5pg • tube-1.
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105. According to the provision of US EPA for the Laboratory Detection Limit (MDL),
Six consecutive spiked samples close to the limit of detection were analyzed
consecutively to a standard deviation (S) of 1.1 pg • tube-1 (ie 1.1 pg TEQ per EIA
tubes), and then determined the lower limit of detection with 3-fold standard deviation
of 3.3 pg • tube-1, lower limit value of quantitation with a 10-fold standard deviation of
11 pg • tube-1.
Figure 3-9 3 2,3,7,8-TCDD Toxicity Response Value (pg • tube-1)
106. As can be seen from Figure 3-9, the best linear correlation of the standard
curve is between 3.2 pg • tube-1 and 32 pg • tube-1 with a linear equation of y = -0.581x
+ 55.81 and R2 of 0.962. Considering the lower limit value of quantitative is 11 pg • tube-1, the concentration of the test sample (converted to 2,3,7,8-TCDD toxicity
response by EIA) should be in the range of 10-30 pg • tube-1,with larger deviation
beyond this range.
(2) Mathematical Correlation between EIA Analysis Results and HRGC/HRMS
Analysis Results
107. In order to correct the system error, a standard solution of fly ash was
prepared. The standard solution was formulated into a series of standard working
solutions. The standard curve of dose-effect relationship of PCDD / F was plotted and
the two types of fly ash sample and two samples of flue gas was analyzed quantitatively
based on the curve, the results shown in Figure 3-10. The preparation method of the
fly ash standard solution is as follows: a certain amount of fly ash is subjected to
Soxhlet extraction, and the extract is distilled to 2 to 3 mL to give a volumetric capacity.
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A portion is subjected to HRGC / HRMS quantitative analysis, and the remaining
solution is passed through a silica gel column connected to a small carbon Column
purification treatment, the test solution as a standard solution of fly ash, TEQ value
(calculated by the HRGC / HRMS analysis) of the fly ash extract after constant volume
as the TEQ value of the fly ash standard solution.
108. As can be seen from Figure 3-10, the standard curve equation for the dose-
response relationship of PCDD / F is: y = (72.0 / (1 + (x / 50.9) 1.49)) +27.2 and R2 is
0.982. The HRGC / HRMS values (measured values) of the TEQ concentrations of the
two samples were 110.3pg • Nm-3 and 123.5pg • Nm-3, respectively, with predicted
values of 98.7pg • Nm-3 and 108.6pg • Nm-3. The HRGC / HRMS values (measured
values) of TEQ concentrations in the two fly ash samples were 1556.0 ng • kg -1 and
3420.3 ng • kg-1, respectively, with the predicted values of 1489.2 ng • kg-1 and 3213.7
ng • kg-1. The relative deviations (Rd) of the HRQC / HRMS values (measured values)
and the predicted values of the curves of the TEQ concentrations of the four analysis
samples ranged from 4.5% to 13.7%, less than 15%, which makes it feasible to
determine the TEQ value of unknown fly ash and flue gas with the purified f ly ash
solution as a standard solution. The root cause of this feasibility is that the distribution
patterns of PCDD / F in all waste incineration fly ash and flue gas are about the same.
Figure 3-10 PCDD/F Toxicity Response Value (pg • tube-1)
109. The main reason why the existence of certain differences between EIA test
and HRGC/HRMS analysis is the EIA system error.
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1) The recovery of PCDD/F passing through-column purification treatment in fly ash
samples was about 50%, making the TEQ value measured by the EIA method
lower than half the real value.
2) The loss of TCDD/F during the process of passing through-column purification
treatment was big, especially 2,3,7,8 - TCDD/F, which decreased the response of EIA.
3) The presence of other impurities interferes with the cross-reaction of PCDD/F with
the enzyme.
4) EIA method for total 2,3,7,8-TCDD toxicity response range of 10 - 30 pg • tube-1,
beyond this range, the test results may be a large deviation.
3.4.2.6 Relationship between Heavy Metal and Dioxin Content in Fly Ash and Domestic Waste
110. Municipal solid waste components and heavy metal content and dioxin
toxicity equivalent of incineration fly ash in the northern typical area in Table 3-3 and
Table 3-4, respectively.
Table 3-3 Municipal Solid Waste Components in the Northern Typical Area
Component%
Beijing Dalian Tianjin Average
Food 56.1 73.39 63.22 64.2
Paper 11.76 3.37 11.74 9.0
Glass 3.84 2.56 - 3.2
Metal 1.69 0.51 - 1.1
Plastic 12.6 5.66 14.63 11.0
Fabric 2.75 1.63 - 2.2
Inorganic 8.32 4.14 3.89 5.5
Table 3-4 Heavy Metal Content and Dioxin Toxicity Equivalent of Incineration
Fly Ash in the Northern Typical Area
Sample Heavy Metal Total Amount (mg/kg) Dioxin Toxicity
Equivalent Value
No. Pb Cd Cu Zn Ni As Cr Hg Mn pg TEQ/g
NGD-DL
1773 182 487 12565 23.9 30.6 536 10.8 253 38
NFD-TJ 488 37 377 3256 33.9 18.7 122 4.2 573 52 NGD-TJ 881 80.4 443 4241 204 36.5 226 10.2 776 54 NGD-BJ 1040 74.8 256 3487 28.9 24.8 123 5.5 332 13 Average 1046 94 391 5887 73 28 252 8 484 39
111. As can be seen from Table 3-3, the food components of domestic solid
waste in the northern cities are the highest, followed by plastic, paper and inorganic
materials. The food proportion of domestic solid waste in Dalian was highest,
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accounting for 73.39%. Cities with high paper and plastic components are Beijing and
Tianjin. The higher the metal content is Beijing, accounting for 1.69%. As can be seen
from Table 3-4, the order of heavy metal content in fly ash from typical northern cities
is Zn> Pb> Mn> Cu> Cr> Cd> Ni> As> Hg. The contents of Pb and Zn were the highest
in fly ash in Dalian, Hg in fly ash in Tianjin and Dalian, and the contents of Cr and Cu
in fly ash in Dalian were the highest. The sequence of toxic equivalent of dioxins was
Tianjin> Dalian> Beijing. The high content of Pb, Zn and Hg in Tianjin fly ash may be
related to the large amount of seafood residues contained in the food components of
the domestic solid waste component, while the shellfish residue contains Pb and Zn,
and the fish residue contains Hg .
112. Municipal solid waste components and heavy metal content and dioxin
toxicity equivalent of incineration fly ash in the eastern typical area in Table 3-5 and
Table 3-6, respectively.
Table 3-5 Municipal Solid Waste Components in the Eastern Typical Area
Component (%) Shanghai Nanjing Hangzhou Ningbo Average
Food 58.55 47.3 60.5 50.63 54.245
Paper 6.68 12.63 7.18 20.92 11.8525
Glass 4.05 0.84 1.94 3.86 2.6725
Metal 2 0.41 0.81 1.47 1.1725
Plastic 11.84 20.38 14.52 15.7 15.61
Fabric 2.26 4.09 2.01 3.63 2.9975
Inorganic 7.54 4.93 10.52 1.24 6.0575
Table 3-6 Heavy Metal Content and Dioxin Toxicity Equivalent of Incineration
Fly Ash in the Eastern Typical Area
Sample Heavy Metal Total Amount (mg/kg) Dioxin Toxicity
Equivalent Value
No. Pb Cd Cu Zn Ni As Cr Hg Mn pg TEQ/g
EGD-NJ 1296 115 507 4660 38.5 28.3 166 6.7 263 48
EGD-NB
1254 108 539 4416 40.6 54.6 129 6.6 191 46
EGW-SH
3605 23.5 975 11531 0 47 117 9.3 183 79
EFD-HZ 687 29.7 437 3219 48.3 29.7 198 1.9 586 49
Average 1711 69 615 5957 32 40 153 6 306 56
113. As can be seen from Table 3-5, the food components of domestic solid waste
in the eastern cities are the highest, followed by plastic and paper. The food proportion
of domestic solid waste in Hangzhou was highest, accounting for 60.5%. Cities with
high plastic components is Nanjing, and high paper is Ningbo. The higher the metal
content is Shanghai, accounting for 2%. As can be seen from Table 3-6, the order of
heavy metal content in fly ash from typical eastern cities is Zn> Pb> Cu> Mn> Cr> Cd>
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As> Ni> Hg. The contents of Pb and Zn were the highest in fly ash in Shanghai, and
Hg and Cu contents are relatively high as well. The sequence of toxic equivalent of
dioxins was shanghai> Nanjing≈ Hangzhou≈ Ningbo. The high content of Pb and Zn
in Shanghai fly ash may be related to metal components of domestic waste, Hg related
to the large amount of seafood residues contained in the food components of the
domestic solid waste component, while the shellfish residue contains Pb and Zn, and
the fish residue contains Hg. The relatively high content of As in fly ash in Ningbo may
be related to the high content of paper components in household waste in Ningbo.
114. Municipal solid waste components and heavy metal content and dioxin
toxicity equivalent of incineration fly ash in the middle typical area in Table 3-7 and
Table 3-8, respectively.
Table 3-7 Municipal Solid Waste Components in the Middle Typical Area
Component (%) Chongqing Chengdu average
Food 57.65 61.05 59.35
Paper 12.36 15.34 13.85
Glass 3.54 - 3.54
Metal 1.77 0.1 0.935
Plastic 11.59 10.8 11.195
Fabric 4.83 1.1 2.965
Inorganic 4.17 10.65 7.41
115. Table 3-8 Heavy Metal Content and Dioxin Toxicity Equivalent of
Incineration Fly Ash in the Middle Typical Area
Sample Heavy Metal Total Amount (mg/kg) Dioxin Toxicity
Equivalent Value
No. Pb Cd Cu Zn Ni As Cr Hg Mn pg TEQ/g
MGD-CQ
2119 163 685 6318 31.7 50.3 202 2.5 315 65
MGD-CD
1146 94.8 605 4968 73.5 39.3 195 2.1 209 58
Average 1633 129 645 5643 53 45 199 2 262 62
116. As can be seen from Table 3-7, the food components of domestic solid waste
in the eastern cities are the highest, followed by plastic and paper. The food proportion
of domestic solid waste in Chengdu was highest. Cities with high plastic components
is Chongqing, and high paper is Chengdu. The higher the metal content is Chongqing,
accounting for 1.77%. As can be seen from Table 3-8, the order of heavy metal content
in fly ash from typical eastern cities is Zn> Pb> Cu> Mn> Cr> Cd > Ni> As > Hg. The
contents of Pb and Zn were the highest in fly ash in Chongqing, and the contents of
Cu, Cr and Hg in fly ash of two cities in the central region are similar. The sequence of
toxic equivalent of dioxins was Chongqing> Chengdu. The high content of Pb and Zn
in Chongqing fly ash may be related to plastic components of domestic waste, which
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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may lead to higher dioxin toxicity equivalent
117. Municipal solid waste components and heavy metal content and dioxin
toxicity equivalent of incineration fly ash in the southern typical area in Table 3-9 and
Table 3-10, respectively.
Table 3-9 Municipal Solid Waste Components in the Southern Typical Area
Component (%) Shenzhen Foshan Zhuhai Average
Food 44.1 52.64 66.9 54.55
Paper 15.34 11.29 - 13.32
Glass 2.53 2.92 - 2.73
Metal 0.47 1.26 - 0.87
Plastic 21.72 15.13 11.3 16.05
Fabric 7.4 9.75 3.7 6.95
Inorganic 1.99 6.05 2.8 3.61
Table 3-10 Heavy Metal Content and Dioxin Toxicity Equivalent of Incineration
Fly Ash in the Southern Typical Area
Sample Heavy Metal Total Amount (mg/kg)
Dioxin Toxicity
Equivalent Value
No. Pb Cd Cu Zn Ni As Cr Hg Mn pg TEQ/g
SGD-SZ
1540 134 1552 8197 59.8 31.7 151 8.6 234 36
SGD-ZH
976 50.1 842 4539 108 24.3 319 4.8 326 44
SGD-FS
1244 62 688 5786 243 28.2 1562 15.5 800 32
Average 1253 82 1027 6174 137 28 677 10 453 37
118. As can be seen from Table 3-9, the food components of domestic solid waste
in the southern cities are the highest, followed by plastic and paper. The food
proportion of domestic solid waste in Zhuhai was highest, accounting for 66.9%. Cities
with high plastic and paper components is Shenzhen. The higher the metal content is
Zhuhai, and Foshan with high fabric proportion. As can be seen from Table 3-10, the
order of heavy metal content in fly ash from typical eastern cities is Zn> Pb> Cu> Mn>
Cr> Ni > Cd > As > Hg. The contents of Pb, Zn and Cu were the highest in fly ash in
Shenzhen, with relatively high contents of Cd and Cu. The high content of Pb and Zn
in Shenzhen fly ash may be related to plastic components of domestic waste, and the
high content of Cr and Mn in Foshan may be related to the large amount of fabric
materials. The sequence of toxic equivalent of dioxins was Zhuhai> Shenzhen≈
Foshan.
119. The content of heavy metals in fly ash and the content of metals in domestic
waste show a certain correlation.
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120. (1) From the perspective of City
121. The proportion of metal components in domestic waste components in
Shanghai is 2.0%, which is the highest content in domestic urban research. Compared
with the corresponding heavy metal of fly ash in other cities, the content of Pb in fly
ash is the highest (3605 mg/kg), and the sum of the content of Pb and Zn is also the
highest (15136 mg/kg). Chongqing is the city with the second highest metal content in
municipal solid waste, accounting for 1.77% of its metal content, and its Pb content in
fly ash is 2119 mg/kg, ranking the second in terms of Pb content in fly ash in the
research cities. It is also found that dioxin levels in Shanghai and Chongqing fly ash
samples are also the top two cities in the survey, 79 pg TEQ/g and 65 pg TEQ/g,
respectively. The high dioxin content may be directly related to the higher metal content
of domestic waste. Metal chlorides (PbCl2, ZnCl2) have a strong catalytic effect on
dioxin generation. However, the proportion of metal components in domestic waste
components in Beijing was 1.69%, ranking the third in the research cities. The content
of Pb and Zn in fly ash was 1040 mg/kg and 3487 mg/kg respectively, and the dioxin
content was 13 pg TEQ/g, all located in the middle and lower reaches of the surveyed
cities, which may be related to the strict standard of flue gas emission in Beijing.
122. The content of food components in domestic solid waste in Dalian accounted
for 73.39%, probably due to the fact that the solid waste components contained many
residues of seafood such as shellfish, crabs and fish-bone residue, etc. Different
seafood residues may be enriched in different heavy metals. For example, shellfish
seafood residues are enriched in heavy metals Pb and Cd, while fish seafood residues
are enriched in Hg elements. Therefore, the contents of Hg, Pb and Cd in fly ash of
Dalian are both in the upstream of the investigated cities. Similarly, we also found that
the content of Hg in fly ash in Tianjin area is high (10.2 mg/kg), which may be closely
related to the consumption of seafood fish by Tianjin residents. The content of Hg in
inland cities such as Beijing, Nanjing, Ningbo and Chongqing are relatively low, which
may link to the low proportion of seafood in diet of local residents.
123. Foshan region gathers a large number of textile printing and dyeing
enterprises, so the local domestic waste in a high proportion of textile components,
accounting for 9.75%. Cr and Mn are commonly used oxidants and stains in textile
printing and dyeing industrial, therefore, the Cr and Mn content in Foshan fly ash is the
highest proportion in the investigated cities, with contents of 1562 mg/kg and 800
mg/kg, respectively.
124. (2) From the perspective of Waste Components
125. Plastic production process needs to add a variety of additives, such as
plasticizers, stabilizers, fillers, colorants, antioxidants, etc., which contain a variety of
heavy metals, such as stabilizers containing lead salt, zinc salt, cadmium salt, etc. ,
Colorants contain chromium salts, cadmium salts, etc. Therefore, the content of Pb,
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter II
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Zn and Cd in fly ash from cities such as Shenzhen, Nanjing and Hangzhou where the
plastic components are higher in MSW are slightly higher than those in other cities city.
126. The proportion of paper components in municipal solid waste in economically
developed cities, such as Beijing, Nanjing, Ningbo and Shenzhen, is relatively high,
and the heavy metals contained in the paper mainly include As, Hg, Pb, Cr, Cd and Ni
etc., resulting in the high content of these heavy metals in urban fly ash, especially As
content. For example, the proportion of paper components in domestic waste of Ningbo
is 20.92%, which is the highest in the investigated cities. The content in fly ash is also
the highest, with As content being 54.6% mg/kg, which can conclude that the content
of As may come mainly from paper components in domestic waste.
127. The proportion of food components in domestic waste components is high in
all cities. The content of heavy metals contained in kitchen waste is very low (the
contents of Pb, Cr, Cd and As are usually lower than 10 mg/kg). However, kitchen
waste components containing large amounts of plastic, waste paper, metal, fabric, etc.,
are as complex as domestic waste components, which are important sources of fly ash
heavy metal.
128. It is important to point out that Cd is a volatile heavy metal that enters the fly
ash through a volatilization-condensation-adsorption process. Fluidized bed
incinerators escape large amounts of particulate matter that are subsequently captured
as fly ash, diluting the Cd in fly ash. Therefore, the content of Cd in the fluidized bed
fly ash is significantly lower than the grate boiler fly ash. The content of Cd in fly ash is
basically unaffected by the flue gas purification process, and there is no obvious
difference in the fly ash of different flue gas purification systems.
129. In general, the concentration of Zn and Pb in fly ash exceeded that of Cu, Cr,
Cd and Ni by more than one order of magnitude, and the total concentration decreased
continuously according to Zn> Pb> Cu> Cr> Ni> Cd. In our country, MSW is often
mixed with many harmful heavy metal wastes (such as batteries, discarded small
household appliances, etc.) without proper sorted and sorted treatment. At the same
time, MSW contains a large amount of food waste and plastic, ZnCl2 and PbCl2 and
other metal chlorides easily formed in the incineration process, these heavy metal
chlorides with low boiling point, highly volatile to the flue gas and finally adsorbed on
the fly ash particles, and then captured by the air pollution control device, which led to
a large number Zn and Pb in fly ash.
130. Dioxins in fly ash in most cities in China are generally below the emission
factor set by UNEP (15 μgTEQ/t). Fly ash from a fluidized bed incinerator has higher dioxin toxicity than fly ash from a grate furnace, possibly due to the fluidized bed
incineration temperature and the incomplete loading of the incinerator. Dioxins in fly
ash are largely de novo reaction pathways. Large amounts of PCDD/Fs are formed in
the stack due to the abundant gaseous HCl, volatile organic compounds, PCDD/Fs
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precursors. The formation of dioxins, both precursors and de novo syntheses, needs
to be catalyzed by heavy metal chemicals such as inorganic chlorides (NaCl, KCl),
heavy metal chlorides and oxides (such as ZnCl2, PbCl2, ZnO, etc.) which is the
decisive factor of organic pollutants in fly ash. It is the enrichment of these heavy metal
chlorides, oxides and inorganic chlorides in fine particles that explain the dioxin
enrichment mechanism in fine particles. Therefore, the high content of food
components, plastic components and metal components of domestic waste
components, the high content of dioxin in fly ash, for example, Shanghai, Hangzhou,
Chongqing, Shijiazhuang and other cities.
3.5 Summary
131. In the project, 17 typical incineration plants were selected for site survey and
sampling analysis. The result analysis shows that:
1 The data of such 10 samples has obvious data jumpiness and contingency
without significant regularity, because fly ash characteristic is influenced by many
factors, such as solid waste contents, actual incineration operating conditions and flue
gas treatment process.
2 The order of magnitudes shows that total content of heavy metals and
dioxin toxic equivalent of most samples are at the same order and the contents of all
heavy metal elements are less than 2%, which are basically the same as the research
statistic values.
3 The contents of Zn in fly ash in China is the highest, followed by Pb, Cu
and Mn, the concentrations of other heavy metal elements are relatively low and dioxin
toxic equivalent fundamentally remains at 30-70 pg TEQ/g.
4 The total content of heavy metals in incineration fly ash from mechanical
grate boiler is higher than that from fluidized bed, which is basically the same as the
statistical result of previous research, but the difference between them is not higher
than the statistical result of previous research.
5 The difference between dioxin toxic equivalents in incineration fly ash from
mechanical grate boiler and fluidized bed is not large.
6 Compared with dry method, wet flue gas treatment method is more efficient
in the capture of heavy metals and dioxins in flue gas.
7 There is a certain difference between the EIA in the determination of
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dioxins in fly ash and the HRGC / HRMS analysis. The main reason may come from
the systematic error of EIA.
8 The main reason for the high proportion of Zn and Pb in fly ash is that solid
waste is often mixed with waste containing heavy metal materials (batteries,
abandoned small appliances, etc.). The formation of dioxins requires that the
interaction of heavy metal chlorides and oxides (such as ZnCl2, PbCl2, ZnO, etc.) under
the catalysis of heavy metal chemicals is the decisive factor of organic pollutants in the
fly ash. It is the enrichment of these heavy metal chlorides in fine particles that explain
the dioxin enrichment mechanism in fine particles.
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CHAPTER4 TECHNOLOGIES FOR REUSE,
TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF MSW INCINERATION
FLY ASH
132. Since fly ash occupies the instability and component-uncertainty of pollutants,
especial when it gathers heavy metals from incineration fuel gas, dioxins and other
volatile materials, fly ash is therefore managed as hazardous wastes in all countries of
the world. Its treatment and disposal should be secure and harmless. For example,
MSW’s incineration fly ash is clearly listed into “National Catalogue of Hazardous
Wastes” as hazardous waste with the list number of HW18. Its disposal should strictly
conform to the regulated standards of Article 9 of “Technical Polices on the Prevention
and Treatment of Hazardous Waste” (State Environmental Protection Administration,
2001). Whether the landfill disposal or resource utilization technology is selected, the
corresponding leach toxicity requirements should be satisfied via the safety pre-
treatment. Likewise, the solid wastes management regulation – “The Waste Disposal
and Public Cleansing Law” in Japan has also specified that fly ash must be treated
with the following four processes before entering into landfill plants or conducting
resource utilization: melting and solidification, cement solidification, chemical
stabilization and acidic leaching.
133. Currently, innocent treatment technology developed for the treatment of fly
ash mainly includes three categories – solidification and stabilization, wet chemical
treatment as well as high-temperature treatment. Solidification and stabilization mainly
contains cement solidification, chelator stabilization, compressing solidification, etc.;
wet chemical treatment is comprised of two types including acid extraction and
neutralizing carbonation with fuel gas while high-temperature treatment mainly
includes sintering solidification and melting vitrification. Likewise, filled by heavy metals
or rare metals, together with its personal physicochemical properties, fly ash still has
certain properties of resource utilization. Selecting proper technology, completing
safety management, and satisfying economic requirements, both final treatment and
disposal or resource utilization will turn to be suitable technology for fly ash
management.
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4.1 Fly Ash Treatment and Disposal Technologies and Reuse
Methods
4.1.1 Fly Ash Treatment and Disposal Technologies
4.1.1.1 Cement Solidification – Landfill Technology for Hazardous Wastes
134. Cement solidification adds Portland cement into incineration fly ash to form
high-strength lumps similar to rocks and hydroxyl with high basicity from the cement
can transfer heavy metals into materials with low solubility such as hydroxide so as to
intercept heavy metals. The primary principle can be concluded as pozzolanic reaction
and hydration. Hydrate gel like calcium silicate and calcium aluminate generated by
reaction will finally form into crystalline state over time and then cover the heavy metals
ions to form a stable structure and reach the ultimate strength of the solidifying object
at the same time.
135. Though cement solidification is relatively low-cost and the technique system
is mature as well as easy to operate, the increasing volume of solidification/stabilization
products is rather huge. Since inorganic salts’ content from the fly ash like chloride and
sulfate is quite high and CaCl2 caused by solidification reaction will lead to the
solidifying object’s expansion and crack due to the moisture absorption function, the
solidifying object’s long-term stability and heavy metals leach properties after landfilling
will be affected; meanwhile, problems like dioxins from incineration fly ash will not be
properly addressed as well. The strength of 28d cement solidifying objects from
incineration fly ash is only 0.35-0.70MPa. However, the safe landfill disposal should
still be conducted and the expense therefore increases so that the treatment cost of
cement solidification is generated.
136. In addition to cement solidification technology, technologies like bitumen
solidification, plastic materials’ solidification, self-cementation solidification and
containing-stabilization are all adopted. However, due to the technical characteristics
and economic reasons, they are rarely applied to the treatment of MSW incineration
fly ash.
137. Fly ash after cement solidification can be used for construction or as
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supplement for road subgrade. But this application is very limited. Generally, fly ash
treated by cement go to the landfill. The leaching concentration of the pollutants in the
fly ash after pretreatment meets the requirements of GB 16889, which can be disposed
in municipal solid waste landfill. The total amount of heavy metals in fly ash pretreated
by detoxification does not meet the requirements of GB30760, but the leaching toxicity
of heavy metal meets the requirements of GB 5749, and the dioxin content is below
80 ng I-TEQ/kg, which can enter the general industrial waste landfill site.
4.1.1.2 Chelate Stabilization – Sanitary Landfill Technology
138. Chemical stabilization refers to the process of transferring poisonous and
harmless materials into materials with low-solubility, low-transferability and low-toxicity
ones with chemical agents through chemical reactions. Disposing hazardous wastes
with chemical stabilization treatment will achieve low capacity increase or no increase
to improve the overall efficiency and economy of the hazardous wastes treatment and
disposal system at the same time of accomplishing harmless wastes treatment.
Meanwhile, improving the structure and property of chelate can strengthen its chemical
chelate efficiency with hazardous components from the wastes so as to improve the
long-term stabilization of stabilized products and reduce such products’ effect to the
environment during the final disposal process.
139. The fly ash treated by chelate method can be disposed into ordinary sanitary
landfill. The landfill site can be constructed in accordance with the requirements of
hazardous waste landfill site. The fly ash needs to meet the admission requirements
of hazardous waste landfill site.
140. Chemical addictive from the incineration fly ash’s stabilization treatment can
be mainly divided into two groups – inorganic heavy metals’ stabilized agents and
organic liquid chelates, among which, inorganic heavy metals’ stabilized agents are
usually sulfur compounds and phosphate compounds, constraining the heavy metals’
dissolution by forming heavy metals sulfide or similar insoluble materials like
Pb5(PO4)3OH. Organic liquid chelates are mainly alkaline agents with sulfur,
possessing functional groups of dithiocarbamic acid and polymerized substance with
alkyl structures. The basic principle of chelate stabilization is to dissolve soluble heavy
metals from the incineration fly ash and generate dissoluble reactants by the ligand
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bonding and iconic bonding reactions between electrophilicity with sulfur parts and
heavy metals in the aqueous phase so as to stabilize the heavy metals.
141. Currently, several researches combines cement solidification and chemical
stabilization together, i.e., combining the chemical addictive with heavy metals for the
stabilization treatment to reduce the heavy metals’ solubility and transferability, to
make up the long-term instable shortcomings of cement’s solely application and
strengthen the strength of the solidifying objects.
4.1.1.3 Acidic Extraction
142. Acidic extraction reduces the inorganic acid’s pH value with hydrochloric acid,
dissolves heavy metals from the self-incineration fly ash system in the form of ions and
then generates dissoluble heavy metal compound by adding agents or partly
concentrating heavy metals via electro-chemical approaches such as electrolysis.
143. Neutralizing carbonation with fuel gas takes advantages of carbonic acid or
bicarbonate generated via dissolving CO2 from fuel gas into water, as well as its
reaction with heavy metals from incineration fly ash to produce insoluble carbonate or
hydroxide to remove heavy metals from the incineration fly ash.
144. The combination between acidic extraction and chemical stabilization can
highly reduce the final waste amount that requires final disposal. However, such
approach lays great emphasis on controlling the pH value within a reasonable scale
and requires complicated operating conditions. It also need follow-up treatment on the
waste liquor and heavy metals sludge.
4.1.1.4 High Temperature Melting And Vitrification
145. High-temperature melting and solidification, also known as vitrification, brings
incineration fly ash into the melting status with a temperature (1200℃-1500℃) higher
than the material’s melting point. During such process, organic wastes like dioxins will
be dissolved while inorganic wastes will be melted into tight but stable glass slags.
Heavy metals will be strictly confined to the melted glass to effectively control their
leach.
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146. Blend fly ash with slight glass vitrics and once the granulating and molding
process is conducted, such blend will be melted under the high temperature of 1000-
1400℃ for a period, usually about 30 minutes (the melting time varying with the fly
ash’s properties). After the fly ash’s physical and chemical situation changes, cool it
down to promote its solidification. The blend will turn to glass solidifying object and the
stability of heavy metals will be ensured by the glass’s tight and crystal structure.
Residue produced by melting and solidification can be used for resource utilization.
But it requires plenty of energy and expenses.
147. Melting treatment has great effect of weight-reducing and capacity-reducing.
Under 1500℃, chloride will basically be volatilized and the fly ash amount can be
reduced by two-thirds. Meanwhile, the heavy metals’ leach rate after melting is rather
low and can meet the temporary leach toxicity standard. Under 1400℃ , PCDDs
/PCDFs from the fly ash will be degraded.
148. Based on the heat sources’ difference, melting and solidification can be
conducted with two approaches – fuel-combusted heat and electric heat. Incineration
fly ash will be melted into liquid under the high temperature of 1300-1600C, with its
organic materials thermolyzed, combusted and gasified and its inorganic materials
melted into glass slags. After melting, dioxins and other organic wastes from
incineration fly ash will be decomposed and destroyed after heating. As shown by the
test results conducted with several Japanese fly ash electric melting treatment burners,
the high-temperature decomposition rate of wastes like dioxins from the slags can
reach over 99.9% after the treatment. Part of heavy metal salts with a low boiling point
from the incineration fly ash will be gasified while others transferred into glass slags.
Besides, SiO2 from the fly ash will turn to Si-O network structure during the melting
process so as to surround heavy metals transferred to the slags into network structures
and reduce the leach possibility of heavy metals.
149. Fly ash which is not detoxified by heavy metal and dioxin detoxification cannot
be recycled as a recycling product. The products of high temperature sintering and
products prepared by fly ash with heavy metal detoxification and dioxin detoxification
can be used as building materials, subgrade accessories, and green construction
materials. It should not be used as food, interior decoration, residential buildings, water
conservancy projects and other accessories materials.
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4.1.1.5 Comparison of Fly Ash Treatment and Disposal Technologies
150. Table 4-1 comprehensively compares the above-mentioned four incineration
fly ash treatment technologies and helps you grasp a clearer understanding of the
status and developing tendency of incineration fly ash treatment with analysis.
(1) Diverse incineration fly ash treatment technologies have their own merits and
demerits: cement solidification is low-cost, but with a bad capacity-reducing and long-
term stability; high-temperature melting can fix the heavy metals effectively, but it is
energy-consuming and high-cost; chemical stabilization can generate stable
compounds, but is high-cost and the dioxins are not properly disposed as well; acidic
extraction requires other agents to get in operation and the residue should also be
further disposed.
(2) High-temperature treatment is the most promising technology that can completely
decompose dioxins from the incineration fly ash, reduce heavy metals’ leach rate as
well as the waste volume and its products also occupy the value of resource utilization.
(3) All these incineration fly ash treatment technologies have the problems of
secondary pollutants discharge and bad long-term stability during the treatment
process and require corresponding solutions. For example, the volatile amount
generated from the incineration fly ash melting process is over 30%, especially, the
large amount of acidic gases and heavy metals from the volatiles set rather high
requirements for the fuel gas management system.
Table 4-1 Comprehensive Comparison Between Incineration Fly Ash Treatment Technologies
Advantages Disadvantages
Cement solidification
Mature, easy to operate;
Many application results at
home and abroad;
Raw materials accessible and
low treatment expense.
High capacity-increasing, about 20%;
Low products compressing strength, necessary landfill disposal;
Necessary maintenance and storage space;
Ineffective wastes disposal such as dioxins;
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Advantages Disadvantages
Long-term leach possibility of solidifying objects
Chemical solidification
Stable products with great long-term safety;
Mature system and application
results at home and abroad;
Easy to operate and low space demand.
Product with no reusability, disposed by landfilling
Patented agents, high selling price;
Ineffective wastes treatments like dioxins;
Certain capacity-increasing, necessary maintenance and storage space.
Acidic extraction
Low construction and operation cost;
Able to be converged into the plants’ waste water treatment process
Generated waste water and sludge require further treatment;
Complicated operation and control, difficult application;
Ineffective wastes treatments like dioxins;
Product with no reusability, disposed by landfilling
Melting and solidification
Capacity-reducing rate over 60%;
Complete decomposing of materials like dioxins;
Stable slags properties and high reusability.
Energy-consuming, with a treatment expense about RMB 2000yuan/t
Huge secondary fly ash amount, further tail gas treatment;
Complicated treatment process, high-level technical requirements;
Huge volatile amount of acidic gases and heavy metals
4.1.1.6 Underground Storage Technology
151. Fly ash underground storage technology places the fly ash in a container and
stores it for long periods of time in underground mines or caves that are isolated from
the biosphere. At present, the technology is mainly used in Germany and France. It is
considered to be the safest disposal method with the lowest risk to human health and
environment and the possible risk to the least. Geological conditions for underground
storage should be long-term stability, with good geological barriers and areas of
sufficient depth (up to 400 meters) with no groundwater present in the area and poor
permeability of the formation. The selected area is safe and should not interfere with
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mining operations, At the same time have the necessary measures to store waste.
152. Underground storage technology preferred rock salt ore mines, because the
mine is located deep underground, very dry, with the stable distribution, moisture and
gas permeability, and self-healing ability. Followed by the choice of gypsum mine,
metal mine (dry), coal (dry), clay and other minerals mines. However, the rock salt
resources in China are abundant and widely distributed. There are large-scale salt
mines buried in the underground 10 to 4000 m, mainly distributed in northern Jiangsu,
southern Jiangsu, Anhui, Shandong, Hubei, Sichuan and Yunnan. Ore body is
generally layered, like layered or lenticular, smooth shape, thick, with the construction
of underground storage of hazardous waste geological conditions. It should be said
that China meets the requirements of basic geological conditions in the disposal of fly
ash underground storage technologies. However, due to the relatively large population
density in China, the relevant laws, regulations, theoretical systems and technical
methods have yet to be further studied, making the actual application still a long way
to go.
4.1.2 Utilization and Utilization Methods of Fly Ash Resource
4.1.2.1 Resource Utilization Approaches of Fly Ash
153. Due to the high soluble salts content, leachable heavy metals content and
organic pollutants content of the fly ash are all relatively high, fly ash’s resource
utilization rate is rather low. The fly ash’s resource utilization approaches should be
prudently evaluated while selecting. The major considering factors are as follow:
❖ Suitability of the treatment approach. Mainly consider the fly ash’s physicochemical properties;
❖ Feasibility of the treatment approach. Consider its operability and the products’ practicability;
❖ Economy of the treatment approach. Consider its technical economy;
❖ Environmental effect evaluation of the treatment approach. Make sure the
treatment process is environment-friendly and the final products are not new
pollutant sources.
154. In view of the above factors, fly ash’s resource utilization can be classified into
four categories: the first is construction class, including cement products, concrete
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products, pottery and glasswork or glass-ceramic products; the second is geology
class, including road-paving materials and embankment materials; the third is
agriculture class, mainly referring to soil conditioner; the fourth class includes
adsorbent and sludge conditioner. Taking the successful resource utilization
experience of fly ash overseas as a reference, we should still remain prudent while
selecting the MSW incineration fly ash’s resource utilization in China.
155. Table 4-2 shows the comparative analysis on diverse application approaches
of MSW incineration fly ash. All approaches use fly ash after sintering treatment except
for sludge conditioner which used raw fly ash without treatment.
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Table 4-2 Comparative Analysis on Diverse Application Approaches of MSW Incineration Fly Ash
Application
Approaches
Application
Level Pre-treatment Cost
Possible
Application Infiltration Advantages Disadvantages
Cement
products High Recommended Middle
Silicon aluminate and
other cement
products
Low
Wide cement origins and
low price;
Simple treatment
techniques and operation;
Low treatment expenses
Large amount of
cement
Heavy metals,
soluble chloride
and sulfide from
the fly ash will
affect the cement’s hydration process
Concrete
products High Recommended
Middle/
Low
Concrete products for
civil constructions,
isolate and low-
density products
Low Reduce disposing wastes;
Improve cement properties
Increase the
concrete’s hardening time;
Slightly reduce the
strength
Pottery Relatively high - Middle Sidewalk and
household tiles Low
Reduce disposing wastes;
Recycle energy -
Road-paving
materials Middle Necessary Low
Filling materials;
cement products Low Low treatment expenses -
Embankment
materials Low Recommended Low
Filling materials;
cement products
Middle/Hig
h Easy to operate
Beyond-standard
leach rate
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Application
Approaches
Application
Level Pre-treatment Cost
Possible
Application Infiltration Advantages Disadvantages
Sludge
conditioner Low Unnecessary High Chemical conditioner - Easy to operate
Increase heavy
metal content of
the waste water
Cementing
material Middle Unnecessary Low
Cementing material
for mine filling Low
Reduce disposing wastes; Simple treatment
techniques and operation
soluble chloride
from the fly ash
will affect the
quality of
cementing material
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4.1.2.2 Safe and Sustainable Reuse of Fly Ash
156. Safe landfill of fly ash refers to a way of fly ash burial after innocent treatment
and solidification or stabilization aimed to standardize the leach toxicity of fly ash at a
state level. The way is a final disposal of fly ash, the only choice under limited economic
conditions and without proper resource utilization. However, it comes with such
disadvantages as occupying amount of land resources, discharging quantity of heavy
metals and dioxin which remain be in scientists’ research for their long-term influence
on human’s health, and suffering objections for its landfill plant selection in almost all the cities. Therefore in terms of fly ash disposal, the safe resource utilization
technology not only guarantees the safety in its disposal, but also realizes the
sustainable resource utilization of the fly ash.
157. From the perspectives of recycling economy and waste utilization, safe
resource utilization technology of the fly ash from MSW incineration is an ideal way
among varieties of fly ash disposal ways. Currently a lot of researches have been
conducted on the safe resource utilization technology of incineration fly ash at home
and abroad, with a consistent idea that the pollutants with toxicity in the fly ash are
detoxified at first to meet the requirements of resource utilization, then resource
utilization approach shall be explored in accordance with characteristics of the fly ash,
simultaneously the resource utilization of fly ash is realized.
1) Cement Kiln Co-disposal Technology
158. Because the incineration fly ash contains CaO, SiO2, Fe2O3 and Al2O3, which
also constitute some raw materials of concrete, so it can take the place of the above
raw materials in the concrete production. Cement kiln co-disposing technology can
achieve the innocent treatment, reduction and resource utilization of the fly ash and
thus has the following advantages: the calcination temperature of raw materials in
concrete kiln and the maximum temperature of the inside air can respectively reach
1450℃ and 2000℃, which are far beyond 850℃ and 1200℃ in incinerator and can
thoroughly destroy the structure of dioxin; The air can stay as long as 8s in section with
temperature over 1000℃; the alkali gas is favourable for the absorption of volatile
molecules, thereby effectively neutralizing HF, HCl and SO2; at 1450℃ , the
temperature of clinker reaction, the heavy metals can be solidified into the clinker in a
chemical way, and due to the compactness of the hardened cement paste, the harmful
pollutants will be effectively solidified in the paste after proper processing; because of
the high cooling rate of waste gas, the compound of dioxins and furans is also
prevented.
159. However, the cement kiln co-disposal of fly ash also has some shortcomings:
in order to ensure the characteristics of cement and reduce the secondary pollution of
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volatile substance in the disposal process, the content of fluorine and chlorine in the
materials into the kiln should be strictly controlled. Therefore, the dechlorination pre-
treatment is a must before the use of the cement kiln co-disposal of fly ash. In the
practical application of water washing dechlorination, a large amount of washing
wastewater with high salt content will be produced and needs be further treated, which
will inevitably increase the treatment difficulty and costs. In addition, the cement kiln
co-disposal process of fly ash is going to solidify the heavy metal into cement products,
meaning that the total amount of heavy metals is not reduced and there are still
potential hazards.
2) Sintered Ceramsite Technology
160. Sinter treatment technology is based on the experience of the material
industry; it, below the melting point temperature, provides the diffusion energy of the
powder particles, and removes most or even all the pores away from the crystal, the
particles between the bond, thereby the materials will turn into a compact and hard
sintered body, which meets the requirements of various material properties, below the
melting point temperature; the sintering temperature is usually between 1/2 and 2/3 of
the absolute melting temperature of the main components in the powder. From the
view of the microcosmic significance, in the process of sintering, the material migrating
and bonding is due to the mutual attraction of molecules (or atoms) and by heating the
powder particles, which finally renders the sintered body with a certain mechanical
strength, and gives rise to the emergence of densification and recrystallization.
161. An important advantage of high-temperature sintering technology is that sinter
products of incineration fly ash can be used for resource utilization. On the one hand,
the sinter products already have the various properties required for building aggregate
and can be used directly as roadbed materials or other building materials; on the other
hand, the sinter products can replace the natural aggregate for the pouring of ordinary
concrete and can meet the relevant requirements of concrete performance.
162. The quality of the product obtained by the sintering treatment (such as
strength, density, shape, etc.) is affected by the sintering temperature, the rate of
temperature rise and the sintering time. It is also affected by the composition of fly ash,
the particle size and the additive. In addition, content of some of the alkali metals,
alkaline earth metals, chlorides and sulfates in fly ash also have some influence on the
sintering process conditions and sintered products. During the sintering process, most
of the heavy metals are cured in the sintered body, their leach probability is greatly
reduced, and the small part of the heavy metals are volatilized in the form of gas, which
causes secondary pollution, this is more prominent for the low boiling point elements
such as lead, zinc and cadmium. Therefore, the fly ash sintering process also needs
to use the washing process to remove chlorine and sulfate.
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3) Leach Technologies of Heavy Metal
163. The main leach way of heavy metals in fly ash are: washing method, chemical
leach (acid leach, alkali leach), high temperature leach, biological leach and other
pharmaceutical leach.
➢ Washing Leach
164. The purpose of this process is to use water solvent as leach agent to reduce
the salt (chloride, etc.), alkali and heavy metal substances in order to improve the
product grade after the pre-treatment of fly ash at the same time of reducing the
environmental and biological risks, thereby enhancing product utilization value. The fly
ash is rich in high concentrations of soluble salts, mainly such as chloride, bringing
about difficulties for the fly ash solidification and stabilization and resource utilization
process. So dechlorination is an important part in the fly ash disposal process. At
present, fly ash dechlorination technology is still relatively simple; the chloride into the
fly ash will be transferred into the liquid phase mainly through the water transfer
technology, and then the solution needs to go through the dechlorination treatment.
The main purpose of this technology is to effectively remove the dissolved salts with
high concentration in the fly ash, making the early preparation for the subsequent
solidification, metal recovery and other treatments. The main removal targets in the
washing process are Cl, Na, K and Ca in fly ash, and the removal rate of Cl is the
highest. After washing with water, the XRD map shows KCl and NaCl are the main
dissolution forms of K, Na and Cl. However, it is worth noting that some of the heavy
metals during the washing process can be dissolved into the washing solution, and the
solution before reaching the standard of being discharges is still required to be treated.
➢ Chemical Leach (Acid Leach And Alkaline Leach):
165. The purpose of this process is to transfer the heavy metals in the fly ash into
the liquid and then separate and recover them, and make the fly ash become the
general waste with low toxicity or convert it into building materials and other secondary
materials for resource utilization; in order to achieve this point, heavy metals
concentration must be high enough to ensure the recovery.
166. Chemical leach is to use chemical agents and fly ash reaction to leach heavy
metals into the solution, and then to recover heavy metals through the chemical and
other methods. The leach process of heavy metals usually depends on the type of
leach agent, leach time, temperature, pH and ratio of liquid to solid. Commonly used
agents include inorganic acids (HCl, HNO3 and H2SO4), organic acids (ethylic acid,
formic acid and oxalic acid, etc.), alkalies (NaOH and Na2CO3, etc.), complexing
agents (general complexing agents such as NH3 and chelating agents such as EDTA).
Leach effects of different acids are very different, the effect of inorganic acid is often
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better than that of organic acid. Nitric acid and hydrochloric acid can leach almost a ll
of the metals. Sulfuric acid can leach the vast majority of metals except Ca and Pb,
and because the high Pb content in fly ash is a major source of fly ash toxicity, so the
other acids or alkali leach should be added after the sulfuric acid leach; organic acid is
only better for some heavy metal leach; alkali can selectively leach amphoteric metals
such as Zn and Pb; complexing agent selectively coordinate with heavy metals of fly
ash to be complexant which then dissolves itself into solution, but the complexation of
the complexing agent on heavy metals has a strong ion selectivity, and will be affected
greatly by the pH of the solution, the same complexing agent at different pH varies
greatly in its complexing performance. Since the poorly soluble hydroxides are easily
formed at higher pH, so the increase in pH of the leachate may reduce the leach-out
rate of heavy metals.
➢ Biological Leach
167. Biological leach technology is another leach technique in addition to
chemical leach. The leach principle is similar to that of chemical leach, except that the
leach solution is different. Biological leach technology is derived from a bio-
hydrometallurgical method for the leach of ore metals or lean ore metals that are
difficult to be leached, it is a forward-looking fly ash metal leach technology that has
advantages of low acid consumption, high leach-out rate of heavy metals and strong
practicability and other advantages compared to chemical leach. The method mainly
uses the direct action of the specific microorganism or the indirect actions of the
metabolism, such as reduction, oxidation, complexation and adsorption or dissolution,
to convert the insoluble heavy metals into soluble metal ions, and after this process
from the solid phase to the liquid phase, the heavy metals are recovered through the
electrochemical and other methods. Factors affecting the efficiency of the leach
process of heavy metals are temperature, oxygen concentration, CO2 concentration,
initial pH, mineral composition, inhibitory factors, bacteria and so on. Currently
available biological agents for biological leach are mainly steroidal sopnin, aspergillus
niger and sulfur-oxidizing bacteria.
➢ Electrochemical Leach
168. The purpose of electrochemical technology is to remove heavy metals from
fly ash and recycle them. The process involves the use of potential to drive the
reduction and oxidation reactions on the cathode and anode. In this process, the metal
precipitates on the surface of the cathode; although this process does not require the
addition of chemical reagents, the recovery efficiency is low, indicating the technology
can be combined with other technologies such as leach extraction to eventually
recover heavy metals from the solutions.
➢ Supercritical Fluids Leach:
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169. Supercritical Fluids Leach (SFE or SCFE) is a process of separating and
purifying a target from a liquid or a solid on the basis of the principle that the solubility
of the mixture is greatly changed by the small change of liquid in pressure and
temperature in the supercritical state. Because CO2 has a low critical temperature with
non-toxic and low-cost advantages, it has become the most commonly used
supercritical fluid solvent. However, due to the strong polarity of heavy metal ions and
the weak Van der Waals Force between the non-polar supercritical CO2, it is often
necessary to add a small amount of entrainment to the system to improve the solubility
of heavy metals and reduce the leach pressure and the SFE cost.
4.1.3 Fly Ash Pretreatment Technology before Treatment/Disposal
170. In order to meet the requirements of the technical specifications for fly ash
solidification/stabilization landfill disposal or the ecological cement or other resource
utilization by cement kiln co-disposal, pretreatment of the fly ash by water washing,
microwaves and pyrolysis is generally required.
4.1.3.1 Dioxins Pretreatment Technology by Microwave Pyrolysis
171. Through washing pretreatment, sewage treatment, calcination of cement
clinker three main processes, using secondary countercurrent rinse, coprecipitation,
multi-effect evaporation, special filter aid and many other advanced technology and
technology, the heavy metals, chlorine salts and other harmful ingredients of fly ash
can be effectively remove. Materials and energy can be recycled to achieve the effect
of reduction, recycling, and harmless in the process of treatment. Figure 4-1 is a
diagram of fly ash washing pretreatment and cement kiln co-processing process.
172. The demonstration line handles 40 tons of fly ash daily on average, and
annual fly ash handling capacity exceeds 10,000 tons. With the further development
of technology, the daily fly-ash disposal capacity is expected to reach 100 tons in 2018,
and the annual disposal capacity will exceed 30,000 tons. The cement produced by
this method for handling fly ash meets the performance requirements of GB175-2007
"Universal Portland Cement". The test results are shown in the Figure 4-1.
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Figure4-1 Cement Plant Fly Ash Pretreatment and Cement Kiln Co-processing
Process Flow Chart of Beijing Liulihe
4.1.3.2 Dioxins Pretreatment Technology by Microwave Pyrolysis
173. Tianjin Yiming Environmental Science and Technology Company built and
began to run MSWI fly ash dioxin microwave detoxification detoxification project
demonstration line by using microwave local heating to remove enriched dioxin in fly
ash in 2009.
(1) Technical Principle
174. Activated carbon accounts for about 1%-3% of waste incineration fly ash,
which is a strong absorbing substance, and activated carbon is the main carrier of
dioxins and volatile heavy metals. Under the microwave irradiation, when the macro-
temperature of the fly ash reached 600 ℃, the temperature of the local micro-area of
activated carbon particles with strong absorbing material exceeded 1250 ℃. Dioxin
contaminants adsorbed on the activated carbon are pyrolyzed or desorbed at high
temperatures; volatile heavy metals are also desorbed into the flue gas; and the less
volatile heavy metals are further melted and solidified.
175. After microwave heat treatment, the content of dioxins in the fly ash is
extremely low, and a small amount of residual heavy metals are basically present in
the residual state, so that they have the conditions of disposal and utilization according
to the general solid waste. The secondary fly ash enriched with relatively high
concentrations of contaminants need to be strictly handled.
Fl Ash Washi g
Wet Ash E aporatio
Re li g Salts Deh dratio
Ce e t Ra Material
Reli
g Water
Water
Mix, Dilution
Reage ts
Ce e t Kil e e t Flue Gas a d Dust Co trol S ste
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(2) Technology Process
Fly Ash Microwave Heating and Flue Gas deep Purification Process
176. Fly ash - Unloaded from the fly ash storage tank, after measurement by the
screw conveyor into the microwave heater with a feeding speed of 8.0t/h-9.0t/h, fly ash
stay in the microwave heater for about 20min, Heating average temperature of 600 ℃,
the fly ash in more than 99.5% dioxin digestion.
177. Exhaust gas - Microwave heaters and cooling heat transfer devices are
negative pressure operation, the first out of the exhaust gas into the deacidification
equipment, removal of acidic substances, and then the exhaust gas dust trapped by
the efficient bag filter, and then exhaust gas from the dust collector into the atmosphere
through a deep purifying of the activated carbon fiber adsorption device.
178. Secondary ash - The amount of secondary fly ash collected by the precipitator
in the exhaust gas treatment process is 0.2-0.6t/d, which is stabilized /solidified for safe
landfilling.
Stabilized Process
179. The fly ash discharged from the microwave heater, cooled to below 50 °C by
means of an efficient heat exchange device. The heavy metal stabilizing agent is dosed
into an aqueous solution with a mass concentration of 3% to 6%, sprayed into the fly
ash of waste incineration with addition about 15% by weight of the fly ash, and then
fully mixed fly ash with the curing agent in the mixer, so that most of the heavy metals
can be stabilized.
Curing Process
180. Stabilized fly ash was into the pelletizing machine extrusion granulation to
produce artificial stone, the artificial stone for natural conservation with curing
conditions of more than 4℃ for 1 day, and then the finished product was sent to the
yard to continue conservation of stockpiling.
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Figure4-2 Microwave Detoxification Demonstration Project Process Chart
4.1.3.3 Dioxins Thermal Decomposition Pretreatment Technology with Low
Temperature
Figure 4-3 Dioxins Low Temperature Pyrolysis Process Flow Chart
Fl Ash
Pyrolysis Process Devices
Pretreat e t
Cooli g
Flue Gas Mo itori g S ste
Deto ifi atio Produ ts
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181. "MSWI Fly Ash Dioxin Low Temperature Thermal Degradation Technology
and devices" project is development and construction by China Academy of
Environmental Sciences and Chongqing Sanfeng Environmental Industry Co., Ltd,
which completed China's first industrial scale project demonstration line with
independent intellectual property rights for dioxin of fly ash low temperature thermal
degradation. The toxic equivalent concentration of dioxin after detoxification is less
than 10ng-TEQ/kg by the whole process of low temperature thermal degradation of
dioxin in MSWI fly ash. MSWI fly ash dioxin low temperature thermal degradation
technology and key special devices have independent intellectual property rights,
which the research results of are the first in the country. As a whole, the technology
reached the international advanced level, and dioxin low temperature thermal
degradation of the directional control reached the international advanced level. The
project passed the certification of environmental science and technology of China
Institute of Environmental Science in September 2014 (CIESI [2014] No. 32).
4.2 Environmental Impacts of Fly Ash Disposal Technologies
4.2.1 Fly Ash Disposal Technologies
4.2.1.1 Cement-based Solidification – Treatment in Hazardous Waste Landfill Plant
182. The technology employs cement-based solidification technique as a means
of pre-treatment, but the latter method requires large addition of cement, after
treatment, the 30% to 50% increase of capacity will take up a lot of landfill room;
solidification body is vulnerable to acidic media erosion with great possibility of heavy
metal leach and can’t achieve the degradation of dioxin-like organic pollutants; fly ash
contains salts with high concentration, easily leading to solidification ruptures, reducing
structural strength and increasing permeability; in the links of storage and mixing of fly
ash and cement, it is easy to produce dust causing harms on the environment and the
human body. Hence it is necessary to install bag filter in the top of the tank, feeding
room and product outlet and other places, minimizing dust emissions with dust removal
rate up to 99.5% and reducing environmental impacts.
4.2.1.2 Stabilization of Chelate - Sanitary Landfill
183. In China, the issue of Landfill Pollution Control Standards of Municipal Solid
Waste(GB16889-2008) has promoted the landfill disposal of incineration fly ash, but
fly ash landfill also takes up a lot of land resources, consumption of landfill plant
operating for many years of the national regions is being intensified ; Selection and
construction of the new landfill plant suffers great resistance, so fly ash landfill disposal
can alleviate the urgent needs, but its sustainability has been challenged.
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184. In addition, due to the complex diversity of fly ash components and heavy
metal forms and the lack of sufficient understanding of the mechanism of chelation
reaction, it is difficult to find a universally applicable chemical stabilizer for stabilization
pre-treatment of fly ash, resulting in poor stabilization of heavy metals, and that the
stabilization effect on dioxins is also very small. It is prone to produce dust in the
process of fly ash collection, transportation, dumping and others, which can cause
serious harm on the atmosphere and human health. Compared with the hazardous
waste landfill plant, the seepage control function of ordinary landfill plant is weak,
encountering the rainfall or landfill leachate, the heavy metals in the fly ash may be
leached out, resulting in the secondary harm.
185. Therefore, in the process of collecting and transporting fly ash, it is necessary
to take strict anti-leakage measures; places where are easy to produce dust need to
be equipped with dust-removal facilities, and to be washed and sprayed by the washing
vehicle and sprinkler which can effectively prevent secondary pollution of fly ash; in
the fly ash loading and unloading, the landing height shall be reduced, and transport
vehicles shall use a fully enclosed way to undertake the transport, loading and
unloading. It is also to strengthen the anti-seepage structure of MSW landfill plant and
guide leachate out timely. At the same time, the landfill gases generated by landfill
shall be collected and discharged through the high combustion tower after its
combustion; SO2 emission concentration shall reach the standard of Integrated
Emission Standards of Air Pollutants.
4.2.1.3 Melting Technology
186. The melting technology has the advantages of high capacity reduction rate,
stable slag, low leach-out rate of heavy metals, decomposition of dioxins, etc. However,
this high-temperature treatment requires a lot of energy, and the alkali metal chloride,
and other volatile metal compounds generate large amount of fuel gas of acidic gas in
the melting process, especially for the heavy metals with low boiling point, volatile
phenomenon is more obvious; heavy metals in the form of gaseous evaporation may
cause new environment pollution. The melt-solidifying process requires a rigorous
follow-up flue gas treatment, meaning this technology has high energy consumption
and high treatment costs.
4.2.1.4 Underground Storage Technology
187. Underground storage technology of fly ash is considered to be the safest
method of disposal with minimal risk to human health and the environment, with the
lowest possible risk of harm. However, the requirements of suitable conditions such as
the type of mine to be accepted and the hydrogeological conditions are extremely strict.
It is not that any type of mine is suitable for use as a mine for storing and storing fly
ash. Underground salt mines resources in China is rich and widely distributed, choose
to do mine application of fly ash storage should be strictly in accordance with the
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conditions of choice, and in accordance with the requirements of the construction to
prevent the long process of storage of fly ash harm to the environment.
4.2.2 Safe and Sustainable Utilization
4.2.2.1 Cement kiln Co-disposal Technology
188. Taking the cement kiln co-disposal of fly ash as an example, cement is a
finished product after through high-temperature calcination and grinding in the cement
kiln when it is the mixture of limestone (the main component is CaCO3), clay and other
materials. Fly ash contains a large amount of CaO rather than CaCO3, if it is used as
a raw material for cement production, the energy consumed by limestone during the
calcination process and the release of CO2 from limestone, which has a positive effect
on mitigating global warming.
189. In the cement kiln co-disposal of fly ash, the new waste gases are divided into
two parts, one is the waste gases produced in production line of cement while f ly ash
is treated, containing Pb, Cu, Cr and dioxin emissions, this part of exhaust gases is
the main source of waste gases in the project of the cement kiln co-disposal of fly ash;
the other is waste kiln gases entering the CO2 reaction tank. Because the washing
wastewater is alkaline which can effectively absorb the waste kiln gas such as SO2,
TSP, therefore, the part of the exhaust gases can’t be included in the focus analysis. Some of the Pb, Cu, Cr and other heavy metal elements in the fly ash are released
into the environment with the exhaust emission, some are solidified in the cement
clinker, and another part will be adsorbed in the dust, waiting for being collected and
returning to the raw material system, returning into the cement kiln for calcination.
Studies have shown that most of the heavy metal elements are solidified in the cement
clinker, little in the circulation of kiln ash in the kiln system and less in exhaust gases.
After cement-based solidification and bag filtering, the concentration of new exhaust
gas with heavy metals can reach the emission limit of Solid Waste Pollution Control
Standards in Cement Kiln Co-disposal. For modern new type of dry treatment, kiln
temperature can be heated to above 1500 ℃ quickly, and more than 99.9% of the
dioxin will be broken down, in clinker cooling process the temperature can be quickly
reduced to below 300℃, during which dioxin synthesis rate is also very low. Secondly,
even dioxin substances regenerate in the process of flue gases cooling down, most of
which will be gathered in dust filter system, and return to clinker firing system as the
cement production raw material, so that dioxin can be almost fully decomposed. In the
cement kiln disposal of fly ash, technology of high-temperature heating and speed
cooling can almost completely decompose dioxin substances, thus dioxin emissions
can meet the emission limit of Solid Waste Pollution Control Standards in Cement Kiln
Co-disposal.
190. However, the content of heavy metals with high toxicity in incineration fly ash
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such as lead, cadmium and mercury are generally 2 to 3 grades higher than that in
cement raw materials. In the process of water washing pre-treatment, precipitation
agents are usually added to make heavy metals as much as possible stay in the solid,
while a large amount of high-salt wastewater is produced and needs further treatment,
increasing treatment difficulty and costs. In terms of the rough material balance, even
if the fly ash only 1% of the mixing ratio into the cement kiln co-disposal, it will also
increase the heavy metal content in cement by 1 to 10 times. In addition, most of the
heavy metals, such as lead, cadmium and mercury, are volatilized into the flue gas
during the calcination process. Most of the lead, cadmium and about 50% of the
mercury are trapped into the kiln dust; the cement kiln dust will not be under the waste
management, but return to the kiln to be calcined once more or to mix directly with the
cement clinker, becoming part of the cement product, so that actually the heavy metals
are diluted into the cement products, increasing the risk of its slow release into the
environment and simultaneously producing the additional emission of mercury into the
atmospheric environment.
4.2.2.2 Sintered Ceramsite Technology
191. Through new treatment technology and flue gas purification process of “high temperature chlorination calcination + secondary combustion + quenching cooling +
semi-dry absorption + activated carbon powder + bag dust filter”, the sintered ceramsite technology can effectively remove a variety of acidic gases, harmful heavy
metals and dioxin-like organic pollutants, etc., and the flue gas after purification is
much higher than China's emission standards. The purification and removal process
of the pollutants are as follows:
192. Dioxins: During the high-temperature sintering (1200-1350 ℃ ), the vast
majority of dioxin pollutants are going to be degraded, and the undegraded part can
be fully degraded when it goes through the secondary combustion chamber (the
residence time at over 1100 ℃ is greater than 2s), then the flue gases cool down to
200 ℃ below after through quench deacidification, avoiding the re-synthesis
temperature range of dioxins, and finally part of dioxins that may escape will be
absorbed by the use of activated carbon.
193. Heavy metals: Heavy metals (such as Pb, Hg, Cd, Zn, etc.), easily volatile in
high-temperature sinter, react with the chlorine salts in fly ash to produce metal
chlorides. The boiling points of chloride salts with heavy metals reduce significantly as
shown in Table 4-3; chloride salts with heavy metals follows the flue gas into the flue
gas treatment system, and enters the secondary fly ash system after adsorption of the
activated carbon and collection of bag dust filter, and the secondary fly ash is put into
a centralized disposal; heavy metals of fly ash not easy to volatile are solidified in the
ceramic at high temperature; finally content and leach amount of the heavy metals in
the ceramic granules will decrease with each other, reducing the potential hazards to
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the environment when the ceramic products are used.
Acidic gases: After quenching-deacidification process and adsorption of activated
carbon with incomplete reaction, the acidic gases will be collected in bag dust filter for
the secondary fly ash and put into a centralized disposal.
Particulate matters: The particulate matters will be absorbed by the activated carbon
adsorption, collected in bag dust filter for the secondary fly ash and finally put into a
centralized disposal.
Table 4-3 Boiling Points of Heavy Metals and Their Chloride
Metals Boiling
point/℃ Chloride Salts Boling point/℃
Pb 1740 PbCl2 950
Zn 906 ZnCl2 732
Cd 765 CdCl2 960
Cu 2567 CuCl2 993
Ca 1484 CaCl2 1600
Na 883 NaCl 1413
Au 2807 AuCl3 265(Sublimation)
4.2.2.3 Acidic Extraction
194. Water washing as an effective pre-treatment can significantly improve
disposal effects of cement solidification, cement kiln co-disposal, sintering / melting
and other methods, and also brings hope for the large-scale resource utilization of the
follow-up products (such as cement, light aggregate, etc.). However, some of the
heavy metals during the washing process can be dissolved in the washing water, so
the solution still requires to be treated before being discharged.
195. Heavy metal biological / chemical leach technology has the advantages of
simple process, strong operability and heavy metal leach and recovery. However,
because of the need for microbial culture and the procurement of various types of
chemical and chelating agents, the general costs of leach technology is relatively high, ,
and the heavy metal concentration in fly ash is generally very low, the recovered heavy
metals often can’t offset the cost of the required agents.
196. The heavy metal leach technology can improve the quality of fly ash and
improve its utilization, and recover part of heavy metals and salts in the fly ash, so that
the adverse effects of fly ash on the environment can be minimized and the use of fly
ash value is greatly improved.
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Tabel 4-4 Overview of environmental impact of different treatment
Treatment Principle/Process Environmental impact
Cement
Solidification
– Landfill
Technology
for Hazardous
Wastes
Cement solidification adds
Portland cement into incineration
fly ash to form high-strength
lumps similar to rocks and
hydroxyl with high basicity from
the cement can transfer heavy
metals into materials with low
solubility such as hydroxide so as
to intercept heavy metals.
1 30% to 50% increase of capacity will take
up a lot of landfill room; 2 solidification
body is vulnerable to acidic media erosion
with great possibility of heavy metal leach
and can’t achieve the degradation of dioxin-
like organic pollutants; 3 fly ash contains
salts with high concentration, easily leading
to solidification ruptures, reducing
structural strength and increasing
permeability; 4 in the links of storage and
mixing of fly ash and cement, it is easy to
produce dust causing harms on the
environment and the human body.
Chelate
Stabilization
– Sanitary
Landfill
Technology
Chemical stabilization refers to
the process of transferring
poisonous and harmless
materials into materials with
low-solubility, low-
transferability and low-toxicity
ones with chemical agents
through chemical reactions.
1 In the process of collecting and
transporting fly ash, it is necessary to take
strict anti-leakage measures; 2 places where
are easy to produce dust need to be equipped
with dust-removal facilities, and to be
washed and sprayed by the washing vehicle
and sprinkler which can effectively prevent
secondary pollution of fly ash; 3 in the fly
ash loading and unloading, the landing
height shall be reduced, and transport
vehicles shall use a fully enclosed way to
undertake the transport, loading and
unloading. It is also to strengthen the anti-
seepage structure of MSW landfill plant and
guide leachate out timely. At the same time,
the landfill gases generated by landfill shall
be collected and discharged through the high
combustion tower after its combustion; SO2
emission concentration shall reach the
standard of Integrated Emission Standards
of Air Pollutants.
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Melting And
Vitrification
Blend fly ash with slight glass
vitrics and once the granulating
and molding process is
conducted, such blend will be
melted under the high
temperature of 1000-1400℃ for
a period, usually about 30
minutes (the melting time
varying with the fly ash’s
properties). After the fly ash’s
physical and chemical situation
changes, cool it down to promote
its solidification.
Heavy metals in the form of gaseous
evaporation may cause new environment
pollution. The melt-solidifying process
requires a rigorous follow-up flue gas
treatment, meaning this technology has high
energy consumption and high treatment
costs.
Underground
Storage
Technology
Fly ash underground storage
technology places the fly ash in a
container and stores it for long
periods of time in underground
mines or caves that are isolated
from the biosphere.
Underground storage technology of fly ash
is considered to be the safest method of
disposal with minimal risk to human health
and the environment, with the lowest
possible risk of harm.
Cement kiln
Co-disposal
Technology
the incineration fly ash contains
CaO, SiO2, Fe2O3 and Al2O3,
which also constitute some raw
materials of concrete, so it can
take the place of the above raw
materials in the concrete
production. Cement kiln co-
disposing technology can
achieve the innocent treatment,
reduction and resource
utilization of the fly ash.
In the cement kiln co-disposal of fly ash, the
new waste gases are divided into two parts,
one is the waste gases produced in
production line of cement while fly ash is
treated, containing Pb, Cu, Cr and dioxin
emissions, this part of exhaust gases is the
main source of waste gases in the project of
the cement kiln co-disposal of fly ash; the
other is waste kiln gases entering the CO2
reaction tank.
Sintered
Ceramsite
Technology
Sinter treatment technology
provides the diffusion energy of
the powder particles, and
removes most or even all the
pores away from the crystal, the
particles between the bond,
thereby the materials will turn
into a compact and hard sintered
Dioxins: During the high-temperature
sintering (1200-1350 ℃), the vast majority
of dioxin pollutants are going to be
degraded.
Heavy metals (such as Pb, Hg, Cd, Zn, etc.),
easily volatile in high-temperature sinter,
react with the chlorine salts in fly ash to
produce metal chlorides. the acidic gases
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body, which meets the
requirements of various material
properties; the sintering
temperature is usually between
1/2 and 2/3 of the absolute
melting temperature of the main
components in the powder.
will be collected in bag dust filter for the
secondary fly ash and put into a centralized
disposal.The particulate matters will be
absorbed by the activated carbon adsorption,
collected in bag dust filter for the secondary
fly ash and finally put into a centralized
disposal.
Acidic
Extraction
Acidic extraction reduces the
inorganic acid’s pH value with hydrochloric acid, dissolves
heavy metals from the self-
incineration fly ash system in the
form of ions and then generates
dissoluble heavy metal
compound by adding agents or
partly concentrating heavy
metals via electro-chemical
approaches such as electrolysis.
Some of the heavy metals during the
washing process can be dissolved in the
washing water, so the solution still requires
to be treated before being discharged.
4.3 Cost-benefit Analysis of Typical Technologies
197. Treatment and disposal of fly ash must strictly comply with national
specifications. Technical standards of fly ash treatment technology directly affect the
level of treatment fee. In July 2008, Control Standards of MSW Landfill Pollution began
to be implemented, which provides that fly ash pre-treatment shall meet certain
conditions, so that the landfill disposal can be started. In 2016 National Catalogue of
Hazardous Wastes, the newly-added catalogue of hazardous wastes of exemption
management gets the MSW’s incineration fly ash involved, clearly stipulating the following standards of fly ash after through the treatments: 1) Moisture content shall
be less than 30%; 2) Dioxins content shall be less than 3ug TEQ / kg; 3) The
concentration of hazardous ingredients in the HJ / T300 prepared leach solution shall
be below the fixed limit.
4.3.1 Cost-benefit Analysis of Products
4.3.1.1 Safe Landfill Disposal
198. As early as 2008, fly ash was included in the National Catalogue of Hazardous
Wastes, and can only be disposed in the hazardous waste landfill plant at a fee of
about 2,000 yuan / ton. In 2008, Control Standards MSW Landfill Pollution came into
force, stipulating the fly ash can enter the MSW landfill plant for disposal after strict
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pre-treatment, thereby its treatment costs drops significantly to about 500-600 yuan /
ton. Solidification of chelate brings about high increase of volume and weight of fly ash,
inevitably leading to several times increase of fly ash treatment costs.
4.3.1.2 Cement Kiln Co-disposal
199. Fly ash is co-disposed through the process from Beijing Jinyu Liulihe Cement
Plant; with a total investment of about 110 million Yuan, a multi-stage technology and
equipment system need to be built, including countercurrent rinse, precipitation,
pressure steaming, separation, drying and dehydration, to reduce the content of
volatile elements (chlorine, sulfur, potassium and sodium, etc.) and heavy metals in fly
ash; first the fly ash should be washed and purified to the acceptable level of cement
kiln, so that it can be used as an alternative raw material entering the kiln and turn into
mature material after calcination. For Beijing Jinyu Liulihe Cement Plant, the original
fly ash into the plant has dry chlorine content of 22%, the annual disposal of fly ash
reaches 20,000 tons, and the disposal cost is very expensive with the price of 1400-
1700 yuan / ton.
4.3.1.3 Sintered Ceramsite Technology
200. Tianjin Yiming Environmental Technology Co., Ltd. carries out demonstration
project of preparation of high-temperature sintered ceramsites with incineration fly ash
of MSW, the ceramsite production capacity reaches 125,000 tons per year or so; in
terms of 40% mixture proportion of the fly ash, the production line can dispose 50,000
tons of fly ash.
201. From the construction and operation of the demonstration production line of
Tianjin Yiming Environmental Technology Co., Ltd., the construction cost of 50,000
tons of incineration fly ash is about 130 million yuan per year, the processing cost is
800-1000 yuan/ ton, and the treatment process has no obvious secondary pollution.
Other costs include the transport cost of fly ash to the plant (1 yuan / t • km).
4.3.2 Environmental Economic Benefits
4.3.2.1 Safe Landfill Disposal
202. Fly ash landfill will take up a lot of land resources, consumption of landfill plant
operating for many years of the national regions is being intensified; selection and
construction of the new landfill plant suffers great resistance, so fly ash landfill disposal
can alleviate the urgent needs, but its sustainability has been challenged.
203. Due to the complex diversity of fly ash components and heavy metal forms
and the lack of sufficient understanding of the mechanism of chelation reaction, it is
difficult to find a universally applicable chemical stabilizer for stabilization pre-treatment
of fly ash, resulting in poor stabilization of heavy metals, and that the stabilization effect
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on dioxins is also very small. It is prone to produce dust in the processes of fly ash
collection, transportation, dumping and others, which can cause serious harm on the
atmosphere and human health. Compared with the hazardous waste landfill plant, the
seepage control function of ordinary MSW landfill plant is weak, encountering the
rainfall or landfill leachate, the heavy metals in the fly ash may be leached out, resulting
in the secondary pollution.
4.3.2.2 Cement Kiln Co-disposal
204. With limestone as the main raw material, coal-fueled cement industry is the
main industrial CO2 emission source; cement industry-wide CO2 emissions accounts
for 6% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Cement kiln co-disposal of fly ash, at
the same time of the realization of fly ash reduction, also achieves the raw material
alternation in the cement production process, effectively reducing the CO2 emissions.
In cement production, calcium oxide and magnesium oxide of the raw material are
provided by carbonate minerals that will produce CO2 in the decomposition of
carbonate. Fly ash contains a lot of CaO which can reduce the release of CO2 in
decomposition of limestone.
205. According to the large amount of industrial experiments of Beijing Jinyu Liulihe
Cement Plant, the content of fly ash should not exceed 3% of the raw material quantity
so as to ensure the normal operation of the production line. The co-disposal has little
effects on the cement kiln and the quality of the cement product can thus be
guaranteed. For example, for production line of 2,500 t/d cement clinker, consumption
of raw materials per day is about 4,000t and the fly ash consumption is about 120t.
206. Ordinary silicate cement clinker contains about 65% of calcium oxide;
according to CaCO3 = CaO + CO2, each CaO is generated with the company of 0.7857
CO2, so the formation of 1t cement clinker will be accompanied by 0.511t CO2
emissions.
207. As the flue gas purification process varies, the content of CaO in fly ash is
quite different. If the CaO content of fly ash is 30%, taking production line of 2500 t / d
cement clinker as an example, when fly ash consumption is 120t , and CaO will be
about 36t and CO2 reduction reaches 36 * 0.7857 = 28.29t, the annual CO2 reduction
will be 360 * 28.29 = 1018.44t with annual fly ash consumption of 120 * 360 = 43200t.
4.3.2.3 Sintered Ceramsite Technology
208. Compared with other high-temperature treating technology, the sintered
ceramsite technology for fly ash has the advantage of low energy consumption, and
can solve pollution caused by the fly ash on the environment, effectively reducing the
concentration of particulate matters in the air and ecological toxicity of haze. With
innocent treatment and reduction of fly ash, it is possible to reduce the risk of potential
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environmental pollution of landfill by reducing the capacity of landfill plant, extending
the cycle of new landfill plant and saving land resources.
209. Through the application of low-energy and low-emission reduction treatment
and sintering disposal technology of MSW incineration fly ash, disposal of 50,000 tons
fly ash per year can annually reduce 33,000 tons of CO2 emissions, about 50,000 tons
of particulate matter emissions and 0.05 million tons of heavy metal discharge,
eliminate persistent organic pollutants of 50g and save about 50% of solid waste landfill
capacity.
4.4 Management Status of Municipal Solid Wastes Incineration Fly Ash in China
210. Chlorine is an essential component of MSW in China. In one hand, there is a
great amount of chlorine in plastics; one the other hand, Chinese people prefer food
with strong taste, high-level salt content and much sediments, which leads to the
relatively high chlorine content in MSW. This will further cause high organic and
inorganic chlorine content in MSW incineration fly ash in China, with a total content
reaching as high as 30%. Chlorine, as a volatile and disruptive element, has great
effect upon the treatment and disposal as well as resource utilization of fly ash. Some
disposal specifications explicitly clarify the chlorine concentration of pre-treated fly ash.
211. Currently, the treatment and disposal technologies for MSW incineration fly
ash in China are mainly cement solidification - hazardous wastes landfill disposal
technology, chelate stabilization - sanitary landfill disposal technology, construction
materials’ resource utilization (cement kiln co-disposal) and sintered ceramsite
technology.
212. Table 4-5 shows the daily fly ash production and disposal technologies in
some areas of China.
Table 4-5 The Daily Fly Ash Production and Disposal Technologies in Some Areas
Area Fly Ash Production
t/d
Disposal Technologies
Shanghai 345 2020yearAll according to the danger of waste into the safety landfill. In Shanghai laogang domestic waste landfill
according to hazardous waste landfill standard partition separate fly ash safety landfill.
Dalian 20-30The incineration fly ash stabilized with chemicals is
sanitized for landfill according to the "Domestic Waste Landfill Pollution Control Standard" (GB 16889-2008).
Chongqing 30
The generated slag is used for producing building materials, and solidified/stabilized fly ash enters the
landfill of the hazardous waste for safety landfill. Sanfeng environment is studying the use of dioxin
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detoxification incineration fly ash instead of slag production of asphalt concrete and asphalt pavement.
Beijing 150
Currently, 1/3 of the fly ash is processed by cement kilns in Liulihe cement plant. There is no other disposal
method in Beijing. The fly ash produced in previous years is temporarily stored in eco-island company under
the same group as Beijing Liulihe cement co., ltd of Beijing Jinyu group.
Tianjin 136 Safety landfill and Yiming detoxification and recycling for
ceramsite
Guangzhou 41
Solidified and into the landfill disposal, curing block factory standards to meet the indicators of "Landfill
Pollution Control Standards" (GB16889-2008) and the 2Mpa strength standards of company.
Shenzhen 100 Adopt solidification/stabilization technology to dispose
and curing block is into the landfill.
Wuhan 520 At present, fly ash are used pharmaceutical stabilization,
cement curing process for processing, temporary storage plant.
Zhejiang 45
The main technologies are chemical stabilization, cement curing process. Fly ash safety disposal 2%, sanitary landfill 62%, resource 33%, the rest in the
incineration enterprises temporary storage.
4.4.1 Application Status of MSW Incineration Fly Ash’s Safe Disposal Technology
4.4.1.1 Safe Disposal Technology for Fly Ash
1) Solidification - Hazardous Wastes Landfill Disposal
213. Prior to 2008, fly ash had been listed into National Catalogue of Hazardous
Wastes, whose treatment process must strictly conform to the relevant regulations of
Pollution Control Standards for Hazardous Wastes Landfill (GB 18598-2001): fly ash
generated from MSW incineration must be separately collected and can’t be blended with MSW, incineration sediments and other wastes as well as other hazardous wastes;
the long-term storage of MSW incineration fly ash in its producing place is prohibited,
so is the simple disposal and emission. MSW incineration fly ash must be solidified
and stabilized in its producing place before being transported and the exclusively
airtight transportation tools are required; MSW incineration fly ash must be safely
landfilled. Except from disposing the fly ash with safe landfilling approach, the heavy
metal content from its leach liquid must satisfy the requirement proposed by the
standards.
214. Heavy metals from fly ash are usually solidified through cement solidification
technology, a conventional fly ash treatment approach with broad materials sources,
simple device techniques, low treatment cost, high-level strength of solidified products,
etc. It is actually applied by various construction projects at home and abroad. Recently,
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Japan as well as European and American countries have generally adopted this
approach as the final disposal technique for poisonous and hazardous wastes. While
conducting the cement solidification, the concentration of fly ash’s leached liquid pollutants must meet the requirements requested by Pollution Control Standards for
Hazardous Wastes Landfill (GB 18598-2001) and then be safely landfilled. Table 4-6
illustrates the leached pollutants concentration limits of fly ash’s cement solidification.
Table 4-6 Leached Pollutants Concentration Limits of Fly Ash’s Cement Solidification
No. Pollutant Item Concentration
Limits mg/L
1 Organic Mercury 0.001
2 Mercury and its Compounds 0.25
3 Plumbum 5
4 Cadmium 0.5
5 Total Chromium 12
6 Hexavalent Chromium 2.5
7 Copper and its Compounds 75
8 Zinc and its Compounds 75
9 Beryllium and its Compounds 0.2
10 Barium and its Compounds 150
11 Nickel and its Compounds 15
12 Arsenic and its Compounds 2.5
13 Inorganic Fluoride 100
14 Cyanide 5
215. However, among cities which have built wastes incineration treatment
facilities, most of them haven’t established any safe landfill plants for hazardous wastes. During “the Tenth Five-year” period, National Plan on the Construction of
Treatment and Disposal Facilities for Medical Waste and Hazardous Waste proposed
by National Development and Reform Commission and State Environmental
Protection Administration, only planned the construction of 30 safe landfill plants for
hazardous wastes. Even cities with safe landfill plants, like Shanghai, Shenzhen, etc.,
all occupy a limited landfilling capacity with a unit landfill capacity’s construction cost of RMB 300yuan/m3. The treatment expense charged when incineration fly ash enters
to hazardous wastes landfill plants is RMB 1000-2000yuan/t (including government
subsidies). Besides, compared with the production amount of other hazardous wastes,
that of incineration fly ash is quite huge. If using all the limited safe landfill plants for
the treatment of incineration fly ash, it will surely affect the landfill disposal capacity for
other hazardous wastes that can be more harmless.
216. Therefore, viewing from the perspective of limited safe landfill plants
resources or the priority of the disposal cost and wastes disposal, safe landfill disposal
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for incineration fly ash is still hardly to be achieved in many cities till now.
Figure 4-4 Guangzhou Likeng Waste Incineration Plant
Figure 4-5 Shanghai Laogang Wastes Incineration Power Plant
2) Chelate Stabilization - Sanitary Landfill Disposal
217. Till 2008, Landfill Pollution Control Standards of Municipal Solid Wastes
(GB16889-2008) issued in China clarified: Treated MSW incineration fly ash and
medical wastes incineration sediments (including fly ash slags) must satisfy the
following prerequisites before entering to MSW landfill plants for separate landfill
disposal: the moisture content less than 30%; the dioxins content less than 3
μg /kg (international toxic equivalent quantities); hazardous concentration of the
leach liquid prepared based on HJ/T 300 less than the limit value prescribed by the
state can be sent to MSW landfill plants for separate landfill. After pre-treatment like
detoxification and stabilization for MSW incineration fly ash, once the leach amount of
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the harmful components exposed to air in the MSW landfill plants doesn’t do any harm to the human body and the environment, i.e., meeting the above-mentioned
prerequisites, then the MSW can be delivered to the MSW landfill plants for disposal.
Compared with solidification - hazardous wastes landfill disposal, chelate stabilization
- sanitary landfill disposal greatly broadens the safe and harmless disposal approaches
for MSW incineration fly ash in China, and lays a solid foundation as well as perfect
preparation for the promotion and construction of MSW incineration plants in China.
218. Table 4-7 shows the pollutant concentration limits of stabilized leach liquid
prescribed by Landfill Pollution Control Standards of Municipal Solid Wastes
(GB16889-2008).
Table 4-7 Pollutant Concentration Limits of Stabilized Leach Liquid Prescribed by
Landfill Pollution Control Standards of Municipal Solid Wastes (GB16889-2008)
No. Pollutant Items Concentration Limits (mg/L)
1 Mercury 0.05
2 Copper 40
3 Zinc 100
4 Plumbum 0.25
5 Cadmium 0.15
6 Beryllium 0.02
7 Barium 25
8 Nickel 0.5
9 Arsenic 0.3
10 Total Chromium 4.5
11 Hexavalent Chromium 1.5
12 Selenium 0.1
219. Meanwhile, in order to guarantee a hazardous component concentration
leached from the MSW incineration fly ash in MSW landfill plants that will not cause
any harm to the surrounding environment, the proportion of MSW incineration fly ash
amount entering to the MSW landfill plants every day can’t exceed 5% of that of the total MSW amount to be landfilled every day.
220. Fly ash entering to the landfill plants after solidification and stabilization is the
main international fly ash treatment approach.
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Figure 4-6 Shenzhen Laohukeng Wastes Incineration Plant
4.4.1.2 Safe and Sustainable Utilization of Fly Ash
1) Resource Utilization for Construction Materials (Cement Kiln Co-disposal)
221. Resource utilization for construction materials of fly ash is dominated by
cement kiln co-disposal. Currently, various national standards, technical specifications
as well as relevant rules and regulations have been issued in China. Solid Wastes
Pollution Control Standards for Cement Kiln Co-disposal, Solid Wastes Technical
Specifications for Cement Kiln Co-disposal and Solid Wastes Environmental
Protection Technical Specifications for Cement Kiln Co-disposal have provided fly
ash’s cement kiln co-disposal with specified management foundation to guarantee the
cement quality as well as prevent and control secondary pollution. Beijing Liulihe
Cement Co., Ltd. has already commenced the time application of fly ash’s cement kiln co-disposal and accumulated certain experience.
Figure 4-7 Beijing Liulihe Cement Co., Ltd.
222. Dealing with fly ash with cement kiln co-disposal technology must conform to
the corresponding requirements proposed by Solid Wastes Pollution Control
Standards for Cement Kiln Co-disposal (GB30485-2013) and Solid Wastes
Environmental Protection Technical Specifications for Cement Kiln Co-disposal
(HJ662).
Limits Specifications of Heavy Metals from Raw Materials in the Kiln:
223. Article 6 (GB30485-2013) stipulates: referential limits of heavy metal content
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from raw materials in the kiln
224. Article 6.1 (GB30485-2013) stipulates: to ensure the heavy metal content from
cement clinkers meets the requirements, heavy metal content from raw materials in
the kiln after calculation should not exceed the referential limits prescribed by Table 4-
7. Heavy metal content from raw materials in the kiln should be calculated in
accordance with Formula 4-1:
� =∑� � +� � + �� 1 −∑� − �
In the formula above:
- feeding period after cement kiln co-disposal of solid wastes, i class heavy
metal content in raw materials, mg/kg;
i - Heavy metal types, named as No. 1, 2, 3, etc.;
j - types of cement kiln co-disposal of solid wastes, named as No. 1, 2, 3, etc.,
including raw materials preparing system, decomposing incinerator, solid wastes
added to the cement kiln system;
- heavy metal content of i type of j class solid wastes flying (ignition base), mg/kg;
- batching proportion of j class solid waste (ignition base) converted to raw
materials, %;
- heavy metal content of i type in the coal ash, mg/kg;
- batching proportion of coal ash converted to raw materials, %;
- heavy metal content of i class in raw materials, during the period of no solid
wastes adding, mg/kg.
Table 4-8 Referential Limits of Heavy Metal Content from Raw Materials in the
Kiln
Heavy Metal Elements Referential Limits (mg/kg)
Arsenic (AS) 28
Plumbum (Pb) 67
Cadmium (Cd) 1.0
Chromium (Cr) 98
Copper (Cu) 65
Nickel (Ni) 66
Zinc (Zn) 360
Manganese (Mn) 384
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225. Article 6.2 (GB30485-2013) stipulates: the determination of feeding volume
after cement kiln co-disposal of solid wastes can also take the maximal heavy metal
adding volume prescribed by Solid Wastes Environmental Protection Technical
Specifications for Cement Kiln Co-disposal (HJ662) for reference.
226. Article 6.6.7 (HJ662) stipulates: the maximal heavy metal adding volume of
materials in the kiln (including regular raw material, fuels and solid wastes) shouldn’t exceed the limits listed in Table 4-8. For heavy metals with the unit of mg/kg-cem, the
maximal adding volume also includes the heavy metals brought by blending materials
while grinding the cement. Table 4-9 shows the maximal heavy metal adding volume
prescribed by Standard HJ662.
Table 4-9 Maximal Heavy Metal Adding Volume
Heavy Metals Unit Maximal Adding
Volume
Hydrargyrum (Hg)
mg/kg-cli
0.23
TI+ Cd+ Pb+15×AS
Thallium + Cadmium + Plumbum + 15×Arsenic (TI+ Cd+ Pb+15×AS)
230
Be+Cr+10×Sn+50Sb+Cu+Mn+Ni+V
Beryllium + Chromium + 10×Stannum + 50×Stibium + Copper + Manganese + Nickel +
Vanadium Be+Cr+10×Sn+50Sb+Cu+Mn+Ni+V
1150
Total Chromium (Cr)
mg/kg-cem
320
Hexavalent Chromium (Cr6+) 10a
Zinc (Zn) 37760
Manganese (Mn) 3350
Nickel (Ni) 640
Molybdenum (Mo) 310
Arsenic (As) 4280
Cadmium (Cd) 40
Plumbum (Pb) 1590
Copper (Cu) 7920
Hydrargyrum (Hg) 4b
Note: a: total chromium added to the kiln materials and hexavalent chromium in the
blending materials; b: mercury added to the blending materials.
Limits Specifications of Heavy Metals from Cement Clinkers:
227. Article 7 (GB30485-2013) stipulates: limits of heavy metal content from
cement clinkers
228. Article 7.1 (GB30485-2013) stipulates: while the cement kiln co-disposal of
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solid wastes is conducted, the produced cement clinker should meet the requirements
of GB/T21372-2008 and its heavy metal content shouldn’t exceed the prescribed limits
in Table 4-10. The monitor of heavy metal content from cement clinkers should be
operated in accordance with the approach prescribed in Appendix B.
Table 4-10 Heavy Metal Content Limits from Cement Clinkers
Heavy Metal Elements Limits (mg/kg)
Arsenic (AS) 40
Plumbum (Pb) 100
Cadmium (Cd) 1.5
Chromium (Cr) 150
Copper (Cu) 100
Nickel (Ni) 100
Zinc (Zn) 500
Manganese (Mn) 600
229. Article 8 (GB30485-2013) stipulates: heavy metal content limits leached from
cement clinkers.
230. Article 8.1 (GB30485-2013) stipulates: while the cement kiln co-disposal of
solid wastes is conducted, the heavy metal content leached from cement clinkers
shouldn’t exceed the prescribed limits in Table 4-11.
231. Article 8.2 (GB30485-2013) stipulates: the test of heavy metal content leached
from cement clinkers can be conducted in accordance with the approaches prescribed
by GB/T30810, among which, the sample preparation should follow Article 5.2 in
GB/T21372-2008.
Table 4-11 Heavy Metal Content Limits Leached from Cement Clinkers
Heavy Metal Elements Limits (mg/kg)
Arsenic (AS) 0.1
Plumbum (Pb) 0.3
Cadmium (Cd) 0.03
Chromium (Cr) 0.2
Copper (Cu) 1.0
Nickel (Ni) 0.2
Zinc (Zn) 1.0
Manganese (Mn) 1.0
Limits Specifications of Chlorine (CI) and Fluorine (F) from Raw Materials in the
Kiln:
232. Article 6.6.8 (HJ662) stipulates: co-disposing corporations should control the
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chlorine and fluorine adding volume in the kiln in accordance with cement’s production techniques to ensure that the cement’s regularity and clinker quality conforms to the national standard. Fluorine content of materials in the kiln shouldn’t exceed 0.5% while that of chlorine shouldn’t exceed 0.04%.
Limits Specifications of Sulphur (S) from Raw Materials in the Kiln:
233. Article 6.6.9 (HJ661) stipulates: co-disposing corporations should control the
sulfur adding volume in the materials. The content of sulfur added through batching
system in the materials and the total organic sulfur content shouldn’t exceed 0.014%; total sulfur added from the high-temperature zone of the kiln head and kiln tail and the
total adding volume of sulfate sulfur added through the batching system shouldn’t exceed 3000mg/kg-cli.
234. However, chlorine content in the fly ash is as high as 10%-25%. Using cement
kiln co-disposal for fly ash’s treatment must dechlorinate the fly ash during the pre -
treatment process and then adopts washing dichlorination in actual application. The
great amount of high saltwater-washing waste water produced should be further
disposed, which increases the treatment difficulty and the treatment cost. In addition,
fly ash’s cement kiln co-disposal technique solidifies heavy metals into the cement
products. But the total heavy metal amount isn’t reduced and there still remains potential harm.
235. Consequently, fly ash’s cement kiln co-disposal producing cement technique
should lay great emphasis on its product quality, standard treatment process and
prevention from secondary pollution, etc.
236. The Shanghai Solid Waste Disposal Center technical team established a 40t/d
wet fly ash pretreatment detoxification industrialization demonstration project based on
wet pretreatment of fly ash heavy metals and chloride ion detoxification results. The
demonstration project mainly includes wet-process pretreatment of fly ash, low
temperature detoxification of dioxin, preparation of ecological cement raw materials by
pretreatment of fly ash, and zero discharge of pretreatment fly ash wastewater, etc..
The results show that the residual chlorine content in the fly ash after the pretreatment
is stable below 0.60%, which meets the resource utilization requirements of cement
kiln and other resources.
237. The Disposal techniques of Dalian Xiaoyetian Cement Co., Ltd include
pretreatment of fly ash washing, cement kiln co-disposal, heavy metal precipitation
process of washing wastewater. After washing, the chlorine content in the raw ash can
be reduced from 20% to 1.5%, and the high temperature generated chlorine-containing
substances are released by the bypass blower in the co-processing stage of the
cement kiln. The heavy metal ions contained in the washing waste water pass through
the inlet waste kiln gas, the use of waste kiln gas CO2 to achieve heavy metal co-
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precipitation, and reduce the pH value of wastewater, the resulting heavy metal
precipitate into the cement kiln for disposal. Material temperature in cement kiln is
higher than 1450 ℃, gas temperature is higher than 1750 ℃, gas residence time in
cement kiln is higher than 5s, which can dispose heavy metals and dioxins efficiently,
total cost of disposal process is expected 800 yuan/ton of fly ash.
2) Sintered Ceramsite Technology
238. One important advantage of high-temperature sintering technology is that the
sintered products from incineration fly ash can achieve resource utilization. In one hand,
the sintered products occupy diverse necessary properties required by construction
aggregates and can be directly used as subgrade materials or for other construction
purpose; one the other hand, they can be used for the pouring of ordinary concrete in
place of natural aggregates and meet relevant requirements for concrete properties.
One more essential advantage of fly ash’s high-temperature sintering treatment is to
solidify heavy metals and dissolve dioxins after high-temperature sintering. Much more
MSW incineration plants at home and abroad adopts high-temperature sintering
technology for the treatment of fly ash to achieve fly ash’s recourse utilization. Figure
4-8 is for sintering fly ash sintering process diagram.
Figure 4-8 Sintering Fly Ash Sintering Process Flow Chart
239. Yet, pure sintered products of incineration fly ash have their own shortcomings
Quality Testing of Fly Ash
Mix Fly Ash and Ceramsite Raw Materials with Certain Ratio
Gra ulatio
Treated Exhaust Emission
High Temperature Calcination for Ceramic Production
Ceramsite Product Performance Testing
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- inefficient mechanical strength (4.2-6.3 MPa), poor chemical stability after water
immersion and high volatile amount of incineration fly ash during the high-temperature
process (20.1-33.1%). Therefore, before incineration fly ash’s high-temperature
sintering, proper pre-treatment as well as quenching and tempering of additive are
required with the aim of removing chloride and sulfate so as to reduce the volatile
amount during the high-temperature process and improve the sintering properties.
Additives should also be added to strengthen the product’s strength after sintering.
240. Long before 2003, Tsinghua University had conducted deep research on fly
ash’s washing pre-treatment to remove chloride/sulfate, add conditioner, solidify heavy
metals and decompose dioxins in high-temperature, from small test to medium
research. The research results had led scholars in the field of MSW incineration in
China to conduct more deepened and broadened research and application.
241. Tianjin Yiming Environmental Technology Co., Ltd. adopts new high-
temperature sintered ceramsite technology to granulate the fly ash and auxiliary
materials together and send them to the cement kiln for sintering under the
temperature of 1200-1350℃. The fly ash will remain in the kiln for about 30-40 min and
take full advantages of its volatile auxiliaries such as its innate CI salt to volatilize the
heavy metals under the high temperature into fuel gas and force them to be captured
to the secondary fly ash; involatile heavy metals will be solidified into the ceramsite’s mineral crystal lattice after high-temperature chemical reactions so as to reduce both
the total heavy metal amount and leach amount of the ceramsite products. Then,
solidify the collected secondary fly ash for melting and solidification, or recycle heavy
metals, or landfill them after stabilization and solidification to greatly reduce the landfill
amount. Such technology has begun its engineering application.
Figure 4-9 Tianjin Yiming Environmental Technology Co., Ltd.
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3) Plasma Melt Co-disposal
242. The Shanghai Municipal Solid Waste Disposal Center introduced a plasma
gasification facility to conduct an experiment on the melting disposal technology of
MSWI fly ash. The main body of plasma gasification device consists of feed system,
gasifier, two combustion chamber, waste heat boiler, electrostatic precipitator, dry
reaction tower, bag filter, wet scrubber and other components. Plasma gasification
technology uses a plasma torch as the heat source of a gasifier to generate high
intensity heat (about 5500 °C). The plasma in the gasifier is a highly ionized hot gas.
Due to the high temperature and high thermal characteristics of plasma gasification
technology, the organic matter in the waste can be efficiently converted to syngas
(mainly CO and H2) while the inorganic matter can become harmless ash (vitreous
slag).
243. In the process of high temperature melting, the heavy metals in the fly ash are
easy to form a volatile heavy metal chloride with a large amount of chlorine contained
in the fly ash to separation, so that the total heavy metal content in the molten product
is greatly reduced. At the same time, due to the melting of fly ash to produce glass,
melting product will have a dense package performance. In the case of sufficient
melting, the residual heavy metals are tightly packed in the vitreous. According to
relevant research and analysis, the leaching of vitreous body caused by the fly ash
melting is much lower than the TCLP-related leaching standard of the U.S. EPA, and
even meets the Grade 3 standard of groundwater in some cases. Therefore, the glass
melt produced by fly ash can be used as a raw material instead of building materials.
Fl Ash
Plas a Pro essi g De i es
Pretreat e t
Cooli g
Flue Gas Mo itori g S ste
Plas a Treat e t Produ ts
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Figure 4-10 Shanghai Plasma Co-disposal Flow Chart
4) Asphalt Solidification/Stabilization Co-disposal
244. Chongqing Sanfeng Environment and Chongqing Transportation Research
and Design Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chongqing-Guizhou CITIC
achieved high efficiency dioxin degradation by the low temperature pyrolysis MSWI fly
ash, and then exploited the strong wrapped characteristics of asphalt concrete to
stabilize heavy metals. fly ash with detoxification dioxin detonated instead of slag
production of asphalt concretes have been applied in some sections of Chongqing-
Guizhou expressway construction of fly ash asphalt concrete pavement demonstration
project.
245. In this project, the mechanism of bitumen-based stabilization of heavy metals
is studied in depth. According to the composition and pollution characteristics of MSWI
fly ash, the feasibility of dioxin detoxification incineration fly ash to replace mineral
powder to produce asphalt concrete and incineration fly ash asphalt pavement is
proposed. The study and research was carried out about migration, transformation and
release of pollutants such as heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs) in the process of producing asphalt concrete that incineration fly ash instead
of mineral powder, and developed the environmental risk assessment of whole process
on the basis of this study. it can also provide support of environmental safety for fly
ash replacement of mineral powder production of asphalt concrete technology
promotion. Environmental benefits, social benefits and economic benefits of MSWI fly
ash after dioxin detoxification and resource utilization were systematically analyzed.
246. Through the research of physical and chemical characteristics of fly ash, the
study of hydrolysis and digestion process, the study of the properties of the mortar to
determine the mechanism of asphalt-coated fly ash and stabilizing the heavy metals,
it is pointed out that when the addition proportion of fly ash is 2%, the leaching
concentrations of heavy metals in all asphalt concrete samples are lower than those
of drinking Water standard. Through the freeze-thaw splitting experiment and the high-
temperature test, the road performance of the fly ash asphalt mixture is tested and the
pavement plan of fly ash asphalt experimental road is determined.
4.4.2 The Development of and Problems Faced by the Treatment and Disposal of MSW Incineration Fly Ash in China
4.4.2.1 The Development Tendency of the Treatment and Disposal of MSW Incineration Fly Ash in China
247. Viewing from the above-mentioned stage-based progress of the development
of MSW incineration fly ash’s treatment and disposal technology’s application, it’s easy
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to notice that MSW incineration fly ash is disposed by treatment authorities with
relevant license for the treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes after strict
solidification in accordance with hazardous wastes’ treatment, or be landfilled in divisional MSW sanitary landfill plants after stabilization; till 1 August, 2016, the latest
edition of National Catalogue of Hazardous Wastes (2016 Edition) was carried out,
which newly added Exemption and Management List for Hazardous Wastes. MSW
incineration fly ash can be exempt during the disposal process under the condition:
“meet the requirements prescribed by Article 6.3 of Pollution Control Standards of
MSW Landfill Plants (GB16889-2008) and then enter to the MSW landfill plant for
landfilling; meet the requirements prescribed by Solid Wastes Pollution Control
Standards for Cement Kiln Co-disposal (GB30485-2013) and enter to the cement kiln
for co-disposal.” The exempt content is: “the landfill process doesn’t conform to the management of hazardous wastes; the cement kiln co-disposal process doesn’t conform to the management of hazardous wastes.” While “exempt” can be comprehended as: corporations with no comprehensive business license for
hazardous wastes (such as MSW sanitary landfill plants, cement producing
corporations, etc.) can receive fly ash treatment observing the exempt conditions. The
implementation of this policy broadens the fly ash treatment approaches, improves the
fly ash treatment efficiency and properly reduces the fly ash treatment cost.
248. It can be seen that the treatment technology of MSW incineration fly ash in
China is still on its way of being updated and broadened. It also requires the experts
in this field’s passion and persistent exploration as well as the strong economic and political support from the government.
4.4.2.2 Disposal/Re-utilization Ability Status of Current Treatment Facilities
249. According to statistics, the waste incineration amount in 2015 was 61 million
tons while the fly ash generation amount had reached as high as 3.95 million tons.
Along with the conduct of “the 13th Five-year Plan”, the targeted incineration rate in China will be increased from 34% currently to 50% in 2020. Correspondingly, the fly
ash’s generation amount will be more and more. The primary treatment approach for
incineration fly ash in China is stabilization - sanitary landfill disposal with resource
utilization gradually developing as fly ash’s sustainable disposal approach to ease certain fly ash landfill pressure.
1) Stabilization - Sanitary Landfill Disposal
250. Based on existing rules and regulations, untreated fly ash must be disposed
in hazardous wastes landfill plants. It can be seen from Figure 4-11 that the hazardous
wastes landfill capacity is only 50% of that of fly ash generation amount, far behind the
disposal demands of the rapidly developing fly ash amount.
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Figure 4-11 Relation Between Fly Ash Generation Amount and Hazardous
Wastes Landfill Capacity
251. In accordance with Pollution Control Standards of MSW Landfill Plants
(GB16889-2008), once the fly ash is solidified and stabilized, it can then enter to
divisional MSW landfill plants for landfilling. Analyzing from Figure 4-12, the landfill
capacity of MSW landfill plants is far beyond the fly ash generation amount. However,
how many MSW sanitary landfill plants can achieve divisional landfill? Indeed, not all
existing sanitary landfill plants are suitable for receiving fly ash treatment. Therefore,
the incineration plants should make clear investigation and select suitable fly ash
treatment approaches while establishing a project.
Figure 4-12 Relation Between Fly Ash Generation Amount and MSW
Landfill Capacity
2) Cement Kiln Co-disposal
252. Beijing Jinyu Environmental Technology Co., Ltd. possesses the first waste
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incineration fly ash disposal line at home, together with two 2,000 tons/day cement
clinkers production lines. Currently, it has established a production line of waste
incineration fly ash disposal based on 2#cement kiln and takes pre-treated fly ash sent
to the cement kiln as part of the raw materials to be calcined into cement clinkers so
as to achieve harmless disposal for waste incineration fly ash with an existing disposal
scale of 9,600 tons/year.
253. Jinyu Environmental plans to expand the production line of existing waste
incineration fly ash disposal into a new one with a scale of 30,000 tons/year; meanwhile,
it will build a new production line of waste incineration fly ash disposal based on its
1#cement kiln with a new fly ash disposal scale of 40,000 tons/year; the fly ash disposal
technique of the expanded and the newly-established production line is consistent with
that of the existing one. Upon its completion, the total fly ash disposal scale of Jinyu
Environmental will reach 70,000 tons/year.
254. The above-mentioned fly ash’s cement kiln co-disposal don’t need to apply the hazardous waste business license anymore, which has improved the development
and promotion of fly ash’s cement kiln co-disposal’s engineering application. In 2015, the national cement production amount was about 2.4 billion tons and the admixture
fly ash amount during fly ash’s cement kiln co-disposal process shouldn’t exceed 3% of that of the raw materials amount. If there are 10% cement corporations co-disposing
fly ash all together, the treatable fly ash amount will be quite considerable. However,
both the product quality and pollutant content should be strictly monitored and
controlled to avoid any harm to the ecological environment and human healthy caused
by secondary pollution.
Figure 4-13 Beijing Building Materials Group
3) Sintered Caramite Technology
255. The caramite production of high-temperature sintered caramite produced by
waste incineration fly ash through the demonstration project carried out by Tianjin
Yiming Environmental Technology Co., Ltd. is about 125,000 tons/year. Calculated by
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the fly ash admixture proportion of 40%, this production line of waste incineration fly
ash’s high-temperature sintered caramite can utilize and dispose about 50,000 tons of
fly ash annually. While realizing fly ash’s harmlessness, this technology also achieves its reutilization.
256. To conclude, stabilization - sanitary landfill disposal, as the main incineration
fly ash treatment approach in China, can perfectly satisfy the demands in the aspect
of its treatment capacity at present. However, with the gradual decreasing of the
storage capacity, the site-selection is much more difficult and the landfill treatment
pressure gradually emerges as well. On the other hand, fly ash landfill disposal has its
own shortcomings, such as poor heavy metals stabilization effect, undivided landfill,
unimproved matching facilities, etc., leading to high-level environmental risks. Cement
kiln co-disposal and sintered caramite technology can act as the beneficial supplement
for the fly ash landfill treatment, which will not only share the fly ash landfill pressure,
but also achieve the harmlessness and resource utilization of fly ash, with high
economic and environmental benefits. They can be promoted and implemented as
essential technologies for fly ash’s safe and sustainable utilization.
4.4.2.3 Problems Face by the Treatment and Disposal of MSW Incineration Fly Ash in China
257. The development and regulations as well as policies of waste incineration fly
ash’s treatment and disposal in China still faces with the difficulties of innovation and improvement that needed to be addressed.
1) Limited Disposal Technology
258. For resource utilization of MSW incineration fly ash, cement kiln co-disposal
and sintered caramite technology are the two that China has actual application practice
while other resource utilization and treatment technology that haven’t been developed and applied. New technologies are still required to be explored to strengthen the MSW
incineration treatment in China.
2) Unimproved Technical Normative System
259. It can be said that China hasn’t established any systematic normative system for the treatment and disposal of waste incineration fly ash. Its safe disposal and
resource utilization process are mainly implemented and managed in accordance with
the hazardous wastes management approaches and technical specifications. For
example, in 2008, the standards required to be followed as the reference for fly ash
landfill include Pollution Control Standards for Hazardous Wastes Landfill (GB 18598-
2001), Landfill Pollution Control Standards of Municipal Solid Wastes (GB16889-2008).
Then, in 2013, Solid Wastes Pollution Control Standards for Cement Kiln Co-disposal
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(GB 30485-2013), Solid Wastes Technical Specifications for Cement Kiln Co-disposal
(GB 30760-2014) and Solid Wastes Environmental Protection Technical Specifications
for Cement Kiln Co-disposal (HJ/T 662-2013) were carried out to prescribe the
operational technology and pollutants discharge limits of fly ash’s cement kiln co -
disposal.
260. For other fly ash’s disposal or resource utilization technologies (such as sintered caramite, sintered light aggregates for constructions, etc.), there haven’t been any relevant rule, regulations, standards and specifications issued, let along relevant
specification requirements on the heavy metal content and that from the leached liquid
of new technology’s resource utilized products. Since fly ash is listed as hazardous
wastes, improved technical standard system is the guarantee for its safe and normative
treatment and regulations.
3) Loose Regulations on the Treatment and Disposal Process
261. Management of Hazardous Wastes Duplicated Form (Order No.5 issued by
State Environmental Protection Administration) stipulates the application and using
process, filling and preservation requirements as well as supervision demands of the
duplicated form. Unit Management Plans’ Formulating Guidance on the Generation of
Hazardous Wastes (Announcement No.7 in 2016 issued by Ministry of Environmental
Protection) claims, MSW incineration plants that will produce fly ash should regularly
formulate and report its Hazardous Wastes’ Management Plan. Basic information such
as the annual production amount of fly ash and the mode, facility conditions, quantity,
etc. during the management process such as preservation, transferring, disposal and
utilization in accordance with the planned MSW amount to be disposed.
262. Though there are strict requirements from the above-mentioned Management
Plan and Guidance, the actual implementation process is still hard to achieve
sometimes. Investigation shows that though the waste’s components are complicated and the fly ash volatility is relatively huge, most incineration plants still adopt
monotonous mode, fixed stabilizer ratio for solidification and stabilization treatment.
Such approaches will only lead to poor heavy metal stabilization effect and increase
the heavy metals’ leach danger; some fly ash is not landfilled via divisional landfill in
the landfill plant, which will also increase the leach danger of heavy metals and other
ions and is a great safety problem.
263. The main reason for the existence of the above problems proves to be
monitoring. Currently, the government strictly governs the first pollution of fuel gas
discharge in waste incineration plants, but there no special supervision or control
standards of the fly ash treatment process and the possible secondary pollution.
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4) Poor Economic Basis
264. It is well-known that the waste incineration treatment expense is relatively high
all over the world while the high expense is beneficial for the control of pollution
produced during the incineration process. In terms of the statistical data issued by the
World Bank, the incineration expense for every ton of wastes was 150 dollars (RMB
1041.66yuan) on average while that in Holland was 160 euros (RMB 1,184yuan); in
Germany, 200 euros (RMB 1,480yuan). However, the bidding price for MSW
incineration treatment was generally RMB 60yuan~80yuan/ton. The lower bidding
price could even reach RMB 26.5yuan/ton, or even RMB 18yuan/ton at the bottom line.
During the project-establishing, tendering and bidding stage of the waste incineration
project, the contractor didn’t spare exclusive treatment expenses targeted at fly ash
disposal and therefore the fly ash’s treatment and disposal lack the necessary economic basis. Insufficient considerations on the fly ash’s outlet and the actual expenses will mislead the incineration plants to neglect the technical innovation of fly
ash’s treatment and disposal.
4.5 Summary
265. Waste incineration fly ash’s treatment and disposal technologies mainly include solidification - hazardous wastes landfill disposal, stabilization - sanitary landfill
plants disposal, acidic extraction of heavy metals, melting and solidification, etc.;
266. Since 2008, the treatment and disposal technology of incineration fly ash in
China has changed significantly. Before 2008, the mainly fly ash disposal approach
was solidification - hazardous wastes landfill disposal while after 2008, the primary
disposal has become stabilization - sanitary landfill disposal, cement kiln co-disposal
and sintered caramite technology, etc. Especially the implementation of the latest
National Catalogue of Hazardous Wastes (2016 Edition) newly added Exemption and
Management List for Hazardous Wastes in 2016 had broadened the space for fly ash’s normative and safe disposal. While complying with the exempt conditions, fly ash can
be disposed in corporations with no business license for hazardous wastes’ comprehensive management.
267. The normative regulation of incineration fly ash’s treatment and disposal in China still has a long way to go, which requires technical innovation, improved
standard system, mature policies and regulations as well as strict supervisory process.
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CHAPTER5 EXISTING POLICIES AND REGULATIONS
SYSTEM IN CHINA
5.1 Regulations on MSWI Fly Ash Management in PRC
5.1.1 State Regulations
268. In accordance with existing regulations in China, MSW incineration fly ash
belongs to hazardous waste and should be brought into the national and local solid
waste management system for further environmentally sound management.
5.1.1.1 Environmental Protection Law
269. Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China, the basic
environmental management law in China, was officially adopted and implemented at
the 11th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Seventh National People's
Congress on December 26, 1989 and amended at the 8th Meeting of the Standing
Committee of the Twelfth National People’s Congress on April 24, 2014. The revised
version finally came into force on 1 January, 2015.
270. Environmental Protection Law is composed of 7 chapters and 70 articles,
including the basic principles of national environmental protection and rules related to
the supervision and administration of environmental protection, environmental
protection and the improvement of environmental quality, prevention and control of
pollution, information disclosure and public involvement, etc. it also makes provision
for the legal liability caused by environmental pollution. Besides, targeted at the
prevention and control of solid waste pollution, Chapter IV “Prevention and Control of
Environmental Pollution and Other Public Hazards” stipulates: “Article 42 Enterprises
and institutions and other producers and operators that discharge pollutants shall take
measures to prevent and control pollution and other hazards caused to the
environment by waste gas, waste water, waste residues, medical waste, dust,
malodorous gases, radioactive substances, noise, vibration and optical and
electromagnetic radiation generated in the course of production, construction or other
activities”; “Enterprises and public institutions that discharge pollutants shall establish
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an environmental protection responsibility system and specify the responsibilities of
the persons-in-charge of the entities and the relevant personnel”; “It is prohibited to
illegally discharge pollutants by means of concealed conduits, seepage well, seepage
pit, perfusion or alteration and forgery of monitoring data or abnormal operation of
pollution prevention and control installations to avoid supervision.”
271. In terms of the provisions of this article, the liability subject responsible for the
prevention and control of fly ash, the dust generated and collected for treatment during
MSW incineration process, turns to be “enterprises and institutions and other
producers and operators that discharge pollutants” , i.e., MSW incineration plants and
their belong companies that produce incineration fly ash. Meanwhile, the provisions of
this article also clarify that perfusion—a widely-used technology for the disposal of
hazardous waste—is “illegal discharge” technology in China and is strictly prohibited.
272. Clauses related to the environmental management of solid waste and
hazardous waste (including MSW incineration fly ash) prescribed in Environmental
Protection Law also include the following contents:
273. “Article 49 No solid waste and sewage that fail to meet the agricultural
standards and environmental protection standards shall be applied to the farmland.
Measures shall be taken for application of pesticide, fertilizer and other agricultural
inputs and irrigation to prevent the pollution of heavy metal and other hazardous
substances.” Based on this provision, MSW incineration fly ash used for the
improvement of farmland soil is prohibited.
274. “Article 51 The people's governments at all levels shall comprehensively
arrange the sewage treatment installations and ancillary pipe network for urban and
rural construction, environmental sanitation installations for collection, transportation
and disposal of solid waste, installations and sites for centralized treatment of
hazardous waste as well as other public environmental protection installations, and
make sure the normal operation of such installations.” In accordance with this provision,
the installations for the disposal of MSW incineration fly ash should be
comprehensively arranged by the local government. However, no specific level of the
people’s government in charge is stipulated. Therefore, the overall arrangement and
construction should be conducts based on the local condition, which should also
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include cross-provincial transportation and disposal of MSW incineration fly ash.
275. “Article 36 The State shall encourage and instruct the citizens, legal persons
and other organizations to use environment-friendly products and recycled products in
order to reduce the generation of waste.” This provision shows that the promotion and
application of comprehensively used MSW incineration fly ash products should be
encouraged under the precondition of “benefiting environmental protection”.
276. In addition to the above-mentioned provisions, Environmental Protection Law
also delivers principle regulations related to the installations construction involved in
MSW incineration fly ash’s disposal, the operation and management of relevant
“environmental impact assessment”, “pollutant discharge standards”, “fees for
pollutant discharge and environmental protection tax”, “pollution discharge license”,
etc.
5.1.1.2 Law on Prevention of Environmental Pollution Caused by Solid Waste
277. Law of the People's Republic of China on Prevention of Environmental
Pollution Caused by Solid Waste is the basic law in China related to solid waste’
environmental management with Environmental Protection Law as its high-level law.
Law on Prevention of Environmental Pollution Caused by Solid Waste was approved
at the 16th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Eighth National People's
Congress on October 30, 1995, to be effective on April 1, 1996; the new version was
amended at the 13th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Tenth National
People's Congress on December 29, 2004, to be effective on April 1, 2005; in
accordance with Decisions on the Amendment of 12 Laws Including Cultural Relics
Protection Law of the People's Republic of China revised at the Third Meeting of the
Standing Committee of the Twelfth National People's Congress on June 29, 2013 for
the first time and the second amendment was conducted at the 14th Meeting of the
Standing Committee of the Twelfth National People's Congress on April 24, 2015
based on Decisions on the Amendment of 7 Laws Including Port Law of the People's
Republic of China with the third amendment conducted at the 24th Meeting of the
Standing Committee of the Twelfth National People's Congress on November 7, 2016
in terms of Decisions on the Amendment of 12 Laws Including Foreign Trade Law of
the People's Republic of China.
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278. As the basic law in China related to the environmental management of solid
waste, Law on Prevention of Environmental Pollution Caused by Solid Waste
stipulates the basic principles for the management of solid waste, liability subject for
the prevention and control of pollution caused by solid waste and the liability subject
for supervision and administration and provides provisions related to the supervision
and administration on the prevention and control of pollution caused by solid waste,
prevention and control of pollution caused by solid waste, prevention and control of
industrial solid waste and the pollution caused by MSW, etc. It also offers special
stipulations on the prevention and control of environmental pollution caused by
hazardous waste.
(1) General Principles on the Management of Solid Waste
279. Law on Prevention of Environmental Pollution Caused by Solid Waste clarifies
the general principles related to the management of solid waste, i.e., “Article 3 The
State shall, in preventing and controlling environmental pollution by solid waste,
implement the principles of reducing the discharge volume and hazardousness of solid
waste, fully and rationally utilizing solid waste, and making it hazardless through
treatment as well as promoting clean production and recyclable economic
development.” In accordance with this principle, the environmental management of
MSW incineration fly ash should conform to the technical route in the sequence of
reducing production volume, promoting comprehensive utilization and harmless
disposal.
(2) Liability Subject for the Prevention and Control as well as Supervision and
administration of Pollution Caused by Solid Waste
280. When it comes to the liability subject responsible for the prevention and
control of pollution caused by MSW incineration fly ash, Law on Prevention of
Environmental Pollution Caused by Solid Waste stipulates, “Article 5 The State shall,
in preventing and controlling environmental pollution by solid waste, implement the
principle of legal accountability by the person causing pollution. The producers, sellers,
importers and users of the products shall bear liability according to law for preventing
and controlling environmental pollution by the solid waste generated from their
products.” MSW incineration fly ash is caused by MSW disposal while MSW is caused
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via the residents’ (consumers’) commodities (products) using process. Consequently,
based on the former stipulation, the liability subject responsible for the prevention and
control of pollution caused by MSW incineration fly ash should be the MSW
generators—the residents (consumers). In view of consumers’ dispersiveness, such
liability always comes to the government’s rescue.
281. As for management liability of MSW incineration fly ash, Law on Prevention
of Environmental Pollution Caused by Solid Waste makes the following stipulation,
“Article 10 The competent administrative department of environmental protection
under the State Council shall conduct unified supervision and administration of the
prevention and control of environmental pollution by solid waste throughout the country.
The relevant departments under the State Council shall be responsible for supervision
and administration of the prevention and control of environmental pollution by solid
waste within their respective functions and responsibilities. The competent
administrative departments of environmental protection under the local people's
governments at or above the county level shall conduct unified supervision and
administrative of the prevention and control of environmental pollution by solid waste
within their jurisdictions. The relevant departments of local people's governments at or
above the county level shall be responsible for supervision and administration of the
prevention and control of environmental pollution by solid waste within their respective
functions and responsibilities. The competent administrative department of
construction under the State Council and the competent administrative departments of
environmental sanitation under the local people's governments at or above the county
level shall be responsible for supervision and administration with regard to cleaning up,
collection, storage, transportation and treatment of house refuse.” It can be seen that
the liability subject responsible for the prevention and control of environmental pollution
by MSW incineration fly ash should be the competent administrative departments of
environmental protection; since MSW incineration fly ash is derivatives caused by
MSW disposal, the administrative departments in charge of its disposal installations’
construction and operation should be the competent administrative departments of
environmental sanitation.
(3) Job Description of the Administrative Departments of Environmental
Protection
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282. In terms of this provision, Law on Prevention of Environmental Pollution
Caused by Solid Waste stipulates the main responsibilities of the administrative
departments of environmental protection for the management of solid waste, including:
a) Enact National Technical Norms for Preventing and Controlling
Environmental Pollution by Solid Waste
283. “Article 11 The competent administrative department of environmental
protection under the State Council shall, jointly with relevant competent administrative
departments under the State Council, enact national technical norms for preventing
and controlling environmental pollution by solid waste according to the national
environmental quality standards and economic and technical conditions of the State.”
Till now, enacted and implemented technical norms for preventing and controlling
environmental pollution by MSW incineration fly ash includes Standard for Pollution
Control on MSW Incineration (GB 18485-2014), Standard for Pollution Control on
MSW Landfill (GB 18485-2014) (GB16889-2008), Standard for Pollution Control on
the Security Landfill Site for Hazardous Waste (GB18598-2001) and Standard for
Pollution Control on Co-processing of Solid Waste in Cement Kiln (GB30485-2013).
b) Examine and Approve as well as Inspect and Accept the Environmental
Effect Evaluation Report
284. “Article 13 Construction of projects which discharge solid waste and of
projects for storage, utilization and treatment of solid waste shall be conducted
environmental effect evaluation according to law and be in compliance with the
relevant provisions of the State concerning the administration of environmental
protection in respect of construction projects.”
285. “Article 14 The necessary supporting installations for the prevention and
control of environmental pollution by solid waste specified in the statement of the effect
of the construction project shall be designed, built and put into operation
simultaneously with the main part of the project. The construction project shall be put
into production or use, only after the installations for the prevention and control of
environmental pollution by solid waste are examined and considered up to standards
by the competent administrative department of environmental protection that examined
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and approved the statement of environmental effect. The installations for the
prevention and control of environmental pollution by solid waste shall be checked and
accepted at the same time as the main part of the project is checked and accepted.”
286. Law of the People’s Republic of China on Environmental Impact Assessment
was adopted at the 30th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Ninth National
People’s Congress on October 28, 2002, to be effective on September 1, 2003, and
was revised at the 21th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Ninth National
People’s Congress on July 2, 2016.
287. The State Environmental Protection Administration promulgated Management
Regulations for Checking and Accepting Completed Installations of Environmental
Protection of Construction Projects (Order No. 13 of the State Environmental
Protection Administration), to be effective on February 1, 2002, which was revised via
Order No. 16 of the State Environmental Protection Administration on December 22,
2010.
c) Enact National Catalogue of Hazardous Waste and Methods for Identifying
and Distinguishing
288. “Article 51 The competent administrative department of environmental
protection under the State Council shall, jointly with other relevant departments under
the State Council, formulate a national catalogue of hazardous waste, lay down unified
criteria and methods for identifying and distinguishing hazardous waste.” On June 14,
2016, the Ministry of Environmental Protection, National Development and Reform
Commission and Ministry of Public Security jointly promulgated the edition of National
Catalogue of Hazardous Waste (Order No. 39 of the Ministry of Environmental
Protection), which was put in force on August 1, 2016. The Ministry of Environmental
Protection had promulgated and implemented Identification Standards for Hazardous
Waste (GB5085.1-.7-2007) with 7 standards included since 2007. These standards
are under amendment currently.
d) Organize Units to Enact Plans for Administration of Hazardous Waste and
Accept Reports
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289. “Article 53 Units generating hazardous waste shall enact plans for
administration of hazardous waste according to relevant provisions of the State, and
report relevant materials concerning category, discharge volume, flow direction,
storage and treatment of hazardous waste to the competent administrative
departments of environmental protection under the local people's governments at or
above the county level.”
e) Assign Treating Units
290. “Article 55 Units discharging hazardous waste shall treat hazardous waste in
accordance with relevant provisions of the State but not dump or pile up it without
authorization; otherwise, the competent administrative department of environmental
protection under the local people's government at or above the county level shall order
them to set it right within a specified period of time. If a unit fails to treat the waste
within the specified period of time, or if it has done it but not in conformity with the
relevant provisions of the State, the competent administrative department of
environmental protection under the local people's government at or above the county
level shall assign other units to treat the waste in accordance with relevant State
regulations, and, the units discharging hazardous waste shall bear the costs of
treatment.”
f) Enact Business License for the Treatment of Hazardous Waste
291. “Article 57 Units engaging in collection, storage and treatment of hazardous
waste shall apply to the competent administrative department of environmental
protection under the people's government at or above the county level for the business
license; the units engaging in utilizing hazardous waste shall apply to the competent
administrative department of environmental protection under the State Council or such
departments under the people's governments of provinces, autonomous regions and
municipalities directly under the Central Government for the business license. Specific
measures for the administration thereof shall be prescribed by the State Council.” The
State Council promulgated on Measures for the Administration of Permit for Operation
of Dangerous Waste May 30, 2004, which was implemented on July 1, 2014; this act
was further amended on December 7, 2013 and February 6, 2016 respectively.
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g) Organize Units to Fill in Duplicate Forms for Transfer of Hazardous Waste
and Submit Transfer Application
292. “Article 59 Whoever transfers hazardous waste, shall, according to relevant
provisions of the State, fill in duplicate forms for transfer of hazardous waste and
submit application to the competent administrative department of environmental
protection under the people's governments at or above the municipal level in the places
where the hazardous waste is to be moved out. The competent administrative
department of environmental protection under the people's government at or above
municipal level in the region where the hazardous waste is to be moved out shall, after
consulting with and being consented by the competent administrative department of
environmental protection under the people's government at or above municipal level
in the region where the hazardous waste is to be moved in, approve the transportation
of such hazardous waste out. Transport shall not be conducted without approval.” On
June 22, 1999, the former State Environmental Protection Administration promulgated
Management of Hazardous Waste Duplicated Form (Order No.5 of the State
Environmental Protection Administration), which came into force on October 1, 1999.
h) Inspect Emergence Measures
293. “Article 62 Units discharging, collecting, storing, transporting, utilizing or
treating hazardous waste shall work out emergency and protection measures to be
adopted in case of accident, and report such to the competent administrative
department of environmental protection under the local people's government at or
above the county level, which shall conduct inspection, for the record.”
(4) Job Description of the Administrative Departments of Environmental
Sanitation
294. Law on Prevention of Environmental Pollution Caused by Solid Waste
provides stipulations related to the main responsibilities of MSW management for the
administrative departments of environmental sanitation, including:
a) Enact National Standards for Environmental Sanitation
295. “Article 41 Urban house refuse shall be cleaned, collected, transported and
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treated in compliance with the provisions concerning environmental protection and
environmental sanitation administration of the State, thus prevent from environmental
pollution.”
296. “Article 44 Installations and sites for treatment of house refuse shall be built
in compliance with the standards for environmental protection and environmental
sanitation prescribed by the competent administrative department of environmental
protection under the State Council and the competent administrative department of
construction under the State Council.”
297. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development enacted the industry
standards Operation and Supervision Standards for MSW Incineration Plants
(CJJ/T212-2015) on February 10, 2015, which provided specific stipulations on the
inside management of MSW incineration fly ash in the MSW incineration plants.
298. Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development enacted the national
standards Technical Specifications for MSW Sanitary Landfill Treatment (GB50869-
2013) on August 8, 2013, which provided specific stipulations on the construction and
operation of MSW incineration landfill sites. However, such standard didn’t cover
specific technical requirements for the pre-treatment of MSW incineration fly ash so as
to satisfy the standards of entering MSW landfill sites.
299. So far, the competent administrative departments of construction under the
State Council haven’t promulgated any standards about the construction contents of
recycling MSW incineration fly ash.
b) Organize MSW Treatment
300. “Article 39 The competent administrative departments of environmental
sanitation under the local people's government at or above the county level shall
organize cleaning, collection, transportation and treatment of urban house refuse, and
may select the units satisfying relevant conditions to engage in cleaning, collection,
transportation and disposal of house refuse through the forms such as inviting tender.”
In accordance with this provision, the construction and operation of MSW incineration
fly ash’s disposing and utilizing installations should be organized by the competent
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administrative departments of environmental sanitation.
(5) Liability of the Units Generating MSW Incineration Fly Ash
a) Pollution Control
301. “Article 16 Units and individuals that discharge solid waste shall adopt
measures to prevent or reduce environmental pollution by solid waste.”
302. “Article 62 Units discharging, collecting, storing, transporting, utilizing or
treating hazardous waste shall work out emergency and protection measures to be
adopted in case of accident, and report such to the competent administrative
department of environmental protection under the local people's government at or
above the county level, which shall conduct inspection, for the record.”
b) Report of Plans for Administration of Hazardous Waste for the Record
303. “Units generating hazardous waste shall enact plans for administration of
hazardous waste according to relevant provisions of the State, and report relevant
materials concerning category, discharge volume, flow direction, storage and
treatment of hazardous waste to the competent administrative departments of
environmental protection under the local people's governments at or above the county
level. The plans for administration of hazardous waste as mentioned above shall
include the measures for reducing the discharge volume and hazardousness of
hazardous waste and measures for storage, utilization and treatment of hazardous
waste. The plans for administration of hazardous waste shall be reported to the
competent administrative departments of environmental protection under the local
people's governments at or above the county level in the places where the units
discharge hazardous waste for the record. If the reported matters or contents of plans
for administration of hazardous waste as prescribed in this Article have major changes,
they shall be reported without delay.”
c) Punishment by Law
304. “Article 55 Units discharging hazardous waste shall treat hazardous waste in
accordance with relevant provisions of the State but not dump or pile up it without
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authorization.”
(6) Liability of the Units Responsible for the Treatment and Disposal of MSW
Incineration Fly Ash
a) Pollution Control
305. “Article 17 Units and individuals that collect, store, transport, utilize or treat
solid waste shall take measures to prevent the scattering, running off, leaking and
seeping of solid waste, as well as other measures against environmental pollution; it
shall not be allowed to dump, pile up, discard or let drop solid waste without
authorization. All units and individuals shall be prohibited to dump or pile up solid waste
to rivers, lakes, canals, channels, reservoirs and the bottomlands, banks and slopes
below the highest water lines of such sites, and other sites that are prohibited dumping
and piling up castoffs by laws and regulations.” According to Interpretation of the
Supreme People's Court and Supreme People’s Procuratorate on Certain Issues
Concerning the Handling of Criminal Cases Related to Environmental Pollution (No.
29 Fashi [2016]) promulgated on December 23, 2016 and implemented on January 1,
2017, once involved to hazardous waste, the above-mentioned actions will be
regarded as “causing severe environmental pollution”, “should be convicted and
punished in terms of offence of environmental pollution”.
306. “Article 21 Administration and maintenance of installations, equipments and
places for collection, storage, transportation and treatment of solid waste shall be
improved so as to ensure their normal operation and function.”
307. “Article 41 Urban house refuse shall be cleaned, collected, transported and
treated in compliance with the provisions concerning environmental protection and
environmental sanitation administration of the State, thus prevent from environmental
pollution.”
308. “Article 45 Substances reclaimed from house refuse shall be used in
accordance with the usage or standards as prescribed by the State but not be used for
producing the products harmful for human heath.”
309. “Article 58 Hazardous waste shall be collected and stored separately
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according to their different characteristics. It shall be forbidden to collect, store,
transport and treat mixed hazardous waste of incompatible nature that have not
undergone safety treatment.”
310. “Article 60 Whoever transports hazardous waste shall adopt measures for
the prevention and control of environmental pollution and observe provisions of the
State concerning the control of transportation of hazardous goods.”
311. “Article 62 Units discharging, collecting, storing, transporting, utilizing or
treating hazardous waste shall work out emergency and protection measures to be
adopted in case of accident, and report such to the competent administrative
department of environmental protection under the local people's government at or
above the county level, which shall conduct inspection, for the record.”
b) Apply for Business License of Hazardous Waste
312. “Article 57 Units engaging in collection, storage and treatment of hazardous
waste shall apply to the competent administrative department of environmental
protection under the people's government at or above the county level for the business
license; the units engaging in utilizing hazardous waste shall apply to the competent
administrative department of environmental protection under the State Council or such
departments under the people's governments of provinces, autonomous regions and
municipalities directly under the Central Government for the business license. Specific
measures for the administration thereof shall be prescribed by the State Council.”
According to National Catalogue of Hazardous Waste and Appendix Exemption and
Management List for Hazardous Waste promulgated on June 14, 2016 and
implemented on August 1, 2016, MSW incineration fly ash will be exempt while
entering to the MSW landfill sites for disposal in accordance with relevant standards,
which means that no business license of hazardous waste is required.
c) Fill in Duplicate Forms for Transfer of Hazardous Waste
313. “Article 59 Whoever transfers hazardous waste, shall, according to relevant
provisions of the State, fill in duplicate forms for transfer of hazardous waste and
submit application to the competent administrative department of environmental
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protection under the people's governments at or above the municipal level in the places
where the hazardous waste is to be moved out. The competent administrative
department of environmental protection under the people's government at or above
municipal level in the region where the hazardous waste is to be moved out shall, after
consulting with and being consented by the competent administrative department of
environmental protection under the people's government at or above municipal level
in the region where the hazardous waste is to be moved in, approve the transportation
of such hazardous waste out. Transport shall not be conducted without approval.”
(7) Qualitative Classification of MSW Incineration Fly Ash
314. a) “Article 88” “(3) House refuse shall mean solid waste discharged from
everyday life or from services provided to everyday life as well as the solid waste that
is regarded as house refuse under laws and administrative rules and regulations.”
Judging from this, MSW incineration fly ash should be classified and managed as MSW.
315. b) “Article 88” “(4) Hazardous waste shall mean waste that is dangerous and
is included in the national list of hazardous waste or identified as such according to the
criteria and methods of identification for hazardous waste as prescribed by the State.”
316. In accordance with “772-002-18 MSW incineration fly ash” from “HW18
incineration disposal of sediments” prescribed by National Catalogue of Hazardous
Waste (Order No. 39 (2016) of Ministry of Environmental Protection, National
Development and Reform Commission and Ministry of Public Security), MSW belongs
to hazardous waste and its management should be conducted in terms of the
management requirements for hazardous waste.
5.1.1.3 Circular Economy Promotion Law
317. Circular Economy Promotion Law of the People’s Republic of China was
approved at the 4th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the 11th National People’s
Congress on August 29, 2008 and implemented on January 1, 2009.
318. Circular Economy Promotion Law clarifies the purpose of this law’s
formulation—“for the purpose of facilitating circular economy, raising resources
utilization rate, protecting and improving environment and realizing sustainable
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development.” Meanwhile, “Resource recovery herein means the direct use of waste
as raw material, or waste regeneration” is also clarified. Consequently, comprehensive
utilization (regeneration) of MSW incineration fly ash should comply with relevant
stipulations prescribed by Circular Economy Promotion Law.
319. The following two items from Circular Economy Promotion Law involves MSW
incineration fly ash.
a) Avoid Re-pollution
320. “Article 4”, “In the process of waste recycling and resource recovery, efforts
shall be made to guarantee production safety, ensure the quality of products meets
standards provided by the State, and avoid re-pollution.” Based on this provision, the
producing and using of products related to comprehensive utilization (regeneration) of
MSW incineration fly ash should avoid re-pollution.
b) Formulate Resource Recovery Standards
321. “Article 17 The standardization department under the State Council shall
establish a sound circular economy standard system together with the general
administration for promoting circular economy and relevant departments for
environmental protection under the State Council, and formulate and improve
standards on energy-saving, water-saving, material-saving, waste recycling and
resource recovery.” Comprehensive utilization (regeneration) of MSW incineration fly
ash is mainly used for producing construction materials. So far, relevant departments
have formulated and implemented environmental protection standards on the process
control and production quality of using solid waste to produce cement (cement kiln co-
processing). However, standards related to using solid waste to produce other
construction materials is insufficient. Likewise, standard circular economy system
hasn’t been established till now.
5.1.1.4 Criminal Law
322. The Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China was passed on the
Second Session of the Fifth National People's Congress on July 1, 1979 and was
revised at the Fifth Session of the Eighth National People's Congress on March 14,
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1997. It has successively been amended or revised by the Amendment to the Criminal
Law of the People's Republic of China (release date: December 25, 1999; date of
enforcement: December 25, 1999), Amendment (II) to the Criminal Law of the People's
Republic of China (release date: August 31, 2001; date of enforcement: August 31,
2001), Amendment (III) to the Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China (release
date: December 29, 2001; date of enforcement: December 29, 2001), Amendment
(IV) to the Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China (release date: December 28,
2002; date of enforcement: December 28, 2002), Amendment (V) to the Criminal Law
of the People's Republic of China (release date: February 28, 2005; date of
enforcement: February 28, 2005), Amendment (VI) to the Criminal Law of the
People's Republic of China (release date: June 29, 2006; date of enforcement: June
29, 2006), Amendment (VII) to the Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China
(release date: February 28, 2009; date of enforcement: February 28, 2009), the
Decision of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress on Amendment
to Part of Laws (release date: August 27, 2009; date of enforcement: August 27, 2009)
and Amendment (VIII) to the Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China (release
date: February 25, 2011; date of enforcement: May 1, 2011) and amended by
Amendment (IX) to the Criminal Law of the People's Republic of China (release date:
August 29, 2015; date of enforcement: November 1, 2015).
323. The clauses related to the incineration fly ash from MSW in the Criminal Law
are mainly as follows.
324. In case of a violation of the state regulation Article 338 of Crime of Polluting
Environment by discharging, dumping or disposal of radioactive wastes, wastes
containing infectious pathogens, toxic substances or other harmful substances, which
cause serious environmental pollution, the offender shall be sentenced to fixed-term
imprisonment of not more than three years or criminal detention, fine alone or together
with other penalty; in case of especially serious consequences, the offender shall be
sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of more than three years and not more than
seven years and concurrently be sentenced to a fine;
325. "In accordance with Article 408 [Crime of Neglect of Duty Concerning
Environmental Supervision; Crime of Dereliction of Duty Concerning Food
Supervision], in case of major environmental pollution accident which causes serious
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losses of public or private property or personal casualties due to the serious
irresponsibility of the state personnel in charge of the supervision and administration
of environmental protection, such state personnel shall be sentenced to fixed-term
imprisonment of not more than three years or criminal detention."
326. The interpretations of Crime of Polluting Environment are given in the
According to Interpretation of the Supreme People's Court and Supreme People’s
Procuratorate on Certain Issues Concerning the Handling of Criminal Cases Related
to Environmental Pollution (No. 29 Fashi [2016]) promulgated on December 23, 2016
and implemented on January 1, 2017. In which, the clauses related to the incineration
fly ash from MSW are mainly as follows.
327. Article 1 The acts specified in Article 338 of the Criminal Law with one of the
following circumstances shall be deemed as serious environmental pollution,(II)
illegally discharge, dumping and dispose hazardous wastes more than three tons;
328. Article 3 The acts specified in Article 338 and Article 339 of the Criminal Law
with one of the following circumstances shall be deemed as "particularly serious
consequence", "(II) illegally discharge, dump and dispose hazardous wastes more
than one hundred tons";
329. Article 4 The criminal acts specified in Article 338 and 339 of the Criminal Law
with one of the following circumstances shall be severely punished; (IV) the enterprise
with a hazardous waste operating license violates the state regulations by discharge,
dumping and disposal of radioactive wastes, the waste with infectious pathogens, toxic
substances or other harmful substances";
330. Article 6 The enterprise without a hazardous waste operating license engages
in the collection, storage, use and disposal of hazardous wastes which causes serious
environmental pollution shall be convicted and punished in terms of offence of
environmental pollution; in case that the above act constitutes the crime of illegal
business operation, such enterprise shall be punished as the regulation with severe
punishment.
331. In accordance with the Criminal Law and its judicial interpretation, illegal
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dumping and disposal of incineration fly ash from MSW over three tons will constitute
a crime of polluting environment; illegal dumping and disposal of incineration fly ash
from MSW over one hundred tons will constitute a crime of polluting environment with
particularly serious consequence; In the event that a unit with a hazardous waste
business license (the unit which is incorporated into the exemption management and
does not need to apply for a license shall be included in this category) conducts the
above-mentioned act, it shall be given a heavier punishment on the basis of the above-
mentioned charges.
5.1.1.5 Environmental Protection Tax Law
332. The Environmental Protection Tax Law of the People's Republic of China was
adopted by the 25th Session of the Standing Committee of the Twelfth National
People's Congress of the People's Republic of China on December 25, 2016 and will
come into effect on January 1, 2018.
333. Environmental Protection Tax Law is the first separate law approved by the
Standing Committee of National People's Congress after the requirement of
"Implementing the principle of tax legalization" raised by the Third Plenary Session of
the 18th Central Committee of the CPC and the first separate law reflecting the "green
tax system" and promoting "ecological civilization construction".
334. First, the Environmental Protection Tax Law specifies the taxpayer scope of
the environmental protection tax, namely, Article 2: within the territory of the People's
Republic of China and other waters under the jurisdiction of the People's Republic of
China, the enterprises, institutions and other production operators directly discharging
taxable pollutants to the environment shall be the taxpayers of the environmental
protection tax; secondly, it specifies the types of taxable pollutants, namely Article 3:
the taxable pollutants as mentioned in this Law shall refer to the air pollutants, water
pollutants, solid wastes and noises specified in the Items and Amounts of
Environmental Protection Tax and the Taxable Pollutants and Equivalent Value
attached hereto.
335. The Schedule 1 (Items and Amounts of Environmental Protection Law) to the
Environmental Protection Law clearly stipulates that the amount of the taxable item
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"Hazardous Wastes" shall be RMB 1,000/ ton.
336. The Environmental Protection Tax Law specified the non-taxable conditions,
that is, Article 4: the enterprise with one of the following circumstances shall not be
deemed to direct discharge pollutants to the environment and may not pay the
environmental protection tax for the pollutants: (1) enterprises, institutions and other
production operators discharge taxable pollutants to the centralized sewage treatment
and centralized MSW treatment sites established in accordance with the law; (2)
enterprises, institutions and other production operators store or dispose solid wastes
in facilities and places that meet the requirements of the national and local
environmental protection standards.
337. The Environmental Protection Law also provides the suspension conditions
of environmental protection tax, namely Article 12: environmental protection tax may
be suspended in case of the following circumstances: (4) the solid waste
comprehensively utilized by the taxpayer confirms to the national and local
environmental protection standards.
338. In accordance with the above provisions of the Environmental Protection Tax
Law and the relevant existing laws and regulations, standards and norms, the
incineration fly ash from MSW treated at the MSW landfill or hazardous waste landfill,
or co-processed in cement kiln may not pay the environmental protection tax.
Otherwise, environmental protection tax (RMB 1,000/ton) shall be charged on the fly
ash.
5.1.1.6 Government Regulations
339. So far, the State Council, the Ministry of Environmental Protection and the
Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development have not formulated the regulations
on the management of incineration fly ash from MSW. As the competent authority of
the construction and operation of MSW facilities, the Ministry of Housing and Urban-
Rural Development has not formulated the regulations concerning the management of
incineration fly ash from MSW.
340. As the hazardous wastes, the management of incineration fly ash from MSW
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shall comply with the following regulations.
(1) National Hazardous Waste Inventory;
341. The National Hazardous Waste Inventory was formulated and promulgated
by the Ministry of Environmental Protection, the National Development and Reform
Commission and the Ministry of Public Security on June 14, 2016 in accordance with
Order No. 39 of the Ministry of Environmental Protection.
342. In the National Hazardous Waste Inventory, "772-002-18 incineration fly ash
from MSW" is listed in the "HW18 incineration disposal residue". Therefore, the
incineration fly ash from MSW shall belong to hazardous wastes and shall be managed
in accordance with the requirements of hazardous waste management.
343. In the appendix Exemption and Management List for Hazardous Wastes to
the National Hazardous Waste Inventory, the incineration fly ash from MSW is listed
in item 4. In accordance with the List, if the incineration fly ash from MSW "meets the
requirements prescribed by Article 6.3 of Pollution Control Standards of MSW Landfill
Plants (GB16889-2008), and then the incineration fly ash from MSW shall be filled in
the MSW landfill", the landfill shall not be deemed as the management of hazardous
waste; If the incineration fly ash from MSW "meets the requirements prescribed by
Solid Wastes Pollution Control Standards for Cement Kiln Co-processing (GB30485-
2013), co-processing shall be carried out in the cement kiln", "the co-processing in
cement kiln shall not be managed as hazardous waste". Namely, the incineration fly
ash from MSW disposed in the MSW landfill or co-processed in the cement kiln may
obtain the exemption qualification of hazardous waste management under the
corresponding conditions. However, except for the above two modes of disposal, other
disposal or management processes (collection, transportation, storage and transfer,
etc.) cannot be exempted and shall be managed as per hazardous waste.
(2) Administrative Measures for Hazardous Wastes Subject to Business
License
344. Administrative Measures for Hazardous Wastes Subject to Business License
was formulated and promulgated by the State Council Order No. 408 of the People's
Republic of China (May 30, 2004) and revised by the Decision of the State Council on
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Amendment to Administrative Regulations (State Council Order No. 645 (December 7,
2013)) and the Decision of the State Council on Amendment to Administrative
Regulations (State Council Order No. 666 (February 6, 2016)).
345. Administrative Measures for Hazardous Wastes Subject to Business License
specified the business scope of the business license for hazardous wastes. In which,
Article 2 stipulates that "in the territory of the People's Republic of China, the units
engaged in the collection, storage, disposal of hazardous wastes shall apply for the
business license for hazardous wastes in accordance with the provisions of these
measures". But Article 57 of the revised edition of the Solid Law (2004) added the
requirement for the use of facilities business license, which provides that " the units
engaged in utilization of hazardous wastes shall apply for a business license to the
administrative department in charge of environmental protection of the State Council
or the administrative department in charge of environmental protection of the people's
government of province, autonomous region or municipality directly under the Central
Government.
346. According to the above provisions, the third-party operating agencies for the
collection, storage, landfill disposal and comprehensive utilization of incineration fly
ash from MSW shall apply for the business license for hazardous wastes.
347. But according to the Exemption and Management List for Hazardous Wastes
attached to the National Hazardous Waste Inventory, the incineration fly ash from
MSW landfill and the cement kiln co-processing (utilizing) the incineration fly ash from
MSW need not to apply for the business license for hazardous wastes. But except for
the MSW landfill and co-processing of the cement kiln, other management facilities
(collection, transportation and storage, the facilities) disposing or using the incineration
fly ash from MSW still need to apply for the business license for hazardous waste.
348. In accordance with the Administrative Measures for Hazardous Wastes
Subject to Business License, the business license for hazardous wastes of the
incineration fly ash from MSW shall be issued by the administrative department in
charge of environmental protection at the provincial level.
(3) Management of Hazardous Wastes Duplicated Form
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349. Management of Hazardous Wastes Duplicated Form was promulgated by the
Order No.5 issued by State Environmental Protection Administration (June 22, 1999).
350. Management of Hazardous Wastes Duplicated Form stipulates the
application and using process, filling and preservation requirements as well as
supervision demands of the duplicated form.
(4) Unit Management Plans’ Formulating Guidance on the Generation of Hazardous Wastes
351. Unit Management Plans’ Formulating Guidance on the Generation of
Hazardous Wastes was promulgated by Announcement No.7 in 2016 issued by
Ministry of Environmental Protection on January 25, 2016.
352. Unit Management Plans’ Formulating Guidance on the Generation of
Hazardous Wastes raises the preparation requirements for the hazardous waste
management plan, including the preparation unit, form, time and content. Unit
Management Plans’ Formulating Guidance on the Generation of Hazardous Wastes
stipulates that the MSW incineration plants generating incineration fly ash from MSW
shall regularly formulate and report its Hazardous Wastes’ Management Plan together
with the Hazardous Waste Management Plan Recording Registration Form . In the
Hazardous Waste Management Plan, the MSW incineration plant shall report the
annual production amount of fly ash and the mode, facility conditions, quantity and
other information of the management process such as preservation, transferring,
disposal and utilization according to the planed disposal quantity of the MSW,
summarize the management plan implementation of the previous year and put forward
the ledger system requirements connected with the management plan and production
records.
(5) Pollution Prevention Technique Policy for Co-processing of Solid Waste in
Cement Kiln
353. The Pollution Prevention Technique Policy for Co-processing of Solid Waste
in Cement Kiln was promulgated by the Announcement No. 72 in 2016 issued by the
Ministry of Environmental Protection on December 6, 2016.
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354. Based on the reaffirmation of the implementation of the relevant requirements
of the Solid Waste Pollution Control Standards in Cement Kiln Co-processing
(GB30485-2013) and Solid Wastes Environmental Protection Technical Specifications
for Cement Kiln Co-processing (HJ662-2013), the Pollution Prevention Technique
Policy for Co-processing of Solid Waste in Cement Kiln raises higher technical
requirements to the cement kiln for the co-processing of solid wastes. The
requirements to the cement kiln for the co-processing of solid wastes: the newly-built,
rebuilt or expanded cement enterprises disposing hazardous waste after the issuance
of the technique policy shall select the cement kiln with the single-line design clinker
production scale of 4,000t/day or more.
355. Therefore, according to the current regulations, policies, standards and
specifications, the cement kiln facilities for the co-processing of incineration fly ash
from MSW shall meet the following requirements: a. new dry cement kiln with a
production scale of no less than 4,000t clinker/day for single-line design; b. adopting
the kiln-mill integration model; c. High-efficiency bag collector is used as the dust
removal facility in the cement kiln and kiln tail waste-heat utilization system.
356. The Pollution Prevention Technique Policy for Co-processing of Solid Waste
in Cement Kiln mainly reiterates the technical requirements for flue gas dust removal
facilities used for co-processing of solid waste in cement kiln, "for the facilities used for
co-processing of solid waste in cement kiln, the kiln tail flue gas dust removal shall
adopt high-efficient bag collector; for the facilities for the co-processing of solid waste
that was built or of which the environmental impact assessment file has been approved
before March 1, 2014, the kiln tail uses the electrostatic precipitator to continuously
improve the operation stability and efficiency in order to ensure that the pollutant
discharge meets the standards and encourage replace the electric precipitator with
high-efficient bag collector. The operation and maintenance management of the
cement kiln dust collector for solid waste treatment should be strengthened to ensure
the perfect synchronous operation of the dust collector and the cement kiln
production."
5.1.1.7 Standards and Specifications
357. The Ministry of Environmental Protection (the former State Bureau of
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Environmental Protection, the former State Environmental Protection Administration)
has developed and or is developing a series of pollution control standards and
technical specifications for hazardous waste and incineration fly ash from MSW. In
addition, the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Construction has formulated the
Technical Specifications for Sanitary Landfill Disposal of MSW; The National Technical
Committee for Cement Standardization has formulated the Technical Specifications
for the Co-processing of Solid Waste in Cement Kilns. Both standards are related to
the disposal (co-processing) management of incineration fly ash from MSW.
(1) Pollution Control Standards for Hazardous Wastes Landfill
358. The Pollution Control Standards for Hazardous Wastes Landfill (GB 18598-
2001) has made stipulations on the environmental protection requirements involved in
the construction and operation of the hazardous waste safe landfill, including the
admission condition, site selection, design, construction, operation, closure and
monitoring of the landfill. The landfills for the landfill disposal of incineration fly ash
from MSW must meet the requirements of this standard.
359. According to this standard, the incineration fly ash from MSW shall be
pretreated in the hazardous waste landfill and the content of heavy metals in the
leaching solution shall meet the requirements of the standard.
(2) Landfill Pollution Control Standards of Municipal Solid Waste
360. Landfill Pollution Control Standards of Municipal Solid Waste (GB16889-2008)
stipulates the requirements of site selection, engineering design and construction,
admission conditions, landfill work, closure, later maintenance and management,
pollutants discharge limits and environmental monitoring of the MSW landfill, etc.
Meanwhile, this standard also specifies the specific discharge limit of water pollutants.
The MSW landfills for the landfill disposal of incineration fly ash from MSW must meet
the requirements of this standard.
361. The Landfill Pollution Control Standards of Municipal Solid Waste specially
stipulates the standard for admission and disposal of the incineration fly ash from MSW.
In accordance with Clause 6.3 of this standard, the incineration fly ash from MSW
meeting the following conditions is allowed to be moved into the MSW landfill:
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a. Moisture content is lower than 30%;
b. Dioxins content is less than 3ug TEQ / kg;
c. The concentration of hazardous ingredients in the HJ / T300 prepared leach
solution is lower than the fixed limit in table 1.
362. Meanwhile, in accordance with Clause 6.5 of the standard, "the incineration
fly ash from MSW meeting the requirements of Clause 6.3" "shall be separately buried
in different areas in the MSW landfill."
(3) Technical Specifications for Sanitary Landfill Disposal of MSW
363. Technical Specifications for Sanitary Landfill Disposal of MSW (GB50869-
2013) raises the specific technical requirements for the siting, design, construction,
acceptance and operation management of the newly-built, rebuilt and expanded MSW
sanitary landfill treatment projects.
364. In accordance with Clause 3.0.4 of this standard, the incineration fly ash from
MSW and the incineration residue from medical waste after disposal meeting the
conditions stipulated in the existing national standard Pollution Control Standards of
MSW Landfill Plants (GB16889) are allowed to be moved into the MSW landfill for
landfill disposal. Separate landfill areas which can effectively separate the MSW landfill
areas in disposal.
365. In accordance with this standard, the incineration fly ash from MSW to be
disposed in the MSW landfill shall meet the requirements of the standard and Landfill
Pollution Control Standards of Municipal Solid Waste (GB16889-2008).
(4) Solid Waste Pollution Control Standards for Cement Kiln Co-processing
366. Solid Waste Pollution Control Standards for Cement Kiln Co-processing
(GB30485-2013) stipulates the technical requirements for the solid waste co-
processing facilities of the cement kiln, the requirement for the nature of the waste,
operation technical requirements, technical requirements, pollutant emission limit, the
pollutant control requirements for produced cement products, monitoring and
supervision management requirements.
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367. In the co-processing of incineration fly ash from MSW in the cement kiln, in
addition to the general requirements in this standard, the special requirements for
hazardous wastes shall be executed.
. Requirements for facilities for co-processing of incineration fly ash from
MSW
368. “4.1 The cement kilns for co-processing of solid waste shall meet the following
conditions: a) new dry cement kiln with a production scale of no less than 2,000t
clinker/day for single-line design; b) adopting the kiln-mill integration model; c) High-
efficiency bag collector is used as the dust removal facility in the cement kiln and kiln
tail waste-heat utilization system; d) for the cement kiln for the co-processing of
hazardous waste, the destruction and removal efficiency measured as per the
requirement of the Solid Wastes Environmental Protection Technical Specifications for
Cement Kiln Co-processing (HJ662) shall be no less than 99.9999%;e) for the cement
kiln for co-processing of solid waste with the transformed facilities, the original facilities
before the transformation shall meet the requirements of GB 4915 for two consecutive
years.”
. The adding technical requirements for co-processing of incinerator fly
ash from MSW in cement kiln
369. "5.2 The solid waste to be delivered into the kiln shall have the relatively stable
chemical composition and physical properties; the contents and adding volumes of
heavy metal and harmful elements (chlorine, fluorine and sulfur, etc.) shall meet the
requirements of the Solid Wastes Environmental Protection Technical Specifications
for Cement Kiln Co-processing (HJ662)".
370. "6.1 In the operation process, the adding point and method shall be properly
selected based on the features of the solid waste according to the Solid Wastes
Environmental Protection Technical Specifications for Cement Kiln Co-processing
(HJ662)".
. The technical requirements for cement products produced by the cement
kiln for co-processing of incineration fly ash from MSW
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371. "8.1 The cement products produced by cement kilns for co-processing of solid
waste shall meet the relevant national standards".
372. "8.2 The leaching of pollutants from cement products produced by cement
kilns for co-processing of solid waste shall meet the requirements of relevant national
standards".
. Flue gas emission limit of cement kilns for co-processing of incineration
fly ash from MSW
373. "7.1 For the co-processing of solid waste in cement kiln, the emission limits of
particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and ammonia from the cement kiln
and kiln tail waste-heat utilization system shall be executed in accordance with the
requirements of GB 4915".
374. 7.2 For the co-processing of solid waste in cement kiln, the pollutants other
than the air pollutants listed in clause 7.1 of the standard from the cement kiln and kiln
tail waste-heat utilization system exhaust funnel shall be executed in accordance with
the highest allowable discharge concentration specified in table 1".
(5) Solid Wastes Environmental Protection Technical Specifications for
Cement Kiln Co-processing
375. Solid Wastes Environmental Protection Technical Specifications for Cement
Kiln Co-processing (HJ662-2013) stipulates the requirements of environmental
protection technology in the facility selection, construction and transformation,
operation and pollution control and other aspects of the cement kiln for co-processing
of solid wastes.
376. According to this standard, the incineration fly ash from MSW can be co-
processed in cement kilns. In view of the nature of the incineration fly ash from MSW
and according to the regulation, the incineration fly ash from MSW is suitable to be
added to the feed-end chamber and raw mill of the cement kiln.
377. The specification also specifies the adding limits for heavy metals, sulfur,
chlorine, and fluorine in wastes for co-processing. In which, the limit of chlorine content
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is stipulated as: "6.6.8 The co-processing enterprises shall control the dosage of
chlorine (Cl) and fluorine (F) elements added into the kiln with the materials according
to the characteristics of cement production process in order to ensure the normal
production of cement and the quality of clinker meet the national standards." The
content of fluorine in the kiln shall not be greater than 0.5%, and the content of chlorine
should not be greater than 0.04%". That is, the chlorine content in all materials to be
added in the kiln, including the incineration fly ash from MSW for co-processing, the
raw materials and fuel, shall not exceed 0.04%. However, the content of chlorine in
MSWI fly ash is between 10% - 30%, and the demand will not be satisfied if it is directly
added. Therefore, Dechlorination treatment shall be made before the co-processing of
incineration fly ash from MSW in cement kiln.
(6) Technical Specifications for the Co-processing of Solid Waste in Cement
Kilns
378. The Technical Specifications for the Co-processing of Solid Waste in Cement
Kilns (GB30760-2014) stipulates the quality requirements of cement products
produced by solid waste for co-processing and the standards for the contents of
hazardous substances.
379. In accordance with clause 7.1 of this standard, "in the co-processing of solid
waste in cement kiln, the cement clinker produced in the cement kiln shall meet the
requirements of GB/T 21372-2008, and the content of heavy metals in cement clinker
shall not exceed the limits specified in table 2"; In accordance with clause 7.1 of this
standard, "in the co-processing of solid waste in cement kiln, the content of heavy
metal leached from the cement clinker shall not exceed the limit specified in Table
3";Article 8.2 provides that "the determination of extractable heavy metals in cement
clinker shall be carried out according to the method specified in GB/T 30810, in which
the sample preparation shall be carried out as per clause 5.2 of GB/T 21372-2008".
The reference standards involved in these standards are the Portland Cement Clinker
(GB/T 21372-2008) and Methods for Determination of Leachable Heavy Metals in
Cement Mortar (GB/T 30810-2014).
5.1.2 Local Regulations
380. Up to now, 14 of China's 31 provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions
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have specially formulated local regulations for solid waste or hazardous waste, and
Shanghai Municipality has released government guidance opinions on management
of MSW incineration fly ash; 3 of the 31 have issued local standards for disposal of
solid waste (technical specifications), among which Chongqing Municipality has issued
a technical specification for engineering of MSW incineration fly ash disposal by using
secondary materials.
5.1.2.1 Local Regulations
381. The following are local regulations concerning solid waste or hazardous waste
that have been implemented are listed below.
Rules of Hebei Province on the Prevention and Control of Environmental
Pollution by Solid Waste (passed at the 2nd session of the 14th meeting of
the standing committee of the people's congress of Hebei Province on
March 26, 2015, taking effect on June 1, 2015);
Measures of Liaoning Province on the Prevention and Control of
Environmental Pollution by Solid Waste (examined and approved at the 9th
session of the 94th executive meeting of the Liaoning Provincial People's
Government on December 18, 2001, taking effect on March 1, 2002)
Rules of Jilin Province on the Prevention and Control of Environmental
Pollution by Hazardous Waste (approved at the 10th session of the 22nd
meeting of the standing committee of the people's congress of Jilin Province
on September 14, 2005, taking effect on December 1, 2005)
Measures of Shandong Province on Implementation of the Law of the
People's Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Environmental
Pollution by Solid Waste (passed at the 9th session of the 31rd standing
committee of the people's congress of Shandong Province on September
28, 2002, taking effect on January 1, 2003)
Measures of Shanghai Municipality on the Prevention and Control of
Pollution by Hazardous Waste (issued on January 6, 1995 by Shanghai
Municipal People's Government and amended in accordance with the 53rd
Order of the Shanghai Municipal People's Government promulgated on
December 14, 1997 )
Rules of Jiangsu Province on the Prevention and Control of Environmental
Pollution by Solid Waste (passed at the 11th session of the 11th standing
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committee of the people's congress of Jiangsu Province on September 23,
2009, taking effect on January 1, 2010)
Rules of Zhejiang Province on the Prevention and Control of Environmental
Pollution by Solid Waste (passed at the 10th session of the 24th standing
committee of the people's congress of Jiangsu Province on March 29, 2006,
taking effect on June 1, 2006)
Provisions of Fujian Province on the Prevention and Control of
Environmental Pollution by Solid Waste (passed at the 11th session of the
12th standing committee of the people's congress of Fujian Province on
November 26, 2009, taking effect on January 1, 2010)
Rules of Guangdong Province on the Prevention and Control of
Environmental Pollution by Solid Waste (passed at the 10th session of the
8th standing committee of the people's congress of Guangdong Province on
January 14, 2004; amended for the first time according to the Decision of the
Standing Committee of the People's Congress of Guangdong Province on
Amendment of Relevant Administrative Compulsory Articles in Seven
Regulations (Rules of Guangdong Province on the Prevention and Control of
Environmental Pollution by Solid Waste, etc.) passed at the 11th session of
31st standing committee of the people's congress of Guangdong Province
on January 9, 2012; amended for the second time in accordance with the
Decision of the Standing Committee of the People's Congress of
Guangdong Province on Amendment of Twenty Tree Regulations (Rules of
Guangdong Province on Management of Private Technological Enterprises,
etc.) passed at the 11th session of 35th standing committee of the people's
congress of Guangdong Province on July 26, 2012)
Rules of Henan Province on the Prevention and Control of Environmental
Pollution by Solid Waste (passed at the 11th session of the 23rd standing
committee of the people's congress of Henan Province on September 28,
2011, taking effect on January 1, 2012)
Rules of Sichuan Province on the Prevention and Control of Environmental
Pollution by Solid Waste (passed at the 12th session of the 5th standing
committee of the people's congress of Sichuan Province on September 25,
2013, taking effect on January 1, 2014)
Rules of Shanxi Province on the Prevention and Control of Environmental
Pollution by Solid Waste (passed at the 12th session of the 23rd standing
committee of the people's congress of Shanxi Province on November 19,
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2015, taking effect on April 1, 2016)
Measures of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region on Management of
Hazardous Waste (discussed and approved at the 89th executive meeting of
the People's Government of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region on February
27, 2011, taking effect on April 1, 2011)
Measures of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region on the Prevention and
Control of Environmental Pollution by Hazardous Waste (examined and
approved at the 11th session of the 9th executive meeting of the People's
Government of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region on January 8, 2010,
issued on January 20, 2010 in accordance with the 163rd Order of the
People's Government of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, taking effect
on May 1, 2010)
382. All the above-mentioned implemented local regulations about solid waste or
hazardous waste have further reiterated and reinforced relevant provisions of the Law
of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Environmental
Pollution by Solid Waste. Those local regulations, however, have not made any
changes strengthening or weakening relevant stipulations in the Law of the People’s
Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution by Solid
Waste about management of MSW incineration fly ash.
383. On December 14, 2012, Shanghai Municipal Environmental Protection
Bureau and Shanghai Greenery and Public Sanitation Bureau jointly formulated and
issued Guidance Opinions on Strengthening Environmental Management of the MSW
Incineration Fly Ash. Six specific guidance opinions (perfecting layout of landfill site of
the fly ash, reasonably guiding where to dump the disposed fly ash, strengthening pre-
treatment of the fly ash , carrying out measures to prevent and control pollution,
practically strengthening environmental supervision and encouraging utilization of fly
ash resources) were proposed in this guidance document specially made for
management of MSW incineration fly ash. For specific disposal ways, the guidance
document requirements to construct (or expand) landfill sites special for MSW
incineration fly ash in Shanghai Jiading, Laogang and Chongming districts, and to
pretreat the MSW incineration fly ash in accordance with the Standard for Pollution
Control on the Security Landfill Site for Hazardous Waste (GB18598-2001). For other
disposal (utilization) modes, this guidance document just proposes to "encourage
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stabilization of pre-treatment of fly ash incineration, R&D of resources utilization
technology and construction of fly ash resources utilization facilities for reclamation
technology applicable for engineering transformation as well as adjust appropriately
places to dump the disposed MSW incineration fly ash by some of the disposal facilities
so as to save landfill space and promote the sustainable development", and no specific
comments or suggestions have been put forward. This guidance document has
attached to it Technical Requirement for Pre-treatment of MSW Incineration Fly Ash,
putting forward specific requirements for pollution prevention and control during and
management of the pre-treatment process of MSW incineration fly ash, but covering
no pre-treatment technology.
384. On May 29, 2012, the Shanghai Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau
and Shanghai Municipal Transportation and Port Authority jointly developed and
issued Provisions on the Prevention and Control of Pollution by Road Transportation
of Hazardous Waste (Trial) (HuHuanBaoFang[2012]No.181). According to this
document, MSW incineration fly ash shall be classified as "common hazardous waste"
and shall be transported "using special enclosed containers and vans". Specific
requirements for the transportation units and management of their personnel have
been proposed in this document.
5.1.2.2 Local Standards
385. Beijing Municipality, Shanghai Municipality and Chongqing Municipality have
developed local standards for solid waste management.
Local standard of Shanghai Municipality - Emission Standard of Air
Pollutants for Municipal Solid Waste Incineration (DB31/768-2013);
Local standard of Beijing Municipality - Emission Standard of Air Pollutants
for Municipal Solid Waste Incineration (DB11/502-2007);
Local standard of Beijing Municipality - Emission Standard of Air Pollutants
for Hazardous Waste Incineration (DB11/503-2007);
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Chongqing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau - Technical
Specification for Engineering of Disposal of MSW Fly Ash Using Secondary
Material Composite Technology (Trial) (YuHuanFa[2015]No.56).
386. Local standards of Beijing Municipality and Shanghai Municipality cover no
content about treatment, disposal and management of MSW incineration fly ash.
387. Technical Specification for Engineering of Disposal of MSW Fly Ash Using
Secondary Material Composite Technology (Trial) issued by Chongqing Municipal
Environmental Protection Bureau raises corresponding engineering technical
requirements for treatment of hazardous waste like MSW incineration fly ash,
electroplating sludge and chromium slags using sintering technology. However,
because of a lack of specific disposal or utilization approaches for the waste (materials)
disposed by such technology and a lack of standards which such disposed waste shall
or can reach, it is difficult for this document to play a fundamental role in treatment and
disposal of MSW incineration fly ash.
5.2 Environment Supervision Systems and Management
Organization Frames of MSW Incineration Fly Ash in China
5.2.1 Ministry of Environmental Protection
5.2.1.1 Management Office of Solid Waste
388. According to the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and
Control of Environmental Pollution by Solid Waste, "competent administrative
departments of environmental protection under the State Council shall conduct unified
supervision and administration of the prevention and control of environment pollution
by solid waste all over the county."
389. Ministry of Environmental Protection has a Management Office of Solid Waste
(the "Solid Office") to carry out such function. The Solid Office belongs to the
Department of Soil Environment Management, which is responsible for "supervision
and management of prevention and control of soil, solid waste, chemicals and heavy
metal pollution; formulation, organization and implementation of policies, plans, laws,
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administrative regulations and departmental rules, standards and specifications for
prevention and control of soil, solid waste, chemicals and heavy metal pollution;
proposal and formulation of soil environmental function zoning; calculation and
determination of the soil environmental capacity; assessment of soil environmental
carrying capacity; organization and implementation of environmental management
systems like business license and export examination & approval for hazardous waste,
import license for solid waste, import & export registration for toxic chemicals and
environmental management registration for new chemicals; undertakings jobs about
emission license, total amount control and emissions trading of soil pollutants;
organization and implementation of report and registration of industrial waste like
hazardous waste, medical waste and electronic waste; supervision and management
of soil environment protection and mulch film pollution prevention and control;
domestic performance of relevant international conventions".
390. Correspondingly, the Solid Office is responsible for "formulation of policies,
plans, laws, administrative regulations, department regulations, standards,
specifications and directories for solid waste management; organization and
implementation of business license and export examination & approval for hazardous
waste, import license for solid waste as well as report and registration of industrial
waste like hazardous waste, medical waste and electronic waste; supervision of
pollution prevention and control about recycling of renewable resources like electronic
waste and sludge; domestic performance of relevant international conventions".
391. Thus it can be seen that the main responsibility of the Ministry of
Environmental Protection is to develop policies, regulations, standards and other
documents relating to management of the MSW incineration fly ash. While, for specific
supervision functions like business license and approval, Ministry of Environmental
Protection is responsible for "organization and implementation". In fact, those specific
supervision functions are actually implemented by the local competent administrative
environmental protection departments (mainly province-level ones).
5.2.1.2 Solid Waste and Chemicals Management Center, Ministry of
Environmental Protection
392. Solid Waste and Chemicals Management Center (the Center), now a bureau-
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level public institution directly subordinate to the Ministry of Environmental Protection
and technical support institution of the Ministry of Environmental Protection on
management of solid waste, chemicals, pollution sites and heavy metal environment,
was established in June 2013 by merging former Solid Waste and Chemicals
Management Center and Chemicals Registration Center of the Ministry of
Environmental Protection. The Center receives professional guidance from Pollution
Prevention and Control Department of the Ministry of Environmental Protection, and
the Center is mainly responsible for:
(I) undertaking researches on policies, regulations, strategies, plans, standards and
technical specifications about the prevention and control of risk and pollution caused
by solid waste and chemicals.
(II) conducting investigations, analysis & testing, technical identifications, scientific
researches and international cooperation related to prevention and control of
pollution by solid waste and environmental management of chemicals.
(III) entrusted by the Ministry of Environmental Protection, assisting in conduction of
site inspection and daily supervision for environmental management of solid waste
and chemicals as well as undertaking technical review of relevant administrative
examination and technical guidance and service work for local management
institutions of solid waste and chemicals.
(IV) carrying out relevant technical support for environmental management of
polluted sites as well as prevention and control of heavy metal pollution.
(V) conducting information analysis, technical services, publicity, training and social
consultation on environmental management of solid waste and chemicals.
(VI) undertaking other tasks assigned by the Ministry of Environmental Protection.
393. It can be seen from the above introduction that in view of the supervision and
management of MSW incineration fly ash, the Center is responsible for providing the
Ministry of Environmental Protection with technical support to formulate relevant
policies, regulations, standards and other management documents as well as
undertaking inspection and technical guidance work assigned by the Environmental
Protection Department against enterprises producing, disposing and utilizing MSW
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incineration fly ash and management organizations of MSW incineration fly ash.
5.2.2 Local Competent Administrative Departments of Environmental Protection
394. Technology and management measures against MSW incineration fly ash,
including application, review and issuance of business license for hazardous waste,
approval and implementation supervision of duplicate forms for transfer, etc., are
actually implemented by province-level competent administrative departments of
environmental protection. Among those measures, business license system for
hazardous waste is critical to the construction and technical development of disposal
and utilization facilities of MSW incineration fly ash.
395. Business license system for hazardous waste is implemented by Appropriate
Department of Solid Waste Management of the province-level competent
administrative departments of environmental protection and province-level
Management Center of Solid Waste. In general, the province-level Management
Center of Solid Waste organizes and implements technical review as well as develops
of review conclusion against the application unit of business license for hazardous
waste; the Appropriate Department of Solid Waste Management, on the basis of the
review conclusion, drafts the license; the province-level competent administrative
departments of environmental protection gives instructions about whether relevant
units are allowed for the license or not, and issue the license for the unit that has been
allowed.
396. Describe organization structuring and responsibilities of local competent
administrative departments of environmental protection and the Management Center
of Solid Waste taking Beijing Municipality as an example.
5.2.2.1 Appropriate Department of Solid Waste Management
397. At present, various regions are adjusting and reorganizing relevant
administrative organizations in reference to organization structuring of the Ministry of
Environmental Protection, including forming the Management Office of Soil
Environment in charge of solid waste management, but the progress of adjustment
and reorganization is not uniform.
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398. On the official website of the Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection
Bureau, it is still the Office of Pollution Prevention and Control (also called
Management Office of Acoustic Environment and Solid Waste) in charge of solid waste
management. We can see from this website that the Office of Pollution Prevention and
Control is responsible for "drafting local regulations and governmental rules on the
prevention and control of pollution of or by industrial waste, solid waste, hazardous
waste, soil, and noise, and drawing up relevant standards and plans as well as
supervising corresponding implementation; supervising and managing industrial
pollution sources in accordance with the law and carrying forward pollution prevention
and control work of key industries and enterprises; engaging in promotion of clean
production; supervising and managing generation, collection, storage, transportation,
utilization, disposal and transfer of solid waste and hazardous waste in accordance
with the law, and undertaking relevant administrative licensing work; organizing report
and registration of industrial waste like hazardous waste, medical waste and electronic
waste; reviewing and approving the qualification to dispose waste electrical and
electronic products and supervising and inspecting the disposal activities; supervising
and managing the prevention and control of soil pollution; undertaking prevention and
control work of industrial noise pollution and coordinating noise pollution prevention
and control work in respects of daily life, construction, transportation and so on". At
present, the administrative licensing of solid waste (hazardous waste) mainly includes
examination and approval of business license for hazardous waste and inter-provincial
transfer of hazardous waste. In administrative regions of Beijing Municipality, the Office
of Pollution Prevention and Control is responsible for examination, approval and
issuance of the business license for hazardous waste of MSW incineration fly ash
facilities.
5.2.2.2 Management Center of Solid Waste
399. Presently, province-level administrative regions over the whole country all
have technical support institutions for solid waste management, functions of which
include, apart from management of solid waste, the environmental management of
chemicals or radiation.
400. Management Center of Solid Waste and Chemicals, Beijing Municipal
Environmental Protection Bureau (the "Center") is a subordinate public institution of
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Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau, and possesses certain law
enforcement power at the same time. The Center of Solid is specifically responsible
for "technical, transactional, auxiliary work in respects of supervision and
administration of solid waste, hazardous waste and chemicals". For specific
management of the MSW incineration fly ash, the Center is mainly responsible for
organizing technical review against the business license for hazardous waste for
disposal and utilization facilities of MSW incineration fly ash, and putting forward
approval suggestions about the business license for hazardous waste to Beijing
Municipal Environmental Protection Bureau based on conclusions of the technical
review.
401. It is important to note that the technical review of business license for
hazardous waste is mainly based on above-mentioned national regulations and
standards. Level and extent of the review varies greatly because the review standard
is defective.
5.3 Standards and Systems about MSW Incineration Fly Ash
5.3.1 MSW Incineration Standards
402. Content about disposal of MSW incineration fly ash in the Standard for
Pollution Control on MSW Incineration (GB 18485-2014) only requires that "MSW
incineration fly ash and slag shall be separately collected, stored, transported and
disposed of ; MSW incineration fly ash shall be managed as hazardous waste, and
disposal of MSW incineration fly ash (if any) at the MSW landfill site shall meet the
requirements of GB 16889 (Standard for Pollution Control on the Landfill Site of
Municipal Solid Waste); disposal in cement kiln (if any) shall meet the requirements of
GB 30485 (Standard for Pollution Control on Co-processing of Solid Waste in Cement
Kiln)", and no relevant specific technical requirements have been put forward.
403. In this Standard, however, categories of the waste to be incinerated are clearly
defined, explicitly stipulating that hazardous waste other than medical waste" shall not
be incinerated in the MSW incinerator". Thus, content of heavy metals, dioxins and
other harmful substances in the MSW incineration fly ash be effectively controlled so
as to avoid insurmountable obstacles to later treatment and disposal.
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5.3.2 Standards for Disposal of MSW Incineration Fly Ash
404. Currently, the main disposal way of MSW incineration fly ash is landfill.
According to existing standards and regulations, MSW incineration fly ash can be
disposed at hazardous waste landfill sites or MSW landfill sites.
5.3.2.1 Hazardous Waste Landfill Site
405. Standard for Pollution Control on the Security Landfill Site for Hazardous
Waste (GB 18598-2001) specifies the requirement or accessing the landfill site. The
MSW incineration fly ash shall be pretreated before accessing the landfill site, and can
be disposed at the landfill site only after matching the standard. The above requirement
refers to heavy metal content in leach solution of the waste, and the leach solution is
prepared using the deionized water leaching method.
5.3.2.2 MSW Landfill Site
406. Standard for Pollution Control on the Landfill Site for Municipal Solid Waste
(this "Standard") allows accessing of MSW incineration fly ash to MSW landfill sites,
but pre-treatment is needed to meet the accessing requirement in this Standard.
According to Article 6.3 of this Standard, the MSW incineration fly ash can access the
MSW landfill site if the following requirements are met:
water content below 30%;
dioxin content below 3μgTEQ/Kg;
concentration of hazardous ingredient in the leach solution prepared in
accordance with HJ/T 300 is below the limit value specified in Table 4-6.
407. The leachate prepared in accordance with HJ/T 300 is a simulated leachate
of the MSW landfill site made using the acid buffer-solution method.
408. At the same time, this Standard requires that the MSW incineration fly ash
"shall be buried in an individual partition".
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5.3.3 Standards for Comprehensive Utilization of MSW Incineration Fly Ash
409. Based on generation characteristics of MSW incineration fly ash and
technology, economy and management level of our country at present, for
comprehensive utilization, MSW incineration fly ash is mainly used to produce
construction material. Construction materials that can be produced using MSW
incineration fly ash mainly include cement (used as raw material, clinker, mixed
material, etc.), concrete aggregate, concrete mixed material, roadbed material, bricks
and tiles, etc.
5.3.3.1 Cement
410. Co-processing of MSW incineration fly ash (as raw material) in cement kilns
shall meet all requirements described in Standard for Pollution Control on Co-
processing of Solid Waste in Cement Kiln (GB30485-2013), including the requirement
for type of the cement kiln that can be used for the co-processing of MSW incineration
fly ash as well as special requirements for pollutant discharge of the cement kiln.
411. Operation process of co-processing of MSW incineration fly ash in cement
kilns shall meet all requirements described in Environmental Protection Technical
Specification for Co-processing of Solid Waste in Cement Kiln (HJ662-2013), including
determination of position and rate for adding. According to this requirement and the
nature of MSW incineration fly ash, dechlorination treatment must be carried out
against the MSW incineration fly ash before being co-processed in the cement kiln.
412. Quality of cement produced using MSW incineration fly ash as raw material
has to meet, apart from quality standards for cement products, the standard for content
of harmful substances in cement products stipulated in Technical Specification for Co-
processing of Solid Waste in Cement Kiln (GB30760-2014).
5.3.3.2 Others
413. So far, in China there is no any kinds of standards and specifications based
on which MSW incineration fly ash can be used to produce construction material in
addition to cement, which is a key factor in preventing production of construction
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material apart from cement using MSW incineration fly ash. Because there is no
technical basis, it is difficult to obtain the support and approval from competent
administrative departments of environmental protection in the construction of projects
and facilities for producing construction material using MSW incineration fly ash.
414. Technical Specification for Pollution Control on Municipal Solid Waste
Incineration and Technical Policy for Pollution Control on Municipal Solid Waste
Incineration are now under formulation of the Ministry of Environmental Protection,
which will cover restricted conditions, basic requirements as well as key technical
parameters for production of construction material using MSW incineration fly ash.
Formulation and implementation of those two documents may make up for above-
mentioned deficiency and promote sound development of such technology.
5.4. Summary
415. This chapter mainly collects and arranges existing policies and regulations
related to the management of MSW incineration fly ash in China. It also combs through
existing frames and responsibilities of management system and authorities about
MSW incineration fly ash and studies on existing technical specifications and
standards of MSW incineration, especially fly ash generated during the MSW
incineration process.
416. It can be analyzed from the research that relevant regulations, standards and
specifications related to the treatment and disposal of MSW incineration fly ash in
China basically act as partial clauses of standard specifications on the treatment and
disposal of other waste. Besides, systematical standard specifications related to the
treatment and disposal of fly ash are missing. Therefore, normative and standard
systems related to the treatment and disposal as well as resource utilization of MSW
incineration fly ash in China should be improved.
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CHAPTER6 ADVANCED INTERNATIONAL
EXPERIENCE OF MSWI FLY ASH MANAGEMENT
417. Although incineration technology can drastically reduce weight and volume of
waste, it generates secondary wastes such as bottom ash and fly ash. Fly ash contains
much toxic substances such as heavy metals, dioxin etc. Therefore, the countries
which introduced an incineration technology in early stage recognized that fly ash was
one of hazardous waste. However, legal definition of fly ash as hazardous waste is not
so old. In Germany, the waste disposal law was established in 1972 and catalogue of
hazardous waste was firstly shown in 1975. After that, technical regulation of
hazardous waste was decided in 1991. In The Netherland, the waste substances act
was enacted in1977 and The integrated approach was realized in the Environmental
Management Act 1993. The Act covers a wide range of aspects such as waste
collection, hazardous waste disposal, air quality, noise nuisance, environmental
permits, and setting of environmental management strategies. In US, the argument on
definition of incineration residue continued from 1976, in 1994, incineration ash was
regarded as one of hazardous waste under Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.
In Japan, the fly ash from MSWI was designated as specially controlled waste in
amendment of The Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law in 1991.
418. Treatment technologies for MSWI fly ash depends on various situation of
countries such as economics, land use, environmental policy etc. because
environmental standards also depends on their factors. For example, Japan has
narrow land and high population density, which suggests that Japan cannot find landfill
site easily. So, to reduce the disposal amount of waste has a high priority. On the other
hand, the waste management in US is in the different condition. How to set
environmental standards is also different among countries. The prudence avoidance
principle has been adopted in Australia, Sweden, and several US states. The ‘‘As Low
As Reasonably Achievable” (ALARA) principle plays an important part in the
enforcement of environmental law in the Netherlands. At the European level, the ‘‘Best
Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive Cost” (BATNEEC) principle is used.
419. In this chapter, international experiences of MSWI fly ash management are
introduced.
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6.1 Japan
6.1.1 MSW Incinerated and MSWIP Fly Ash Generation and Characteristics
6.1.1.1 Basic Flow of Waste Incineration Treatment and Definition of Fly Ash
420. Shown below in Table 6-1 and Figure 6-1 and 6-2 is comparative basic flows
of waste incineration plants featuring on their exhaust gas treatment, BF Catalytic
Denitrification Gas Cleaning and Reaction Tower BF Catalytic Denitrification.
Table 6-1 Features of Exhaust Gas Treatment Flow
Overall System BF+Wet-type
System Dry-type+BF System
Removal
Performance
Soot and Dust
20mg/m3Nor below
(Design Standard
Value)
10mg/m3Nor below (Design
Standard Value)
Hydrogen
Chloride
15ppmor below
(Design Standard
Value)
20ppmor below
(Design Standard Value)
Nitrogen Oxide
Total Load Control
Value (Installation
Standard Value)
Total Load Control Value
(Installation Standard
Value)
Sulfur Oxide
20ppm or below
(Design Standard
Value)
20ppmor below
(Design Standard Value)
Mercury
0.05mg/m3N or below
(Design Standard
Value)
Removal Ratio: Approx.50%
(Practically No Problem)
Dioxins Effective to Certain
Extent
Removal Effect Expected
Installation Area
Compared to System
on the right, it required
more space for
installation and greater
floor face load
Compared to System on the
left, it required less space.
Maintainability
Operability
Due to complicated
system and structure,
troubles like corrosion
occur
Due to simple system and
structure, failures occur less
frequently
Repairing
Easiness
Repairing takes time
and labor as Fume
Repairing takes less time
and labor, as system and
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
159
Figure 6-1 BF+Wet-type System
Figure 6-2 Dry-type+BF System
cleaning tower / White
smoke prevention
equipment/ Fume
cleaning water
treatment equipment
are easily corroded
structure are simple and not
corrosive
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
160
421. Based on the treatment flow incineration residue generation mechanism and
its properties in incineration plants are shown in Table 6-2 and Figure 6-3.
Table 6-2 Residue Generation Mechanism and its Properties
Generation
Mechanism etc.
Type
Generation Mechanism Generation
Amount Risk of Elution
Necessity
of
Treatment
Slag
Cinder or combustion residue
composed of the non-volatile,
non-combustible (glass bottle,
cans) and small amount of the
uncombusted of waste
5 - 10% of wet
weight of waste
(dry weight)
Although analysis
data of slag only is
not available,
elution risk is
assumed to be low
when generation
process is
observed. If it is
mixed with boiler
dusts, however,
there is a risk of
elution of Pb and
Zn.
△
Boiler Dust
Acidic gases (e.g. HCL or SOX)
and volatile heavy metals
generated from high
temperature combustion are
either reacted with alkali dusts
(e.g.Na2O or CaO) or
condensed into dusts during the
exhaust cooling process of
boiler.
Out of such dusts, the one
collected at the inertia force
dust collector is the boiler dust.
Unknown
(Almost the
same amount as
collected dust
though it varies
depending on
the structure of
inertia force dust
collector)
○
Collected Dust
1 - 1.5% of wet
weight of waste
(dry weight)
Cd
Pb, Zn
○
Fume Cleaning
Sludge Sulfide or hydroxide sludge that
forms when exhaust gas is
treated with wet-type alkali
cleaning and the wastewater is
added with sodium sulfide.
Also generated is waste chelate
and waste activated carbon that
are adsorbed with Hg.
Sludge amount
is basically
proportional to
the injected
amount of
coagulant.
Risk of Hg elution
○
Waste
Activated
Carbon
◎
Waste
Chelate ◎
Waste Water
Treatment Sludge
Mainly hydroxide sludge formed
by treating ash sewage with salt
iron. Carbonate sludge forms if
exhaust gas neutralization
treatment is conducted.
Almost no risk of
elution △
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
161
Figure 6-3 Ash and Residues Generated during MSW Incineration
422. In Japan, the boiler dust and the collected dust are both managed as
“specially controlled municipal solid waste”. This is why many fly ash detoxification
technologies have been developed so far. Responding to the above situation, many
ash solidification technologies have been developed. The outline is shown in Figure 6-
4.
Figure 6-4 Classification of ash treatment technologies
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
162
6.1.1.2 Fly Ash Generation Ratio
423. The fly ashes generation ratios in the basic waste incineration flow (stoker
method) in the previous section and in the other methods in Japan are shown below.
Tab 6-3 shows the ratio ash per wet-based waste amount assuming that the ash is 8%
of the accepted waste.
Table 6-3 Fly Ash Generation Ratio
Method Type Slag Generation
Ratio (%)
Fly Ash Generation
Ratio(%)
Stoker Method
Dry-type Exhaust Gas
Treatment 7 2
Wet-type Exhaust Gas
Treatment 7 1
Fluidized Bed
Method
Dry-type Exhaust Gas
Treatment 3 5
Wet-type Exhaust Gas
Treatment 3 1
Incineration+
Ash Melting
Method
1-Stage Bag Filter Slag
5
Molten Fly Ash 0.4
Incineration Fly Ash
2
Gasification
Melting
Method
Fluidized Gasification Slag+ 5 2
Kiln-type Gasification Slag+ 6 2
Shaft Furnace Type Slag
8 2
6.1.1.3 Properties of Fly Ashes
424. Since properties of the fly ash are influenced by such factors as waste quality,
incinerator type, incineration conditions, exhaust gas treatment method and dust
collection method, the chemical composition of fly ashes varies substantially.
425. The result of a measurement of heavy metals in fly ashes (conducted by
Japan Waste Research Foundation) categorized by the incineration methods is shown
in the following Table 6-4.
Table 6-4 Measurement Result of Heavy Metals in Soot and Dusts (unit: mg/kg)
Items
Fluidized Bed Method Stoker Method
Average Continuous
Combustion
Type
Semi-
Continuous
Type
Continuous Type Semi-
Continuous
Type
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
163
Boiler Type Boiler Type Water
Injection Type
Boiler
Water
Injection
Type
149 t
or
less
150 t
or
more
149 t
or
more
150 t
or
more
149 t
or
less
150 t
or
more
149 t
or
less
Cd
Pb
Zn
T-Cr
As
T-Hg
21
1,900
3,900
210
4
1
26
1,900
4,200
400
18
1
164
3,037
18,500
436
34
7
170
436
11,300
428
29
8
11
517
1,480
―
7
125
3,350
10,300
180
7
5
106
4,350
2,040
8
19
82
2,840
―
250
9
3
42
990
―
2,100
―
83
2,147
7,389
502
16
3
Note: As each value is rounded off to the nearest integer, the average values are different from those in the
original table.
426. As indicated the above table, fly ashes contain many substances in
concentrated manners in the waste while they have such common properties as small-
size particles, high dustability, or high absorbability. For the sake of easier handling, it
is often the case to put both slag, which has higher moisture content, and fly ash on
the same treatment line.
427. It has been pointed out, however, that fly ash may contain heavy metals that
have lower boiling points than the combustion temperature, and it may also contain
hazardous substance such as dioxins. Attention has been paid with great concern over
the management to prevent secondary pollution since re-elution phenomenon of
amphoteric heavy metals contained in the fly ash is found inevitable as a result of lime
injection to suppress acid gas emission. Recently, salts contained in incineration
residue have also caused such a trouble as clogging of pipes in leachate treatment
process in various places.
428. Therefore, from the viewpoint of final disposal, the fly ash issue is a matter of
grave concern in terms of qualitative load though it is not as serious as quantitative
load posed by the slag. In some cases fly ash is handled separately from slag, but
such practice still contains problems including how to treat it after separation.
429. Tokyo Metropolitan Area, which generates slightly less than 10 % of the
amount of total burned waste in Japan, is considered as a case here. The average
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
164
amount of fly ash generation in a stoker type incinerator with 100t/day capacity is 1 -
1.5 t/day while that of slag is approx. 9 t/day. Therefore, in an incineration plant with
the waste accepting capacity of 600t/day, 6 - 9t of fly ash/day is mixed with 54 t of slag,
goes through clinker channel system and is disposed of in a landfill site.
6.1.1.4 Composition of Fly Ash
430. complete continuous stoker-type exhaust gas treatment method is indicated
in Table 6-5. The result of properties analysis of fly ashes generated from incineration
plants in Tokyo Metropolitan Area is shown in Table 6-6.
Table 6-5 Exhaust Gas Treatment Methods of Incineration Plants under Survey
Items Types of Waste Exhaust Gas Treatment Method
Number of Plants
A
Combustible
Waste
Wet-type Fume Cleaning 4
B Dry-type Calcium Carbonate 4
C Dry-type Slaked Lime 4
D Segregated
Waste Wet-type Fume Cleaning
1
Table 6-6 Properties of Fly Ash of Incineration Plants in Tokyo Metropolitan Area
Items Combustible Waste Segregated Waste
Wet-type
Fume Cleaning Sample Type Unit Wet-type
Calcium
Carbonate
Slaked
Lime
Moisture
Ignition Loss
Fixed Carbon
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Combustible sulfur
Total Sulfur
Chlorine
Fluorine
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
mg/kg
<0.1
4.5
0.11
2.38
0.10
0.07
0.14
2.08
13.8
999
<0.1
8.6
0.70
4.54
0.29
0.08
0.13
1.59
12.2
405
<0.1
6.7
0.33
4.26
0.21
0.12
0.20
1.24
10.6
589
<0.1
<0.1
0.01
1.56
0.16
0.16
0.10
0.89
7.35
541
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
TiO2
%
%
%
%
21.6
13.0
1.41
3.94
20.5
12.1
1.19
3.86
23.0
14.8
1.49
4.50
20.1
34.6
5.67
5.71
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
165
Items Combustible Waste Segregated Waste
Wet-type
Fume Cleaning Sample Type Unit Wet-type
Calcium
Carbonate
Slaked
Lime
CaO
MgO
K2O
Na2O
P2O5
%
%
%
%
%
18.4
4.41
7.60
6.75
0.93
20.4
3.95
6.24
5.55
0.97
20.7
4.51
4.34
4.66
0.84
11.2
2.76
1.20
3.93
0.38
Zinc
Mercury
Lead
mg/kg
mg/kg
mg/kg
15,200
2.93
3,140
8,030
3.98
1,710
8,330
2.02
1,630
31,100
0.346
8,330
*Adjusted ash is defined as wet-cleaned EP ash added with calcium chloride and slaked
lime, which is assumed as the ash captured by bag filter.
1) Composition
431. When fly ashes properties were compared, the fly ash resulted from
"segregated waste" was found to have higher content of aluminum and iron whereas
the ash of "combustible waste" was found to have no significant difference in its
properties regardless of the difference of plants or the exhaust gas treatment methods.
432. In the incineration plants operated by Public Cleansing Bureau of Tokyo
Metropolitan Government, slated lime or calcium carbonate is injected into the flue to
clean the exhaust gas, or scrubbers are employed to conduct fume cleaning. Recently,
however, majority of the plants have employed dry-type HCl treatment + bag filter
(+wet-type fume cleaner) to prevent generation of Dioxins.
2) Heat Characteristics
433. The melting point is ordered as; combustible waste < segregated waste <
adjusted ash. (Refer to Table 6-7).
434. An example of thermobalance and differential thermal analysis is indicated in
Figure 6-5. The fly ash of "combustible waste" has a component that tends to
evaporate around 800℃ and reduces approx. 20% by weight before reaching to 900℃.
Table 6-7 Thermofusion Characteristics
Item Combustible Waste Segregated Waste Adjusted Ash
Softening Point 1,200 - 1,230℃ 1,290℃ 1,330℃
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
166
Melting Point
Fluid Point
1,210 - 1,280℃
1,220 - 1,290℃
1,410℃
1,480℃
1,380℃
1,390℃
Figure 6-5 Differential Thermal Analysis
435. In a crucible text, it was observed that the melting point exists in the area
beyond 1,200℃, and it requires the temperature of 1,250℃ or higher to obtain the
fluidized state. This means that when the fly ash is to be melted and solidified,
approximate 20% of it evaporates and converts to exhaust gas or molten fly ash.
3) Fluidity
436. As indicated in Table 6-8, the fluidity reaches highest when caustic lime and
borax are added, 10% each, as melting aid, and second highest when borax or soda
ash is added. The targeted waste is combustible waste in both cases, and fluidity ratio
is defined as the following when tests are conducted for melting and fluidity state with
the addition of caustic lime, borax and soda ash as melting aids in a crucible test.
Fluidity Ratio=(Weight of amount flown out of crucible) ÷(Total amount of ash used)
Table 6-8 Result of Crucible Test (unit:%)
Temperature
℃
Wet-type Fume Cleaning Method Dry-type slaked Lime Method
Caustic
Lime
Borax Soda
Ash
Visual
Judgment
Fluidity
Ratio
Caustic
Lime
Borax Soda
Ash
Visual
Judgment
Fluidity
Ratio
1300
20
10
5
△
○
○
0
36.0
28.5
20
10
5
×
○
○
0
30.5
34.5
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
167
Temperature
℃
Wet-type Fume Cleaning Method Dry-type slaked Lime Method
Caustic
Lime
Borax Soda
Ash
Visual
Judgment
Fluidity
Ratio
Caustic
Lime
Borax Soda
Ash
Visual
Judgment
Fluidity
Ratio
10
10
10
10
5
5
20
10
20
○
○
○
○
○
29.0
42.5
37.0
32.0
30.5
10
10
10
10
5
5
20
10
20
○
○
○
○
○
31.0
41.3
36.5
31.0
16.0
1200
20
10
10
10
10
5
10
5
5
20
10
20
×
○ △
○
○ △
○
○
0
18.0
0
14.5
27.5
0
25.0
15.4
20
10
10
10
10
5
10
5
5
20
10
20
×
○ △ △
○ △ △ △
0
27.0
0
0
8.6
0
0
0
6.1.1.5 Relation with Slag Composition
437. Waste composing substances (the object of incineration) oxidize with high
temperature through the incineration process and are separated into the slag and high
temperature exhaust gas. Volatile substances in the high temperature exhaust gas are
either condensed in the exhaust gas cooling process or reacted with chemical agent
into dusts and are captured as boiler dust or collected ash. In the case of wet-type
exhaust treatment method, water-soluble substances in slag and fly ash are expected
to turn into sludge after transferring to ash cooling water. In the case of wet-type fume
cleaning, too, even more substances are to taken out as water treatment sludge. In
either case, with the advancement of exhaust gas treatment method, the importance
of dust treatment is certainly getting even greater. There is substantial dispersion
among data of chemical properties of fly ash that have been publicized nation-wide.
But such data clearly show that fly ash contains higher concentration of low-boiling
point inorganic substance than in slag, and mixed ash contains high concentration
distributed in the middle of slag and fly ash. The ratio of copper and iron is higher in
the slag as exception. But as a logical conclusion derived form the structure of stoker-
type incineration plant, most of other items centering around low-point-heavy metals
shift to fly ash.
438. Recent annual average data of slag, sludge and fly ash generated from the
incineration plants in Tokyo Metropolitan Area are shown by item as Table 6-9.
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
168
Table 6-9 Annual Average Value of Slag, Sludge and Fly Ash Generated from
Incineration Plants in Tokyo Metropolitan Area
Unit: Content: mg/kg Elution: mg/L
Items Slag Sludge Fly Ash
Content Elution Content Elution Content Elution
T-Hg
R-Hg
Pb
Cd
T-Cr
Cr6+
O-P
As
CN
PCB
Cu
Zn
F
pH
Moisture
I.L.
0.27
0.007
480
140
―
ND
4.0
0.9
ND
1,200
2,100
140
―
33.6%
3.7%
ND
ND
0.5
ND
―
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
0.5
1.0
12.0
―
―
500
0.016
8,300
93
640
―
ND
11
1.1
ND
1,900
11,000
7,500
―
66.5%
19.0%
ND
ND
ND
ND
―
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
8.4
8.4
―
―
2.3
ND
2,400
130
350
―
ND
21
0.6
ND
1,000
12,000
1,200
―
ND
5.6%
ND
ND
7.0
0.28
―
0.40
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
2.2
4.8
11.2
―
―
439. As motioned earlier, the incineration plans in Tokyo Metropolitan Area employ
the wet-type exhaust treatment method where slag and fly ash are contacted with
water for the purpose of eluting heavy metals in ash cooling tank. The slag and fly ash
are separated into slag and sludge after going through the wet-type exhaust treatment
and water treatment facilities, and end up in a landfill site. The numeric values of slag
and sludge are those of intact samples that are considered total properties of slag and
fly ash. The trend is clearly shown when the distributed balance by material is
observed taking note of boiling points.
440. An example result of recent incineration fly ash analysis is shown below in
Table 6-10. This is the data of fly ash when wet-type exhaust gas treatment and dry-
type or bag-filter exhaust gas treatment were employed in stoker-type incineration
plants. The fly ash generated from the fluidized-bed type incinerator is treated by dry-
type exhaust gas treatment. The data of slag is also included in Table as reference.
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
169
Table 6-10 Analysis Example of Fly Ash Properties
Note: Alkali added on Fly Ashes of Fluidized-bed and Bag-filter, but not of Stoker“Dust Treatment Manual for Specially Control General Waste” Edited by Japan Waste Research Foundation, Supervised by Water Supply Environment Div. Living Hygiene Bureau, former Ministry of Health and Welfare, Published by Chemical Daly News Co.,Ltd.(1993)
6.1.1.6 Waste Treatment Flow and Estimate of the Fly Ash Amount in Japan
(1) Estimate of the Fly Ash Amount
441. Estimates of fly ash generation amounts based on Japan’s Waste Treatment
Statistics of 2014 are shown in Figure 6-6 and below;
Ca 。%) 9.7 15.0 20.0 11.0
Aℓ 。%) 6 7.6 3.1 6.5
Fe 。%) 0.92 3.2 0.91 4.4
a 。%) 3.7 1.9 2.4 1.1
K 。%) 5.9 2.6 4.0 1.3
Cℓ 。%) 11.0 8.7 15.0 1.4
S 4 。%) 4.2 1.8 4.4 0.84
(mg/kg) 5800 6500 4800 5200
n (mg/kg) 340 1000 200 1200
Cu (mg/kg) 660 4100 380 2700
b (mg/kg) 3100 1400 790 1100
Zn (mg/kg) 10000 4400 2000 5100
Cd (mg/kg) 110 25 31 13
Hg (mg/kg) 23 0.66 3.8 0.19
As (mg/kg) 28 8.3 12 6.5
Cr6+ (mg/kg) 2.4 <0.7 <0.7 <0.7
C (mg/kg) <0.「 <0.「 <0.「 0.9
F (mg/kg) 2200 2 690 290
注 ストーカ炉飛灰 カ 添加な 流動床炉飛灰とバグフ タ灰 カ 添加あり
特別管理一般廃棄物 い ん処理マニュ 旧厚生省生活衛生局水道環境整備課監修財団法人廃棄物研究財団編 化学工業日報社発行 成5
項目 ストーカ炉飛灰 流動床炉飛灰 バグフ タ灰 ストーカ炉焼却灰Stoker Fl Ash Ite
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
170
Figure 6-6 Treatment and Recycling Flow of Waste Incineration Ash
Incinerated Amount of Combustible Waste 33.47 million t Incinerated Amount of Crushed Residue etc. 1.39million t Total Incinerated Amount 34.86 million t Incinerated Amount of Residue 4.19million t Fly Ash Generated Amount (Incinerated Amount of Residue × 20%) 840,000 t Recycled Amount of Incinerated Residue (Incinerated Amount of Residue × 23%) 970,000 t
(2) Estimates of Fly Ash Disposal and Recycling
442. Most of incineration fly ashes are disposed of in landfill sites after solidified
into cement or chemically treated according to the standard. There are such recycling
methods as melting treatment (by local government or private sector), water-
wash/cement method, baking method, and Non-ferrous Recovery at Smelter.
Recycling of fly ash is basically carried out with slag. Exceptionally, Non-ferrous
Recovery at Smelter treats only fly ash for recycling.
Landfill Amount of Incineration Residue 3.21million t Landfill Amount of Fly Ash(Landfill Amount of Incineration Residue x 20%) 640,000 t Recycled Amount of Fly Ash 235,000 t
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
171
6.1.2 Mainstream Technologies and Application
6.1.2.1 Mainstream Technologies
(1) Appropriate Disposal Methods
443. The incineration fly ash is categorized as “Specially Controlled Municipal Solid
Waste”. For this reason, it needs to go through a detoxification process according to
the Law. Four detoxification methods have been established as the following:
Cement Solidification, Chemical Solidification, Melting, Solvent Extraction
(by using acid solution)
444. Outlines of each treatment method are described in Table 6-11. By taking one
of the four methods of treatment, stipulated disposal standard is to be complied, and
then allowed to be landfilled. The Disposal Standard is explained in the latter part of
this Paper.
TA-8963 PRC Draft Final Report Chapter VI
Table 6-11 Comparison of Notified Four Methods
Method
Items Melting Solidification Method
Chemical Mixture Method Cement-Solidifying Method
Solvent Elution Method
(Liquid Chelate) Acid Extraction Exhaust Gas Neutralization
1. Principles
and
Characteristics of
Treatment
Technology
By using the thermal energy obtained from
combustion heat or electricity, the object of
treatment is heated and melted at 1,200 -
1,400℃ while the inorganic is turned to
glassy slag.
Mixture Technology to treat both
incineration ash and fly ash has been in the
stage of common practice while the
technology to treat fly ash is in
demonstration stage.
Heavy metals in fly ash are made reacted
with chelate compounds to be solidified. The
operation is easy and low-cost.
It suitable to recover metals from solidified
matters.
(Note: non-chelate chemical agent is found to
be insufficient in suppressing Pb elution.)
Making use of hydration reaction of cement,
high-strength solid matter is formed. With
easy operation, low initial cost, the
technology has been established to some
extent and most widely employed.
By suspending dusts in acid solution, heavy
metals are sufficiently eluted and turned to
insolubilized matters. Then they are treated
with scavenger.
By making contact with combustive exhaust
gas, heavy metals in fly ash are turned to
stable carbonate. As this method reuses
exhaust gas and ash washing water
generated from the incineration plant, it can
reduce the running cost.
2. Requirement for the Object
・Form Fly ash with no specified form same as right same as right same as right same as right
・Pre-treatment May be necessary depending on particle
diameter or composition
10 - 40 % of additive water is used to metal
ion elution. pH value shall be maintained at 6
- 10.throughout the mixture process.
Not required Adhesion or foreign matter entry must be
avoided in the storage tank.
Heavy metals can be completely eluted in
the fly ash melting process.
・Composition
(recommended
value)
Content ratio of metals, water, and
unburned substances may be restricted.
pH adjuster shall be added for strong-alkali
fly ash.
pH range of Fly ash: 10 -11
CaO: 30 - 60%
pH adjuster shall be added for strong-alkali
fly ash.
pH range of Fly ash: 10 -11
CaO: 30 - 60%
EP ash・Bag filter ash (CaO 30-
60%
pH 10or higher
EP ash・Bag filter ash (CaO 30-
60%
pH 10or higher
・Heat
Characteristics
Although most cases have not limit in
basicity, low temperature melting method
(e.g. burner method) may be used with the
use of melting point lowering agent.
Not specified Not specified Not specified Not specified
3. Outline of System
・Treatment
Standard
Dry ash (Wet ash for Cokes Bed Method) Dry ash Dry ash Dry ash Dry ash
・Temperature
Control etc.
Automatic temperature control is possible
throughout melting process.
Heating device shall be used for bridge
prevention in the ash storage tank.(60 -
100℃)
Heating device shall be used for bridge
prevention in the ash storage tank.(60 -
100℃)
Heating device shall be used for bridge
prevention in the ash storage tank.(60 -
100℃)
Heating device shall be used for
stabilization of pH control and bridge
prevention in the ash storage tank.(60 -
100℃)
Heating device shall be used for bridge
prevention in the ash storage tank.(60 -
100℃)
・Treatment
Capacity
Unit: 50kg/h~8,000kg/h
Difference depending on methods
Unit: 50kg/h~4,000kg/h
Space:2,000m2 400kg/h
Unit: 50kg/h~4,000kg/h
Space:2,000m2 400kg/h
Unit:50 - 500kg/h
Space: It requires 1.5 - 2 times larger the
space of cement solidifying method. 2-line-
system is desired for the sake of
maintenance.
Unit:50kg - 2,000kg/h
Space:2,500m2 400kg/h
・Dynamic
Characteristics
Ease in start-up and stop: Easy
Tolerance for Load Fluctuation:b 50%~
Emergency Means: Stop supplying chemical
Ease in start-up and stop: A little difficult
Tolerance for Load Fluctuation 50%~
Emergency Means: Dice cleaning is
Ease in start-up and stop: Easy and short
time required. When is breaks down, all
loaded amount must be discharged out of
Ease in start-up and stop: A little difficult
Tolerance for Load Fluctuation 50%~
Emergency Means: Stop supplying exhaust
TA-8963 PRC Draft Final Report Chapter VI
Method
Items Melting Solidification Method
Chemical Mixture Method Cement-Solidifying Method
Solvent Elution Method
(Liquid Chelate) Acid Extraction Exhaust Gas Neutralization
agent required when solidification equipment
stops.
Melting Tank and Reaction Tank.
Tolerance for Load Fluctuation 50%~
Emergency Means: Stop supplying fly ash
and chemical agent
gas and fly ash
・Maintainability While there's difference in Fuel type or
Electricity type, regular inspection and
repair work of cinder notch are required in
any case . General lifespan of refractories
is more or less the same as that of
incineration furnace or shorter.
Casing Liners
Flange Liners
Rods
Timing Belts
Air Suspenders
Replacement of paddles, dices, dice-
attaching flanges, screw holders, gland
packing, oil seals, etc.
Every 6 months, melting tank, reaction tank,
stirrers, pumps dehydrator, etc. should be
inspected and maintained.
In case of Ca-rich wastewater, care should
be taken against clogging of pipes and
corrosion of equipment.
Consumables: Fly ash intermediate pump
Dehydration pump impeller
・Operability Slag Flush Method: Intermittent flush for
small quantity / Continuous flush
for large quantity
Cooling method: Water cooling, air cooling,
slow cooling
Curing Method: Curing not required
Kneading performance is important.
Curing Method: Conveyer curing method
Conveyer transport
Curing Method: Conveyer curing method
Forming is difficult if limestone ratio is high.
Extrusion forming type is most common.
Conveyer transport
Melting, stirring and pH adjustment are
important.
Maintenance of dehydrator is also
important.
Conveyer transport
Melting, stirring and pH adjustment are
important.
Maintenance of dehydrator is also
important.
・Others Economies of Scale;: Better heat efficiency As the chelate agent reacts not only on the
targeted heavy metals but also on other
heavy metals, the volume to add shall be
determined based on total amount of metal
ions.
Depending on the content of heavy metals
and salts, types of cement and appropriate
volume of additional water shall be
determined. Methods of mixing, granulating,
forming are selected to be most suited to
the property of the target objects.
4. Material Balance etc.
・Detoxification Though no heavy metals are eluted from
the slag, molten fly ash should be treated
properly.
Dioxin decomposition ratio is very high.
Elution Characteristics: Complied with Land-
Fill Standards
While salts are eluted, the risk of heavy metal
elution is relative low.
Dioxins cannot be decomposed.
Elution Characteristics: Complied with
Land-Fill Standards
Salts are eluted.
In the long run, the elution risk of heavy
metal and salts is high.
Dioxins cannot be decomposed.
Elution Characteristics: Complied with
Land-Fill Standards
Salty wastewater is generated.
Elution risk is involved in the long run,
depending on the insolubilizing method of
heavy metals eluted in the solvent.
Dioxins cannot be decomposed.
Though hydrochloric acid is a proper acid,
the use of sulfuric acid as well in a two-
stage process is commonly practice with
cost consideration.
Elution Characteristics: Complied with
Land-Fill Standards
Salty wastewater is generated.
Insolubility of heavy metals depends on the
degree of carbonate transformation ratio.
Elution risk is involved in the dehydrated
precipitate in the long run.
Dioxins cannot be decomposed.
・Stabilization Long-time stability is maintained. Long-time risks are involved even though
relatively stable compared with cement
solidification method.
With possible cracks and break-up of the
solidified substances, long-term stability is
not guaranteed.
Approx.25% addition of cement is sufficient
to suppress elution.
Solidification intensity is 10kg/m2 or
lower.
Stability depends on the method of
Insolubilization.
Stability depends on chemical stability as
carbonate in the environment.
・Volume/Weight
Reduction Effect
Volume
Reduction
Weight
1/5 - 1/6
0.9- 1.0times
1/3- 1/5
1.2- 1.3times(with chelate liquid and water)
1/2.5 - 1/3
1.4 - 1.5time greater (including cement and
water)
1/3 - 1/4
0.3 - 0.5times (after separation)
1/4 - 1/5
0.5 - 0.6(after dehydration)
Parts Repla e e t
~ti e s /YearRepla e e t:
O e/Year
TA-8963 PRC Draft Final Report Chapter VI
Method
Items Melting Solidification Method
Chemical Mixture Method Cement-Solidifying Method
Solvent Elution Method
(Liquid Chelate) Acid Extraction Exhaust Gas Neutralization
Reduction
5. Attached Facilities
・Exhaust Gas
Treatment
Facilities
Bag filter+ Hazardous gas removal
equipment
Ventilators are required to handle hydrogen
gas emitted from fly ash.
Not required Ventilators are required to handle hydrogen
gas emitted from fly ash.
Ventilators are required to handle hydrogen
gas emitted out of the reaction of
amphoteric heavy metals contained in EP
ash treated jointly in incineration exhaust
gas treatment equipment.
・Waste water
Treatment
Facilities
Treatment of floor wash water: 0.5m3 t of
ash
Not required Treatment of floor wash water: 0.5m3 t of
ash
Extract Treatment: Treatment of heavy
metals and salts
In the case of employing ash cooling tank
method, ash sewage is utilized. That makes
it unnecessary to have dedicated
wastewater treatment facilities.
・Other facilities Melting Fly Ash Treatment Equipment Combustive Gas Detector Dust Collection Equipment Combustive Gas Detector Combustive Gas Detector
6. Utility Condition
Fuel Burning Type
Oil:200 - 300ℓ t of ash
Electricity:150- 180kWh t of ash
Electric Methods
Power: 700 - 1,200kWh t of ash
Both methods use water and chemical
agents as well.
Power: 25kWh t of ash
Water: 300m3 t of ash
Consumables: Casing liners, Flange liner,
Rods
Chelate: 30kg - 150kg/t of ash
Power30kWh t of ash
Cement:200kg t of ash
Water:0.2 - 0.3m3 t of ash
Consumables: paddles, dices, screw
packing, oil seals, etc.
Replacement: Once/ 1- 2 Year
Fly Ash Treatment Amount:5t Day
Power: Approx.20kWh day
Elution Water: Approx.25t day
Hydrochloric Acid: Approx. 0.5t day
sodium sulfide: Approx.1.0t day
Power:40kWh t of ash
Water:10m3 t of ash
Consumables: Fly ash intermediate pump,
dehydration pump impeller
Replacement: Once/Year
dewatering aid:0.25kg t of ash
7. Cost
Initial Cost
Running
Cost
Most typically ¥100 million t of ash
¥10,000 - ¥30,000/t of ash
Approx. ¥10 million - ¥1.5 million t of ash
Chemicals: ¥20,000 - 30,000 t of ash
Consumables: Approx. ¥3 million /Year
Approx.¥20 million - ¥30 million t of ash
Approx.¥3,000 - ¥5,000/t of ash
Consumables: Approx. ¥2 million /Year
Approx.¥100 million / t of ash
Chemicals : Apporx.¥20 million year
Approx.¥30 million - ¥40 million t of ash
Approx. ¥500/<t3/>t of ash
Consumables: Approx. ¥5 million /year
8. Others
Intermediate
Treatment Plant for
incineration ash
and fly ash
9 4
Fly ash dedicated treatment is the main
steam.
93
Fly ash dedicated treatment is the main
steam.
5
Fly ash dedicated treatment is the main
steam.
Fly ash dedicated treatment is the main
steam.
Source: Japan Waste Research Foundation
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
445. The most popular method out of these in Japan is Chemical Solidification.
The chemicals used for solidification are divided in to two types: inorganic type and
organic type. Typical inorganic chemicals include phosphoric acid which generate
hydroxyapatite and pyromorphite, which is insoluble, to suppress elution of metals like
lead. Typical organic insolubilizers are dithiocarbamate and piperazine to solidify
metals as insoluble chelate complex.
446. When the fly ash contains dioxins exceeding standard value (3ngTEQ/g), it
cannot be disposed of by landfilling. In such a case, it has to be treated by thermal
dechlorination or high-temperature decomposition by melting. A diagram of a thermal
dechlorination device is shown below as Figure 6-7.
Figure 6-7 A Thermal Dechlorination Device for Fly Ash
447. Fly ash needs to be stored separately from its generation stage at waste the
incineration plant (Principle of Separate Storage). When the fly ash is recycled outside
of the incineration plant, it has to be transported in a dedicated vehicle (like jet packer)
equipped with dispersion prevention.
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
(2) Recycling Method of Fly Ash
448. These five technologies have been established in Japan to recycle fly ash In
Japan:
Melting, Use as Cement Material, Making Eco-Cement, Baking, Non-ferrous Recovery at Smelter. Outline of each technology is shown below.
1) Melting Treatment
449. Melting treatment is a technology to melt and transform incineration ash into
slag and metal at high temperature of 1,300 ℃ or higher by utilize fuel or electric
energy. Outline of a typical melting technology is shown as Table 6-12 below.
TA-8963 PRC Draft Final Report Chapter VI
Table 6-12 Ash Melting Method
Items Ash Melting Method Gasification Melting Method Baking Method
Electric Methods (Plasma Type, Arc Type,
Electric Resistance Type etc.)
Fuel Burning Type
(Surface Melting Type etc.)
Integrated Method (Shaft Furnace Type) Separation Method (Fluidized Bed Type,
Kiln Type)
High Temperature Type, Low
Temperature Type
Schematic
Diagram
Example of Plasma Melting Furnace (Single
Torch Type)
Source Points in Planning and Designing for
Waste Treatment Plant, 2006
Example of Rotary Type Surface Melting
Furnace
Source Points in Planning and Designing
for Waste Treatment Plant, 2006
System Flow Example of Shaft Type
Gasification Melting Furnace
Source Points in Planning and Designing for
Waste Treatment Plant, 2006
System Flow Diagram of Shaft Type
Gasification Melting Furnace
Source Points in Planning and Designing for
Waste Treatment Plant, 2006
System Flow Example of Baking Furnace
(High Temperature)
Source: Document prepared by the 4th
Advisory Committee on Demonstration
Survey Obligation in Recycling of Incineration
Ash and Contaminated Soil by Radioactive
Material Separation
Products ○Molten Slag
○Molten Fly Ash
○Non-meltable
○Iron (Recovered at Pre-Process)
○Molten Metal
○Molten Slag
○Molten Fly Ash
○Non-meltable
○Iron (Recovered at Pre-Process)
○Molten Slag
○Molten Fly Ash
○Molten Metal
○Molten Slag
○Molten Fly Ash
○Non-meltable (Debris etc.)
○Metals
○Gravel-like or Earth-and-Sand-like Product
○By-product or Dust
Outline It is a incineration ash melting system with
electricity as its heat source.
It is classified into AC Arc Type, AC/DC
Electric Resistance Type, Plasma Type, and
Induction Type according to the method of
heat energy reception.
It is commonly employed as attachment
facility in a municipally operated medium or
large-scale incineration plant with power
generation facility.
It is a incineration ash melting system
with fuel such as kerosene as its heat
source.
It is classified into Rotary Type,
Reflection Type, Radiation Type, Swirling
Flow Type, Cement Kiln Type, Coke Bed
Type, Fuel Oxygen Burner Flame Type
according to the forms of furnace.
It is commonly employed as attachment
facility in a municipally operated small-scale
incineration plant without power generation
facility.
It is a melting system where at first waste is
thermally decomposed, secondly the
generated combustible gas and char(carbide)
are combusted with higher temperature, and
finally the ash and non-combustible are
melted with the combustion heat.
It is a system where thermal decomposition
of waste, gasification and melting are carried
out in an integrated manner.
Either of these systems requires cokes and
oxygen (both of which require huge amount of
power), and secondary material such as LPG
and the like.
It melts the whole including incineration ash
and recover slag and metal (alloy composed
of iron and copper) separately.
It is a melting system where at first waste is
thermally decomposed, secondly the
generated combustible gas and char(carbide)
are combusted with higher temperature, and
finally the ash and non-combustible are
melted with the combustion heat.
It's a Separate System where thermal
decomposition/gasification and melting take
place separately.
Depending on the type of furnace where the
thermal decomposition/gasification take
place, it is classified as fluidized bed-type
gasification melting furnace or kiln-type
gasification melting furnace. Either one has
an independent melting furnace.
It recovers metals and debris in the thermal
decomposition/gasification furnace, then
mostly the char( carbide) only is melted.
It's a system where soil or incineration ash
is heated and baked before reaching the
melting limit in a rotary furnace such as
Cement Kiln.
High-temperature type conducts heat
process at 1,300℃ or above while Low-
temperature type does so between 1,000 -
1,200℃.
Dust(Baked sly ash) is generated. Gravel-
like or Earth-and-Sand-like Product is
obtained as effectively usable products.
TA-8963 PRC Draft Final Report Chapter VI
Items Ash Melting Method Gasification Melting Method Baking Method
Electric Methods (Plasma Type, Arc Type,
Electric Resistance Type etc.)
Fuel Burning Type
(Surface Melting Type etc.)
Integrated Method (Shaft Furnace Type) Separation Method (Fluidized Bed Type,
Kiln Type)
High Temperature Type, Low
Temperature Type
Characteristics The exhaust gas volume is smaller
compared to that of fuel burring type.
With the longer retention time in the
furnace after melting, slag and metal is better
separated.
With higher power consumption, it is
difficult to be employed without attached
incineration plant with power generation
facility.
It may require additional heating to prevent
clogging at the cinder notch.
It requires input ratio adjustment of slag
and fly ash and periodical removal of attached
ash to avoid troubles caused by attachment or
clogging of molten salts or dusts.
It is easier to operate and manage
compared to electricity type.
It requires large volume of fuel.
In the surface melting type, excessive
moisture content in incineration ash may
cause insufficient melting.
In the surface melting type, if the
retention time is not sufficient, high-quality
slag is not easily obtained.
It requires input ratio adjustment of slag
and fly ash and periodical removal of
attached ash to avoid troubles caused by
attachment or clogging of molten salts or
dusts.
It's a simple system where the waste, cokes
and limestone are fed from the top into the
furnace that are zoned in a descending
manner as drying, preheating, thermal
decomposition and melting.
Some types of the equipment do not
require preprocessing of waste.
As it uses cokes and LPG, it emits a little
larger volume of CO2 compared to the others
types.
Some type of equipment cannot discharge
slag continuously, where a human labor
needed to do this job.
If it purports to treat only incineration ash, it
requires larger amount of cokes and
limestone (as basicity adjuster to ensure
fluidity of slag) compared to the one for waste
treatment.
As the waste melts by itself with its own
energy, it requires less electricity or fuel
compared to the ash melting method.
As it can operate with low air ratio
(approx.1.3),the exhaust gas volume is
smaller compared to the ash melting method.
With the low consumption of electricity or
fuel, it emits lower volume of CO2 compared
to other methods.
It basically purports to treat combustible
waste, it cannot treat mixed waste including
incineration ash.
According to a demonstration experiment,
Cs can be reduced to the clearance level of
100Bq/kg or below by vaporization treatment.
With the Cs removal ratio of 99.9%, the
products from obtained from High-
Temperature Type can be utilized for variety
of purposes.
With the Cs removal ratio of 90% - 98%, the
products from obtained from Low-
Temperature Type can be utilized as
substitute for earth and sand.
From the viewpoint of chemical
composition and mineralogy, the products
obtained from high-temperature type are
similar to mineral slag or slowly cooled slag of
blast furnace.
Achievement in
Number of
Operation Cases
Total 41Cases
Achievement of 20t/day or over during
FY2002 - FY2016)
・70% of them use Plasma Type.
・Since Fiscal Year 2005, the attachment of
melting facility to a new Incineration plant has
been no more required to grant governmental
subsidy, introduction of the said facility has
substantially decreased in 2006 and
afterwards.
・In recent years, increasing number of cases
have suspended or discontinued operation
due to reduced expense of operation &
maintenance.
Total 8Cases
Achievement of 20t/day or over during
FY2002 - FY2016)
・90% of them use Surface Melting Type.
・ Due to the same reason, the introduction
of this type has substantially decreased in
2006 and afterwards.
・ In recent years, increasing number of
cases have suspended or discontinued
operation due to reduced expense of
operation & maintenance.
Total 35Cases
Achievement of 100t/day or over during
FY2002 - FY2016)
・Due to the same reason as the ash melting
method, the introduction of this type has
substantially decreased in 2006 and
afterwards.
・Since 2006, Shaft type systems have still
been introduced though in small number.
Total 37Cases
Achievement of 100t/day or over during
FY2002 - FY2016)
・Due to the same reason as the ash melting
method, the introduction of this type has
substantially decreased in 2006 and
afterwards.
・Since 2006, Fluidized bed type systems
have still been introduced in small number
while kiln type has virtually not introduced.
Total 5Cases
・As a high-temperature type, 2 cases have
introduced in eco-cement plants, both of
which have achieved more than ten-year
operation.
・ As a low-temperature type, 2 cases in
heavy metal contaminated soil treatment
plants and 1 case in a chemical weapon
treatment plant have achieved the
introduction.
Plant
Manufacturers
that achieved the
above operations
○Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Environmental and Chemical Engineering Co., Ltd. (MHIEC)
○TAKUMA CO., LTD. ○JFE Engineering Corporation
○EBARA Environmental Plant Co., Ltd. ○Hitachi Zosen Corporation
○Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd. ○Kobelco Eco-Solutions Co., Ltd. etc.
○Hitachi Zosen Corporation
○Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Ltd.
Kubota Corporation
○UNITIKA LTD. ○TAKUMA CO., LTD. ○KYOWA EXEO Corporation etc.
○NIPPON STEEL & SUMIKIN ENGINEERING CO., LTD.
○JFE Engineering Corporation
○KAWASAKI GIKEN CO.,LTD etc.
<Fluidized Bed Type>
○Kobelco Eco-Solutions Co., Ltd.
○EBARA Environmental Plant Co., Ltd.
○Hitachi Zosen Corporation
○Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Environmental and Chemical Engineering Co., Ltd. (MHIEC)
etc.
<Kiln Type>
○Hitachi Zosen Corporation
○TAKUMA CO., LTD. etc.
○TAIHEYO CEMNT Corporation
○Kobelco Eco-Solutions Co., Ltd. etc.
TA-8963 PRC Draft Final Report Chapter VI
Items Ash Melting Method Gasification Melting Method Baking Method
Electric Methods (Plasma Type, Arc Type,
Electric Resistance Type etc.)
Fuel Burning Type
(Surface Melting Type etc.)
Integrated Method (Shaft Furnace Type) Separation Method (Fluidized Bed Type,
Kiln Type)
High Temperature Type, Low
Temperature Type
Acce
ptanc
e
Cond
ition
for
Contr
ol
Size of
acceptab
le object
Approximately 30 - 50mmor smaller
Remarks Some systems may accept a 350L
Drum 955H×700Φ
1,0000mm or shorter
Note Feeding Input Width80t/Day 2m×2m
High-Temperature Type: Accepted if
pretreated for av. particle diameter of 40μm
Low-Temperature: 500mm or below
Approx.150 - 120mmand smaller
Pulverization required for pretreatment
Approximately 30mmor shorter
Acceptab
ility of
Incinerati
on Ash
and the
like
Incineration Fly Ash: Acceptable up to 30% of
total incineration ash
Molten Fly Ash: Not Acceptable (no effect for
capacity reduction due to vaporization)
Incineration Ash: Acceptable Up to 20% of
Waste
Molten Fly Ash: Not Acceptable (No volume
reduction effect due to volatilization)
Incineration Ash: Acceptable
Molten Fly Ash: Not Acceptable(no effect for
capacity reduction due to vaporization)
Incineration Ash: Even Incineration Ash Only
Acceptable If Combustion Aid is Used.
Molten Fly Ash: Not Acceptable(no effect for
capacity reduction due to vaporization)
Incineration Fly Ash: Acceptable up to 30% of
total incineration ash
Molten Fly Ash: Not Acceptable (no effect for
capacity reduction due to vaporization)
Pulveriza
tion of
solidified
incinerati
on ash
required
?
Crushing Required
Remark Though not required for some
system, it is desired to shorten melting time.
Crushing Required
Note Crushing at least to fist-size
Crushing Required
Crushing Required Crushing Required
Basic
Perfo
rman
ce
Incinerati
on
Tempera
ture
Melting Furnace: Approx.1,400℃ or higher
Incineration Furnace: Aprox.850℃- 950℃
Melting Furnace: 1,700 - 1,800℃ High-Temperature Type: Approx.1,300℃ or
higher
Low-Temperature Type: Approx.1,000℃ -
1,100 or >℃
Melting Furnace: Approx.1,300℃ or higher
(Gasification Furnace: Approx.500 ℃ -
600℃)
Melting Furnace: Approx.1,300℃ or higher
Incineration Furnace: Aprox.850℃- 950℃
Fuel,
Power
Consum
ption per
ton
Approx.800 - 3,000kWh/t of Ash ave.
approx.1,400kWh/t of Ash
― High-Temperature Type: Approx.170-
200ℓ/to of Ash 100t/Day
Low-Temperature Type: Approx.160ℓ/t of Ash
― Approx.160 - 460ℓ/t of Ash av.
approx.290ℓ/t of Ash
Envir
onme
ntal
Frien
dline
ss
Volume
Reductio
n Ratio
Approx.2% based on data provided by
anonymous manufacturer)
Approx.11% (based on data provided by
anonymous manufacturer)
Approx. 5% (based on data measured on
anonymous demonstration experiment)
Unknown Approx.10% based on data provided by
anonymous manufacturer
Concentr
ation
Ratio of
Radioacti
veCs
Approx.24times based on data measured on
anonymous real equipment)
Approx. 8 times (based on data provided by
anonymous manufacturer)
Approx. 15times (based on data measured on
anonymous demonstration experiment)
Unknown Approx.10times based on data measured on
anonymous real equipment)
Reso
urce
Recy
cling
Ratio
Use of By-
products
Backfilling material, Aggregate for Asphalt
Pavement, Cement Secondary Product, Sub-
base Course Material and Others
Backfilling material, Aggregate for Asphalt
Pavement, Cement Secondary Product,
Sub base Course Material and Others
High-Temperature Type: sub-base,
embanking material, foundation improvement
material and others
Low-Temperature Type: Substitute for earth
and sand (Concrete aggregate etc.)
same as right same as right
Use of
Metals
Balance Weight Material, Non-ferrous
Materials, Material for Steel, Others
Balance Weight Material, Non-ferrous
Materials, Material for Steel, Others
―
same as right same as right
Stabil Number Treatment Technology for Plasma Type has Treatment Technology for Shaft Type has Treatment Technology for both High- Treatment Technology for Fluidized Bed Type Treatment Technology for Surface Melting
TA-8963 PRC Draft Final Report Chapter VI
Items Ash Melting Method Gasification Melting Method Baking Method
Electric Methods (Plasma Type, Arc Type,
Electric Resistance Type etc.)
Fuel Burning Type
(Surface Melting Type etc.)
Integrated Method (Shaft Furnace Type) Separation Method (Fluidized Bed Type,
Kiln Type)
High Temperature Type, Low
Temperature Type
ity of
Introducti
on Cases
been well established with high number of
operation cases.
been well established with high number of
operation cases.
Temperature Type and Low-Temperature
Type have been well established.
has been well established with high number
of operation cases.
Type has been well established with high
number of operation cases.
Cases of
Accident
No recent report on large accidents No recent report on large accidents No recent report on large accidents No recent report on large accidents except
the below
No recent report on large accidents except
the below
Remark Case between Kyoto City and
Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. is pending
in court now.
Construction and
Operation &
Maintenance
Costs
Maintenance
Cost
The cost of 3 methods: Incineration + Ash
Melting Furnace, Gasification Melting,
Incineration + Calcination are almost the
same.
same as right The cost of 3 methods: Incineration + Ash
Melting Furnace, Gasification Melting,
Incineration + Calcination are almost the
same.
same as right The cost of 3 methods: Incineration + Ash
Melting Furnace, Gasification Melting,
Incineration + Calcination are almost the
same.
Remark: 1.Volume Reduction Ratio=Generated Volume of By-product molten and calcination fly ash) /Targeted Treatment Volume
2.Concentration Ratio of RadioactiveCs=Concentration of RadioactiveCs in By-product molten and calcination fly ash / Concentration of Radioactive Cs in Targeted Treatment Object
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
181
450. There are melting treatment practices using electric furnaces operated by
private sector (Reductive Melting Group including Chubu Recycle Co.,Ltd). The
melting treatment produces slag, which can be used as sand or aggregate for civil
engineering material. Zinc and lead are further recovered at smelter out of molten fly
ash. At melting treatment plants run by local government, however, molten ash is
disposed of by landfilling after chelate treatment.
Figure 6-8 Treatment Flow of Chubu Recycle Co., Ltd
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
182
Figure 6-9 Annual Average of Material Balance in Resource Recovery of Chubu
2) Use as Cement Material
451. It is a technology for optimizing incineration ashes into cement material. To
produce 1 ton of cement, it requires 1,100kg of limestone, 200kg of clay and 100 to
200kg of other materials. Incineration ashes can be used as alternative to clay material.
According to Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS), chlorine content in a Portland cement
product should be 350ppm or lower. The incineration fly ash contains 10 to 20% of
chlorine compounds. When it comes to use incineration ash as cement material, it is
necessary to determine its mix proportion considering chlorine content in the final
product. Chlorine compounds have to be removed in advance by using proper method
such as water washing. For this purpose, ash-cleaning technologies have been
developed.
3) Eco-Cement Production
452. Eco-cement is a type of cement product that is manufactured from municipal
waste incineration ash as main raw material. Other kind of wastes such as sewage
sludge can be used as ingredients for eco-clinker, which is supplemented to finalize
the eco-cement product. 1 ton of eco-cement product has to be derived from at least
500kg of waste. Heavy metals included in municipal waste are separated and
recovered before turned into eco-cement. JIS for eco-cement has been established
since July 2002. Fly ash can be used as it is for eco-cement production. For eco-
Molten
Metals
5%
Molten
Metals
5%
Magne c
Separator DryerMagne c
Separator
Desalina on
Mel ng
Furnace
Desalinated
ma er
1%
Salts
4.5%
Evapora ve
water
15.5%
Molten
Ash
4.5%
Others
5%
Water
10%
Iron
5%
Molten
Stone
54%
Molten
Metals
5%
Raw
Material
toFeed
78.5%
Raw
Material
100%
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
183
cement production, however, conventional infrastructure for cement production is not
allowed to use, a dedicated plant has to be newly constructed and operated. A rapid
hardening eco-cement contains higher choline than the standard for ordinary cement,
so it is allowed only for non-reinforced concrete uses. In Tokyo Metropolitan Area,
there is an eco-cement plant as facilities for recycling bottom and fly ashes. The
processing flow of the plant is shown as Figure 6-10 below.
Figure 6-10 Concept Diagram of Eco-Cement Manufacturing
Figure 6-11 Eco-Cement System Flow
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Figure 6-12 Tama Area Waste to Eco-Cement Plant
4) Sintering
453. Sintering generally means a thermal treatment for the purpose of sintering.
Sintering is a phenomenon where a group of solid particles is heated with temperature
lower than their melting point and transformed into a sintered compact, which is a high-
density matter. Incineration ashes are thermally processed with 1,000 to 1,100℃ to
evaporate chlorine and heavy metals until they form sintered compacts. These
products are utilized for surface course of pavements or crushed stone for mechanical
stabilization, etc. Usually baking method is not used as a treatment of fly ash only.
5) Metals Recovery at Smelter
454. It is a technology to recover and recycle non-ferrous metals from molten ash
generated out of incineration ashes melting treatment. The molten ash contains 2 to
12% of such metals as lead, cadmium, zinc, and copper, etc. These metals are
recovered as single elements at smelter by using non-ferrous smelting technology. At
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smelters of mining companies, they accept incineration fly ash and molten fly ash to
recover and recycle metals like zinc and lead in their smelting process. Figure 6-13
shows a non-ferrous recovery flow at a smelter.
Figure 6-13 Processing Flow of Non-ferrous Recovery at Smelter
6.1.2.2 Application Situation
455. Application situation of the above mentioned technologies are shown as Table
6-13 below.
Table 6-13 Treatment Methods of Incineration Fly Ash in Japan
Treatment Methods No. of Facilities as of 2014
Non-ferrous Recovery at Smelter, Eco-cement
etc. 37
Chemically Processed 883
Cement-Solidification 67
Melting Treatment 46
No treatment (Sludge 154
Cement-Solidification 67
Chemical Treatment 696
Cement-Solidification+ Chemical 161
Melting+Cement+Chemical 13
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Treatment Methods No. of Facilities as of 2014
Chemically Processed+Others 26
Melting +Chemical Treatment 15
Melting +Chemical Treatment+Others 1
Melting Treatment 17
Other (Including non-ferrous metal recovery at
smelter 37
No treatment 154
Blank 19
Total 1206
456. Recycled amount of fly ash estimated based on statistics of Japan (Table 6-14):
Table 6-14 Recycled Amount of Fly Ash Estimated Based on Statistics of Japan
Statistics on Recycling of Incineration Residue Estimate on Recycling of Fly Ash
Disposal by Landfilling Disposal by Landfilling
3.214million t 77% 910,000 t 17%
Melting Treatment by Local Government Melting Treatment by Local Government
568,000 t 13.5% 113,000 t 2.7%
Water-wash/ Use for Cement Material Use for Cement Material
308,000 t 7.4% 61,000 t (1.5%)
Melting by Private Sector Melting by Private Sector
30,000 t (0.7%) 12,000 t 0.14%
Sintering Treatment Sintering Treatment
30,000 t (0.7%) 12,000 t 0.14%
Non-ferrous Recovery at Smelter etc. Non-ferrous Recovery at Smelter etc.
37,000 t (0.9%) 37,000 t (0.9%)
(1) Melting Treatment
457. Usually fly ash alone is not melted for treatment. Mixed with slag, fly ash is
melted at high temperature and transformed into slag, which is utilized for civil
engineering materials. Approx. 2% of molten ash is generated out of this process.
Melting Treatment Amount(dry) − Molten Fly Ash Generated Amount = Generated
Slag Amount 113,000t
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(2) Use as Cement Material
458. Some cement plants accept slag as cement materials while others accept fly
ash as well and use it as cement material after water washing. The size of an eco-
cement plant is usually one tenth of that of normal cement plant. Out of the 32 cement
plants in Japan, 5 plants, 1 water-washing facility and 2 eco-cement plants accept slag
from incineration plants. Total accepted amount in 2014 was 308,000 t, out of which
61,000 t was considered fly ash.
(3) Eco-Cement Making
459. In Tokyo Metropolitan Area, a cement company and a local municipality has
jointly set up and operated an eco-cement plant. Eco-cement is a product
manufactured with waste incineration ashes that should take up at least 50 % of the
total amount of its raw material. The product standard allows its chlorine content higher
than that of normal cement, which limits the rage of application.
As Raw Materials Slag+Fly Ash 500 kg
Cement Products 1000 kg
(4) Sintering
460. Industry waste disposal businesses conduct recycling operation with their kiln-
type sintering furnaces. There are only 2 such facilities in Japan.
Sintering Treatment Amount 12,000 t
(5) Metals Recovery at Smelter
461. Fly ash generated from incineration treatment is mixed with molten fly ash
derived from melting treatment, and transferred to smelters to recover metal
components (zinc, lead etc.) for recycling.
Metals Recovery Amount 37,000 t
6.1.3 Policies, Laws, Regulations and Standards
6.1.3.1 Policies, Laws and Regulations
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(1) Policy
462. Japan has a policy to ensure thorough control over hazardous substances on
the premise of compliance with the ratified Basel Convention. It maintains that the fly
ash should be treated with special consideration (as Specially Controlled Solid Waste)
since it is regarded as hazardous judged from its components included.
(2) Law
463. The Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law stipulates the control standard
for fly ash as follows:
Collected dusts and ashes generated from combustion of municipal waste
shall be designated as specially controlled waste and be disposed of in landfill
sites after going through detoxification treatment. The standard for final
disposal sites for municipal waste stipulates environmental and safety
requirements (such as impermeable liners and leachate treatment facility).
464. The Specially Controlled Municipal Solid Wastes are listed below:
Soot and Dust
Dust, Incineration Residue, Sludge
Mercury Waste
Infectious General Waste
PCB contained components
(3) Enforcement Regulation
465. Chapter 1, Article 2, Clause 24 of Enforcement Regulation No.35 under The
Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law provide standard for landfill. This Standard
is judged based on an elution test conducted under required conditions.
466. Table Chapter 1, Article 2 of Enforcement Regulation under The Waste
Disposal and Public Cleansing Law /Ministerial Ordinance for Specific Standard is as
follows:
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Table 6-15 Ministerial Ordinance for Specific Standard
Parameter Standard Unit
Alkyl Mercury No Detection mg/l
Mercury 0.005 mg/l
Lead 0.3 mg/l
Arsenic 0.3 mg/l
Cadmium 0.09 mg/l
Hexavalent Chromium 1.5 mg/l
Selenium 0.3 mg/l
Dioxane 0.5 mg/l
Dioxins 3 ngTEQ/g
467. The method of elution test, preparation of solution, analysis method of
compounds are stipulated in Notification No.633 under Ministry of Health and Welfare
(December 28, 2000).
468. It is required to prepare documents to record the amount handled as specially
controlled solid waste including the once-a-year elution test result. Transport standard
is also set for prevention of dispersion.
469. The detoxification methods are also stipulated. Based on the Ministerial
Ordinance, the 4 methods below are specified;
Cement solidification Method, Chemical Additive Method, Melting
Method, Solvent(Acid etc.) Cleaning Method
5) The outlines of these methods have been shown previously.
6.1.3.2 Regulatory System and Institutional Framework
470. Outline of regulation and control on fly ash of municipal waste is shown as
Figure 6-14 and Figure 6-15. When the concentration of dioxins exceeds 3ngTEQ/g,
the ash is not allowed to be landfilled, the dioxins needs to be decomposed to be lower
than the standard value by thermal dechlorination treatment and fusion baking
treatment.
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Figure 6-14 Control Flow of Fly Ash (Soot and Dust)
Figure 6-15 Dioxins Control Standards for Fly Ash Landfilling and Final Disposal
Site
6.1.3.3 Technical Methods, Guidelines and Standards
471. In Japan, technical requirements have been set based on the law for each
treatment technology. Table 6-16 below shows technical requirements (for fly ash
treatment facility, baking facility, etc.), and Table 6-17 for municipal waste final disposal
site. Besides, performance guidelines and its interpretation are available as referral
technical guidelines to assist local governments to introduce those facilities.
472. For products derived from fly ash, Utilization Standard for molten slag (JIS),
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Cement Products Standard and Eco-Cement Products Standard, etc. is available. The
Eco-Cement has to use waste incineration residue at least 50% of the raw materials.
473. Standards for Normal Cement and For Normal Cement Products are shown
below:
Table 6-16 Technical Requirements for Fly Ash Treatment Facility, Sintering Facility
Table 6-17 Technical Requirements for Municipal Waste Final Disposal Site
6) JIS for Slag Products are as follows:
JIS A 5031 “Molten Slag Aggregate for Concrete Derived from Municipal Waste, Sewage Sludge” JIS A 5032 “Molten Slag for Road Derived from Municipal Waste, Sewage Sludge”
6.1.3.4 Implementation Procedures and Safeguarding Measure
474. The status has to be reported the measurement values once a year as for
compliance with detoxified fly ash landfill standard. The total amount of incineration
and generated fly ash including the generated amount of Incineration treatment residue
and the landfilled amount need to be reported to the Central Government via Local
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Government in a designate format once a year. These data is statistically processed
and publicized by Ministry of the Environment as statistics of “Waste Treatment in
Japan”.
475. Some slag products derived from melting treatment are subject to JIS
depending on their uses. The facility that makes application for that must prove
conformity to the Standard by conducting quality analysis.
476. Acceptance Standards for fly ash recycling have been set according to the
type of facility. The compliance to those standards is mostly reported annually to the
authority.
6.1.4 Experiences and Lessons
477. Technology development has been made for fly ash treatment in Japan from
the viewpoint of hazardous waste control. Landfilling of fly ash is not allowed except in
control-type final disposal sites, which are equipped with environment protection
measures for the surroundings. Only when Landfill Standards for fly ash are satisfied,
disposal by landfilling is allowed, as they are clear of hazard. The following section
summarized the development history of fly ash treatment in Japan and lessons learnt.
478. As mentioned above, it is difficult to find location for landfill site in Japan due
to narrow land and high population density. Therefore, the technologies to reduce the
landfill waste to zero has been required from 1980s and each private company started
to develop melting technology for bottom ash and fly ash. At the same period, the
emission of dioxin from MSWI was a serious issue in this sector and dioxin control
technologies were actively developed including decomposition technology for dioxin in
fly ash. In 1990, the Ministry of Health and Welfare issued “Guidelines for preventing
the emission of dioxins from MSWI” and gathered solutions that could be implemented
technologically at the time.
479. In 1991, the fly ash from MSWI was designated as specially controlled waste
in amendment of The Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law. Under this law, direct
landfill disposal of MSWI fly ash was banned and MSWI fly ash for landfill disposal
should undergo an intermediate treatment specified by the Minister of Health and
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Welfare, including 1) melting and solidification, 2) solidification by cement, 3)
stabilization using chemical agents or 4) extraction with acid or other solvent. Later,
calcination including eco cement was added as an intermediate treatment. After that
period, the development of melting technology for bottom ash and fly ash, eco cement
technology, gasification- melting technology was promoted. In 1997, Ministry of Health
and Welfare issued “Guidelines for preventing the emission of dioxins from MSWIs
(Revised)” and amended ordinances in the Waste Management and Public Cleansing
Acts to strengthen standards for the construction and maintenance management of
waste treatment plants. Furthermore, regulations on soot and dust were strengthened
in April 1998 by amendments to regulations in the Air Pollution Control Act.
480. In 2000, “Act on Special Measures against Dioxins was enacted. The standard
on dioxin content in fly ash was set as 3 ng-TEQ/g in the administrative provision of
specially controlled waste. From this year, the Ministry of Health and Welfare require
installing melting process to local government as a condition to receive the subsidy
from the Ministry when the local government constructed MSWI. At that time, the dioxin
concentration in fly ash from many MSWIs exceeded the standard.
481. This notification from the central government spread the combination of
incinerator and ash melting process or gasification & melting furnace. Many of them
started up, and consequently energy consumption and operating cost increased in
these facilities. After that, the performance of stoker type incinerator was improved and
the dioxin formation dramatically decreased. As a result, the dioxin concentration in
MSWI fly ash met the standard. After 2011, the importance of global warming
prevention is recognized more and more in the environmental policy and the
requirement to install melting process was greatly relaxed and virtually canceled by
another notification from Ministry of Environment. Therefore, ash melting process or
gasification & melting furnace tends not to be adopted in local municipalities which can
secure landfill treatment. As a result, stoker type incinerator becomes popular.
482. However, because some local governments cannot secure enough landfill site,
they continue to operate ash melting process or gasification& melting furnace. There
has been an assessment on melting treatment that bottom ash should be treated or
recycled separately as mixed melting is often the cause of many troubles on facilities.
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483. Some local governments with their own ash melting process or gasification &
melting furnace try to obtain the Japanese Industrial Standard certification for the
produced melting slag to promote beneficial use of the slag and tackle to exploit
demand for use of the slag. Some local governments ask private ash recycling
companies to treat MSWI bottom ash and fly ash by paying expensive fee.
484. Private sector’s existing facilities should be fully utilized; there are private
electric furnace businesses such as mining company with smelting facilities that have
reductive melting technology with high expertise and engaged in waste recycling
business. Those facilities of major businesses should be utilized effectively.
485. Recycling ash into cement material is also promising. With the establishment
of fume cleaning technology, chlorine-containing fly ash can also be turned into cement
materials. Even though manufacturing eco-cement requires a dedicated plant
construction newly, it can be a viable business in urban areas, where ash generation
density is high, as long as high collection efficiency is ensured. In the future, the
capacity of ash recycling in private companies will increase and they will progress the
resource recovery from bottom ash and fly ash.
486. The cost of chelating agents used to detoxify generated fly ash before being
landfilled is considered financial burden. Chelating agents can cause Nitrogen-Oxide-
contamination of leachate from final disposal sites.
6.2 Europe
6.2.1 MSW Incinerated and MSWIP Fly Ash Generation and Characteristics
487. Incineration of municipal solid waste is one of popular technologies in waste
management of EU. The scale of use of incineration as a waste management
technique varies greatly from location to location. According to the Confederation of
European Waste-to-Energy Plants, in European Member States (MS) the variation of
incineration in municipal waste treatments ranges from zero to 56 per cent. Data
obtained from Confederation of European Waste to Energy Plants (CEWEP) stated
that 28% of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) across the EU 28 is still landfilled, although
landfill gasses (methane) contribute significantly to global warming (equalling 25 times
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CO2). Figure 6-16 below shows the treatment of municipal waste in Europe in year
2014. Table 6-18 shows the change of incineration treatment in European countries
from 1995 to 2014.
Source of Data: CEWEP
Date of extraction: 13 Dec 2016 20:39:21 CET
Hyperlink to the table: http://www.cewep.eu/information/recycling/m_1486
Figure 6-16 Treatment of Municipal Waste in European Countries in 2014
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Table 6-18 Changes of Incineration Treatment in European Countries
Source of Data: Eurostat Last update: 30.11.2016
Date of extraction: 13 Dec 2016 06:43:15 CET
Hyperlink to the table: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&plugin=1&language=en&pcode=tsdpc240
488. Incineration means thermal treatment of waste in an incineration plant as
defined in Article 3(4) or a co-incineration plant as defined in Article 3(5) of the
Incineration Directive 2000/76/EC. Municipal waste can either be incinerated directly
or after pre-treatment operations. The latter refers especially to secondary fuel
produced of waste.
489. The following solid wastes are commonly produced during the incineration
process:
• ashes and/or slag
• boiler ashes
• filter dust
• other residues from the flue-gas cleaning (e.g. calcium or sodium chlorides)
• sludge from waste water treatment.
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490. The types and quantities of incineration residue arising varies greatly
according to the installation design, its operation and waste input.
491. The solid residues produced by a MSW incinerator are collected from the
bottom of the combustion chamber (slag: 15-25% by mass of the original MSW and
about 80-90% of the total residues) and from the devices from which the gases pass
before they are released to the atmosphere. The residues that are collected after the
chemical cleaning of flue gases are usually named as air pollution control (APC)
residues. The term fly ash is used to describe the ash that is entrained by the gases
outside the furnace and is collected before the chemical cleaning of the gases. Like
this, APC residue is sometimes distinguished from fly ash. But, generally, incineration
fly ash means APC residue.
492. For MSWI residues different groups of contaminants can be identified,
including metal ions, amphoteric metals, oxyanionic species as well as salts, which
display typical leaching patterns. The total content of such contaminants can even be
considerably different for the various residues from waste incineration, as shown in
Table 6-19. Organohalogen compounds are formed in during the incineration process.
Recently, bag filter system is commonly used as a dust collector. Because dioxins in
flue gas is mainly attached in the dust, the dioxins are removed at bag filter and
transferred to fly ash. Consequently, dioxins in fly ash are of great concern.
Table 6-19 Ranges of Total Content of Elements in MSWI Residues
Element Concentration (mg/kg)
Bottom Ash Fly Ash Dry/semi-dry APC Residues Wet APC Residues
Al 22,000-73,000 49,000-90,000 12,000-83,000 21,000-39,000
As 0.1-190 37-320 18-530 41-210
Ba 400-3000 330-3100 51-14,000 55-1600
Ca 370-123,000 74,000-130,000 110,000-350,000 87,000-200,000
Cd 0.3-70 50-450 140-300 150-1400
Cl 800-4200 29,000-210,000 62,000-380,000 17,000-51,000
Cr 23-3,200 140-1100 73-570 80-560
Cu 190-8200 600-3200 16-1700 440-2400
Fe 4,100-150,000 12,000-44,000 2600-71,000 20,000-97,000
Hg 0.02-8 0.7-30 0.1-51 2.2-2300
K 750-16,000 22,000-62,000 5900-40,000 810-8600
Mg 400-26,000 11,000-19,000 5100-14,000 19,000-170,000
Mn 80-2400 800-1900 200-900 5000-12,000
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Mo 2-280 15-150 9-29 2-44
Na 2800-42,000 15,000-57,000 7600-29,000 720-3400
Ni 7-4200 60-260 19-710 20-310
Pb 100-13,700 5300-26,000 2500-10,000 3300-22,000
S 1000-5,000 11,000-45,000 1400-25,000 2700-6000
Sb 10-430 260-1100 300-1,100 80-200
Si 91,000-308,000 95,000-210,000 36,000-120,000 78,000
V 20-120 29-150 8-62 25-86
Zn 610-7800 9000-70,000 7000-20,000 8100-53,000
Data taken from Management of municipal solid waste incineration residues, Waste Management 23 (2003) 61–88 IAWG (International Ash Working Group: A.J. Chandler, T.T.Eighmy, J. Hartle´n, O. Hjelmar, D. Kosson, S.E. Sawell, H.A. vander Sloot, J. Vehlow), In: Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator Residues, Studies in Environmental Sciences 67, Elsevier Sci., Amsterdam, 1997)
493. The main problem related to fly ash the potential release of contaminant to
the environment. Therefore, fly ash is regarded as one of hazardous waste. On the
other hand, because slag does not contain contaminant so much, utilization of slag is
popular in European countries.
6.2.2 Mainstream Technologies and Application
6.2.2.1 Mainstream Technologies
494. Usually, fly ash and APC residues are treated prior to being landfilled. The
treatment techniques may be grouped in four categories (1) extraction and separation,
(2) chemical stabilization, (3) solidification and (4) thermal treatment.
495. Also, utilization of fly ash is observed in some countries. The cases are
introduced in 6.1.3 Experience and Lessons.
(1) Extraction and separation: The main purpose is to remove or recover heavy
metals and salts from the residues, mainly by using water or acids. This treatment
technique is typically relatively simple but the main disadvantage is the generation of
process water with high content of metals and salts.
(2) Chemical stabilization: The main purpose is to bind and immobilize pollutants in
the residue matrix. Various chemical stabilization processes have been developed
most of them involve the use of FeSO4, CO2, CO2 and H3PO4, H3PO4 and sulphides.
In most cases, these are simple and low cost processes which significantly improve
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the leaching properties of the residues. The main disadvantage is the generation of
metal and salt containing process water.
(3) Solidification: The main purpose is to physically and hydraulicly encapsulate the
residues by using, for example cement, asphalt and gypsum. The main advantages of
solidification techniques are a decrease of leaching and improvement of the
mechanical properties. The main disadvantages are that mass and volume increases
with the treatment and that the physical integrity of the product may deteriorate over
time resulting in increased metals leaching.
(4) Thermal treatment: Three major types of thermal treatment exist: vitrification,
melting, and sintering. These processes destroy dioxins and produce very stable
products with good leaching properties. The main disadvantage is their high cost.
6.2.2.2 Application Situation
496. The techniques are used to treat the residues so that landfill acceptance
criteria are fulfilled, but also various material related criteria may have to be fulfilled for
example in the case of utilization. The above techniques reflect different approaches
to meet these goals. The reason for development of these different types of techniques,
rather than using a single process worldwide, has been differences in local traditions,
regulations, market conditions, and political focus.
497. In almost all countries, some level of treatment of the residues are required
before further utilization or landfilling. A commonly applicable definition of what is an
acceptable level of “stabilization” does not exist as criteria and conditions differ in
European countries. The examples are introduced in 1.3 Experience and Lessons.
Treatment and stabilization of residues should, however, provide a residue quality
appropriate for the intended final destination, regardless whether the associated
criteria are environmentally or technically based.
6.2.3 Policies, Laws, Regulations and Standards
6.2.3.1 Policies, Laws and Regulations
498. The key policy for the disposal of all kind of waste and residues in EU is the
EU Landfill Directive (1999/31/EC) and the Council Decision (2003/33/EC). The
Directive is intended to prevent or reduce as far as possible negative effects on the
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environment from the landfilling of waste, by introducing stringent technical
requirements for waste and landfills. It defines the different categories of waste
(municipal waste, hazardous waste, non-hazardous waste and inert waste) and the
three classes of landfills (landfills for hazardous waste, for non-hazardous waste and
for inert waste). The criteria for the acceptance of waste on each landfill class are set
out in the Council Decision (2003/33/EC). The Decision defines also the methods to
be used for sampling and testing of waste. The acceptance criteria are based mainly
on leaching tests prEN 14405 and EN 12457/1-4.
499. Fly ash and APC residues are categorized as hazardous waste and residue
management is regulated within this framework. The related Directive and Statutory
Order etc. are as follows.
(1) Waste Incineration Directive
479. The process of revising the Waste Incineration Directive is expected to start
around 2008. This may affect emission levels from incinerators and subsequently also
the composition of residues.
(2) Waste Framework Directive
480. The directive provides a definition of waste utilization. This primarily affects
import and export of fly ash in EU Member States. The current revision of the Waste
Framework Directive suggests a new and more concise definition of utilization and end-of-waste criteria. When we use the fly ash as a construction material, some
countries have the criteria. The revised directive may also allow more possibilities for
the mixing of hazardous waste fractions, provided that the environmental burden is not
increased.
(3) Landfill Directive
481. The criteria for waste acceptance at landfills are minimum criteria and MS may
define more stringent criteria. First, the Landfill Directive had to be applied for new landfills only, and since July 2009 even existing landfills have to fully comply with the
set requirements.
(4) Statutory Order on Transport
482. Exchange of fly ash between MS is regulated according to the Statutory Order
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on Transport. MS may define more restrictive standards for residue treatment, and may deny import/export of residues on this account.
(5) Statutory Order on POP
483. The statutory order on persistent organic pollutants (POP’s), including dioxins, regulates management of waste containing these compounds. For fly ash, the content
of dioxins/furans is relevant with a limit value of 15 µg/kg. Generally, fly ash is
anticipated to be below this limit, however in cases exceeding the limit dioxins should
be destroyed or the residues should be safely landfilled.
(6) Council Decision 2003/33/EC
484. In general, MS shall define criteria for compliance with limit values set. Fly
ash is a hazardous waste. Criteria related to hazardous waste are as follows.
Criteria for hazardous waste acceptable at landfills for non-hazardous waste:
This element contains the definition of stable, non-reactive waste, leaching limit values
for granular hazardous waste acceptable at landfills for non-hazardous waste and
other criteria such as the content in TOC (Total organic carbon), pH and ANC (Acid
neutralizing capacity). MS shall determine which of the test methods and limit values
shall be used. In addition, they shall set criteria for monolithic waste to provide the
same level of environmental protection, criteria to ensure sufficient physical stability
and bearing capacity and criteria to ensure that monolithic wastes are stable and non-
reactive.
Table 6-20 Leaching Limit Values for Hazardous Waste Acceptable at Landfills for Non-hazardous Waste
Components
L/S = 2 l/g L/S = 10 l/g C0
(percolation test)
mg/kg dry
substance
mg/kg dry
substance mg/l
As 0.4 2 0.3
Ba 30 100 20
Cd 0.6 1 0.3
Cr total 4 10 2.5
Cu 25 50 30
Hg 0.05 0.2 0.03
Mo 5 10 3.5
Ni 5 10 3
Pb 5 10 3
Sb 0.2 0.7 0.15
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Se 0.5 0.3 0.2
Zn 25 50 15
Chloride 10000 15000 8500
Fluoride 60 150 40
Sulphate 10000 20000 7000
DOC(*) 380 800 250
TDS(**) 40000 60000 -
(*)If the waste does not meet these values for DOC at its own pH, it may alternatively be tested at L/S=10 l/kg and a pH of 7.5-8.0. The waste may be considered as complying with the acceptance criteria for DOC, if the result of this determination does not exceed 800 mg/kg (A draft method based on prEN 14429 is available). (**) The values for TDS can be used alternatively to the values for sulphate and chloride.
Criteria for waste acceptable at landfills for hazardous waste: Criteria set
comprise leaching limits for granular waste and limits for LOI (Loss of ignition), TOC
and ANC. This includes guidance for measurement and procedures in case certain
limits are exceeded. MS shall determine which of the test methods and limit values
shall be used and shall set criteria for monolithic waste to provide the same level of
environmental protection.
Table 6-21 Leaching Limit Values for Waste Acceptable at Landfills for Hazardous Waste
Components
L/S = 2 l/g L/S = 10 l/g C0
(percolation test)
mg/kg dry
substance
mg/kg dry
substance mg/l
As 6 25 3
Ba 100 300 60
Cd 3 5 1.7
Cr total 25 70 15
Cu 50 100 60
Hg 0.5 2 0.3
Mo 20 30 10
Ni 20 40 12
Pb 25 50 15
Sb 2 5 1
Se 4 7 3
Zn 90 200 60
Chloride 17000 25000 15000
Fluoride 200 500 120
Sulphate 25000 50000 17000
DOC(*) 480 1000 320
TDS(**) 70000 100000 -
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(*)If the waste does not meet these values for DOC at its own pH, it may alternatively be tested at L/S=10 l/kg and a pH of 7.5-8.0. The waste may be considered as complying with the acceptance criteria for DOC, if the result of this determination does not exceed 800 mg/kg (A draft method based on prEN 14429 is available). (**) The values for TDS can be used alternatively to the values for sulphate and chloride.
Criteria for underground storage: The major acceptance criterion for underground
storage is the site specific safety assessment as specified in Annex A. This safety
assessment has to prove the long-term isolation of the wastes from the biosphere,
taking into account e.g. local geological, geo-mechanical and hydro-geological
conditions during the operational and post-operational phase. In addition, quite a
number of wastes have to be excluded from underground storage due to associated
risks. MS may issue lists of wastes acceptable. The set criteria have to be fulfilled by
wastes under storage conditions. Furthermore, procedural requirements such as
secure separation from mining activities, classification in groups of compatibility etc.
have to be considered and addressed. There are specific regulations for salt mines
and hard rock formations. The limit values and criteria set in the corresponding landfill
have to be met at underground storage sites for inert and non-hazardous waste. The
compatibility with the safety assessment is the key criterion for underground storage
sites for hazardous waste. If compatible, acceptance criteria for hazardous waste
landfills do not apply. However, the waste must be subject to acceptance procedures
including basic characterization, compliance testing and on-site verification.
6.2.3.2 Regulatory System and Institutional Framework
485. The regulatory system is different among countries, states and cities in EU. In
setting environmental standards, the prudence avoidance principle has been adopted
in Sweden. The ‘‘As Low As Reasonably Achievable” (ALARA) principle plays an important part in the enforcement of environmental law in the Netherlands. At the
European level, the ‘‘Best Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive Cost” (BATNEEC) principle is used . The details in major countries are described in
6.2.4Experiences and Lessons.
6.2.3.3 Technical Methods, Guidelines and Standards
486. Sampling and test methods: Sampling and testing may only be carried
out by independent and qualified experts. Laboratories have to prove experience and
efficient quality assurance systems. In this context, MS can decide upon the
responsibility by selecting one of the two options. Furthermore, MS are obliged to draw
up sampling plans for basic characterization, compliance testing and on-site
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verification pursuant to the recently developed CEN (European Committee for
Standardization) sampling standard. Besides this, the methods set out in the decision
have to be used in general. As long as formal CEN standards are not available;
however, MS are allowed to use either national procedures and standards or the draft
CEN standard when this has reached the prEN stage. Tests and analyses for which
CEN standards are not yet available have to be approved by the competent authority.
487. prEN 14405 is a leaching behaviour test - Up-flow percolation test (Up-flow
percolation test for inorganic constituents). The batch leaching test EN 12457 consists
of 4 parts:
1. EN 12457-1: Performed at L/S 2 l/kg on material < 4 mm (1 step)
2. EN 12457-2: Performed at L/S 10 l/kg on material < 4 mm (1 step)
3. EN 12457-3: Performed at L/S 2 l/kg and L/S 8 l/kg on material < 4 mm
(2 step)
4. EN 12457-4: Performed at L/S 10 l/kg on material < 10 mm (1 step)
Digestion of Raw Waste
・ EN 13657 Digestion for subsequent determination of aqua regia soluble
portion of elements (partial digestion of the solid waste prior to
elementaryanalysis, leaving the silicate matrix intact)
・ EN 13656 Microwave-assisted digestion with hydrofluoric (HF), nitric
(HNO3) and hydrochloric (HCl) acid mixture for subsequent determination of
elements (total digestion of the solid waste prior to elementaryanalysis)
Analysis
・ ENV 12506 Analysis of eluates — Determination of pH, As, Ba, Cd, Cl, Co,
Cr, Cr(VI), Cu, Mo, Ni, NO2, Pb, total S, SO4, V and Zn (analysis of inorganic
constituents of solid waste and/or its eluate; major, minor and trace
elements)
・ ENV 13370 Analysis of eluates — Determination of ammonium, AOX,
conductivity, Hg, phenol index, TOC, easily liberatable CN, F (analysis of
inorganic constituents of solid waste and/or its eluate (anions))
・ prEN 14039 Determination of hydrocarbon content in the range of C10 to C40
by gas chromatography
6.2.3.4 Implementation Procedures and Safeguarding Measures
488. The implementation procedure is different among countries in EU.
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489. Member States shall take appropriate measures for implementation and
practical enforcement including the establishment of the necessary administrative and
technical infrastructure, permitting, operation procedures, monitoring and effective
control.
490. Basic procedure for the acceptance of fly ash at landfills is as follows.
Basic characterisation (function): The basic characterisation constitutes a full waste
description for the purpose of a save disposal, which is necessary for all types of waste.
The proceeding shall provide information on waste composition and its behaviour in
the landfill. Furthermore, it shall allow an assessment of waste against limit values and
a determination of key variables as well as the frequency for compliance testing.
Depending on the basic characterisation, the waste is accepted at the according landfill
class. The waste producer or, in default, the person responsible for its management,
is in charge to ensure that the information is correct. The Member States shall define
the period for the operator to keep records of the required information.
Fundamental requirement for basic characterisation: This section lists the
information necessary to fulfil the basic characterisation. Inter alia, it comprises
information on the waste production, composition, appearance, source and origin of
the waste.
Testing: Testing requirements are a crucial element of basic characterisation, which
can be regarded as a general obligation for each type of waste. The content of the
characterisation, the extent of laboratory testing and the relationship between basic
characterisation and compliance checking depends on the type of waste generation. It
is differentiated in regularly and not regularly generated wastes.
Cases where testing is not required: This section defines the cases where testing
of the waste is not required.
Compliance testing: Compliance testing has to be done periodically (at least once a
year) to check regularly arising waste streams. The relevant parameters to be tested
are determined in the basic characterisation. Compliance testing shall at least consist
of a batch leaching test and shall correspond to some of those used for basic
characterisation. Member States shall define the period for the operator to keep
records of the required information.
On-site verification: Each load of waste delivered to a landfill site shall be visually
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inspected before and after unloading. Additionally, the required documentation shall
be checked. Member States shall determine the testing requirements for on-site
verification, and where appropriate rapid test methods. Furthermore, MS to determine
the period for sample keeping.
6.2.4 Experiences and Lessons
491. Italia, Netherlands, Denmark and UK cases for fly ash management are
introduced based on mainly ISWA report (2008) and Liu et al (2015).
6.2.4.1 Italy
a) Management Practices
492. Most of the waste to energy plants in Italy are equipped with a dry or a semi-
dry flue gas cleaning system, using lime or sodium bicarbonate as alkaline reactant. The use of sodium bicarbonate is now increasing, especially during the revamping of
existing plants, in order to comply with emission limits in the EU, without installing any
additional wet treatment system.
493. No thorough survey on the APC residues management has been carried out
so far in Italy. However, it is known that most facilities dispose of the residues to
landfills after a specific treatment. Treatment is mainly performed outside the incineration plant, but there are also some plants that treat APC residues on site.
494. Some Italian facilities, located in Northern Regions, export their untreated
APC residues to German salt mines as backfilling materials, similar to other European countries. There are nevertheless some examples of alternative forms of management.
For instance, in the case of using dry sodium bicarbonate the alkaline salts are
collected by the seller and treated in a plant having a capacity of 30,000 tons per year;
so a brine suitable for sodium carbonate production is recovered. This practice requires
a flue gas double stage filtration system, in order to pull apart alkaline salts from fly ash.
b) Specific Legislation
495. The Italian legislation (Government Decree n. 152/2006) classifies APC residues from waste-to-energy plants as hazardous waste according to the EU Waste
Catalogue. The Environment Ministry decree n. 36/2003 also prescribes that landfills can accept only waste whose contaminants content respect the limit values listed in
Table 6-22. Also a leaching test (according to the CEN EN 12457 standard) shall be
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
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complied with; pollutant concentrations in extracted eluate shall not exceed the limits
shown in Table 6-23.
Table 6-22 Limit Values for Waste Acceptance in Landfill, as Per Decree N. 36/2003.
Parameter Unit Limit Value
Parameter Unit Limit Value
PCB mg/kg 50
PCDD&PCDF mg/kg 0.01
Solid content % ≥25
TOC % <6
Table 6-23 Limit Values in Eluate for Waste Acceptance in Landfill, as Per Decree
N. 36/2003
Parameter Unit Limit Value
Cr mg/l 7
Cd mg/l 0.2
Cu mg/l 10
Hg mg/l 0.05
Mo mg/l 3
Ni mg/l 4
Pb mg/l 5
Sb mg/l 0.5
Se mg/l 0.7
Zn mg/l 5
Chloride mg/l 2500
Fluoride mg/l 50
Aromatic organic solvents mg/l 4
Nitrogen organic solvents mg/l 2
Chloro-organic solvents mg/l 20
Cyanides (CN) mg/l
Sulfates (SO42-) mg/l 5000
DOC mg/l 100
TDS mg/l 10000
c) Barriers and Challenges
496. At present it seems that there are no drivers pushing waste managers for
towards alternative options to landfill disposal, and it is unlikely that this will change in the near future. Possible use of APC residues in cement kilns or for construction
material are hampered by a strict and unclear legislation that makes recovery of
material from hazardous waste such as APC residues difficult and costly. Probably
only the recovery of alkaline salts from APC residues coming from plants that use
sodium bicarbonate will be further implemented, as it can partly overcome the issues
related to APC residues management. Also some thermal treatment methods were
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evaluated and tested in the past, but they were abandoned, because there is no
chance that this technology can became commercially viable.
6.2.4.2 Netherlands
a) Management Practices
497. The Dutch policy with regard to incineration residues aims towards
maximization of useful application and minimization of required volume for disposal of
these residues. This policy has led, to date, to a recovery rate of the APC residues of
around 50%. The other half is disposed of in conditioned landfills after cementation (fly ash) or in big bags (fly ash and flue gas treatment salts). The policy has been put into
practice successfully for incineration fly ash and led to the use of this material as a filler in asphalt (as a substitute for lime stone) for road construction. The demand for asphalt
fillers containing MSWI fly ash, however, is limited. As a result only 30% of the MSWI
fly ash produced has been utilized as an asphalt filler. A considerable amount of fly ash and flue gas treatment salts are being utilized for fortification in German coal and salt mines (it has been adopted by the Council of State in the Netherlands that
application of APC residues is called utilization if it is identified as such in the country of application). The Dutch Waste Management Association (DWMA) has started a
project group which is going to identify potentially successful alternatives for fly ash utilization.
b) Specific Legislation
498. Annex II (Council decision 2003/33/EC) of the European Directive on the
Landfill of Waste (Directive 1999/31/EC) is implemented in Dutch legislation.
499. In addition, For solid waste to be reused as construction material, the solid
waste must meet the criteria as stipulated in the Dutch Building Materials Decree. From
1995 to 2008, the Dutch Building Materials Decree regulated the potential impact of
construction materials on the environment. It specified the environmental quality
criteria for the use of stony materials in construction, and did not distinguish between
primary, secondary, and waste materials. The regulations were updated in 2007 into
the Soil Quality Decree (came into force in July 2008). The reason for the revised
decree was to develop a simplified and more transparent regulation containing a
consistent set of emission limit values. There are limit values for monolithic and
granular construction products in the Soil Quality Decree (Table 6-24).
Table 6-24 : Emission Limits from the Netherlands Regulation as Part of the Soil Quality Decree
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
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500. In general, these values are derived from impact modeling of groundwater and
soil quality, which are determined by ecotoxicological criteria. The emission limit values
for granular construction products were calculated in six steps, using leaching results
from tank leaching test carried out over 64 days. A generic average release pattern (in
mg/m2) for each inorganic substance based on a large collection of quality control data
for construction products was determined using the percolation test NEN 7343.
Geochemical modeling was then used to calculate how the substance concentrations
varied with time and depth of the soil. These substance concentrations were compared
with established compliance values at the point of compliance (POC). Point of
compliance is a location at some distance from a potential source of pollution where
some enforcement limit is set, measured and shall not be exceeded. The source
release was then adjusted to match exactly the compliance values in the soil and
groundwater at the POC. The adjusted substance releases from the source were then
transformed into emission limit values (in mg/kg). The more stringent emission limit
value of the soil or the groundwater was selected, for being protective of both the soil
and groundwater.
c) Barriers and challenges
501. Implementation of Annex II makes it more difficult (i.e. more costly) to landfill hazardous waste in its untreated form it’s already forbidden in the Netherlands. Since it is a waste of effort and money to continue with disposal Annex II serves as an
Monolithic Granular, open Granular, isolated
(mg/m2) (300 mm, mg/kg) (6 mm, mg/kg)
As 260 0.9 2
Ba 1,500 22 100
Cd 3.8 0.04 0.06
Cr 120 0.63 7
Co 60 0.54 2.4
Cu 98 0.9 10
Hg 1.4 0.02 0.08
Mo 144 1 15
Ni 81 0.44 2.1
Pb 400 2.3 8.3
Sb 8.7 0.16 0.7
Se 4.8 0.15 3
Sn 50 0.4 2.3
V 320 1.8 20
Zn 800 4.5 14
Br- 670 20 34
Cl- 110,000 616 8,800
F- 2,500 55 1,500
SO42- 165,000 1,730 20,000
Testing method NEN 7375 CEN/TS 14405
Element
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incentive for more recovery of APC residues. This may lead to utilization of the
sulphates in the form of gypsum and chlorides in the form of calcium chloride.
6.2.4.3 Recovery and Utilization
502. Residues—or specific residue constituents—should always be utilized or
recovered if technically possible and environmentally beneficial. Based on the range of treatment techniques presented in 6.2.2 Main technologies and application, this is
feasible to a certain extent. Only a limited number of recovery and utilization solutions
exist today. One of the reasons for the lack of commercially available recovery and
utilization technologies is likely difficulties related to achieving satisfactorily technical
qualities of products based on fly ash and readily available virgin materials.
503. Recovery and utilization solutions are generally derived from and associated
with the treatment technologies. In many cases, the actual treatment processes are
integrated with the utilization solution.
(1) Recovery
504. Specific components present in the residues may be recovered and used again, for example in other industrial processes. The primary interest is centered
around metals and salts. Recovery is characterized by production of a material which
may substitute a similar virgin material and be used in a similar manner.
Salts
505. Evaporation of water from treated waste water from wet scrubbers can
produce a very concentrated salt solution, or recrystallized salt. This may be performed
by plants with no permission for discharge of waste water. Salt recovery directly from
the residues is also possible after water extraction of salts (i.e. “washing” of the residues). This has been considered in conjunction with several treatment technologies
generating salt containing process water.
506. Technology status: The technique is in commercial use.
Metals
507. From a technical point of view, residues represents low-grade ores that may
be subjected to metal recovery using traditional upgrading methods. This has, however,
only been attempted in a limited number of cases. Overall, metals are primarily
recovered based on two approaches:
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・ Extraction techniques: mainly acid extraction
・ Thermal techniques: melting
508. Acid extraction is a well known method for dissolution of solid materials, and
provided pH is sufficiently low most metals will dissolve into solution. The recovery rate
is limited by the dissolution level, and the quality of the recovered metals by the solution
composition. The recovered metal product may need further upgrading before a
suitable quality is achieved.
(2) Utilization
509. APC residues have properties to some extent comparable with cement (e.g.
pozzolanic behavior and contents of Ca, S, Al, Si), and may be utilized as filler material or aggregates. However due to the high contents of easily dissolvable salts and a
potential for hydrogen generation, APC residues cannot directly substitute cement.
Utilization is characterized by substitution of materials in products or applications to
which the residues can contribute with useful properties.
510. Utilization of APC residues for the applications mentioned in the following
should always be associated with a detailed description of the residue amounts used,
the placement, and the fate of the residues in case of demolition of the involved
structures. Registration by the responsible authorities should be a prerequisite for
utilization.
Cement Based Applications
511. APC residues have been suggested to substitute cement in concrete for
construction purposes, for example construction elements for buildings, shore
protection blocks, and artificial reefs. While solidification of residues by addition of
cement is relatively simple, substitution of cement by APC residues in concrete can be
rather difficult.
512. Considering the technical limitations related to producing concrete products
with APC residues and the availability of cement, residue utilization as general
construction materials is not particularly widespread. APC residues are, however, used
as material for backfilling of mines to avoid collapse. This is done on a large scale in German salt mines. The properties of the residues used for utilization may be improved
by washing, either with water or acid. Although not with a focus on utilization, this has
been practiced in Europe with subsequent addition of cement in order to cast blocks
for landfilling.
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Filler Materials
513. Investigations of coal fly ash utilization, and similar materials such as APC residues, as filler material has been carried out for many years, examples are embankments, highway ramps, noise barriers, harbour facilities, etc. Compared with
coal fly ashes, APC residues are much less suited for those purposes due to the high
contents of easily soluble salts resulting in potential problems with settling. However,
due to the pozzolanic properties of the residues, uptake of water can induce hardening
and result in a rather hard material over time.
514. Utilization of APC residues as filler material for construction works are generally not accepted today due to the environmental aspects, but may have been
practiced earlier.
515. Technology status: The technique is not commercially available.
Asphalt
516. Utilization of APC residues in bituminous structures has been investigated in
a number of cases, primarily with a focus to stabilize the residues and minimize
leaching. Fly ash can, however, be utilized as a substitute for filler material in asphalt production. Fly ash is used for this purpose in The Netherlands for road construction
on a regular basis: fly ash is ground, homogenized and mixed with other materials to produce a combined filler material with a maximum of about 25 % fly ash. Utilization of residues in asphalt production in The Netherlands is accepted on the premise that used
asphalt is recycled and the residues therefore are part of a closed loop.
Neutralization Capacity
517. The very alkaline nature of APC residues may serve as neutralization capacity
of acidic waste materials. This is utilized in Norway on acid waste from the titanium
industry. After neutralization, the remaining solid products are landfilled. Utilization of APC residues for neutralization purposes is also carried out in the United Kingdom.
6.2.4.4 Denmark
Denmark WAC, Statutory Order No. 252, and Statutory Order No. 1662
518. According to Statutory Order No. 252, and Statutory Order No. 1662, the EU
WAC Decision has been implemented in Denmark regulation by the Statutory Order
No. 252 of 2009. The Denmark EPA decided to use a similar modelling methodology
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employed for the EU landfill directive, but adjusted for Denmark conditions. Denmark
relies heavily on groundwater as a source for drinking water, and therefore has a strong
incentive to strictly protect groundwater quality. Because of this, the Denmark
acceptance criteria should be more stringent than those set by the EU. Other
differences are that the Denmark POC is located 100 meters downstream of the landfill,
and the Kd values, used to describe the contaminant-subsoil interaction in the transport
modelling, have been adjusted for Denmark. In Denmark, landfills that are located
inland and those located near the seacoast are distinguished. Also, three
subcategories of landfills for non-hazardous waste are defined: landfills for mineral
wastes, mixed waste, and non-reactive hazardous waste. Furthermore, mineral waste
landfills are divided into three types: inland mineral waste landfills (MA0), seacoast
mineral waste landfills with higher dilution potential by the nearby sea (MA1), and
seacoast mineral waste landfills with lower dilution potential by the nearby sea (MA2).
Table 6-25 lists the leaching limit values for non-hazardous mineral waste.
Table 6-25 Waste Acceptance Criteria for Non-hazardous Mineral Waste in
Denmark
Waste
Category
MA0: Mineral Waste
Landfills Located
Inland
MA1: Mineral Waste
Landfills Located near
the Seacoast
MA2: Mineral Waste
Landfills Located near
the Seacoast with
Lower Dilution
Contami
nant
L/S=2l
/kg
L/S=1
l/kg
Co
percol
ation
test
L/S=2
l/kg
L/S=1
l/kg
Co
percol
ation
test
L/S=2
l/kg
L/S=1
0l/kg
Co
percol
ation
test
mg/kg mg/kg mg/l mg/kg mg/kg mg/l mg/kg mg/kg mg/l
As 0.082 0.37 0.04 0.4 2 0.3 0.4 2 0.3
Ba 9.5 28 5.5 30 100 20 10 30 6
Cd 0.072 0.11 0.06 0.6 1 0.3 0.6 1 0.3
Cr
(total)
0.36 1 0.2 4 10 2.5 1.5 4 1
Cu 5.9 13 4 25 50 30 15 35 10
Hg 0.012 0.05 0.0063 0.05 0.2 0.03 0.05 0.2 0.03
Mo 0.44 0.9 0.31 5 10 3.5 5 10 3.5
Ni 0.22 0.5 0.14 5 10 3 5 10 3
Pb 0.28 0.6 0.18 5 10 3 5 10 3
Sb 0.022 0.08 0.012 0.2 0.7 0.15 0.2 0.7 0.15
Se 0.17 0.31 0.12 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.2
Zn 2.1 5 1.4 25 50 15 25 50 15
Cl- 2,000 2,900 1,700 10,00
0
15,00
0
8,500 10,00
0
15,000 8,500
F- 13 33 8 60 150 40 60 150 40
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Waste
Category
MA0: Mineral Waste
Landfills Located
Inland
MA1: Mineral Waste
Landfills Located near
the Seacoast
MA2: Mineral Waste
Landfills Located near
the Seacoast with
Lower Dilution
Contami
nant
L/S=2l
/kg
L/S=1
l/kg
Co
percol
ation
test
L/S=2
l/kg
L/S=1
l/kg
Co
percol
ation
test
L/S=2
l/kg
L/S=1
0l/kg
Co
percol
ation
test
mg/kg mg/kg mg/l mg/kg mg/kg mg/l mg/kg mg/kg mg/l
SO42- 2,600 5,200 1,800 10,00
0
20,00
0
7,000 10,00
0
20,000 7,000
Testing
method
EN
12457-
1
EN
1245
7-2 or
CEN/
TS
1440
5
CEN/T
S
14405
EN
1245
7-1
EN
1245
7-2 or
CEN/
TS
1440
5
CEN/T
S
14405
EN
1245
7-1
EN
12457-
2 or
CEN/T
S
14405
CEN/T
S
14405
519. Beyond the characterization of waste for different landfills, Denmark’s Statutory Order No. 1662 (2010), ‘‘Utilization of Residual Waste Materials and Soil for Construction Works and Utilization of Sorted, Unpolluted C&D Waste,” sets leaching
criteria that apply to residual products (MSWI BA, BA and FA from coal fired power
plants) and soil. The criteria are listed in Table 6-26.
Table 6-26 Limit Values for Content and Leached Amounts in Statutory Order
1662/2010
Substance Category 1 (mg/kg) Category 2 (mg/kg) Category 5 (mg/kg)
Total element content in dry matter
As 620 >20 >20
Cd 60.5 >0.5 >0.5
Cr (total) 6500 >500 >500
Cr (VI) 620 >20 >20
Cu 6500 >500 >500
Hg 61 >1 >1
Ni 630 >30 >30
Pb 640 >40 >40
Zn 6500 >500 >500
Leachate amount at L/S=2L/kg
Chloride 6300 6300 300-6,000
Sulfate 6500 6500 500-8,000
Na 6200 6200 200-3,000
As 60.016 60.016 0.016-0.1
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Substance Category 1 (mg/kg) Category 2 (mg/kg) Category 5 (mg/kg)
Total element content in dry matter
Ba 60.6 60.6 0.60-8.0
Cd 60.004 60.004 0.004-0.080
Cr 60.02 60.02 0.020-1.0
Cu 60.09 60.09 0.090-4.0
Hg 60.0002 60.0002 0.0002-0.002
Mn 60.3 60.3 0.30-2.0
Ni 60.02 60.02 0.020-0.14
Pb 60.02 60.02 0.02-0.20
Se 60.02 60.02 0.020-0.060
Zn 60.2 60.2 0.2-3.0
Testing method EN12457-1, L/S =2L/kg
520. Soil and residues to be utilized are classified into three different categories,
based on the determination of trace element content after partial digestion with 7 M
nitric acid, with different applications. Category 1 may be used for certain specified
purposes, i.e. construction of roads, paths, parking lots, noise reduction walls, ramps,
dikes, dams, railway embankments, pipe/cable trenches, landscaping, marine
constructions, refilling floors and foundations. Categories 2 and 3 are for the reuse of
contaminated waste for geotechnical purposes. Moreover, Category 2 is for roads,
paths, cable trenches, floors and foundations, noise banks, and ramps, whereas
Category 3 is for roads, paths, cable trenches, and floors and foundations. Both
Category 2 and Category 3 residues and soil may be recycled under increasingly more
stringent conditions concerning the type of application, thickness, and top cover. If the
analysis result from the leachate meets the criteria for the category, the use is suitable
for that category.
6.2.4.5 The Netherlands
Netherlands Soil Quality Decree
521. The Netherlands approach to waste management, also known as the
‘‘Lansink’s Ladder,” is to: avoid as much waste as possible in the first place, recover reusable resources from wastes, generate energy through waste incineration, and then
dispose the remaining waste into landfills. In keeping with the practice of recovering
reusable resources from wastes, stony wastes can be reused in construction
applications. For solid waste to be reused as construction material, the solid waste
must meet the criteria as stipulated in the Dutch Building Materials Decree. From 1995
to 2008, the Dutch Building Materials Decree regulated the potential impact of
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
216
construction materials on the environment. It specified the environmental quality
criteria for the use of stony materials in construction, and did not distinguish between
primary, secondary, and waste materials. The regulations were updated in 2007 into
the Soil Quality Decree (came into force in July 2008). The reason for the revised
decree was to develop a simplified and more transparent regulation containing a
consistent set of emission limit values. There are limit values for monolithic and
granular construction products in the Soil Quality Decree (Table 6-27).
Table 6-27 Emission Limits from the Netherlands Regulation as Part of the Soil
Quality Decree
Element Monolithic Granular, open Granular, isolated
(mg/m2) (300mm, mg/kg) (6mm, mg/kg)
As 260 0.9 2
Ba 1,500 22 100
Cd 3.8 0.04 0.06
Cr 120 0.63 7
Co 60 0.54 2.4
Cu 98 0.9 10
Hg 1.4 0.02 0.08
Mo 144 1 15
Ni 81 0.44 2.1
Pb 400 2.3 8.3
Sb 8.7 0.16 0.7
Se 4.8 0.15 3
Sn 50 0.4 2.3
V 320 1.8 20
Zn 800 4.5 14
Br- 670 20 34
Cl- 110,000 616 8,800
F- 2,500 55 1,500
SO42- 165,000 1,730 20,000
Testing
method
NEN 7375 CEN/TS 14405
522. In general, these values are derived from impact modeling of groundwater and
soil quality, which are determined by ecotoxicological criteria. The emission limit values
for granular construction products were calculated in six steps, using leaching results
from tank leaching test carried out over 64 days. A generic average release pattern (in
mg/m2) for each inorganic substance based on a large collection of quality control data
for construction products was determined using the percolation test NEN 7343.
Geochemical modeling was then used to calculate how the substance concentrations
TA-8963 PRC Final Report Chapter VI
217
varied with time and depth of the soil. These substance concentrations were compared
with established compliance values at the POC. The source release was then adjusted
to match exactly the compliance values in the soil and groundwater at the POC. The
adjusted substance releases from the source were then transformed into emission limit
values (in mg/kg). The more stringent emission limit value of the soil or the groundwater
was selected, for being protective of both the soil and groundwater.
6.2.4.6 UK
523. The legal provisions dealing with these points are in the Environmental
Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010 (as amended) (EP Regulations),
the Landfill Directive (1999/31/EC) and the Council Decision (2003/33/EC). Before a
waste can be accepted at a landfill site, the landfill operator must be satisfied that the
waste meets his permit conditions, the waste acceptance procedures (WAP) and
waste acceptance criteria (WAC).
Leaching Limit Values
524. The leaching limit values relate to specific leaching tests. The limits and tests
are different for granular and monolithic wastes as shown in Table 6-26 and 6-27. For
monolithic waste, blocks of the waste of specified dimensions are held in a tank of
eluate for a period of time. The leaching of constituents is a function of the surface
area of a monolith. The results are specified as milligrams per square metre. Note:
monolithic wastes can be crushed and tested as granular waste using the granular
waste limits.
Definition of Monolithic and Granular Wastes
525. A monolithic waste is a waste that has been deliberately treated to solidify it
and strongly bind it. Granular wastes include all wastes that are not monolithic.
Landfill Waste Acceptance Criteria for Granular Wastes
526. The Regulations state that granular waste can be considered to be any waste
that is not monolithic waste. Quantitative limit values have been set for regulating the
chemical characteristics of granular wastes accepted into landfills for hazardous waste,
cells within non-hazardous sites for stable non-reactive hazardous waste and inert
waste landfills. WAC have not currently been set for non-hazardous waste landfills.
527. Where landfill acceptance criteria cannot be met, information from leaching
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behaviour tests undertaken as part of the Level 1 characterisation, can help to make
an informed decision about waste treatment that will allow landfill or other alternative
management options. Leaching behaviour tests include the maximum availability
leaching test, pH dependence test and upflow percolation test. As a minimum,
information will be needed to classify the waste as a hazardous or non-hazardous
waste and to identify the class of landfill at which it may be disposed. As most
hazardous wastes will require treatment prior to landfilling, this classification and
assessment of acceptability will usually be on treated wastes.
Waste Classification
528. The Landfill Regulations require the waste producer to classify his waste as
hazardous or non-hazardous waste as part of the basic characterisation. This is
provided for by:
a) the code applicable to the waste under the European Waste Catalogue11;
b) in the case of hazardous waste, the relevant hazard properties according to
Appendix III of the Hazardous Waste Directive (91/689/EEC).
529. Wastes are classified as hazardous or non-hazardous wastes on the basis of:
(a) European Waste Catalogue (EWC) coding. The EWC (2002) lists wastes by
industry sector.
It defines wastes according to their known hazard characteristics, as:
− hazardous (absolute);
− mirror-entry (hazardous or non-hazardous depending on the presence of
hazardous properties/dangerous substances);
− non-hazardous wastes.
Note: the EWC does not define inert wastes.
(b) Hazard assessment. The presence or absence of the 14 hazard properties listed
in the Hazardous Waste Directive (91/689/EC) (e.g. H4 irritant, H6 toxic, H14
ecotoxic) defines a mirror-entry waste as hazardous or non-hazardous respectively.
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Table 6-28 Limit Values for Compliance Leaching Test for Granular Waste from
Council Decision annex 2003/33/EC)
Parameter and
Substances
Inert Waste Stable Non-Reactive
Hazardous Waste in
Non-hazardous
Hazardous
Waste
BS EN 12457-3 Limit Values (mg/kg) at L/S=10l/kg
As 0.5 2 25
Ba 20 100 300
Cd 0.04 1 5
Cr 0.5 10 70
Cu 2 50 100
Hg 0.01 0.2 2
Mo 0.5 10 30
Ni 0.4 10 40
Pb 0.5 10 50
Sb 0.06 0.7 5
Se 0.1 0.5 7
Zn 4 50 200
Cl- 800 15,000 25000
F- 10 150 500
SO42- 1000 20000 50000
Total Dissolved
Solid (TDS)
4000 60000 100000
Phenol index 1
Dissolved Organic
Carbon (DOC)
500 800 1000
530. Total dissolved solids (TDS) is not a primary parameter. There is no
requirement to meet the limit value for TDS unless the waste holder has opted to do
so in preference to meeting the individual chloride and sulphate limits. It may be used
as an optional replacement for chloride and sulphate leaching values, particularly if a
waste is unable to comply with the chloride and sulphate limits individually but is able
to meet the TDS values. The UK did not agree to the leaching test criteria for cadmium
and mercury for non-hazardous and hazardous waste sites and proposed lower limit
values of 0.1 and 1 mg kg-1 Cd and 0.02 and 0.4 mg kg-1 Hg respectively. Following
consultation of the Landfill (England and Wales) Amendment Regulations 2004, the
EU limits for Cd and Hg have been applied.
Landfill Waste Acceptance Criteria for Monolithic Waste
531. Monolithic wastes will normally mean wastes that have been deliberately
treated to solidify them. These requirements would apply to any monolithic material,
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be it cementaceous or otherwise, but provided that the waste is disposed of to form
large blocks or slabs and not as a simple mixed stabilised waste (e.g. as cement
stabilised granular waste). Landfill WAC for monolithic wastes only apply to landfills
accepting hazardous wastes and those accepting stable, non-reactive hazardous
wastes. However, all producers and receivers of monolithic wastes need to be aware
of the following proposed limit values for monolithic wastes accepted at landfills for
stable, nonreactive hazardous and hazardous wastes.
a) Limit values on input wastes to treatment process generating monolithic wastes.
b) Limit values on cumulative release at 64 days from a diffusion test for the purposes
of characterising the output of the treatment plant.
c) Limit values on cumulative release at 4 days from a diffusion test for compliance
purposes.
Limit Values on Outputs from Monolithic Treatment Process
532. Quantitative limit values have been proposed for regulating the chemical
characteristics of monolithic wastes accepted into landfills for hazardous waste and
stable non-reactive hazardous waste. The same diffusion tank test is used for both
characterisation and compliance. For characterisation, the full 64 day tank test is
followed and cumulative leaching at 4 days and 64 days used to assess short and long
term leaching behaviour. As a routine compliance test, cumulative leaching over the
first 4 days is required to be below the 4-day cumulative limit values.
Table 6-29 Limit Values for Compliance Leaching Test for Monolithic Waste from
Council Decision annex 2003/33/EC)
Parameter and
substances
Stable Non-Reactive hazardous waste
in non-hazardous landfill and non-
hazardous waste in same cell
Hazardous waste acceptable
at non-hazardous waste
landfills
Cumulative Limit Values (mg/m2)
For compliance
(4 day leaching)
For
characterization
(64 day leaching)
For
compliance
(4 day
leaching)
For
characterization
(64 day
leaching)
As 0.325 1.3 5 20
Ba 11.25 45 37.5 150
Cd 0.05 0.2 0.25 1
Cr 1.25 5 6.25 25
Cu 11.25 45 15 60
Hg 0.025 0.1 0.1 0.4
Mo 1.75 7 5 20
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Ni 1.5 6 3.75 15
Pb 1.5 6 3.75 15
Sb 1.5 6 5 20
Se 0.075 0.3 0.625 2.5
Zn 0.1 0.4 1.25 5
Cl- 7.5 30 25 100
F- 15 60 50 200
SO42- 2,500 10,000 5000 20,000
Dissolved
Organic
Carbon (DOC)
Must be
determined
Must be
determined
Must be
determined
Must be
determined
pH Must be
determined
Must be
determined
Must be
determined
Must be
determined
Electrical
conductivity
(µS/cm1.m2)
Must be
determined
Must be
determined
Must be
determined
Must be
determined
533. Under the Landfill (England and Wales) (Amendment) Regulations 2005, in
order to dispose of any material at landfill there is a requirement to classify the waste
as Hazardous, Non- Hazardous or Inert. In order to comply with this requirement Waste
Acceptance Criteria (WAC) analysis must be undertaken in line with British Standard
European Norm (BS EN) 12457. WAC testing does not determine whether a waste is
hazardous or non-hazardous but for which particular type of landfill the waste is
suitable.
a) BS EN12457-1 is a single stage leaching process at a liquid: solid ratio of 2:1.
Analytical data is reported as mg/kg dry weight, calculated by using the dry ratio.
The breadth of analysis is not specified under BS EN 12457-1 can be tailored to
site-specific requirements.
b) BS EN 12457-2 is a single stage leaching process at a liquid: solid ratio of 10:1.
Analytical data is reported as mg/kg dry weight, calculated by using the dry ratio.
Similar to the National Rivers Association (NRA) 10:1 leaching method, BS EN
12457-2 does not have a specific suite of analysis and can be tailored to site-
specific requirements.
c) BS EN 12457-3 utilises a two stage leaching process at liquid: solid ratios of 2:1
and 8:1, the combined results from which are calculated to provide analytical data
reported as mg/kg dry weight at 10:1, moisture content corrected. The suite of
analysis under BS EN 12457-3 is descriptive to a minimum point, however,
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additional analysis can be undertaken to address any site-specific requirements.
534. The UK Environment Agency’s “Waste Sampling and Testing for Disposal to Landfill” states that BS EN12457-2 should be used for all waste types, unless rapid
leaching of contaminants is expected, when BS EN12457-1 is considered appropriate.
6.3 United States
6.3.1 MSW Incinerated and MSWIP Fly Ash Generation and Characteristics
6.3.1.1 MSWI
535. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, in 2014 about 258 million
tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) were generated. Over 89 million tons of MSW
were recycled and composted, equivalent to a 34.6 percent recycling rate (see Figure
6-17 and Figure 6-18). In addition, over 33 million tons of MSW were combusted with
energy recovery and 136 million tons were landfilled.
536. Most of the MSW combustion in the U.S. incorporates recovery of an energy
product (generally steam or electricity). In 2014, about 33.1 million tons (12.8 percent)
of materials were combusted for energy recovery (see Table 6-18). From 1990 to 2000,
the quantity of MSW combusted with energy recovery increased over 13 percent to
about 34 million tons. MSW combustion for energy recovery has decreased from about
34 million tons in 2000 to 33.1 million tons in 2014.
537. In the United States, the future use of incineration units for MSW management
will depend on various policies. A greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction policy might
possibly result in an increase in the construction of new incineration plants depending
on how such a policy might affect landfills, as incineration generated less GHG
emissions than land filling.
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Figure 6-17 MSW Generation Rates, 1960 to 2014
Figure 6-18 Management of MSW in the United States, 2014
538. The energy recovery statistic includes combustion of MSW in mass burn or
refuse-derived fuel form, and combustion with energy recovery of source separated
materials in MSW (e.g., wood pallets and tire-derived fuel). There are 167 MSW
incineration units larger than 250 ton/day incineration capacity. These incineration
units are referred to as “large” incineration units and represent more than 90% of municipal solid waste incineration capacity. MSWIs have multiple incineration units on
site with 2 or 3 incineration units per plant being the most common. The 167
incineration units are located at 66 incineration plants. The average size of these
incineration units is 535 ton/day capacity and the average size of the incineration plants
is 1,355 ton/day. There are about 60 small MSWI units of less than 250 ton/day
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capacity. Their average size is 120 ton/day incineration capacity. There are 133
incineration units of the water wall mass burn configuration and 34 incineration units
of the waterwall refuse derived fuel (RDF) configuration. The large and small MSWIs
in combination have approximately a 2,700 megawatt electric (MWe) nameplate
generation capacity and generate about 22,000 GWh electric power per year.
539. For MSWI units in the United States, the suite of controls used to control
emissions is generally the same at large and small units. The spray dryer scrubbing
system is the primary control used at MSWI units. About 97 % of the incineration units
use spray dryer based scrubbing systems. The air pollution control applications of the
167 incineration units are as follows:
Table 6-30 Air Pollution Emission Control Unit in MSWIs
Air Pollution Control Number of MSWI Units
SD/FF/ACI/SNCR 94
SD/DD/ACI 5
SD/FF/SNCR 21
SD/FF 18
SD/ESP/ACI/SNCR 15
SD/ESP/ACI 4
SD/ESP/FF/ACI 2
SD/ESP 4
DSI/FF 2
DSI/GBF 2
Where: SD spray dryer FF fabric filter ACI activated carbon injection
SNCR selective non catalytic reduction
ESP electrostatic precipitator DSI dry sorbent injection
GBF gravel bed filter
6.3.1.2 Ash Generation
540. According to U. S. EPA (2016b), the amount of ash generated ranges from
15-25 percent (by weight) and from 5-15 percent (by volume) of the MSW processed.
Generally, MSW combustion residues consist of two types of material: fly ash and slag.
Fly ash refers to the fine particles that are removed from the flue gas and includes
residues from other air pollution control devices, such as scrubbers. Fly ash typically
amounts to 10-20 percent by weight of the total ash. The rest of the MSW combustion
ash is called slag (80-90 percent by weight). The main chemical components of slag
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are silica (sand and quartz), calcium, iron oxide, and aluminum oxide. Slag usually has
a moisture content of 22-62 percent by dry weight. The chemical composition of the
ash varies depending on the original MSW feedstock and the combustion process.
6.3.2 Mainstream Technologies and Application
6.3.2.1 Mainstream Technologies
541. Basically, in order to reduce the adverse effect of FA, different treatment
techniques are being practiced. According to ISWA report (2008), these treatments are
(1) extraction and separation using water or acid, (2) chemical stabilization using
carbon dioxide/phosphoric acid (CO2/H3PO4), ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) , sodium sulfide
(Na2S) , and orthophosphate (PO43-) , (3) solidification using lime, cement, asphalt, and
gypsum, and (4) thermal treatment, such as vitrification and pyrolysis. The
technologies are not different from EU.
542. In U. S., slag and air pollution control (APC) residues are mixed together at
most MSW incineration facilities and disposed as a “combined ash”. The ash is sent to landfills. At the present time most operating facilities in the United States recover the
ferrous metal fraction present in ash, which can comprise up to 15 percent of the total
ash fraction. Only a very small fraction (less than 5 percent) of the nonferrous fraction
of the ash generated in the United States is recovered and utilized. Most of the ash is
used as a landfill cover material. There is some commercial use of ash in road paving
applications. The technologies are summarized as follows by Sun.
1) Hot Mix Asphalt
543. After screening, magnetic separation, ferrous and nonferrous metals are
removed from mixed ash or BA. Mixed ash or BA with appropriate particle size can be
mixed with other aggregates, used as a mixture of asphalt pavement. From the 1970s
to the early 1980s, the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) had successfully
completed at least six asphalt pavement demonstration projects using mix ash in cities
like Houston, Washington and Philadelphia. These ashes are used in the adhesive
layer, the wear layer/surface layer and the roadbed of the road. The results showed
that when used in the adhesive layer or roadbed, the best ash content was no more
than 20%; used in the wear layer/surface layer, the best ash content was not exceed
15%. Also, the demonstration project indicated that, as long as proper handling, ash
used as asphalt will not cause environmental pollution.
2) Cement and Concrete
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544. Fly ash contains large amounts of SiO2, Al2O3 and CaO, its composition is
very similar to the composition of raw materials for cement production. Therefore, fly
ash could be a possible replacement of raw material in cement production. The high
levels of heavy metals and chloride in fly ash affect the product quality. Washing pre-
treatment of fly ash to reduce water-soluble substances like chloride before cement
curing greatly enhance the compressive strength and reduce the leaching toxicity of
the products. Based on S/S technology, fly ash can be potentially applied as a
replacement of cement or as an aggregate, but the quantities of fly ash added to the
process should be carefully controlled in order to ensure the process safety as well as
product quality. In the United States and the Netherlands, slag (or mixed ash) is used
as a partial substitute aggregate for concrete. The most common is mixing the slag,
water, cement and other aggregates to make concrete blocks by a certain percentage,
which has been commercialized in the United States. Processed after ferrous recovery
and screened to size, stabilized BA and combined ash (85% ash and 15% type II
Portland cement) used in masonry blocks and artificial reef by Waste Management
Institution of Marine Scientific Research Center in Stony Brook University in Long
Island Sound seabed. The result shows that the blocks were stronger than original
concrete blocks, and there is no ground or water pollution during six years.
3) Landfill Cover
545. Landfill sites have environmental protection facilities such as barrier layer and
leachate recovery system, the adverse effects on human health and environment
caused by heavy metal leaching from ash can be well controlled. The pretreatment
process for ash such as screening, magnetic separation and particle size distribution
is unnecessary if used as landfill cover. Therefore, in consideration of economy,
environment and technology, ash used as landfill cover material is a very good choice.
Combined ash used as landfill cover at landfill in Honolulu, Hawaii showed very well
performance.
6.3.2.2 Application Situation
546. In a MSWI in Westchester, New York State, After removing metal material and
cement material from slag, the slag is mixed with fly ash. The ash is sent to landfill site.
In New York State, it is required to mix slag and fly ash before landfilling. The reagent
for chemical stabilization is not used. Like this, almost all ash is disposed by landfill.
547. Beneficial use of combined ash as a landfill construction material and road
construction material are limited. Florida is a most advanced state for this recycling of
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ash. In 1998, the Florida Legislature amended certain provisions of the Florida Statues
to encourage the beneficial reuse of municipal waste-to energy ash in manners that
are protective of human health and the environment. To that end, the Florida
Department of Environmental Protection developed a document entitled "Guidance for
Preparing Municipal Waste-to-Energy Ash Beneficial Use Demonstrations" to assist
communities in developing reuse demonstrations. It was determined that nearly 3
million cubic yards of landfill space could be saved through beneficial reuse of the ash.
An initial analytical screening was performed to test the leaching potential of the eight
RCRA metals and compare to applicable groundwater and surface water standards.
Overall results were favorable, with some indication that lead could pose potential
concern. Geotechnical index testing (grain size, moisture content, and organic content)
was performed to determine if ash has similar physical properties to the sand that is
currently used on-site. Results indicated that the ash has similar physical properties to
the sandy material. Combined ash was used in this test.
548. Recently, in Florida, some tests to evaluate the use of MSWI ash as road
construction materials were conducted. The MSWI slag was also used to replace fine
aggregate in hot-mix asphalt (HMA). Varying proportions of slag and fine aggregate
were tried in an effort to determine the optimum ratio of slag to fine aggregate, as
determined by performance tests such as the Marshall stability test and the moisture
susceptibility test. For the optimum replacement ratio of slag, the optimum binder
content required was evaluated. Recently, Florida state has approved the use of MSWI
slag as road construction materials.
6.3.3 Policies, Laws, Regulations and Standards
6.3.3.1 Policies, Laws and Regulations
549. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) is the nation’s primary law governing the disposal of solid and hazardous waste in Untied States. The
hazardous waste management, under Subtitles C of RCRA, established a system for
controlling hazardous waste from “cradle to grave”. The RCRA regulations governing
hazardous waste identification, classification, generation, management and disposal
are set forth in different parts of title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).
550. According to RCRA, MSWI ashes are subject to testing by the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) prior to disposal. Residues which pass
TCLP are subject to management as a non-hazardous solid waste, while residues
which fail TCLP are subject to management as hazardous waste or special waste,
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depending on state requirements. In practice, operations at most MSWI facilities have
been adjusted so that failure to pass TCLP is a rare event. Required testing frequency
varies considerable from state to state, typically ranging from testing of weekly to
quarterly composite samples. The most frequent disposal options practiced for
combined ash are disposal in a landfill which receives only MSWI residues (termed a
“monofill”), disposal in a segregated cell within a MSW landfill which only receives MSWI residues, or disposal on top of previously landfilled MSW. Several jurisdictions
are evaluating the use of MSWI residues as daily cover for conventional MSW landfills.
551. Utilization of MSWI residues has been sought in jurisdictions which have high
costs associated with disposal of MSWI residues, limited disposal capacity which is
constrained by the difficulty associated with siting new landfills, or limited reserves of
natural aggregate. The conditions are most prevalent in areas with high population
densities. While several utilization options have been considered, the most promising
utilization scenario is use of slag as an aggregate substitute in road construction
applications. FHWA provides “User Guidelines for Waste and Byproduct Materials in
Pavement Construction”.
6.3.3.2 Regulatory System and Institutional Framework
552. Firstly, solid waste management in US is described in 6901 of title 42 of the
CF as follows.
553. While the collection and disposal of solid wastes should continue to be
primarily the function of State, regional, and local agencies, the problems of waste
disposal as set forth above have become a matter national in scope and in concern
and necessitate Federal action through financial and technical assistance and
leadership in the development, demonstration, and application of new and improved
methods and processes to reduce the amount of waste and unsalvageable materials
and to provide for proper and economical solid waste disposal practices. Therefore,
basically, State, regional, and local agencies have to manage municipal solid waste
under subtitle D in RCRA.
554. The RCRA Subtitles C Section 3001 requires EPA to “develop and promulgate criteria for identifying the characteristics of hazardous waste, and for listing hazardous
waste, which should be subject to the provisions of this subtitle, taking into account
toxicity, persistence, and degradability in nature, potential for accumulation in tissue,
and other related factors such as flammability, corrosiveness, and other hazardous
characteristics”. It is recognized to de legate authority to State from EPA for
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Formulation and implementation of concrete program. Because some states has more
strict programs, EPA can approve the program and the States can implement the
program Also, EPA can order the State, regional, and local agencies to take corrective
action about pollution from hazardous waste disposal under RCRA subtitle C.
6.3.3.3 Technical Methods, Guidelines and Standards
555. By the TCLP test Method 1311, if any of the contaminant level from an extract
of a representative solid waste is at or exceeds the regulatory level, the solid waste is
considered to exhibit toxicity characteristics, and is classified as a hazardous waste.
Table6-31 shows maximum concentration of contaminants for the toxicity
characteristic.
Table 6-31 Maximum Concentration of Contaminants for the Toxicity Characteristic
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556. The approach for the derivation of the TCLP regulatory level takes into
account three key determinations: acceptable level at the groundwater consumption
point based on risk, the dilution/attenuation factor between the disposal unit and the
receptor, and the leachate concentration from the waste that would be permitted. In
addition, explicit determination of allowed concentration from risks of exposure to the
leached constituents is needed. Particularly, the risks are based on risk-specific doses
for carcinogenic compounds that result in an incidence of cancer equal to or less than
10-5, reference doses for non-carcinogenic constituents based on an estimate of the
daily dose of a substance that will result in no adverse effect even after a lifetime of
such exposure, and the proposed maximum contaminant levels in drinking water.
6.3.3.4 Implementation Procedures and Safeguarding Measures
557. Tracking and licensing are two management program of hazardous waste in
United States. Each enterprise related to hazardous waste (large quantity generators
and treatment enterprise) are required to get the EPA identification number from the
Administrator, and RCRA requires a permit for the “treatment,” “storage,” and “disposal” of any “hazardous waste” as identified or listed in 40 CFR part 261. In order to track
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the generation and transfer of hazardous waste, EPA requires large quantity
generators and small quantity generators to prepare a manifest and keep a copy of
each manifest. According to 40CFR, the copy of each manifest must keep for three
years.
6.3.4 Experiences and Lessons
558. US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) made the User Guidelines for
Waste and Byproduct Materials in Pavement Construction to encourage appropriate
widespread use of secondary materials (i.e., waste and byproduct materials) and
associated technologies in the construction and rehabilitation of highway infrastructure.
In municipal solid waste combustor ash, material description, granular base and
Asphalt Concrete – Aggregate are recorded (FHWA-RD-97-148).
6.4 Summary
559. In Japan, because of the shortage of appropriate land for final disposal sites,
recycling methods to avoid landfilling have been conducted In the meantime, concerns
began to arouse over pollution caused by dioxins in treatment facilities due to their high
concentrations in fly ash, which led to enhancing regulations to target at reduction of
dioxins in exhaust gas and generated ash of waste incineration plants. In this
situation, bottom and fly ash melting facility and gasification melting facility were
developed and promoted, but they have not been popular mainly because of their low
cost effectiveness. Though they did have effect on reducing dioxins levels, the
treatment costs were higher than that of stoker furnace. As they also consume a lot of
amount of energy and generate much CO2, they are currently under reassessment.
There are private electric furnace businesses that have reductive melting technology
with high expertise and engaged in waste recycling business. These are promising.
Recycling ash into cement material is also promising Even though manufacturing eco-
cement requires a dedicated plant construction newly, it can be a viable business in
urban areas. the cost of them is considered cheaper than that of local gabernment
self treatment owning melting plant. We should take note that Japanese technologies
for ash recycling are almost all co-treatment of bottom ash and fly ash. High
temperature technologies ex. melting and sintering are not usable for fly ash only .
560. In EU, fly ash management differs among countries. Especially, in The
Netherland, In keeping with the practice of recovering reusable resources from wastes,
fly ash can be reused in construction applications such as asphalt filler. For solid waste
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to be reused as construction material, the solid waste must meet the criteria as
stipulated in the Dutch Building Materials Decree. This policy has led, to date, to a
recovery rate of fly ash of around 50%. On the other hand, in Germany, the fly ash is
strictly regulated and basically stored in waste salt mine. In other countries, cement
solidification and/or chemical stabilization is a major technology to meet the EU or each
country’s regulation.
561. In US, fly ash and bottom ash are mixed together at most MSW incineration
facilities and disposed as a combined ash. Most of the ash is used as a landfill cover
material. There is some commercial use of as in road paving applications.
562. Finally, fly ash treatment or recycling technologies are summarized in Table
6-32. Currently, chemical stabilization and/or stabilization treatment with cement is
popularly used for MSWI fly ash to prevent heavy metal release from final disposal site
in all over the world. High temperature process such as melting and eco cement
process are used in Japan but not popular in the world. Although acid extraction and
neutralization are not so popular, if specific industries can use MSWI fly ash for this
purpose, these technologies are relatively good. In US and Netherland, MSWI fly ash
is used as asphalt filler or road paving applications. In this case, the management of
the final products from MSWI fly ash are necessary because the product is directly
used in the environment.
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Table 6-32 Disposal or Reuse Technology of Fly Ash
Melting
(Vitrification)
Cement Solidification, Application
Chemical Stabilization With Chelate or Other
Reagent
Acid Extraction,
Salt Recovery
Calcination (Sintering, Eco-Cement, Etc.)
Neutralization Asphalt Landfill
Cover of Filter
Advantage
Candecompose Dioxin and Fix Heavy Metal in
Slag
Cheap Easy Application
Can Recover Metal from
Waste
Can Decompose Dioxin And
Recover Heavy Metal
Substitute of Alkaline Reagent
Substitute of Sand/
Filter Material
Substitute of Sand/
Filter Material
Disadvantage
Expensive, Energy
Consuming, High
Maintanance
Volume
Presence of Excess Chemicals
in Leachate
Need Waste Water
Process and Low Grade
Expensive, Energy
Consuming
Limited Application
Limited Application
Limited Application
for Dioxin Decompose No No No Decompose No No No
for Heavy Metal
Stable in Slag, But Secondary Ash Generation
Not Effective for Some Elements
Can Choose Suitable
Chemicals
Can Recover Secondary Ash
Generation No
Effective for Some Elements
No
Technical Difficulty
Level Moderate Easy Easy Moderate Moderate Moderate Easy Easy
Cost High Cheap Moderate Moderate High Cheap Moderate Cheap
Disposal Amount in
Landfill Small Large Moderate Small Small Small No No
Long Term High Low Moderate Moderate High Low Moderate Low
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Stability of Final
Residual Resource Recovery
Yes* No No Yes Yes No No No
Use as Construction
or Raw Materials
Slag: OK Difficult Difficult Difficult Sintering
Product Or Brick: OK
No Yes Yes
China Ⅹ O O Ⅹ Δ Ⅹ Ⅹ Δ
Japan Δ* O O Δ O Δ Ⅹ Ⅹ
US Ⅹ Δ Δ Ⅹ Ⅹ Ⅹ O O
EU Δ O O O Ⅹ Δ Δ Δ
comment
Yes* In some cases in Japan, not only slag but also fly ash from melting process are also recovered and used at private sectors
(slag is mainly used as construction material and Zinc etc. in melting fly ash is recovered from non-ferrous industries). △* In case of Japan, melting process means co-melting bottom ash and fly ash at present. Melting process for only fly ash is no
longer used due to many troubles and high maintenance cost. Reference
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CHAPTER7 CHALLENGES FOR SUSTAINABLE
MANAGEMENT OF MSWI FLY ASH IN THE PRC
7.1 Comparative Analysis of Gap between International and Domestic Technologies
563. China's research on the sustainable disposal technology of the incineration fly
ash and its standard is relatively late. The relevant theoretical system, target system,
certification system, supervision system and corresponding standard system are still
in the initial establishment, thus the infrastructure capability is still weak. Developed
countries, represented by Germany, the United States and Japan, have begun to study
the sustainable disposal mechanism of incineration fly ash very early and have
accumulated a lot of practical experience. Table 7-1 shows the disposal situation of
incineration fly ash in developed countries. It can be seen from the table, fly ash
treatment methods in developed countries are diverse with a high degree of harmless
feature; the fly ash after the innocent treatment is mostly sent to the landfill site;
resource utilization concentrates more in the roadbed, embankment and construction
aggregate, but approach for large-scale resource utilization is still in the middle of
research and exploration.
Table 7-1 Disposal Situation of Incineration Fly Ash in Developed Countries
Country Main Disposal Method Resource Utilization
Approach
The USA Fly ash is sent to the single landfill after mixture
with slag.
Daily cover and
closure final cover of
landfill site, asphalt
aggregate, concrete
aggregate etc.
Canada Fly ash is sent to landfill of hazardous waste. ——
Holland
Fly ash is stored in dedicated bags in a controlled
landfill, regardless of resource utilization. Waste
recycling is only for research.
Roadbed filler ,
embankment filler,
concrete aggregate
and asphalt
aggregate
Denmark Fly ash is exported or stored in dedicated bags. Parking lot, roadbed
material
Germany Fly ash is stored in underground mines such as
rock salt mines.
Roadbed and sound
barrier
France Fly ash is solidified with hydraulic binder and
stored in specified holes of landfill. Public works
Switzerland
One part of bottom and fly ash are sent for landfill
after the leach with metal, the other part is
transported to Germany.
Metal recycling
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Country Main Disposal Method Resource Utilization
Approach
Sweden Fly ash is sent to safe landfill site after treatment.
Road pavement
within the limits, so
the degree of
resource utilization is
limited.
Portuguese Fly ash is solidified with hydraulic binder and
stored in specified landfill sites. ——
UK Fly ash is sent to the specified landfill sites after
solidification. ——
Japan
With sediments used as road construction
materials, fly ash is solidified (melting, cement,
chemical agent, separation and leach, etc.) for
stabilization before treatment, and sent to landfill
site after cement solidification and stabilization.
Filler, embankment
filler, concrete
aggregate and
asphalt aggregate
7.1.1 Japan
564. In Japan, the early incineration sediments were buried together with urban
waste without being processed in compliance with relevant standards. But because of
its secondary pollution, in July 1992 the Japanese government announced the
amendment of Law of Waste Treatment, which, referring to the provisions of Subtitle
C in Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of the US, divided the waste
into general waste, general waste under special management, industrial waste and
industrial waste under special management, and listed the waste with explosion,
toxicity, infection and other harms to human’s health and living environment into the
list of special management. The amendment provided fly ash was a general waste
under special management and that the fly ash and the slag should be collected and
stored separately. The Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law clearly stipulated
that fly ash must pass one of the following four treatment methods: melting and
solidification, cement solidification, chemical stabilization and acidic leaching before
entering the landfill site.
565. Because the content of plastic materials in MSW is very high, so the content
of chlorides, especially alkali chloride, is very high in the incineration fly ash, thus the
strength and immersion persistence of the solidified body are poor when the fly ash is
solidified by cement or lime. Blocking on the heavy metals is only due to its strong
alkaline effect. In addition, the long-term fixation effect of heavy metals is poor and
dioxins are difficult to be eliminated or stabilized. Therefore, the Japanese related
research focused on high-temperature treatment, especially the melting vitrification.
From the 1980s onwards, the government started to lead the development program of
melting technology, now Japan has become one of the most extensive countries in the
application of melting method to treat incineration fly ash. Although the high-
temperature treatment is high-cost, because of its high degree of stability and even
quality, and harmless, stable and resource-based goals, it is drawing more and more
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attention.
566. The main process route is that under certain conditions, the fly ash is mixed
with the secondary raw materials (coal, bentonite, etc.), and the mixture is pulverized,
made into particles and then dried to enter the cement kiln for calcination. The calcined
material is a lightweight aggregate and can be used as a building ceramsite. One part
of the exhaust gas and secondary fly ash produced during the calcination process can
be returned to the cement kiln for re-burning and the other part will be sent into the
dust collection device. And through bag collector and wet treatment, Zinc, Lead,
Cadmium and other heavy metals can be recovered. Finally, the gas is washed through
the scrubber and adsorbed and discharged by the activated charcoal.
567. At the same time, the Japanese industrial specifications JIS A5031 and JIS
A5032 also made the provisions on quality, test methods, inspection, labeling,
reporting and application range of concrete aggregates and roadbed materials
prepared by municipal solid waste and its incineration sediments.
7.1.2 USA
568. In the USA, since the federal government does not disclose the laws and
regulations on the definition of incineration sediments, each state set their own relevant
regulatory standards, so that there are different requirements of storage, collection and
disposal across the USA. In storage and collection, some states require slag and fly
ash of incineration sediments to be separated for storage and mixture of them is
forbidden, but for most of the states, this requirement is not mandatory. In the middle
treatment, for most of the states, the incineration sediments are transported to the
landfill without treatment, only some states treat the sediments with the cement
solidification, chemical stabilization and other intermediate treatments before the final
landfill. In the final disposal, the requirements of the states also vary with each other;
some states allow the mixture landfill of incineration sediments and other waste while
some states require incineration sediments must be separately buried; and for landfill
facilities, some states require only a single natural or synthetic impermeable layers
while some states require a two-layer or three-layer impermeable barrier.
569. In addition, since 1979, after passing the RCRA, there was a dispute on the
definition of the incineration sediments between the US Environmental Protection
Department and operators of the resource recycling plants. In May 1994, the United
States Supreme Court defined that incinerated ash was a hazardous waste suitable
for use of Subtitle C of RCRA and that TCLP dissolution tests had to be carried out. If
the results didn’t comply with the relevant standards, it would be considered as hazardous waste subject to the provisions of Subtitle C for treatment and disposal. In
January 1995 The United States Environmental Protection Agency stipulated that
before incineration sediments were transported away from the waste recycling plant,
the dissolution test should be carried out to determine whether it was hazardous waste.
The US Environmental Protection Agency did not enforce that fly ash and slag must
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be collected separately, but in order to avoid that fly ash with high heavy metal content
was identified as hazardous waste, causing additional treatment and disposal costs,
operators of resource recycling plant often collected and stored fly ash mixed with the
slag with low content of heavy metals, and diluted the mixture to reduce the content of
heavy metals in incineration sediments, so as to reach the standards of dissolution test.
7.1.3 EU
570. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Europe built a number of melting facilities
for simultaneous treatment of fly ash and slag, but none of these facilities were
currently in operation. This is mainly due to the high energy consumption of the melting
method, one ton of sediments with energy consumption up to 1 MWh (incineration
sediments of each ton cost about 30 to 60 US dollars).
571. Germany defines fly ash as hazardous waste and regulates that the fly ash
shall not be mixed with the slag and be disposed of by the landfill method. German law
stipulates that if the economy permits, all sediments must be recovered. For the slag
treatment, as with other European countries, about 60% of the slag is used for road
pavement and other similar use, but before its resource utilization, it needs to be stored
for three months before use, and the burning reduction shall be below 5% and moisture
content below 2%. Fly ash is mainly disposed of by means of deep mine storage. Deep
mine storage refers to placing the fly ash in the container that will be stored for a long
term storage in the deep mine space formed after mining and isolated from the
biosphere, thus the long-term geological stability is required, and there should be no
groundwater and with a multi-layer impermeable barrier, and the depth should be over
400 meters beneath the ground surface, the preferred mine is a rock salt mine; the
deep mine storage is considered to be the safest disposal of hazardous solid waste
with high toxicity. The technology is mainly popular in Germany, a country with the
extremely strict environmental requirements. In 2002, the German government issued
a special Waste Underground Landfill Regulation to regulate and promote the
development and application of the disposal technology. In 2005, Germany's
production capacity of incineration fly ash was about 350,000 tons, of which about 57%
was recycled, 30,000 tons was stored in deep waste mine, the rest was put into the
innocent treatment, of which part was processed with solidification.
572. Swiss watch has been a world leader in the industry; in recent years, due to
a substantial increase in export and continuously rising price of international metals of
raw materials, the metal demand and cost in Switzerland followed with a sharp rise,
which, coupled with the original shortage of domestic mineral resources, makes that
the metal recycling in the sediments after waste incineration has been a concern. By
2013, Switzerland has 28 domestic stove-based incineration facilities, processing 3.55
million tons of waste per year and producing about 80 million tons of slag and 80,000
tons of fly ash. 97% of the slag is recovered with Fe, Cu, Al and precious metals after
electromagnetic separation and melting, and treated residues is sent for landfill; the
above treatment has become a usual practice in the country. About 40% of the fly ash
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after acidic treating will be recycled with electrochemical technology for recovery of
heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Zn and Cd, etc.), which, however, has not yet been fully a usual
practice; and the main technical processes in it are: washing of fly ash (FLUWA,
Flugaschenheasche) and the latest fly ash recycling (FLUREC, Flugas-chenrecycling).
Among them, FLUWA has been adopted by 13 incineration enterprises, with a
recovery rate of high-purity zinc up to 1 800t / year.
573. Denmark is more lenient to incineration sediments in the relevant laws and
regulations; if the incineration sediments are in compliance with the relevant regulatory
requirements, such as heavy metal content: Pb <300mg / kg, Cd <10mg / kg, Hg
<0.5mg / kg, etc., it can be recycled as roadbed material, aggregate, casing, etc., if not
meet the requirements, it will be disposed of with coastal management and other
means under the principle of not polluting the underground water sources. Because
heavy metal content of fly ash is high, so when the recycle of ash sediments are taken
into account, the fly ash and slag shall be separately collected. In the relevant
application engineering, the slag is a good substitute for gravel; it can reduce the
burden of landfill and processing costs of landfill. Fly ash is classified as a hazardous
waste; flue gas collected in dry or semi-dry purification system is classified as
dangerous waste and is typically packed in a polyethylene bag and transported to a
dedicated landfill for separate landfill; these landfill sites contain leachate collection
systems and linings and impermeable layers; and the fly ash from wet scrubbers is
usually either buried separately or mixed with flue dust. However, the above-mentioned
methods are temporary disposal measures before the viable methods are found. After
treatment, the fly ash can be buried in a landfill to build a new habitat.
7.1.4 China
574. At present, China's main technologies of treatment and disposal of waste
incineration sediments and resource utilization include cement solidification, chemical
stabilization, building materials utilization technology (co-processing technology in
cement kiln), melting and solidification (sintered ceramsite technology) and so on. As
China's research on disposal of waste incineration fly ash and technology of resource
utilization was carried out lately, so now there is no applicable and fixed processing
technology for the treatment and disposal of the fly ash with the high chlorine content.
Some commonly used processing technologies are also often with technical
bottlenecks, for example, cement solidification is low in strength of solidified body of
cement and high in leaching rate of heavy metals after cement solidification, and the
consumption of cement is high under the same conditions; chemical stabilization has
the problem of high-dosage adding of the same type of chemical agents in production
process of organic chelation under the same effect; melting and solidification is only in
the experimental stage, far from the stage of application.
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7.2 Technical Challenge
575. Fly ash is the purification product of incineration flue gas; because the waste
compositions are various, and the incineration processes and flue gas purification
processes for kinds of wastes are also different, so it results that compositions of the
fly ash vary greatly, which, coupled with huge production, complex characteristics,
interference and high content of volatile elements, makes its subsequent utilization is
difficult to predict. On the Basis of the nature and treatment characteristics of fly ash
in China's MSW incineration, the treatment and utilization of fly ash must be taken into
account in terms of resource utilization and environmental impact. It is necessary not
only to consider the feasibility of resource utilization of fly ash to find the best balance
between economic cost and environment protection, but also to have the
environmental characteristics of processed products of fly ash reach the limited
standards.
576. The risk of fly ash is mainly from heavy metals and dioxins, and the treatment
of fly ash is to minimize it. Risk will be reduced in the follow-up treatment when dioxins
are removed by degradation. Since heavy metals can’t be degraded, it is difficult to achieve the source abatement; solidification or extraction for recovery of heavy metals
can help to achieve the goal of controlling environmental risks. With good stability,
melting and solidification can firmly confine the heavy metals in the molten vitreous
body, so as to effectively control the leaching of heavy metals. But the implementation
of melting and solidification is difficult, and in the treatment the total amount of heavy
metals can’t be reduced, so the effect of discharge reduction is not significant. The recovery technology of heavy metals can radically realize the innocent treatment of the
fly ash, not only transforming waste into resources, reducing environmental pollution,
but also converting fly ash from hazardous waste into inert solid waste.
577. The existing recovery technologies of heavy metals mainly include
conventional hydrometallurgical method and electrochemical method. Acidic leaching
can highly leach out heavy metals, but since a large amount of chloride and sulphate
is also leached, the chemical properties of the system is very complex, selective
separation for a variety of heavy metals can’t be easily achieved; alkali leaching can selectively leach out amphoteric metals of Pb and Zn, but with a low leaching rate,
resulting in that a large amount of heavy metals still remain in the residue, the product
still needs to be solidified or stabilized as a hazardous waste; the method of ammonia
complex leaches Pb, Cu and Zn in the form of complex simultaneously, avoiding
interference of ions of Fe, Al, Mg, Ca and other metals, but complexes of Cd, Cr, Mn,
Mo, V and other heavy metals will be leached out at the same time, so it is difficult to
separate them selectively; electrochemical technology theoretically can control the
reduction potential of ions of the metals, realizing selective separation of Pb, Cu and
Zn, but because of the existence of cross-regions between the reduction potential of
other metal ions and the ions of target metal, a mixture of various metals is often
obtained on the electrodes. It can be seen that a single extraction method can’t
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effectively separate and recover heavy metals, it is necessary to adopt a combined
process to selectively extract heavy metals. How to achieve the recovery of heavy
metals at the same time of efficiently processing the fly ash is a new opportunity and
a challenge for the development of China's ash treatment and disposal technology.
7.2.1 Cement Solidification
578. For cement solidification, the main constraints in the practical application are
mainly heavy metal control and poor stability of cement solidified body. The effect of
heavy metal control is directly related to the final effect of cement solidification. The
failure of heavy metal control will directly lead to the failure and collapse of treatment
process of hazardous waste. Therefore, how to further improve the stability and
leaching safety of heavy metals in cement solidified body is worthy of further research.
In addition, the research on how to effectively control and eliminate the decline of
treatment effect on incineration fly ash from MSW caused by the poor stability of
cement solidified body still needs to be further promoted and improved.
7.2.2 Chemical Stabilization
579. The main technical challenges for chemical stabilization treating incineration
fly ash from MSW include the following two aspects: on the one hand, the stability
effect on the complex state of heavy metals is still pending further study. However,
when the PH is strongly acidic and alkaline, the rise of content of the heavy metal ions
is significant. How to further improve the environmental tolerance and chemical stability
of heavy metal complexes will be an important challenge for the treatment of chemical
stabilization. On the other hand, the price of chemical agents, especially organic
chemicals, is relatively high, which are mainly determined by the complexity of the
process and high cost of raw materials, and in China, due to the late launching
compared to overseas, the above problem is more prominent; under the same
processing capacity and treatment effect, the high expense of solidification agents has
become an important obstacle for the practice of chemical stabilization.
7.2.3 High Temperature Heat Treatment and Solidification Technology
580. High temperature heat treatment and solidification technology includes
cement kiln co-disposal, high temperature sintering ceramsite and high-temperature
melting glass technology. At present, the high-temperature heating treatment and
solidification technology requires large energy consumption, which, together with the
follow-up strict flue gas treatment for Pb, Cd, Zn and other volatile heavy metals,
results in high cost of treatment; at present, how to effectively control the volatile heavy
metals and develop the post-treatment process for the flue gas has become an urgent
problem to improve the melting and solidification technology. In addition, melting and
solidification requires a large amount of material to be heated above the melting point,
which requires a considerable amount of energy and expense, whether the electricity
or other fuels is or are consumed. Generally, the melting process for fly ash requires a
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complex processing system, so development of high-temperature melting system and
manufacturing of the corresponding ancillary equipment has also been confronted with
considerable technical difficulties and challenges.
7.2.4 Safe Landfill Disposal
581. Safe landfill disposal refers to a way that the incineration fly ash form MSW is
sent into the safe landfill after an immediately simple treatment in the field, which is
currently one of the safest and most reliable treatment means for the incineration fly
ash. But the costs of construction and operation of the safe landfill remain so high that
waste incineration plant is difficult to bear in present practical practice; in addition, the
method also can’t help to achieve the purpose of volume reduction and resource utilization, so in the future there will be a gradual decline in application of this method.
7.3 Policies and Regulations Challenge
7.3.1 Problems in the Solid Waste Law
582. The construction of solid waste management system of China began in
1995,when the government promulgated and implemented the "People's Republic of
China Solid Waste Pollution Prevention Law." So far, this law has undergone a revision
and three amendments. As the Solid Waste Management continues to deepen, the
Solid Waste Law shows that it can not meet the actual needs. For MSWI fly ash, there
are several main problems.
1) Unclear Management Properties of MSWI Fly Ash
583. The Solid Waste Law clearly defines that "domestic waste refers to solid waste
generated in daily life or activities that provide services for daily life and solid wastes
that are required by laws and administrative regulations to be treated as domestic
waste." Therefore, according to this definition, as MSWI fly ash from domestic waste
disposal, it should also belong to the category of "domestic waste." At the same time,
the Solid Waste Law stipulates that "the administrative department of environmental
sanitation of the local people's government at or above the county level shall organize
the cleaning, collection, transportation and disposal of municipal solid waste."
According to these regulations, the treatment and disposal of municipal solid waste
incineration fly ash should be organized and implemented by environmental
sanitation department.
584. However, whether in working practice or in the specific provisions of the Solid
Waste Law, "domestic waste" managed by environmental sanitation authorities mainly
refers to domestic solid waste generated by households and similar types of office
waste, commercial waste , street sweeping waste and so on. Other wastes including
incineration fly ash (such as e-waste, food waste, water-treatment sludge, etc.) are not
legally specified as "domestic waste". Therefore, in the specific operation process, the
responsible units for the disposal of fly ash are often unclear. In many places, the
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municipal solid waste incineration plant takes the responsibility and is managed
according to the management concept of "industrial solid waste." In some places, the
department in charge of environmental protection is responsible , often witching the
phenomenon. The main body of management responsibility is unclear, which has
become one of the major obstacles in the reasonable disposal of fly ash.
2) Unclear Main Body Responsible for the Disposal of MSWI Fly Ash
585. The Solid Waste Law stipulates that "the state shall implement the principle
of responsible polluters according to law for the prevention and co ntrol of
environmental pollution by solid wastes" and "the producers, sellers, importers and
users of the products shall bear the responsibility of prevention and control of pollution
according to law" . According to these regulations, it is not possible to judge the main
body responsible for the harmless management of incineration fly ash. According to
the internationally accepted "producer responsibility system", MSWI fly ash disposal
should pay for by the producer of domestic waste. However, China did not establish
this system, so the cost of incineration fly ash treatment and disposal has become an
impossible step.
3) Not Established Classification Management System for Hazardous Wastes
586. As a hazardous waste, fly ash management process requires the
implementation of the various hazardous waste management systems, including
hazardous waste management plan system, hazardous waste transfer system,
hazardous waste operating permit system. However, all these systems are designed
for industrial hazardous wastes. As mentioned above, MSWI fly ash generated in the
processing of domestic waste, which should belong to domestic waste, Its
responsibility for the harmless disposal should be borne by the producers of domestic
waste, generally by the local government to exercise this responsibility, that is
responsible for the environmental sanitation department. As a result, implementers
and supervisors of hazardous waste management systems for incineration fly ash
became the two government-owned units. From this it can be seen that the absence
of management systems for hazardous wastes in domestic wastes has caused this
irrational phenomenon.
587. MEP is aware of this and MSW fly ash in the "Hazardous Waste Exemption
Management Inventory" was promulgated in June 2016 to specify that if incineration
fly ash is disposed of in landfills or cement kilns for collaborative disposal. both
processes "do not follow hazardous waste management", which shows that living
landfills or cement kilns do not need to apply for a hazardous waste permit. To some
extent, this remedy this flaw.
4) No Clear Technology Route for Solid Waste Management
588. The Solid Waste Law stipulates the basic principle of solid waste management,
that is, "the State shall implement the principle of reducing generation and harm of
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solid waste, making full and rational use of solid waste and decontaminating solid
waste for prevention and control of environmental pollution caused by solid waste to
promote cleaner production and the development of circular economy. "This is the so-
called" three principles "(ie, reduction, recycling, decontamination).
589. First, this principle does not give priority to the various management
techniques. At present, the principle of prioritization of "avoid or reduce, material
regeneration, heat regeneration and proper disposal" is widely adopted in the world.
However, this principle is not adopted by China's Solid Waste Law. In the absence of
a prioritized choice of technology, different regions of the country choose different
technologies to emphasize the importance of different technologies when choosing to
dispose of fly ash. There are large differences that hinder the orderly development of
incineration fly ash management.
590. Second, this principle only emphasizes "harmless disposal" without
mentioning "sound management of the whole process" and does not provide sound
management principles for the regeneration process of incineration fly ash resources.
Due to the lack of the principle of "sound management of the entire process", or the
disorderly development of regenerative technologies for incineration fly ash, or the
over-emphasis of "harmless disposal", the development of renewable technologies will
be blocked.
7.3.2 Unsound Standards, Norms
591. At present, the key factor restricting the harmless management of fly ash is
the imperfection of technical standards and technical specifications. The implementers,
organizers and supervisors of incineration fly ash disposal often fail to unify opinions
when they choose to dispose of incineration fly ash because of the lack of technical
documents such as corresponding standards or specifications, thus putting the
innocuous management of incineration fly ash at an impasse. Technical researchers
often because of the lack of the necessary evaluation criteria can not promote the
application in the development of incineration fly ash treatment and disposal
technologies and resource regeneration technology. Therefore, it is urgent to establish
a perfect and flexible standard system of pollution control technology for the
characteristics of incineration fly ash.
592. As mentioned before, the main disposal methods for incineration fly ash at
present are landfills (including hazardous waste landfills and domestic waste landfills),
while the main means are resource regeneration for the production of building
materials (including cement and concrete aggregates , Concrete, roadbed materials,
bricks and building materials, etc.). Therefore, the technical standards or technical
specifications for incineration fly ash pollution control should also be formulated for
these technologies, and should be able to make timely adjustments and revisions
based on technological developments and actual needs.
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593. So far, the pollution control standards and technical specifications related to
incineration fly ash disposal and resource regeneration mainly include:
❖ “standard for pollution control on the security landfill site for hazardous wastes
(GB18598 - 2001)"
❖ "Standard for Pollution Control on the Landfill Site of Municipal Solid Waste
(GB16889 -2008)"
❖ "Standard for pollution control on co-processing of solid wastes in Cement kiln
(GB30485 - 2013)"
❖ "Environmental protection technical specification for co-processing of Solid wastes
in cement kiln (HJ662-2013)"
❖ "Standard for Pollution Control on Co-processing of Solid Waste in Cement Kiln
(GB30760-2014)"
594. From this it can be seen that landfill of incineration fly ash and co-processing
in cement kilns (synergistic regeneration) have no technical barriers to management.
At the same time, the "Hazardous Waste Exemption Management Inventory"
promulgated by MEP in June 2016 also exempts landfill of incineration fly ash in
domestic waste landfill and co-processing in cement kiln, and therefore, there is no
obstacle on permit management fly ash landfill disposal and cement kiln co-disposal.
595. However, due to the widespread occurrence of incineration fly ash, the
extremely uneven degree of economic and social development in various regions, the
demand for incineration fly ash treatment technology is also extremely extensive.
Therefore, the existing pollution control technical standards and technical norms can
not meet the different needs of various regions, but also need to supplement the
existing incineration fly ash pollution control technical standards or technical
specifications. At present, there are two main technical standards or technical
specifications that need to be formulated for incineration fly ash.
(1) Pollution Control Technical Specifications of Incineration Fly Ash Packaging,
Transport And Storage
596. According to the Solid Waste Law, "Transport of hazardous wastes must take
measures to prevent environmental pollution and comply with the state's regulations
on the transport of dangerous goods." Meanwhile, the transport units that require
hazardous wastes are required to obtain the qualification for the transport of dangerous
goods. However, due to the lack of special facilities and qualifications for the transport
of dangerous goods for the characteristics of incineration fly ash, and the harmful
characteristics of incineration fly ash do not match those of dangerous goods, the
technical and management of incineration fly ash has great difficulties. The solution to
this problem could be to exempt countries from applying for hazardous waste
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incineration fly ash transportation, provided that pollution control specifications for
packaging, transporting and storing incinerated fly ash should be established as a
prerequisite for exemption.
(2) Pollution Control Standards by Producing Building Materials with Fly Ash
597. At present, the Ministry of Environmental Protection is formulating the General
Standard for Identification of Solid Waste. In the standard draft for approval there are
the following provisions:
"The use of solid waste as a substitute for the production of products that meet the
following conditions at the same time, not as a solid waste management, in accordance
with the corresponding product management:
a) In line with national, local development or industry prevalence product quality
standards of alternative raw materials;
b) Meet the relevant national standards for pollution control or technical
specifications, including the production of harmful substances in the production
process to the environment and the content of harmful substances in the product
content standards;
598. In the absence of national pollution control standards or technical
specifications, the content of harmful components contained in the product is not
higher than the content of harmful components in the products produced using the
replaced raw materials, and the harmful substances discharged into the environment
during the production of the product concentration is not higher than the concentration
of harmful substances released into the environment during the production of products
using the replaced raw materials.
c) A stable and reasonable market demand.
599. This standard has been approved by the MEP's executive meeting and will be
released soon.
600. According to this standard, the key management requirement for the use of
incineration fly ash to produce building materials is to comply with pollution control
standards or specifications for incineration fly ash production building materials. At
present, the relevant content of the existing Standard for Pollution Control on Co-
processing of Solid Wastes in Cement Kiln (GB30485 - 2013)", Environmental
Protection Technical Specification for Co-processing of Solid Wastes in Cement Kiln
(HJ662-2013)" and "Standard for Pollution Control on Co-processing of Solid Waste in
Cement Kiln (GB30760-2014)" can be used for incineration fly ash production of
cement, that is, the use of incineration fly ash production of cement, as long as the
above three criteria to meet the technical legality requirements.
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601. However, if building materials other than cement are produced using
incineration fly ash, there is no documented pollution control standard or specification.
Failure to address this issue requires the development of pollution control
specifications for incinerating fly ash production building materials.
7.4 Summary
602. Internationally, the main disposal of fly ash is landfill, but with the maturity of
application, a variety of technologies are flourishing, such as resource utilization or
heavy metal recycling in Japan, Switzerland and other countries, underground salt
storage technology in German and so on.
603. China's technological research and development of fly ash treatment and
disposal started relatively late, so first it is necessary to sum up the lessons of the
international existing landfill technologies, improving our own landfill technology and
developing the efficient stabilization agents of heavy metals; it is also urgent to
strengthen the supervision on fly ash treatment process and landfill operation,
improving the quality of fly ash landfill and ensuring high environmental friendliness
under the premise of meeting the processing capacity and cost control. It needs further
study in the technical application on how to solve the problem of heavy metal control
and poor stability. The amount of chemical agents is higher than the same type of
foreign products under the same treatment effect. In the future, it is also a must to
focus on the development of chemical stabilization technology with simple process,
good stability and relatively little investment. In addition, the high-temperature
vitrification technology has a high rate of volume reduction, with advantages such as
stabile properties of sediments and no heavy metals. However, how to reduce the
content of volatile heavy metals, and at the same time develop post-treatment process
of flue gas has become a key issue in improving the melting method.
604. As for resource utilization of the fly ash, it is viable to learn or introduce the
melting and solidification technology and heavy metal recovery technology from Japan
and Switzerland, and through absorption and re-innovation, to develop the fly ash
disposal technology and heavy metal recovery technology suitable for China's current
national conditions.
605. Draw lessons from the standardization system of fly ash disposal in developed
countries and perfect the standard system of China's incineration fly ash treatment,
disposal and resource utilization combined with the actual demand in China.
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CHAPTER 8 ASSESSMENT OF TREATMENT
/DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGIES FOR MSWI FLY ASH
606. In view of the characteristics and basic properties of the above-mentioned
MSW incineration fly ash, the research on its safe disposal and potential resource
utilization has become a common concern of domestic and foreign scholars. The
treatment and disposal of MSWI fly ash is essentially a risk management that aims to
keep the environmental and human health risks of pollutants within acceptable limits.
There are mainly two ways to control the risks. One is to destroy the pollutants by
sources, that is, to reduce the sources of pollution; second, to reduce the migration of
pollutants, that is, to cut off the ways of exposure. The risk of fly ash mainly comes
from the heavy metals and dioxins that are enriched in it. Dioxins, of which toxicity is
strong, have little content in fly ash and very low water solubility, so it is relatively easy
to control the migration of dioxins. However, the content of heavy metals in fly ash is
high, risk control of the most important.
607. At present, common domestic and foreign MSW incineration fly ash treatment
and disposal technologies are mainly divided into two aspects of land disposal and
building materials utilization, based on which the subdivision areas include cement
curing/stabilizing, chelating agent curing/stabilizing, high temperature melt
solidification, underground Storage, cement kiln co-processing, construction and
utilization as lightweight aggregates and more. In selecting a fly ash treatment /
disposal technique, a suitable technical assessment should be carried out. This
chapter mainly focuses on the technical evaluation of existing domestic and foreign fly
ash treatment technologies.
8.1 Qualitative Evaluation of Different Treatment Options
608. MSW incineration essentially concentrates pollutants dispersed in the
environment to be burned, removed and separated and concentrated, while fly ash is
the end product of pollutant separation and concentration. The above sections provide
a brief description of the different disposal technologies for fly ash. However, the
products of different schemes have their own unique physical and chemical
characteristics and their special environment and potential risks for storage. The
technical comparison as shown in Table 8-1.
609. At present, due to the advantages of low processing and investment cost, the
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addition of organic, inorganic or complex curing / stabilizing agents supplemented with
cement lime as a solidified substrate can improve the product strength, and the
stabilized product can meet the requirements of GB16889-2008 admission
requirements, followed by landfills in accordance with the specification of landfill, which
is the mainstream of MSWI fly ash disposal. In view of the adoption of different
chemical agents and curing processes, fly ash, which is solidified by using the
chelating agent in the manner of shot solidification, is a problem that needs attention
in the future. In addition, the landfill regulation pond leachate generated complex and
volatile water quality, the follow-up leachate treatment will undoubtedly increase the
difficulty.
610. Cement kiln co-disposal of incineration fly ash curing than the pharmaceutical
/ stabilization has some advanced technology, but also in line with the basic idea of
waste resources. However, this technology has a long path, high investment and
operating costs, and exposure to more risks in the technical aspects. The pretreatment
of water washing needs to consume a part of fresh water resources, and the generated
wastewater needs to be treated and reused or discharged to meet the standards. So
far, the popularization and application are still challenged by experts and scholars from
the field of environment and cement production. In particular, choosing a reasonable
and appropriate way to dispose of the kiln ash has a great impact on the harmless
effect of the fly ash. Take the construction experience of Japanese ecological cement
plant as an example, the construction cost of co-processing cement kiln is 3 to 4 times
that of normal cement production. There are sti ll further optimization necessary for
cement kiln co-processing incineration fly ash process, especially in the use of carbon
dioxide to regulate water quality, to reduce pretreatment wastewater treatment dosage,
potassium and sodium separation, to increase product added value, bypass ventilation
desalination, stable kiln conditions, which are necessary for technical optimization and
improvement, so as to further reduce disposal costs.
611. Relative to the above process, the harmless / building technology based on
melting and solidification of fly ash has few engineering practice in China and is still in
the pilot and demonstration stage. The relevant examples are mainly the melting and
curing aspects of nuclear waste and other difficult to deal with hazardous waste. In
contrast, the technology is more common in countries such as Japan. In Japan, for
example, there were 102 fly ash melting furnaces nationwide in 2014 with a capacity
of 320,000 tons/year. This means that almost all incineration ash is treated by melting
technology. According to statistics, the cost of Japan ash melting treatment is about
1000-1500 yuan/ton (according to the price of electricity have changed), while the
furnace mainly include resistance melting furnace, plasma melting furnace and burner
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melting furnace three. China’s MSW incineration fly ash contains high levels of alkali metals, chlorine and sulfur, which is not suitable for direct melt-solidification treatment
(requires chlorine content <2%), and requires some degree of pre-treatment or other
low-chlorine waste co-processing, which will increase the operating costs of the
process and process instability. Second, the fly ash melting needs to be heated to
above 1200 ℃, equipment investment and operation of high energy consumption.
Again, the high temperature process is likely to cause low-boiling heavy metal
volatilization. Based on the above constraints, how to improve the solidification rate of
heavy metals in the melting process, increase the thermal efficiency, reduce the energy
consumption and achieve low-temperature melt-solidification through additives, and
use the products produced in the melting process to manufacture high value-added
products(such as glass- grading purification of heavy metals in the tail gas) to control
costs will be the key link of melting process technology to deal with fly ash
breakthrough.
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Table8-1 Comparison and Selection of Different Fly Ash Disposal Schemes
Technical Solutions
Cement Solidification Chelator Solidification
Melting Solidification Cement Kiln Co-disposal Underground Storage
Auxiliary Materials Costs
Ordinary cement and auxiliary materials cost
are low
Chelating agent itself are high cost, and
dosage vary with the nature of fly ash
Waste glass can be used as a glass
additive, low cost
As a raw material for cement production, do not need additional materials
Do not need additional materials
Auxiliary Material
Consumption
Incineration fly ash and the quality of the
cement consumed in is about 2: 1
Chelating agent dosage is about 1%-3% of fly ash quality
The amount of supplies is determined by the degree of vitrification
required
Not needed Not needed
Preprocessing or Not
Not needed Not needed Need to minimize the content of chlorine in fly
ash
Washing pretreatment, into the kiln material chlorine
and fluorine content should not exceed 0.04% and
0.5%; required fresh water is 0.7-10 t/t fly ash
Not needed
Fly Ash Physical Statue
Changed Changed Changed Changed Not changed
Effect Ordinary solidification effect, long term stability issues
Good solidification of heavy metals, limited effect of dioxin control
Highly stable vitreous formed, completely destroyed dioxins
Dioxin substances are destroyed; part of the
heavy metals are fixed
The safest way, long term stability is
guaranteed
Equipment Requirements
Mechanical equipment costs low
High cost of machinery and equipment
Need special equipment, high cost
Pre-treatment investments costs high
Special geological conditions
Operational Requirements
Operation and management is simple,
General operation and management, safety is
Need professional operators to manage,
Need professional operators to manage, good
Need professional operators to
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good security good safety in general safety manage, good safety
Investment Low investment Relatively high investment
High investment Investment is 3-4 times of normal cement production; tail gas treatment facilities need to be improved and
strengthened
High investment
Operating Costs Relative low Low operating costs Consume a lot of energy, high operating
costs
Energy consumption comes mainly from the
cement
Low operating costs
Environmental Risk
The solidification of heavy metals, such as Cd and Zn, in fly ash
are hard. The increase of salt content will
damage the solidified body, reduce the
strength, increase the permeability
The stabilizing effect on dioxin is small, dioxins
enter the landfill
Need some pretreatment process, and supported flue gas
purification device; relatively high material
requirements, some heavy metals and alkali salts into the secondary
fly ash
Need to supported flue gas purification device; kiln ash
handling more complex, need attention (accounting for 20-50% of the original
heavy metals); water treatment stage mud cake also need to back to the
kiln
No engineering demonstration in china. It is mostly
used for the isolation disposal of high-level nuclear
waste
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8.2 Quantitative Comparison and Selection of Different
Treatment Options
612. In order to better reveal the treatment effect and risk control effect of the above
technologies on MSW fly ash, the content of this section uses the method of multi -
dimensional indicators, from the expansion coefficient of the product after treatment,
the environmental risk of the treatment process, the total heavy metal leaching
Quantitative control efficiency and the economic value of material recovery and other
aspects of the various treatment / disposal technology advantages and disadvantages
of quantitative comparison, with a view to screening for different technologies to
provide more intuitive data support.
8.2.1 Volumetric Reduction Efficiency
613. The size of the product to be treated directly affects the footprint and service
life of subsequent waste storage sites (eg, safe landfills). The reduction efficiency of
fly ash was treated as (1 – treated waste volume / raw fly ash volume) * 100%. Fly ash
cement product volume after curing significantly increased, generally considered after
the treatment waste conversion ratio of 1.5 to 2, here based on 1.75 calculation. In
contrast, organic chelating agent for the fly ash volume increases is not obvious,
Whether it is the use of solid chelating agent and liquid chelating agent can achieve
little or no compatibilization of the basic capacity, so that the expansion factor of 1.
One of the advantages of melt-solidification technology is to significantly reduce the
amount of fly ash, the resulting vitreous (waste) Capacity reduction up to 80%. Cement
kiln co-disposal incineration fly ash as a raw material into the cement production, in
theory, for fly ash capacity reduction efficiency is up to 100% (kiln dust back into the
kiln or doped to cement clinker). In addition underground storage does not change the
physical form of the fly ash itself, so it has no effect on the amount of fly ash. The
above discussion of the results of the comparison shown in Figure 1. As can be seen
from Figure10-1, cement kiln co-processing and high-temperature melting have the
best effect on the volume reduction of fly ash, while the cement reduction has the worst
effect.
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Figure8-1 Different Disposal Technologies on the Fly Ash Volume Reduction
Effect
8.2.2 Environmental Risks of Treatment / Disposal
614. At present, cement / chelator solidification / stabilization process + landfill, as
the main technical option for incineration fly ash disposal in China, has more
mechanized equipment and operation and less environmental risk in the whole curing
process. The main environment risks arise from potential fugitive dusts from raw
materials and products (eg fly ash, acceptance and storage of mixing and mixing of
refineries, transfer points, conveyors, transport vehicles, etc.) and dust from landfills of
unformed cured products. In addition, there is a risk of leaching of heavy metals and
leakage of leachate due to the need to add some external water and workshop and
equipment rinse water during the curing operation. However, this part of the production
of sewage generated a very small amount of total can be considered into the landfill
leachate treatment system. The separation of production workshop, control room and
office space also fully guaranteed the occupational health of staff and the dust
generated had less impact on the environment around the factory.
615. The risks of dusting and the risk of heavy metals in flushing water during the
operation of different disposal technologies are similar and will not be repeated here.
In contrast, cement kilns co-processing household waste incineration fly ash and melt
solidification technology route longer, more intermediate links lead to more risk
exposure points, increasing the difficulty of pollution control. The pretreatment of water
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washing is an essential part of co-processing of cement kiln. The whole pretreatment
process involves the storage of fly ash, the washing of fly ash, the solid-liquid
separation system, the drying system, the sewage treatment system (sewage
pretreatment + core processing unit) system. The water-cement ratio in the washing
process is generally 1 to 10: 1, resulting in a relatively large amount of washing waste
liquid. Washed wastewater is mainly composed of alkali chloride, while it also dissolved
some of the heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn, according to the different
types of heavy metals content at the level of 0.008-10 mg/L, of which dioxin
concentration is relatively small. Some heavy metals exceed the wastewater discharge
standards and must be treated before they can be recycled or discharged. The
combination of pretreatment and evaporative desalination may effectively recover the
chloride salt from wastewater and allow for full reuse of the evaporative water, but the
energy consumption of this process is roughly equivalent to the electrical energy
generated by the amount of rubbish that this portion of fly ash burns . In addition, flue
gas and cement kiln exhaust gas discharged through the kiln foot bypass contained a
certain amount of heavy metals and dioxins, but the concentration and total amount
were relatively low (0.0003 to 0.03 tons/year for different heavy metals; British at 0.03-
0.04 tons / year). Overall, due to the existence of waste water and waste gas collection
and disposal system during the operation of cement kiln disposal process, the
theoretical discharge of heavy metals and dioxin substances is relatively small and the
environmental risk is low. However, the long process route increases the possibility of
unexpected accidents in the processing sector. In the case of fault operation, the
emission concentration of toxic substances can increase by tens of times and the
environmental risk increases significantly (Figure 8-2).
Figure8-2 Environmental Risk Sources for the Co-processing of Fly Ash and
Cement Kilns
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8.2.3 Control Efficiency of Total Heavy Metal Leaching in Product
616. Due to the different pretreatment process and the addition of auxiliary
materials led to product weight gain ratio is not consistent in fly ash disposal process.
Although the application of different technologies has obvious control effects on the
leaching concentration of heavy metals, the total amount of heavy metals actually
solidified by each technology theoretically still has a certain gap because of the dilution
effect. The heavy metal leaching total amount control efficiency of the product on
behalf of the ability to isolate the environment and heavy metals stabilized by different
technologies, and Reflect the real control ability of different disposal ways of fly ash.
The above expression for assessment can be simplified to (1 – the total amount of
heavy metal leaching products after the original fly ash heavy metal leaching) * 100%.
617. Under the premise of good geological conditions, the probability of the storage
and underground storage methods, in theory, direct contact with the water environment
is very low, and there is no external conditions of heavy metal leaching, so its isolation
of heavy metals and the environment in theory should be 100% . In contrast, the
cement / chelator / melt-stabilization + sanitary landfill approach exposes the product
to leachate, potentially causing heavy metal leaching. The weight gain ratio of lime
curing and chelating agent curing is generally about 1.5 and 1.2, and the leaching
concentration of heavy metal in the solidification body is basically at and below the
level of 0.001 (unit: mg/kg). However, comparing the leaching concentrations of heavy
metals from the original fly ash and fly ash solids, the stabilization efficiency for cement
and chelator hardened solids is only 83% and 90%, respectively. Therefore consider
the dilution effect of raw materials, its actual heavy metal curing efficiency is only 75%
and 88%.
618. With reference to the relevant literature, the leaching concentration of heavy
metals from clinker produced by cement kiln co-processing fly ash is relatively low.
Taking Pb, Cd, Hg and As as examples, the leaching concentration can reach 0.001
level and below, similar with the ordinary cement. Although the dilution ratio is larger
(ash fly dosage 3-10%), but on the whole, the stabilization efficiency of heavy metals
can still reach 98-99% or even more, and harmless effect is more ideal. In addition, it
should also be noted that about 20-50% of heavy metals are volatilized into the kiln
ash according to the types of heavy metals during the co-processing process. This part
of the volatile products are mainly low-boiling heavy metals such as Cd and Pb, Its kiln
ash up to the proportion of the original fly ash content of about 50 to 80%. Therefore,
with the direct addition of kiln dust into the clinker, this part of the highly toxic heavy
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metals will only be solidified and sealed by subsequent cement hydration, which will
significantly increase the total amount of leaching (to About 13%, for example, the
actual cement curing rate is only about 75%). The analysis of the control effect of the
total amount of heavy metals in the melt-solidified process is similar to that of the
cement kiln co-processing. The leaching risk of the solid product (molten solid) is
negligible (heavy metal leaching concentration <0.0001 mg / kg) of the vitreous itself,
its heavy metal leaching and fixing efficiency of approximately 100%. The safety of the
technology is mainly focused on the secondary fly ash subsequent processing. Data
show that in the melting process, fly ash weight loss as high as 35-40%, volatile heavy
metals mainly in the form of chloride escaping.
619. Based on the above analysis, the results shown in Figure 10-3. It can be seen
from the figure that if the kiln dust in cement kiln process is directly mixed into cement
clinker, the control effect on the total amount of heavy metal leaching drops
significantly. Therefore, the proper disposal of secondary fly ash is the key to improving
the overall effect of cement kiln technology and high-temperature melting technology
on the harmless disposal of fly ash.
Figure 8-3 Effect of Different Fly Ash Disposal Technologies on Total Heavy
Metal Leaching Products
(The blue line indicates the fixing effect of the fly ash cured product itself and the
red line indicates the mixed kiln ash clinker and the high temperature molten
secondary fly ash cement)
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8.2.4 The Economic Value of Resource Recovery
620. Among the above-mentioned several types of fly ash disposal technologies,
only the cement kiln co-disposal process has significant resource effect. However, it
should be pointed out that fly ash must be pretreated with water to pre-treat
dechlorination, sulfur and alkali metals before entering the cement kiln co-processing.
The remaining solid phase material only includes inorganic materials such as silicon,
aluminum, iron, calcium and magnesium Compounds and some heavy metals, without
any flammable substances. Therefore, as an alternative raw material, only some of the
clay for cement ingredients can be saved. There is no possibility of providing a
substitute for combustion energy. However, the price of clay itself is relatively low, and
its use cost is directly related to transportation costs. Therefore, the economic value of
using fly ash as an alternative raw material should include two parts of clay +
transportation, which is very limited. Available data show that in the case of energy
substitution (calorific value), the cost of co-processing of solid waste per tonne of
clinker by cement kilns will increase by 2.88 yuan, indicating that the cost of cement
products brought by the direct co-processing of fly ash will be even more Increase to
a large extent (co-processing part only). It is reported that in 2015, Beijing Jinyu Liulihe
Cement Co., Ltd. Built the first MSWI fly ash disposal line officially passed the
environmental inspection in Beijing, Liulihe Cement Plant annual disposal of 20,000
tons of fly ash into the plant dry chlorine base of 22%. Therefore, the cost of disposal
is very high and the cost is about 1,500 yuan / ton, while the subsidy from Beijing
municipal government is as high as 1,320 yuan per tonne of fly ash. Therefore, the
economy of cement kiln co-processing fly ash is discussed from the viewpoint of waste
utilization value is not appropriate, the high financial subsidies in other citi es and
regions less likely to be realized.
621. On the other hand, the products produced by the melt-solidification of fly ash
have the possibility of further resource utilization. By adding other auxiliary substances
using melt-solidified solid-phase material to produce glass-ceramics or other high
value-added by-products. Meanwhile, in the case of small amount of flue gas, the
separation and recovery of high-grade heavy metals in the exhaust gas are realized
as much as possible so that value will largely subsidize operating costs and achieve
gains. On the other hand, the development of low-temperature melting technology,
through the promotion of flux and catalyst investment to reduce the temperature
required for high-temperature melting, thereby increasing the low-boiling point of heavy
metal solidification rate, lower operating energy consumption and power consumption,
melt stabilization technology to control the overall cost. However, in summary, the
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technology still has the problem of over-running at this stage and is only suitable for
promotion and utilization in developed countries.
622. In summary, the current stage of different disposal methods for the control of
incineration fly ash is mainly reflected in the reduction and harmless aspects, but the
characteristics of the resource utilization of each technology is not obvious, not as a
technical screening starting point discuss.
8.3 Summary
623. MSW incineration essentially concentrates pollutants dispersed in the
environment to be burned, removed and separated and concentrated, while fly ash is
the end product of pollutant separation and concentration. From a risk management
point of view, “zero landfill” runs counter to the basic law of “material balance” and is not practicable in practice and does more harm than good to environmental protection.
Solidifying and stabilizing the landfill according to local conditions (in the long term, we
can consider drawing on German experience to promote underground storage) can
effectively cut off exposure to heavy metals and dioxins to achieve the goal of
minimizing environmental risks. This is also the realistic choice of China’s MSWI fly ash treatment, which contains correct idea, effective scheme, and controllable cost.
624. It is not suitable to discuss cement kiln co-processing incineration fly ash from
the perspective of resource utilization. Complex processes consume large amounts of
energy and materials while creating new uncontrolled wastewater and waste gases. In
the process of domestic waste treatment through multiple links, it pays a great price to
enrich the relatively stable small amount of solid residues in the toxic pollutants
released to water, atmosphere and soil and other environmental media, forming a
“reverse pollution control.” Second, heavy metals, which are characteristic pollutants
of fly ash, can not be eliminated but rather returned to the environment and people in
the form of products (cement), thus facing the problem of “shifting” the problem of handling fly ash generated by contemporary people to the next generation has become
the waste disposal issue that the next generation must face. Based on this, although
the reduction effect is obvious, cement kiln co-processing fly ash does not fully meet
the basic requirements of environmental ethics. If there is no obvious economic
advantage, the process route needs to be further optimized and improved, which is not
enough copy promotion. In particular, kiln dust in cement kilns should be managed in
accordance with hazardous waste and should not be simply mixed back into cement
clinker, which will significantly reduce the effect of this technology on heavy metal
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control.
625. The main hazardous substance of MSW incineration fly ash is heavy metal.
The main objective of fly ash treatment is to control the environmental risks of heavy
metals. Therefore, the utilization of fly ash in the environmental ethics resources must
be separated and recycled simultaneously, otherwise it is the cart before the horse.
Fly ash melting has certain potential for separation and recovery of heavy metals. By
properly handling the secondary fly ash generated in the melting process, fly ash
melting not only improves the overall process control ability of re-contacting heavy
metals and environmental media, but also recycles high value-added products To
subsidize the operating costs of the process, it is the possible development of the
utilization of fly ash resources.
626. Finally, for the control of the environmental risk of domestic MSW fly ash, we
must not take it for granted with rough considerations and prevent the resource
utilization only looking for short-term benefits.
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CHAPTER 9 TECHNICAL SUGGESTIONS ON THE
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF MSW
INCINERATION FLY ASH IN CHINA
9.1 Fly Ash Management and Technology Selection Principles
627. The management of hazardous wastes is essentially the management of risks,
which aims at controlling the environmental risks of pollutants within the acceptable
ranges. There are two approaches for the control of environmental risks - one is to
destroy the pollutants from the origins, i.e., to reduce the strength of pollutants’ sources while the other is to reduce the pollutants’ transferability, i.e., to cut off its exposing path. The main risk of fly ash origins from the heavy metals and dioxins collected from
hazardous wastes. Dioxins have strong toxicity, but there are only slight dioxins in fly
ash and they have low water-solubility as well. controlling its transferability is therefore
not that difficult. However, a lot of soluble heavy metals can be found from fly ash,
which should be given the top priority.
628. In accordance with the requirements of sustainable development, the most
ideal approach is to conduct resources utilization absolutely, safely and economically
while dealing with incineration fly ash, as illustrated in Figure 8-1 However, such goal
is unachievable currently. Achieving regulative and scientific sustainable management
of fly ash is a continuously improving progress. The selection of technology and
management of fly ash should stick to the following principles:
❖ Emphasis on Personnel Training: We should also promote the research
discussion, technical communication and cooperation with foreign scholars,
research authorities and enterprises. Furthermore, we need to hold regular forums
and meetings, establish special funds and increase the training and talents as well.
❖ Emphasis on Developing Innovative Technology: we should encourage and
support the development and application of incineration fly ash’s resources utilization, especially the construction of actual engineering projects.
❖ Emphasis on Whole-process Supervision: The whole process of production,
storage, transportation and final disposal / utilization of incineration fly ash must
be managed. Emphasis should be placed on the source reduction of incineration
fly ash, reducing spilled and spilled fly ash during storage and transportation so as
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to realize the environment harmless disposal and utilization.
❖ Expert Review for Choosing Technology: supervise and urge incineration
plants’ operators to properly treat and dispose incineration fly ash, evaluate its treatment and disposal technologies and organize experts for review.
❖ Choosing Technology Based on Economy: the unit cost of different fly ash
disposal technologies is huge, from hundreds to thousands per ton. Therefore,
when choosing the treatment technology, local economic development level and
affordability must be fully considered.
❖ Choosing Technology according to Location: huge environmental and
economic distinction exits between diverse regions brought by China’s vast territory, so the treatment and disposal of incineration fly ash should be targeted
at diverse regional situations and choose the corresponding fly ash disposal or
resources utilization approaches in the light of local conditions. For instance, the
population density in central area is relatively high while the rainfall amount is
smaller than that in eastern and southern region and the soil quality is better than
that in the eastern part. It therefore costs mush less to build safe landfill plants and
sanitary ones there. Currently, industries like construction materials with mature
fly ash resources utilization is the main source of energy consumption and air
pollution while pollutants in the mountainous central area are hard to be diluted,
so the preferred sanitary landfill plants should be located here.
❖ Choosing Technology Suitable for Infrastructure Construction Status: when
infrastructure construction scale is large and the construction process is rapid,
great amount of construction materials are needed, offering broad market for the
fly ash’s resources utilization products. So in this stage fly ash utilization technologies for construction material is suitable. Along with the acceleration of
the modernization process as well as the improvement of basic infrastructures in
China, the market’s requirements towards construction materials will surely be lowered and this industry’s fly ash treatment amount will be decreased as well. So
alternative technologies for fly ash disposal and resource utilization is needed to
meet the needs for urbanization.
❖ Emphasis on Pretreatment Technologies: diverse hazardous substances can
be found from MSW incineration fly ash, especially volatile components.
Pretreatment has great impact on resource utilization and therefore, great
attention should be paid on the pre-treatment before fly ash’s resources utilization,
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such as pre-washing to remove chloride from fly ash, etc.
Figure 9-1 Flowchart of the Substances and Energy Circulation
629. Analyzing from international fly ash’s disposal experience and actual situations nationwide over years, the maximum fly ash’s resources utilization will be the future goal and trend. MSW incineration fly ash has complicated properties and
causes high-level harms, whose technical route for treatment should be overall
organized, systematically designed, carefully selected to control risks and guarantee
the harmlessness while considering about resources comprehensive utilization.
9.2 Technology Suggestions Suitable for China’s Current
Situation
9.2.1 Solidification and Stabilization – Sanitary Landfill
630. Normative landfill disposal in accordance with the actual conditions after
solidification and stabilization can effectively cut off the exposure pathways of heavy
metals and dioxins so as to realize the goal of minimum environmental risk. When
appropriate operation of a final disposal site is considered, chemical insolubilization
(inorganic or organic chelate) of fly ash is one of the most effective and economical
methods. When standards for the environment of the site after its closure and
decommission is concerned, however, it is necessary to clarify the effect of chelating
agent on the leachate and decomposition products of chelate compounds. To respond
to the above concern, it is desired to set chelating agents use standards that oblige
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new chelating agents to be inspected, assuming standards are set for
decommissioning of final disposal sites. Fly ash melting mixed with slag should not be
recommended in terms of high energy consumption and cost effectiveness. But in
some municipalities where local electric furnace businesses exist, it may be effective
to conduct ash to slag processing and metal recovery in combination with dedicated
reductive dissolution facilities. Actually such businesses in Japan are actively engaged
in incineration residue treatment for the municipalities that do not own final disposal
sites. In any cases, melting treatment of only fly ash should not be recommended.
9.2.2 Sintering Technology
631. The incineration fly ash molded body is heated at a temperature lower than
its melting point, so that the material spontaneously fills the particle gap and densifies,
resulting in an increase in the density and strength of the molding, and becomes a
whole having a certain performance and a geometric shape. The compressive strength
of sintered solidified body satisfies the requirement of coarse aggregate strength in
concrete. Fly ash sintered solidified body can be used as admixture in concrete. And
fly ash in the sintering process effectively curing a variety of heavy metals, sintering
process manufacturing materials more economical and safe. However, the fly ash is
required to be pre-treated by washing, otherwise the fly ash in the sulfate, chloride and
vitreous on the curing process is extremely detrimental.
9.2.3 Cement Kiln Co-treatment
632. Eco-cement making is a recycling method, using silica dioxide, alumina oxide,
iron trioxide and calcium oxide from fly ash while other hazardous substances can still
lay influence upon the environment during the production and using process. It is a
viable option for a municipality where generation density of incineration residue is high.
A cement plant can accept fly ash only as far as it is operated with technology to
remove alkali salts form fly ash. Product quality standards for eco-cement still need to
be established.
9.2.4 High-temperature Melting
633. Adding the mixture of fly ash or fly ash to glass frit to a melting temperature of
1000 to 1200 °C and controlling the atmosphere of the furnace to prevent the
volatilization of heavy metals so that the solid particles in the fly ash undergo a melt
phase change and become liquid slag rapid cooling to form a dense glassy slag, with
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the vitreous dense crystal structure of the fly ash firmly enclosed in the vitreous.
634. The technology has the advantages of weight loss and reduced capacity, and
can generally lose about 2/3. After melting, the heavy metal is firmly bound in the
network structure of SiO2 silicon tetrahedron, and the leaching rate is low, which can
meet the current leaching standard. However, the glassy material obtained by high
temperature melting of fly ash has poor hardness and thermal performance. It can only
be used for roadbed materials, cement concrete mixed materials or re-landfill landfill.
The added value is low, and the melting process will produce A small amount of high
concentration of melting furnace fly ash (the Cd and Pb concentration is 5 to 10 times
before melting); high slag, cement, concrete will cause alkali corrosion; cost is very
high. Base on experiences in Japan, fly ash melting mixed with slag should not be
recommended in terms of high energy consumption and cost effectiveness.
9.2.5 Heavy Metal Recovery
635. Taking note of such fly ash components as alkali salts and metal salts like
zinc, lead etc. it is promising to employ metal recovery method by water-washing
before the smelting process in the municipalities where metal smelter business are
located. In some municipalities where local electric furnace businesses exist, it may be
effective to conduct ash to slag processing and metal recovery in combination with
dedicated reductive dissolution facilities. Actually such businesses in Japan are
actively engaged in incineration residue treatment for the municipalities that do not
own final disposal sites. In any cases, melting treatment of only fly ash should not be
recommended.
9.2.6 Colloidal Filling and Mining Collaborative Resource Utilization
Technology
636. Cemented filling and mining collaborative resource utilization of waste
incineration fly ash technology is suitable for co-processing household waste
incineration fly ash and mining waste of mining, separation, and metallurgical. The core
is the cementitious system of tailing-steel slag-gypsum-waste incineration fly ash as
the cementitious materials of mine filling, the waste of mining, and separation as
aggregate, adding water reducer admixture and water mixing qualified solid waste
cementing filler.
637. Colloidal filling and mining collaborative technology of the waste incineration
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fly ash takes full advantage of the "silicon four-coordinate isomorphic effect" and the
"double-salt effect." Ettringite (Ca6Al2(SO4)3•(OH)12•26H2O) is the most common
double salt mineral in ordinary cement concrete and the most common double salt
mineral in the cementing and filling hardened bodies of most subterranean mining.
Solubility constant of ettringite is 1.1 * 10-40. The results show that the saturated
aluminum ion concentration of ettringite in water is more than 10 times lower than the
saturated aluminum ion concentration of water-quenched blast furnace slag powder in
water. Thus in a system with sufficient supply of Ca2+, OH- and SO42- ions, the
crystallization of ettringite will continue to promote the dissolution of the aluminum oxy
tetrahedra in the water-quenched blast-furnace slag micropowder from the vitreous
network of the slag. The links of the Si-Al-O tetrahedrons, which promote the higher
degree of polymerization in the slag, are destroyed, forming a large number of active
organosilicon tetrahedrons or siloxane tetrahedrons. Slag for the cementitious system
to provide Ca2+, OH- and a small amount of silicon tetrahedron. Mg2+ and Fe2+ of slag
in the gelled system and Ca2+ similar role. A larger amount of gypsum for the system
to provide a steady stream of Ca2 + and SO42-.
638. The main components of MSW fly ash are inorganic substances and heavy
metals produced after MSW incineration. When the flue gas is purified by dry or semi-
dry reaction, some reaction products (such as CaCl2 and CaSO4) and partly incomplete
Reaction of Ca(OH)2 and other substances are contained. It can provide a large
number of Ca2+, OH- and SO42- for the gel system. At the same time, there is a high
content of Cl- in the incineration fly ash, which forms hydrated calcium chloroaluminate
hydrate hydrate in the slag hydration process. Chlorine salt will form alkaline
substances such as NaOH in the slag hydration process, Improve the liquidity alkalinity
and promote the further hydration of slag.
639. Colloidal filling and mining collaborative utilization technology of waste
incineration fly ash solidifies the heavy metals in fly ash of cementitious materials
during the hydration of cementitious materials. The main hydration products of
cementitious materials are ettringite, CSH gel and Zeolite minerals, etc. Several
products contribute to the system's solidification of heavy metals. Heavy metal
elements can be isotropically incorporated into the ettringite lattice and C-S-H gel has
a strong ability to adsorb heavy metals. On the other hand, the Lead-alum double-salt
minerals, such as arsenic-lead alum-alum lead alum-like complex salt (Pb, H+) (Al3+,
Fe3+, Fe2+)3 (SO42-, AsO4
3-)2(OH), can also rapidly consume the Al3+, Fe3+, Fe2+, OH-
and SO42- ions in solution with the participation of arsenic and lead compounds, thus
also promoting the consumption of slag powder, slag powder and gypsum in the
system. Such complex salts in water solubility is extremely low. At higher pH, the
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crystallization of such double salts allows both arsenic and lead concentrations in water
to reach drinking-water standards. Recent studies have also shown that arsenic and
lead can be highly charged into the hydrous aluminosilicate network of the zeolite-like
phase or become highly charged as part of the network backbone. In addition, this
technology cut off the route of its pollution transmission through the method of physical
wrapping. In particular, the solidified system formed by the slag-based cementitious
material-waste incineration fly ash hydration reaction contains a large amount of CSH
gel, and its compact structure can reduce the overall solidified body permeability, which
contains dioxin particles wrapped fixed.
640. Colloidal filling and mining collaborative resource utilization technology of
waste incineration fly ash not only reduces the accumulation of solid waste such as
metallurgical slag, but also reduces the filling costs of filling enterprises in the mine,
but also realized the recycling of heavy metals hazardous waste incineration fly ash
Use, and can save landfill. If the industrialization of colloidal filling and mining
cooperative utilization of waste incineration fly ash technology is realized, the two
industries of fly ash disposal and mine filling can be organically integrated, at the same
time, it will bring about employment in Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei Province.
9.2.7 Fly Ash Source Reduction Technology
641. This method can not be underestimated by reducing the amount of waste
entering the waste incinerator through the waste source classification directly and
significantly reducing the amount of fly ash generated.
642. In addition, improving the solid reagents of flue gas treatment can reduce the
amount of fly ash. According to China's Standard for pollution control on the municipal
solid waste incineration (GB18485-2014), the 24 hour mean limit value of HCl is
reduced from 100 mg/m3 (GB18485-2001) to 50 mg/m3, and the EU 2010 standard
requires the emission limit of HCl value should not exceed 10 mg/m3. In order to ensure
that the flue gas discharge standards, waste incineration enterprises generally adopt
excessive spraying Ca(OH)2 pulp or the original semi-dry method based on the
addition of dry Ca(OH)2 deacidification means. According to the survey data, the ratio
of Ca(OH)2 consumption to fly ash production is as high as 1: 2 on average, ie Ca(OH)2
contributes about 50% of fly ash, which not only leads to flue gas treatment Increasing
costs also lead to an increase in the amount of fly ash and the difficulty of stabilizing
the fly ash. In order to increase the stabilization of heavy metals in fly ash, the use of
chelating agents alone and the processing costs of power plant will be significantly
increased, and it is difficult to ensure that the safe disposal of fly ash 100% pass the
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goal.
643. In the process of removing HCl with Ca(OH)2, the main factors affecting the
deacidification effect are CaO content in Ca(OH)2, CaO activity and digestion rate.
Reference from Japan's successful experience in flue gas treatment, the use of high-
activity calcium hydroxide and sodium bicarbonate as flue gas deacidification practices,
ensure that the stability of waste incineration flue gas standards, and have great
practical significance in reducing the amount of fly ash from the source and the difficulty
of stabilization treatment.
644. The use of high activity calcium hydroxide instead of ordinary calcium
hydroxide deacidification agent for semi-dry system flue gas deacidification, the use of
sodium bicarbonate instead of calcium hydroxide for dry system depth deacidification
from the source control can reduce the amount of fly ash generated, reduce the
fluctuations of the physical and chemical properties of fly ash, and reduce the difficulty
of handling fly ash.
9.2.8 Pollutant Reduction Technology - Waste Classification Technology
645. In recent years, with the increase of urbanization rate, the content of organic
matter in municipal solid waste tends to increase gradually, and the content of
inorganic matter such as muck and soil gradually decreases. The average content of
organic and inorganic substances gradually becomes stable and the composition
changes little. The proportion of recyclable materials such as paper, plastic and rubber
increased greatly, the usable value of rubbish increased, the combustible material
increased and the calorific value increased to a certain extent. With the popularization
and implementation of trash bags in various cities, Rain erosion, coupled with changes
in people's lifestyle, waste moisture content will gradually decline.
646. Change the waste collection method from mixed collection to source
classification and collection. At first, the household waste is divided into "harmful
waste", "recyclable waste", "kitchen waste" and "general waste", then "general waste"
Incineration, waste reduction from source and recycling can be achieved. First, reduce
the amount of domestic waste entering the incineration plant to reduce the amount
of incineration fly ash and ease the disposal pressure of fly ash; the second is to reduce
water content, which increase waste heat value, incineration temperature, and energy
efficiency to reduce the generation of dioxins; third, the reduction of metal content in
the waste can reduce the heavy metal content in fly ash. Therefore, the source
classification can directly reduce the formation of dioxins and destruct the formed
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condition of dioxins in the incineration process. At the same time, waste classification
can help incineration, can play a role of quantity reduction (to reduce waste disposal),
emission reduction (to reduce emissions), improve (improve combustion conditions),
improved efficiency (improve power generation efficiency) and so on.
647. The effect of waste separation on the reduction of fly ash pollutants was
verified by comparing the levels of heavy metals in incineration fly ash from mixed
municipal solid waste collection of China and incineration fly ash from Japan. Table **
gives the contents of heavy metals in fly ash from China and Japan. From the table **
can be seen:
648. China: The contents of heavy metals Cd, Cr and Ni in fly ash are very low
while the contents of Zn, Cu and Pb are generally high. According to Chinese literature
statistics, the contents of heavy metals in fly ash in China are quite different, and the
distribution of heavy metals is large. The difference between maximum and minimum
contents of Cu, Pb, Cd, Cr and Ni are three orders of magnitude, and the maximum
and the minimum of Zn two orders of magnitude. The average content of Zn was
highest of 8159.29 mg/kg, Followed by the average content of Pb and Cd was the
smallest, which was 119.55 mg/kg. The average of six heavy metals followed the rule:
Zn> Pb> Cu> Cr> Ni> Cd.
649. Japan: The contents of heavy metals Cd and Ni in fly ash are very low, while
the contents of Zn, Cu, Pb and Cr are relatively high, which is slightly different from the
distribution of heavy metals in fly ash. Japanese literature data also show that there is
also a large difference in the content of heavy metals and the content distribution range
in Japanese fly ash, in which the maximum and minimum content of Cu, Pb, Cd, Cr
and Ni differ by two orders of magnitude, and the maximum difference of Zn between
the maximum and the minimum by three orders of magnitude, which is similar to our
inland areas. Among them, Zn had the highest average content of 6856.34 mg / kg,
followed by Pb and Cd with the lowest average content of 67.35 mg / kg, followed by
Zn> Pb> Cu> Cr> Ni > Cd, with the same distribution of heavy metal content in China's
fly ash.
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Table 9-1 Basic Situation of Heavy Metal Content in Fly Ash from China and Japan
Nation Element Zn Cu Pb Cd Cr Ni
China
Content
Range(mg/kg) 300-71628 12-16404 31-21701 0.21-832 1.19-5116 1.23-2520
Average
Content(mg/kg) 8159.29 1321.52 3192.02 119.55 564.91 226.46
Japan
Content
Range(mg/kg) 82.01-24900 57-3650 12-4590 9-185 12.65-2055 1-977
Average
Content(mg/kg) 6856.34 1137.93 1877.56 67.35 264.34 147.85
650. By comparing the data in Table 8-1, it can be found that both heavy metals
highest content and average content of fly ash from China are much higher than that
from Japan. In order to clarify the differences between heavy metals in fly ash from
China and Japan, the average heavy metal content in fly ash in China and Japan is
compared and analyzed. The results are shown in Figure 8-2. As can be seen from
Figure 8-2, the average levels of six heavy metals in Japan fly ash are lower than those
in China. The main reason for this phenomenon is related to the waste collection
management. China's waste management system is not rigorous, and the waste mixed
collection, making heavy metals in a high content in the mixed waste, which directly
lead to high levels of heavy metals in fly ash. Japan's strict waste management, better
source classification, less mixed heavy metals in the waste incineration, make fly ash
in the lower content of heavy metals. It can be seen that the classification of waste on
the heavy metal content of fly ash have a great impact.
Zn Cu Pb Cd Cr Ni0
1000
2000
3000
6000
7000
8000
9000
Ave
rag
e C
once
ntr
atio
n(m
g/k
g)
Heavy Metal Element
China
Japan
Figure 9-2 Comparison of Average Heavy Metal Content in Fly Ash from
China and Japan
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651. Therefore, it is recommended to refer to the Japanese classification model.
Currently, the classification of waste in China can be divided into four categories:
"harmful waste", "recyclable waste", "kitchen waste" and "general waste", and "general
waste" can treat throgh incineration. This will not only greatly reduce the amount of
waste incineration, but also minimize the heavy metal content of incineration fly ash,
but also indirectly reduce the generation of dioxin in fly ash.
9.3 Prediction on the Environmental Impact
9.3.1 Mitigation Measures on Environmental Pollutions Caused by Poor
Management
652. The management of hazardous wastes is essentially the management of risks,
which aims at controlling the environmental risks of pollutants within the acceptable
ranges. There are two approaches for the control of environmental risks - one is to
destroy the pollutants from the origins, i.e., to reduce the strength of pollutants’ sources while the other is to reduce the pollutants’ transferability, i.e., to cut off its exposing
path. The main risk of fly ash origins from the heavy metals and dioxins collected from
hazardous wastes. Dioxins have strong toxicity, but there are only slight dioxins in fly
ash and they have low water-solubility as well. controlling its transferability is therefore
not that difficult. However, a lot of soluble heavy metals can be found from fly ash,
which should be given the top priority.
653. There are three disposal approaches with professional standards and
specifications related to MSW incineration fly ash in China: firstly, it should satisfy the
requirements stipulated by Pollution Control Standards for Hazardous Wastes Landfill
(GB 18598-2001) after solidification and then be sent to the hazardous wastes landfill
plants; secondly, it should satisfy relevant requirements stipulated by Pollution Control
Standards of MSW Landfill Plants (GB16889-2008) after treatment and then be sent
to MSW landfill plants for landfilling disposal; thirdly, in accordance with the stipulations
of Pollution Control Standards for Hazardous Wastes Landfill (GB 18598-2001),
Landfill Pollution Control Standards of Municipal Solid Wastes (GB16889-2008), Solid
Wastes Pollution Control Standards for Cement Kiln Co-processing (GB 30485-2013),
Solid Wastes Technical Specifications for Cement Kiln Co-processing (GB 30760-
2014) and Solid Wastes Environmental Protection Technical Specifications for Cement
Kiln Co-processing (HJ/T 662-2013), cement kiln co-processing should be adopted to
dispose fly ash; another resources utilization approach is the sintered ceramsite
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technology for fly ash. Relevant details can be found from Pollution Control Standards
for Hazardous Wastes Incineration (GB18484-2014) and Engineering and
Construction Technical Specifications for the Centralized Incineration Disposal of
Hazardous Wastes (HJ /T 176-2005).
654. The most reliable disposal approach is to send hazardous wastes into the safe
landfill plants after solidification. However, the production amount of fly ash is quite
huge. Even all storage capacities of established safe landfill plants for hazardous
wastes to dispose the newly-added fly ash will be easily filled up within one year.
Meanwhile, the investment cost of safe landfill plants for hazardous wastes is rather
high. No matter in respect of capacity or economy, sending solidified fly ash into the
safe landfill plants for hazardous wastes is impracticable.
655. At present, it’s a general approach to dispose fly ash via sending it into the MSW landfill plants, but this approach has many loopholes during the implementation
process. In one hand, the national laws and administrative regulations haven’t clarified the regular supervision subject, test frequency and time limitation of the fly ash chelate
that can be sent into the MSW landfill plants. Therefore, the corporates conduct such
test themselves instead of regular supervision and relevant government management
departments and wastes landfill plants responsible for receiving fly ash don’t effectively supervise the fly ash test report provided by the incineration plants on the condition of
lacking effective daily supervision and adopt the fly ash landfill’s examination and approval process while certain test indicators are missing. On the other, some heavy
metals are unstable and can hardly meet the landfill plants’ standards. Meanwhile, its solidification mainly relies on organic or inorganic chelate and the long-term
solidification effect is uncertain to some extent.
656. Construction Plan for the National Urban MSW’s Harmless Treatment Facilities during the 13th Five-year Plan (draft for comment) points out that to
accelerate the treatment facilities’ construction and reduce the raw wastes’ landfill, incineration treatment technology is preferred to reduce the landfill amount of raw
wastes and achieve raw wastes’ “zero” landfill. Wastes landfill plants are mainly used for landfilling incineration sediments and other emergency situations. It can be seen
that landfill can be an emergency approach for the treatment of fly ash in incineration
plants, though some regions are not qualified for landfill. Fly ash’s resources utilization is a beneficial supplementation of landfill that can dispose fly ash.
657. The volatile elements content in fly ash, such as chlorine, sulphur, potassium,
sodium, etc. Water-washing pre-treatment approach must be adopted before sending
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them to the cement kiln to remove volatile elements, especially chlorine. However,
such approach will surely generate water-washing wastes with great chloride content
and there are no stable, effective and economical treatment approaches currently. The
latest edition of National Catalogue of Hazardous Wastes (2016 Edition) was carried
out on August 1, 2016 and Exemption and Management List for Hazardous Wastes is
newly-added, which allows MSW landfill plants and cement plants to accept fly ash
without applying any business license for hazardous wastes. The exemption only
involves fly ash’s specific disposal processes except the transfer process and it also clarifies the exempt disposal processes: fly ash entering to MSW landfill plants must
satisfy the MSW landfill standards and satisfy the cement kiln co-processing standards
if it should be sent to the cement kiln. The exemption controls the direction of fly ash
and clearly stipulates the treatment approaches and standards, which further
constrains the environmental influence brought by fly ash. The admittance barrier of
pollution-controlling corporates is lowered and the treatment market is enlarged as well.
Corporates can make full use of current technologies to comprehensively utilize fly ash
to reduce its harm. However, relevant controlling standards should be carried out by
the government urgently.
658. However, the applicability of hazardous wastes’ centralized technical specifications consulted by sintered ceramsite technology is relatively broad currently
and hasn’t defined the type of applicable kilns, corresponding facilities requirements and operative techniques. Besides, the requirements towards pollutants discharging
indicators and products’ pollution control indicators are rather loose. Such situation
makes the production and management of current fly ash’s treatment and disposal corporates lack normative guidance and standard limitation; makes the MSW
incineration power plants lack the foundation on which it is based while appointing the
treatment and disposal as well as inspection and acceptance of fly ash; makes the
government’s environmental protection departments lack professional supervision and regulatory foundation targeted at the treatment and disposal of fly ash. Meanwhile, it
is also not conducive to the technology’s promotion and application.
659. Mitigation measures: enact and improve relevant policies and regulations;
strengthen the supervision of wastes incineration, establish particular regulatory
authorities, adopts periodic inspection and aperiodic inspections to strictly inspect the
wastes incineration power plants’ operation, inspection and supervision data after
they’re put into operation, disclose the regulatory results regularly to accept the public
supervision; improve the fly ash treatment techniques; guarantee the environment
protection and promotion, etc.
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660. In Japan, the fly ash is landfilled in control-type final disposal sites after
detoxification treatment. When the final disposal site is to be decommissioned, it has
to comply with Decommission Standards, which stipulate the use of site after the
closure. If the closure site is to be used for general purposes, notification of character
change has to be submitted to the authority. Generally municipalities in urban areas in
Japan, where it is difficult to procure land to construct a final disposal site, hand over
slag and fly ash to private disposal companies to dispose of by landfilling based on
contract. There were cases where such private businesses were not able to comply
the Landfilling Standards and caused groundwater contamination as a result of
inappropriate management. In such pollution cases, if the private subcontractor goes
bankrupt and has no financially capable of restoring to its original state, the National
Government takes measures to restore to it for the time being and imposes the
business contractor or local government to pay the equivalent cost afterwards.
9.3.2 The Environmental Impact of MSWI Fly Ash Storage / Treatment and
Disposal Process
9.3.2.1 Risk of Particle Escaping in Disposal Process
661. Fly ash particles are very small, containing a large amount of fine particles of
PM10 or even PM2.5. Fly ash in the co-processing or landfill disposal process, prone to
particle escape, resulting in other carcinogenic or non-carcinogenic risk to staff and
even surrounding residents due to eating, inhalation, skin contact.
662. The study found that non-carcinogenic risk of original ash is mainly caused by
Pb and dioxin, and the average of non-carcinogenic hazard caused by other heavy
metals is within acceptable range. Taking into account the synergistic additive effect
of each pollutant, the cumulative non-carcinogenic harm exceeds the acceptable level.
The carcinogenic risk of original ash is mainly caused by Cr and dioxin. The
carcinogenic risks of other heavy metals are acceptable. However, the cumulative
carcinogenic risk exceeds acceptable levels.
663. Compared to the original ash, a large number of soluble chlorine salts were
removed from the washed fly ash. However, a large number of pollutants such as
heavy metals and insoluble dioxins are enriched, resulting in higher non-carcinogenic
and carcinogenic risks of washed fly ash than the original ash.
664. The non-carcinogenic risk of washed fly ash decreased by about 50% on
average after dioxin detoxification treatment, the carcinogenic risk decreased by an
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average of about 30%. It can be seen that the main reason for the risk reduction is the
sharp drop in the concentration of dioxins after detoxification.
9.3.2.2 Leaching Risk of Fly Ash in Storage/Stacking Process
665. If the coverage is not timely during fly ash storage process, it is easy to cause
pollution of groundwater. In the process of the original ash stacking, single pollutants
were analyzed, and non-carcinogenic damage caused by Pb, Cd and Cr was greater.
non-carcinogenic harm caused by Zn, Cu, Ni, Hg is relatively small.
666. The washed fly ash in the storage process, the non-carcinogenic harm caused
by Pb, Cd and Cr is relatively great. Non-carcinogenic harm caused by Zn, Cu, Ni, Hg
is relatively small. After washing pretreatment, the non-carcinogenic harm caused by
heavy metals is reduced to some extent. After the fly ash was pretreated by washing,
the non-carcinogenic harm caused by groundwater under its storage scenario
decreased obviously, but it was still unacceptable.
667. In addition to the original ash, deposition leaching of washed fly ash, the
stabilized fly ash may also be stacked deposition leaching situation. Non-carcinogenic
hazards of stabilized fly ash with inorganic stabilizers during storage/stacking are
mainly caused by Pb and Cr. The cumulative non-carcinogenic hazards of inorganic
chelating agents to stabilize cured fly ash are far below acceptable levels. After the fly
ash has been cured with an inorganic stabilizer, its health risk due to groundwater
leaching is much lower than that of raw and washed ash, and the risk is acceptable.
Non-carcinogenic leaching by leaching and solidification of organic chelating agent
stabilized fly ash during storage/stacking is mainly caused by Pb and Cr. The
cumulative non-carcinogenicity of all contaminants is well below acceptable levels. The
cement-stabilized fly ash shows greater non-carcinogenicity caused by Pb and Cr
during leaching during storage/stacking. The cumulative non-carcinogenic hazard in
most samples exceeds acceptable levels
9.3.3 MSW Incineration Fly Ash Products’ Environmental Influence
668. Fly ash can be sent to the MSW landfill plants for landfilling after stabilization.
However, the stabilization mainly adopts organic or inorganic chelates, which has
slight effect upon the heavy metals’ uncertain long-term stability and the treatment of
organic pollutants such as dioxins.
669. Cement generated via cement kiln co-processing has certain environmental
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influence. The content of heavy metals with high toxicity such as lead, cadmium,
mercury, etc. in fly ash is two or three magnitude level high than that in cement raw
materials while co-processing can increase the heavy metals content in the cement;
most of heavy metals with high toxicity such as lead, cadmium, mercury, etc. generated
during the cement calcination process will be volatilised and enter to fuel gas, then be
captured to the kiln. After that, the kiln dust will be re-calcined back to the kiln or be
directly blended with cement clinkers to be part of the cement products, which
essentially dilutes heavy metals into the cement products; cement products have
certain longevity in the environment and will turn into construction wastes once their
service is up. Currently, plenty of heavy metals brought by fly ash’s co-processing will
become a heavy burden for the future construction wastes’ treatment and application
undoubtedly. The application of fly ash-asphalt concrete mixed products as pavement
materials, fly ash-cement concrete mixed products as pavement materials and fly ash
as admixture added soil as road base material are the three main directions of
application, and the risks posed by rainwater leaching leading to contaminants entering
the groundwater should be assessed.
670. Sintered ceramsite technology for fly ash meanwhile achieves the
harmlessness and quantity-reducing treatment of wastes incineration fly ash with
dioxins, etc. substances from the fly ash absolutely dissolved during the ceramsite’s high-temperature stage and volatile heavy metals volatilised into the fly ash for a
second time under the impact of chloride. Besides, involatile heavy metals will be
solidified and stabilized in the ceramsite’s mineral crystal lattice after high-temperature
sintering and finally generate ceramsite products with low heavy metals content and
leach solution amount, which improves the products’ long-term stability and
environmental friendliness. Such products can be high-quality raw materials that act
as subgrade materials, road brick aggregate and landfill plants’ covering soil.
671. There was a case of environment pollution where a private business was
commissioned by a local government to composting by mixing organics with
incineration ashes accepted from the local government, and they failed to store the
compost products appropriately and caused contamination of the surrounding
environment. In another case, a private company sold baked granules recycled from
fly ash as silt, and the products were used as soil amendment and backfill material,
afterwards the used sites were found to contain soil contaminated with hexavalent
chromium, which cost huge amount of money to restore to its original state.
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9.4 Expectations on the Economic Benefits of the Optimal
Practicable Technology’s Application
672. Fly ash’s safe disposal approaches include cement solidification, chemical agent solidification, acid solvent extraction and melting solidification, etc., while the
most desirable one adopted by environmental departments in developed countries
such as America, Germany and Japan is melting solidification. It’s because this technology can reduce over two thirds of ash residues and alleviate the burden of
landfill sites; besides, it can also recycle the valuable metals in the slags, dissolve
harmful substance such as dioxins. Therefore, the melting solidification technology
dealing with MSW incineration fly ash can dominate the treatment and disposal of fly
ash in the future.
9.4.1 Cost of Technical Application
8.4.1.1 Technology Cost for Fly Ash Disposal in China
673. In recent years, various corporates or units working on the treatment of solid
wastes introduce high-temperature melting or plasma technology for the vitrification of
solid wastes in succession, the environmental stability of whose products achieve
advanced international standards, with no organic pollutants and rather low heavy
metals leachability. The direct operation cost is about RMB 1000 yuan/ton and it greatly
reduces the fly ash’s landfill amount and solves the conflicts brought by shortage of
land resources. However, importing the whole set of equipment costs a lot - the single
set of equipment is about RMB 100 million yuan. The investment cost is relatively high.
But the domestic self-developed mini plasma melting equipment with a low investment
cost has been put into operation successfully. Currently, the research and
development on large-scale plasma melting equipment is underway as well.
1) Sintered Ceramsite Technology:
674. Viewing from construction of the demonstrative production line and operation
condition of Tianjin Yiming Environmental Technology Co., Ltd., the construction
expenses required for a project disposing 5000 tons’ wastes incineration fly ash annually to establish a sintered ceramite production line is about RMB 130 million yuan.
The production line of wastes incineration fly ash’s centralized amount-reducing
disposal mainly incudes solid wastes sintering machine system, fuel gas treatment
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system, second-level water-washing system and supplementary facilities. The direct
treatment expenses of each ton of wastes incineration fly ash is about RMB 800-1000
yuan and the treatment process doesn’t generate any obvious second pollution. Other cost also include the transportation cost of transporting the wastes incineration fly ash
to the plants (RMB 1 yuan/t·km).
2) Cement Kiln Co-processing:
675. Fly ash is co-disposed through the process from Beijing Jinyu Liulihe Cement
Plant with a total investment of about 110 million yuan, a multi -stage technology and
equipment system should be built, including countercurrent rinse, precipitation,
pressure steaming, separation, drying and dehydration, to reduce the content of
volatile elements (chlorine, sulfur, potassium and sodium, etc.) and heavy metals in fly
ash; first, the fly ash should be washed and purified to the acceptable level of cement
kiln so that it can be used as an alternative raw materials entering the kiln and turn into
mature material after calcination. For Beijing Jinyu Liulihe Cement Plant, the direct
incineration fly ash disposal expense is about RMB 1,400-1,700 yuan while the fly ash
in the plant has dry chlorine content of 22% with an annual disposal amount of 20,000
tons. The disposal cost is rather high and the Beijing Municipal Government therefore
subsidizes RMB 1,320 yuan for each ton of fly ash.
676. Sintered ceramsite technology can collect heavy metals and chloride together
in the secondary fly ash and such secondary fly ash can be landfilled. Compared with
direct landfill disposal, sintered ceramsite technology can effectively alleviate the
problems caused by insufficient landfill capacity and create beneficial condition for the
extraction of heavy metals. Though its comprehensive cost is higher than the cost of
landfill, such technology can achieve the amount-reducing and harmfulness as the
same time. While disposing fly ash with the cement kiln co-processing approach, part
of the raw materials can be replaced so as to reduce the discharge amount of CO2.
However pre-treatment before sending fly ash into the kiln should be conducted and
the technical application cost is relatively high while the whole technique can’t separate and recycle heavy metals and the products’ long-term stability and environmental
friendliness still wait to be evaluated.
9.4.1.2 Technology Cost for Fly Ash Disposal in Japan
677. Figure 8-3 shows the structure of fly ash disposal cost in Japan.
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Fig 9-3 Cost Structure for Fly Ash Disposal in Japan
678. The fly ash, which is low quality, small quantity, and dispersed, is very difficult
to recycle. As it would not be sold, the cost for treatment must be paid. As long as the
final disposal cost is around 20,000 yen per ton at local government facilities, the
recycling is difficult to be viable.
679. Shown below is a list of cost effective treatment methods, utilization ways and
recycling technologies:
Chelate Treatment + Final Disposal; 5,000 yen/t + Disposal Cost (10,000 yen to
20,000 yen/t)
Cement Solidification + Final Disposal; 3,000 yen/t + Disposal Cost (10,000 yen
to 20,000 yen /t)
Use as Cement Material + Transportation Cost; 40,000 yen to 50000 yen/ t +
Transportation Cost
Making Eco-Cement + Transportation Cost; 45,000 yen to 50000 yen/ t +
Transportation Cost
Reductive Melting Business + Transportation Cost; 40,000 yen / t +
Transportation Cost
Non-metal Recovery at Smelter + Transportation Cost; 60,000 yen / t +
Transportation Cost
Baking Business + Transportation Cost; 30,000 yen to 40,000/ t +
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Transportation Cost
Melting Treatment by Local Government; 60,000 yen / t
9.4.2 Analysis on Product Value and Market Demand
680. Melting solidification is an effective treatment technology for wastes
incineration fly ash. All the heavy metals’ leaching concentration of leach solution leached from disposed fly ash slags doesn’t exceed the standard limit of leach toxicity
identification and the slags doesn’t have any leach toxicity. Its material is compact and hard with certain intensity and the prerequisite for resources utilization. In accordance
with the human health risks’ assessing result, comparing the disposed fly ash slags
with the undisposed raw fly ash, its hazard is only 0.2% of that of raw fly ash, which
will not cause any potential threats to the environment or human body and can be used
for resources utilization as subgrade materials.
681. The high-temperature sintered sediments generated via sintered ceramsite
technology can be used as high-quality raw materials that act as subgrade materials,
road brick aggregate and landfill plants’ covering soil with a price (ceramsite) of about RMB 100 yuan/ m3. Such income can offset part of the treatment cost. Meanwhile, it
can save the wastes incineration fly ash’s landfill expenses of about RMB 500-600
yuan/ton. The treatment of fly ash differs from the production of other products. It aims
at the social and environmental benefits.
682. The cement production amount in 2015 is about 2.4 billion tons. Cement
occupies a huge market demand, which can promote the fly ash’s co -processing
amount. However, in actual production process, the fly ash adding quantity should be
controlled and the treatment standard should be strictly executed to guarantee the
cement products’ quality. At the same time, the potential environmental hazard caused by fly ash heavy metals in cement products can never be ignored.
683. In Japan, demand for recycled products derived from fly ash in the society is
discussed here.
Normal Cement: In cement plants equipped with water-washing pretreatment
facility, normal cement products complying with JIS are duly manufactured.
Therefore the demand is most promising.
Eco-Cement: As eco-cement has limited scope of utilization because of its
components, certain system should be elaborated to secure its demand. But
once a cement company establishes such a system, certain amount of
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demand can be expected.
Slag and Metal: As slag products are standardized as JIS, demand can be
large once quantity is ensured. To respond to such large demand, storage
facilities are essential.
Recovery of Zinc etc.: Demand does exist for recovered zinc at smelter of
mining companies. The more advantageous, however, is found in the
appropriate treatment of undesired salts.
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CHAPTER 10 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
STANDARD AND POLICY SUGGESTIONS OF MSWI
FLY ASH IN CHINA
10.1 Standard Suggestions
684. As mentioned before, the establishment of technical pollution control
specifications during incineration fly ash’s whole-process management is in urgent
need currently, including the technical standards or specifications on the controlling of
pollution that generated during the incineration fly ash’s package, transportation, storage, disposal and resources regeneration process.
685. Currently, Technical Specification for Pollution Control on Municipal Solid
Waste Incineration is under formulation by the Ministry of Environmental Protection.
The project has been established but the subject hasn’t been initiated. As far as we know, the suggestion draft of this technical specification mainly contains the following
contents:
Technical requirements for detoxification and pollution control on pre-
treatment usually include the general requirements, technical requirements
for pollution control on solidification and stabilization pre-treatment, technical
requirements for pollution control on detoxification and pre-treatment of
dioxins, molding pre-treatment, etc.;
Technical requirements for pollution control on co-processing are composed
of general requirements, cement kiln co-processing, high-temperature
sintered co-processing, high-temperature melting co-processing, civil
engineering materials’ productive blending co-processing, etc.;
Technical requirements for pollution control on landfill disposal wastes
Pollution control and supervision on the treated and disposed products as
well as the disposal sites facilities
Administrative policies on the pollution control of the treatment and disposal
686. In the proposal draft of this technical specification, heavy metals content
standards of construction materials generated via the utilization of incineration fly ash
and discharge standards of air pollutants during the production process, as illustrated
in Table 9-1 and Table9-2 respectively.
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Table 10-1 Heavy Metals Quality Standards of Co-processing Outcomes (Product) (mg/L)
Elements Leaching Limits Total Quantity Limits
Cadmium 0.01 150
Plumbum 0.01 150
Hexavalent Chromium 0.05 250
Arsenic 0.01 150
Total Hydrargyrum 0.0005 15
Selenium 0.01 150
Zinc 100 100
Nickel 0.5 40
Copper 40 35
Table 10-2 Standards for Air Pollution Control
No. Pollutants
Limits of Diverse Incineration Capacity
≤300 kg/h 300-2500
kg/h ≥2500 kg/h
1 Particles(mg/m3) 100 80 65
2 Carbon Monoxide(mg/m3) 100 80 80
3 Sulfur Dioxide(mg/m3) 400 300 200
4 Nitrogen Oxides(mg/m3) 500
5
Hydrogen Chloride(mg/m3) 10
6 Hydrogen Fluoride (mg/m3) 1
7
Mercury and its Compounds (calculated with Hg) (mg/m3)
0.05
8
Cadmium and its Compounds (calculated with Cd) (mg/m3)
0.1
9
Thallium, Lead, Arsenic and its Compounds (calculated with
Tl+Pb+As) (mg/m3) 1
10
Beryllium, Chromium, Tin, Antimony, Copper, Manganese, Nickel,
Vanadium and its compounds (calculated with
Be+Cr+Sn+Sb+Cu+Co+Mn+Ni+V)
0.5
11 Dioxins (ng TEQ/m3) 0.1
687. Compared with the above-mentioned results, the proposal draft of this
technical specification doesn’t cover any technical contents related to the pollution control of incineration fly ash’s package, transportation, storage. Therefore, the Ministry of Environmental Protection should be suggested to supplement these
contents in the follow-up work of establishing this technical specification. Meanwhile,
further demonstration on the involved various treatment, disposal and regeneration
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technologies should be considered about as well to guarantee the incineration fly ash’s proper disposal and harmless management.
688. Refer to Japan experiences to improve regulations:
Control Procedure for Fly Ash: It should be reviewed corresponding to development
of treatment technologies. Monitoring of hazardous- substance- contained material is
necessary. Legal framework should be improved for a control system on hazardous
materials based on Basel Convention. Legal provision such as Specially Controlled
Municipal Waste in Japan may be needed.
Needed Standard for Detoxification: The four methods established in Japan can be
referenced. The chemical insolubilization is not sufficient because there is no Standard
on chemical behavior in the environment. Chemical Standards should be established
in consistent with standards on final disposal site and on decommission.
Establishing Recycling Standard for small quantity and individual use is difficult.
There have been cases where a business operator accepts waste in exchange for
cash pretending to recycle it, but actually dumps it illegally or misuses it. It is necessary
that local government have responsibility to confirm appropriateness of the handover
of waste to a business operator in exchange with money.
Manifest System: It is necessary to monitor operation of private businesses that try
to dispose of waste inappropriately pretending that they recycle it. Manifest system
may be needed.
10.2 Technical and Environmental Standards System of MSW
Incineration Fly Ash
689. Vitrification on solid wastes has been widely applied in developed countries
such as European countries, America and Japan, etc. Toxic materials such as heavy
metals are solidified into the compact three-dimensional glassy structure with a high-
level stability, uneasy to be discharged and the environmental risks is relatively low.
Therefore, such technology acts as the general wastes treatment approach in
European Union, Japan, America, etc. and has improved technical specification and
identification system. The catalogue of hazardous wastes proposed by European
Union clarifies that the glassy slags generated via the disposal of hazardous wastes
are generally solid wastes (Solid Wastes Code: 19 04 01). In 1992, the Environmental
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Protection Agency (EPA) carried out Technical Manual on the Vitrification Engineering
of Hazardous Wastes to guide and encourage the application and promotion of
vitrification of hazardous wastes.
690. At present, many corporates have applied high-temperature melting, plasma
and other approaches to conduct the harmless treatment on solid wastes in China. The
environmental stability of the products produced by such technologies has reached an
international advanced level - with no organic pollutants, low heavy metals leachability
and beneficial social and environmental benefits.
691. National Catalogue of Hazardous Wastes published by the Ministry of
Environmental Protection in 2008 also clearly stipulates that for slags produced by
solid wastes’ incineration, glassy substances disposed via plasma and high-
temperature melting, etc. can’t be classified into hazardous wastes, which is consistent with the policies of developed countries such as European Union, Japan and America,
etc. To explain the above-mentioned terms of National Catalogue of Hazardous
Wastes from a technical prospective, it clarifies the definition of glassy products,
specifies the vitrification treatment technology of solid wastes and promotes the
normalization of solid wastes’ treatment and disposal. Proposed by industrial experts and part of the corporates on the basis of testing and analysing the phase, component,
leaching toxicity of solid wastes’ vitrification products, the National Technical Committee for the Products’ Recycling and Utilization Basis and the Management’s Standardization plans to stipulate basic requirements of solid wastes’ vitrification products and the evaluating indicators and approaches based on the relevant
standards or provisions of developed countries.
692. The content of this standard totally complies with the laws and regulations of
national environment protection work. Meanwhile, this standard also clearly defines
the glassy substances listed in National Catalogue of Hazardous Wastes generated
via plasma, high-temperature melting, etc. from the technical prospective, which
positively supports the vitrification treatment of solid wastes, especially hazardous
wastes and will impressively promote the normalization and standardization of the solid
wastes’ treatment and disposal.
693. Relevant technical and environmental standards are illustrated as follow:
1) Technical indicators for the landfill of wastes incineration fly ash
Fly ash to be sent to the incineration plants should satisfy the requirements
of Pollution Control Standards of MSW Landfill Plants (GB16889-2018).
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2) Technical indicators for cement kiln co-processing fly ash:
❖ Cement kiln co-processing must satisfy the requirements of Solid Wastes
Pollution Control Standards for Cement Kiln Co-processing (GB 30485-
2013).
❖ The leachable heavy metals content of the products generated via
cement kiln co-processing can meet the requirements proposed by
Technical Specifications for the Co-processing of Solid Waste in Cement
Kilns (GB 30760-2014).
❖ Cement kiln co-processing system complies with the technical
requirements of Environmental Protection Technical Specification for Co-
processing of Solid Waste in Cement Kilns (HJ662-2013).
3) Technical indicators for the technical system of wastes incineration fly
ash’s centralized amount-reducing disposal
❖ Cement kiln incineration system complies with the technical requirements
of Pollution Control Standards for Hazardous Wastes Incineration
(GB18484-2014).
❖ Fuel gas advanced purification system complies with the requirements
proposed by Engineering and Construction Technical Specifications for
the Centralized Incineration Disposal of Hazardous Wastes (HJ /T 176-
2005).
❖ Other supplementary equipment can abide by the stipulations of Solid
Wastes Environmental Protection Technical Specifications for Cement
Kiln Co-processing (HJ/T 662-2013).
4) Technical indicators for fly ash ceramsite (high-temperature incineration
sediments)
❖ Fly ash ceramsite can be directly used as landfill plants’ covering soil and it abides by the requirements of Geotechnical Engineering Technical
Specifications for MSW Sanitary Landfill Plants (CJJ 176-2012) and
Technical Specifications for MSW Sanitary Landfill Technology (CJJ17-
2004);
❖ Water-washing and desalinized fly ash ceramsite can meet the
requirements of Technical Specifications for Construction of Highway
Subgrades (JTG F10-2006);
❖ The environmental pollution effect of dioxins from fly ash ceramsite can
meet the secondary standard requirements on residential land proposed
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by Environmental Quality Standard for Soil (draft for comment) (GB
15618-2008);
❖ The leachable heavy metals content of fly ash ceramsite can meet the
requirements of Solid Wastes Technical Specifications for Cement Kiln
Co-processing (GB 30760-2014) (Note: this specification clarifies the
leaching toxicity limits of heavy metals from cement products. Grinding
fly ash ceramsite into powders like cement particles can easily meet the
standards of executing this requirement. Grinding the fly ash ceramsite
into powders for the leaching toxicity test of heavy metals can better
illustrate the ceramsite products’ ecological and environmental safety under harsh circumstances such as mechanical crush, natural
weathering, acid rain attack, etc.
5) Fuel Gas Discharge Standards during the Fly Ash’s High-temperature
Incineration
694. Fuel gas generated from the high-temperature incineration process can meet
the requirements of Pollution Control Standards of Hazardous Wastes Incineration (GB
18484-2001) and Solid Wastes Pollution Control Standards for Cement Kiln Co-
processing (GB 30485-2013) after purification.
10.2.1 Standard Draft for MSW Incineration Fly Ash’s Vitrification
1. Scope
This standard stipulates solid wastes vitrification’s terms and definition, basic
requirements of vitrification products as well as its assessment indicators and
approaches, etc.
This standard is applicable to the products’ definition and environmental stability
judgement after the vitrification of general solid wastes and hazardous wastes, but not
applicable to the treatment of radioactive solid wastes.
2. Normative References
The following references are indispensable to the application of this file. For any
references with market-out dates, the only marked-out version is applicable to this file
while the latest version of references with no dates (including all modified lists) is
applicable to this file.
GB 5085 Methods for Identifying and Distinguishing Hazardous Wastes
GB 5086 Leach Approach of Solid Wastes Leach Toxicity
GB 18597 Pollution Control Standards for the Storage of Hazardous Wastes
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GB/T 30904 Analysis on Inorganic Chemical Products’ Crystal Structure - X-ray
Diffraction Method
HJ/T 298 Technical Specifications for the Identification of Hazardous Wastes
HJ 2025 Technical Specifications for the Collection, Storage and Transportation
of Hazardous Wastes
3. Terms and Definitions
The following terms and definitions is applicable to this file.
3.1 Solid Wastes
Solid wastes refer to solidity and semi-solidity generated during the production, life
and other activities but losing its original utilization value or those maintaining the
utilization value but were abandoned or given up as well as gaseous materials,
substances contained in the container, and materials and substances that are listed
into solid wastes management list by the laws and administrative regulations.
3.2 Vitrification
Vitrification is a solid wastes treatment approach that blends solid wastes with
solvent and auxiliary that are easy to form vitrification phase to form homogeneous
melting substances under high temperature and amorphous glassy substances after
cooling down will help with the stabilization of poisonous and harmful substances such
as heavy metals.
3.3 Product of Vitrification
Amorphous and glassy residues generated via the vitrification of solid wastes
4. Technical Requirements of Vitrification Products
4.1 Solid wastes’ vitrification products should satisfy the following indicators.
The mass fraction of glassy components should remain no less than 99%.
The SiO2 content of solid wastes’ vitrification products should be no less than 20%.
Grind solid wastes’ vitrification products and sock them in the solution with a pH
value of 3, 7 and 11 respectively. The leaching concentration of the following elements
shouldn’t exceed the requirements of Table 9-3.
Mechanical properties: vitrification products used as construction materials should
occupy certain compressive strength and Rockwell hardness.
Table 10-3 Leaching Toxicity Limits Requirements of Solid Wastes’ Vitrification Products
Elements Leaching Toxicity Limits (mg/L) As 0.06 Ba 4
Cd 0.02 Cr 0.1 Cu 0.6
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5. Test Approaches
The proportion of glassy components should be tested in accordance with the
approaches stipulated in GB/T 30904.
The content fraction of Si、Al、Ca adopts the test approach of inductive coupling
plasma atomic emission spectroscopy.
Solid wastes’ vitrification products should be grinded with high strength and soaked
in the solution with a pH value of 3, 7 and 11. The leaching toxicity should be tested in
accordance with the stipulated approach in GB 5086.
The Rockwell hardness of solid wastes’ vitrification products should be executed in
terms of JIS Z2245-2005
10.2.2 Technical Specifications for Wastes Incineration Fly Ash’s Safe
Disposal and Technical Specifications for MSW Incineration Fly Ash’s
Stability
695. On June 18, 2014, the project opening discussion conference for Technical
Specifications for Wastes Incineration Fly Ash’s Safe Disposal composed by the Ministry of Environmental Protection under the charge of the team of Professor Qian
Guangren in School of Environmental and Chemical of Shanghai University, convened
by the Department of Science and Technology of the National Ministry of
Environmental Protection in the main campus of Shanghai University. The composing
of this technical specification is not limited within specific disposal technology or
facilities and primarily standardizes the operation technology, pollutants discharge
indicators, disposed products’ properties during the wastes incineration fly ash’s overall disposal process to encourage local governments to disposal the wastes
incineration fly ash within its region in the light of local conditions and promote the rapid
progress of wastes incineration fly ash’s disposal technology. Everything required is that the relevant indicators meet the technical specifications. On September 25, 2016,
a new symposium was convened by the Chinese Research Academy of Environmental
Hg 0.002 Mn 0.2 Ni 0.12 Pb 0.15
Sb 0.1 Se 0.04 Zn 1.2 Cl 450 F 2.5 SO4 1500 PO4 0.3
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Sciences to discuss the technical highlights of this technical specification.
696. “Comprehensive Environment Management Project of MSW in China” is a global environmental fund developed via the cooperation between the Foreign
Economic Cooperation Center of the Ministry of Environmental Protection and the
World Bank. They also formulated Technical Specifications for MSW Incineration Fly
Ash’s Stability in July, 2016 for the engineering design, construction and operation of
MSW incineration fly ash’s stabilization to reduce the leaching dioxins amount in the environment caused by MSW incineration fly ash.
10.3 Policy and Management Recommendations
697. Strengthen the legislation at different levels and introduce adaptable guidance
documents; keep track of social development and technological updates in a timely
manner and speed up the formulation and improvement of relevant standards so as to
guide relevant departments in all regions to promote the disposal and monitoring of fly
ash. The regulatory mechanism, technical guidance and laws and regulations on the
utilization of incineration fly ash resources should also be established and improved so
that resource-based utilization can be followed.
10.3.1 Recent Policy Recommendations
10.3.1.1 Define the properties of MSWI Fly Ash and Confirm the Principal Responsible for MSWI Fly Ash Management
698. According to the definition of "Law of the People's Republic of China on the
Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution by Solid Waste", household waste
incineration fly ash should belong to the category of "household waste". According to
this law, the main body responsible for the management of household waste is the
"competent environmental administrative department of the local people's government
at or above the county level, whose responsibility is "to organize the cleaning,
collection, transportation and disposal of municipal solid waste." However, in actual
work, the administrative objects of environmental sanitation administration often do not
include MSWI fly ash, but are borne by MSWI facility operators. This is also one of the
fundamental reasons for the difficulty in handling MSWI fly ash.
699. Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the attribute of "municipal solid waste
incineration fly ash" through the explanation of "Law on the Prevention and Control of
Solid Waste Pollution" and appropriate policies and regulations documents so as to
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clarify the liability main body of MSWI fly ash management. Which laid the basic policy
foundation for the completely solution of fly ash pollution.
10.3.1.2 Development of MSWI Fly Ash Pollution Control Technology Policy, Clear Technical Disposal Route Prioritization Order of MSWI Fly Ash
700. China's "Law on the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution by
Solid Wastes" does not specify the order of prioritization of technologies for prevention
and control of solid wastes encouraged by the state, which is troublesome to the
management of various types of solid wastes including solid waste incineration fly ash.
Therefore, it is urgent to formulate a " pollution control technology route for MSWI fly
ash pollution", in which the technical priority order of pollution control of MSWI fly ash
should be followed: priority is given to MSWI technology with small amount of
incineration fly ash; MSWI fly ash that has been produced should be used as much as
possible to meet the requirements of the national standard for the production of
construction materials. For unavailable MSWI fly ash, as far as possible in accordance
with the requirements of the "Municipal Solid Waste Landfill Pollution Control
Standards" for disposal.
10.3.1.3 Incineration Fly Ash Transportation and Resource Regeneration Exemption
701. Currently, technology for landfill disposal and co-processing in cement kiln of
incineration fly ash are complete, and corresponding exemption management
authorization has been obtained. Resource regeneration technology other than
technology for transportation of fly ash and production of cement using fly ash,
however, are under certain control or technical restriction. Therefore, it is suggested to
apply for exemption authorization of MSW incineration fly ash transportation and
resource regeneration from the Ministry of Environmental Protection while developing
above-mentioned Technical Specification for the Prevention and Control of Pollution
by Municipal Solid Waste Fly Ash based on corresponding researches.
10.3.2 Future Policy Recommendations
702. Innocent management of incineration fly ash should be carried out under the
framework system of solid waste management. But, the current system of solid waste
management in China is not so complete, so it is difficult to improve the innocent
management and technical level of incineration fly ash. It is necessary, therefore, to
revise the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of
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Pollution by Solid Waste so as to solve existing problems and improve solid waste
management system in China. In view of problems of innocent management of
incineration fly ash, the following contents of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Pollution by Solid Waste are recommended to be
amended.
(1) Specifying the management scope of MSW and confirming MSW properties of fly
ash.
As mentioned above, the definition of MSW in China varies largely from waste types
under actual management, so it is impossible to make sure whether incineration fly
ash belongs to MSW or not, and there is no specific basis for confirming the subject of
liability of innocent management of incineration fly ash.
(2) Establishing a solid waste system that "any entity or individual generating the solid
waste should be responsible for it" so as to confirm the subject of liability of innocent
management of incineration fly ash.
According to the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Pollution by Solid Waste, for the prevention and control of environmental pollution
by solid waste, the State implements the principle that any entity or individual causing
the pollution should be responsible for it. The manufacturers, sellers, importers and
users should be responsible for the prevention and control of solid waste pollution
produced thereby". Based on this regulation, it is impossible to confirm who the polluter
of solid waste is or who should be responsible for it. Generally, innocent management
of incineration fly ash is undertaken by MSW incineration plants all over different
regions, because the subject of liability for such innocent management has not been
specified. In fact, however, MSW incineration plants are incompetent to conduct
effective innocent management of incineration fly ash, because MSW incineration
market is defective in its order and MSW incineration cost is generally low.
A practice internationally accepted is that any entity or individual generating the solid
waste should be mainly responsible for "cradle-to-grave" whole-process innocent
management of the solid waste. Since incineration fly ash is the residue of MSW
disposal, so incineration fly ash should be managed as MSW. MSW is generated by
urban and rural residents (taxpayers), so urban and rural administrators (city
administrators corresponding to cities) should assume this responsibility for urban and
rural residents. Although the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Pollution by Solid Waste stipulates that "the people's governments at or
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above the county level should plan, as a whole, to build facilities for collecting,
transporting and treating urban-rural solid waste", but firstly the Law has not specified
"MSW properties" of the incineration fly ash, and secondly the Law has not declared
who is the subject of liability for construction and operation of facilities for collecting,
transporting and treating MSW (including incineration fly ash).
(3) Setting a national priority sequence (technical route) for choice of solid waste
management technology, explicating basic principles that should be followed to choose
disposal technology of incineration fly ash.
Setting the national priority sequence (technical route) for choice of solid waste
management technology in the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Pollution by Solid Waste that is " avoiding or reducing, in the
first place, generation of solid waste or lowering content of harmful substances in it;
secondly, trying to use residual value (original value in use) of the solid waste; thirdly,
extracting and using desirable substances in the solid waste, fourthly, trying to use
energy of the solid waste or producing outcomes (products) generating energy, and
finally properly disposed of".
703. If such principle is established, development trend of fly ash innocent
management technology will be identified when choosing incineration fly ash disposal
and treatment technology and developing management policies for national
incineration fly ash technology.
10.3.3 Management Framework Recommendations
704. Incineration fly ash is hazardous waste, resulting from the incineration of
domestic waste. The administrative and technical management agencies of fly ash
should be the administrative department of environmental sanitation of cities (the
environmental sanitation administration or municipal administration of city
governments) and the administrative department of environmental protection (City
Government Environmental Protection Agency).
(1) Competent Administrative Departments of Environmental Health
If incineration fly ash is specified as MSW, then urban governments should bear the
responsibility of incineration fly ash innocent management. The Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Pollution by Solid Waste stipulates
that " the people's governments at or above the county level should plan, as a whole,
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to build facilities for collecting, transporting and treating urban-rural solid waste";
"competent administrative departments of environmental health of the people's
governments at or above the county level should organize to clear, collect, transport
and treat MSW and may, by the way of bidding, choose qualified entities to engage in
the clearing, collection, transport and treatment of urban consumer waste." Therefore,
competent administrative departments of environmental health should be responsible
for construction and operation facilities for collecting, transporting, storing, disposing
and using incineration fly ash. According to relevant laws and specific situations of
different regions, competent administrative departments of environmental health can
conduct such work voluntarily or entrust a third party which is capable to engage in
businesses of this area. Specific management modes should be adjusted according to
conditions in terms of locality and time, and imposing uniformity in all cases must be
avoided.
(2) Competent Administrative Departments of Environmental Protection
National competent administrative departments of environmental protection should
formulate policy and regulatory documents like control standards, technical
specifications and technical policies and management regulations for pollution by
incineration fly ash; local competent administrative departments of environmental
protection should conduct effective and whole-process management of environmental
protection against collection, transportation, storage, disposal and utilization of
incineration fly ash on the basis of those regulations and other relevant laws and
regulations, including examination and approval of environmental protection
administrative licensing, filing and approval of duplicate forms for transfer as well as
site supervision and management against facilities and organizations for collection,
transportation, storage, disposal and utilization of incineration fly ash.
10.3.4 Recommendations for Regulatory System and Framework
705. Improve the treatment facilities and regulatory system. The environmental
protection department should incorporate the treatment and disposal of incineration fly
ash into the regulatory system of incineration facilities, establish a true and exhaustive
archive record, and register the fly ash disposal process. Strict implementation of
hazardous waste production units to declare the registration, hazardous waste permit
management, hazardous waste transfer single management system, a clear number
of incineration fly ash, flow, storage, and disposal methods and so on should be
clarified. Provinces (autonomous regions) should establish centralized treatment and
disposal center and remote regulatory center, managed by the environmental
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departments via periodic inspection and random sampling. The distinction within a
province (autonomous region) is relatively small, which makes the overall planning
much more convenient; therefore, one or two centralized treatment and disposal center
for hazardous wastes should be built in the province (autonomous region) to dispose
the incineration fly ash all together. The facilities scale effect can effectively reduce the
cost and save the fly ash’s transportation expenses. So far, several provinces have built centralized treatment and disposal centers for hazardous wastes, which can also
supervise the incineration plants’ operation remotely.
706. For the fly ash generated out of Waste Incineration Plant in Japan, four
detoxification methods are provided. And the effect must be confirmed in the elution
test. The test must be conducted at least once a year. In Japan, there have been some
cases reporting lead elution amount exceeds the standard. In such a case of excess
standard, it is necessary to add more volume of chelate agent and check the effect by
conducting more frequent confirmations.
10.3.5 Implementation Plan and Safeguarding Measures
707. Final disposal by landfilling after detoxifying treatment is most economical. But
if the location of final disposal site is very far, it may be better to recycle it even if the
cost is a little high. Also recommended is by making use of smelting process of
already established metal smelting industry, cement industry, and electric furnace
industry, they are recycled into materials like sand and stone, or zinc and lead are
recovered, and afterwards alkali salts are washed and discharged into the sea. Eco-
cement manufacturing technology is recommended as even fly ash containing much
salts can be utilized for the raw materials.
708. Detoxification treatment by using chelate agent in itself is effective. When
future decommission of final disposal site is foreseen, however, the chemical agent to
be used should be carefully examined, as the leachate should include decomposition
substance of chelate agent. In Japan, there is no Standard concerning the use of
chelate agent. It would be desirable to set such Standard.
10.4 Conclusion
709. Fly ash is an end product of concentrated and enriched toxic pollutants. The
more toxic substances in fly ash, the less toxic material released into the environment
is. Therefore, pollution control goal is finally achieved only if fly ash is disposed of
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properly.
710. At present, disposal modes of MSW incineration fly ash in China are mainly:
disposal at the hazardous waste landfill site after solidification treatment, disposal at
the MSW landfill site after stabilization treatment, co-processing in cement kiln and
sintered caramite, etc. Other disposal technology or resources utilization technology
are still at the laboratory research stage, so in order to achieve sustainable
management of fly ash, it is recommended to take acting up to environmental ethics
and regional differences as the basic principle, to carry out more disposal and
resources utilization technology, such as sintering and melting technology, extraction
technology of heavy metals, etc.
711. Recently, in China, there is no sound and perfect system of technical
standards for fly ash treatment and disposal technology, so it is suggested to develop
technical specifications for whole-process management against control of pollution
caused by incineration fly ash, including technical standards or technical specifications
for packaging, transportation, storage, disposal and resource regeneration processes
of incineration fly ash. A specific example is the technical specification for fly ash
sintered caramite technology.
712. It is suggested to apply for exemption authorization of MSW incineration fly
ash transportation and resource regeneration from the Ministry of Environmental
Protection while developing the Technical Specification for the Prevention and Control
of Pollution by Municipal Solid Waste Fly Ash based on corresponding researches.
713. In view of the innocent management problems of incineration fly ash, the
following amendment of the Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Pollution by Solid Waste is recommended: specifying the management
scope of MSW, and confirming MSW properties of the incineration fly ash; establishing
the solid waste system that “any entity or individual generating the solid waste should
be responsible for it” so as to confirm the subject of liability of innocent management
of incineration fly ash.
714. It is recommended that administrative and technical management
organizations of incineration fly ash should be urban competent administrative
departments of environmental health and environmental protection.
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CHAPTER11 DEVELOPMENT OF MSWIP DATABASE
AND SERVICE PLATFORM
715. With regard to the safe disposal of waste incineration fly ash in China, the
presentation and dissemination of information so far have been undertaken exclusively
by businesses and there has been no relatively professional industry platform available
for public use. The construction and implementation of the present project – the
industry platform of the Tianjin Safe Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Fly
Ash Technology Engineering Center – have been made possible through the
leadership of Tianjin Yiming Environment and the support of the Asian Infrastructure
Investment Bank.
716. At present, information about the safe disposal of waste incineration fly safety
that can be found on the domestic network platform is limited to publicity information
on some corporate websites and personal documents. The industry platform of the
“Tianjin Safe Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Fly Ash Technology
Engineering Center” will be a specialized, professional and non-profit industry platform
and will be of great help in organizing and searching information.
11.1 Network Platform Environment Both at Home and Abroad
1) The Status of Foreign Network Platform
At present, for domestic solid waste incineration fly ash technology, advanced foreign
technologies are mainly distributed in some regions of Europe, the United States and
Japan, and their network platform information is also relatively rich; many information
are worthy of reference and reference.
2) The Status of Domestic Network Platform
At present, this piece of information on the safe handling of incineration fly ash is
displayed and advertised in the domestic enterprises for the nature of information.
There is not a relatively professional industrial platform for you to browse and review.
Most of the documents are for reference or reproduced from abroad Literature. This
piece of domestic network platform is in urgent need of a wide range of professionals
to participate in and maintenance to establish an industry-specific platform for you to
better understand and pay attention to the harm of MSW incineration and disposal
methods.
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3) Platform Construction Background and Purpose
Based on the above factors, with the full support from the AIIB, led by Yat Ming
Environmental in Tianjin, the successful construction and implementation of the
industrial platform for the existing project “Safety Engineering Technology Center for
Solid Waste Incineration Fly Ash” was completed. Therefore, after the construction of
the industrial platform of “Solid Waste Incineration Fly Ash Safety Disposal Technology
Engineering Center” is completed, there will be a specialized, professional and non-
profit industry platform, which for future information collation and information inquiry
Will have a great help.
11.2 Network Platform Foundation Information Description
11.2.1 Project Implementation Progress Statement
The initial construction of the project is basically completed. The middle phase of the
project has been completed. The project can be accessed through the independent
temporary domain name www.nswaitertest.com; pages display completely without any
bugs; page information can be added and maintained in the background. The functions
are perfect as shown a functional test. For each functional section, information can be
added, deleted or modified in the background. All the functional requirements
discussed regarding the presentation of the functions of the project platform are correct.
There is a relative lack of information and more information is needed to improve the
platform. Project presentation has been improved. Some details and specific pages
need to be adjusted. Meanwhile, materials related to the platform need to be submitted
for recordation, so that the platform can be used through the official domain name as
soon as page modification is complete.
11.2.2 Functional Requirements Project Implementation
Platform navigation: About Us – News – Notices and Announcements – Scientific
and Technological Achievements – Policies and Regulations – Document
Download – Contact Us.
Functional description: The main system function of the platform is the information
presentation system, through which individual pages and the news presentation
system are managed;
Technical description: The platform uses the PHP language and MySQL database
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management functions, making it more extensible.
Host description: At present, the platform uses a virtual host. The hosting space is
1G. Enough space resources are retained for data storage, so that the capacity of
the virtual host can be expanded at any time to accommodate more information
resources.
Database maintenance: For platform applications and database information, the
server itself has a monthly backup function. We will check data and application
platforms from time to time to ensure the normal operation and management of
platform applications.
11.2.3 Project Implementation Basic Safety Instructions
Database Security
The security of the network database mainly refers to protecting the database against
data leakage, changes or damage caused by illegal use. The most common solutions
for the above-mentioned risks associated with the network database include the
following:
11.2.3.1 Network Database Backup and Recovery
Data backup and recovery is an important technology for the safe operation of the
database system. Database system failures are inevitable, such as hacking, virus
infection and other operating system failures. System failures will inevitably result in
damage to important data. The space we recommend is a virtual host. The space is
1G in size, suitable for the Windows or Linux platform. Languages like
ASP/ASP.NET/PHP will be supported later. The database used is a MySQL database,
which has the following security features to give us a better and healthier network
application environment:
Account security: Account is the most simple security measure for MySQL. Each
account consists of a user name, a password and a location (usually the server name,
IP address or wildcard character).Different login paths lead to different login results;
MySQL’s user structure is user name/password/location, which does not include the
database name. User permissions are edited by other means, for example:
The following two commands set SELECT user permissions for database1 and
database2.
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GRANT SELECT ON database1.* to ‘abc’@’server1’ IDENTIFIED BY ‘password1’; GRANT SELECT ON database2.* to ‘abc’@’server1’ IDENTIFIED BY ‘password2’;
The first command sets the password1 user abc uses when connecting to database
database1.
The first command sets the password2 user abc uses when connecting to database
database2.
Therefore, the passwords user abc uses to connect to database1 and database2 are
not the same.
The above settings are very useful. If you just give a user limited access to a database
and no access to other databases, you can set different passwords for the same user
If you do not do so, there will be trouble when the user finds that the user name can
be used to access other databases.
At present, we only grant customers permissions to modify direct information of the
database. Permissions to modify other data tables of the database are used to
guarantee the relative security of the database and not available to customers.
Generally, you can use three different types of security checks in the MySQL database:
(1) Login Authentication
The most commonly used username and password authentication. If you enter the
correct username and password, then authentication succeeds.
(2) Authorization
After a successful login, you will be required to set the user’s specific permissions,
such as whether the user can delete tables in the database.
(3) Access Control
This security type is more specific. It is about what kind of operations the user can
perform on data tables, such as whether the user can edit the database, whether the
user can query data, and so on.
Access control is made up of some privileges which relate to the use and operation of
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data in MySQL. They are all Boolean types, either Permit or Deny. The following is a
list of these privileges:
• SELECT
SELECT is to set whether the user can use SELECT to query data. If a user does not have this privilege, then he can only execute a few simple SELECT commands, such as computational expression (SELECT1+2), date conversion (SELECT Unix_TIMESTAMP (NOW ())),etc. • INSERT
• UPDATE
• INDEX
INDEX determines whether the user can set indexes in tables. If a user does not have this privilege, then he cannot set indexes in tables.
ALTER
• CREATE
• GRANT
If a user has the GRANT privilege, then he can grant his own privileges to other users. In other words, the user can share his privileges with other users. • REFERENCES
With the REFERENCES privilege, a user can use one field in another table as a foreign key constraint to a table.
In addition to the above privileges, MySQL has some privileges that allow operating on the entire MySQL. • Reload
This privilege allows the user to execute various FLUSH commands, such as FLUSH TABLES, FLUSH STATUS, etc. • Shutdown
This privilege allows the user to close MySQL
• Process
With this privilege, a user can execute the SHOW PROCESSLIST and KILL commands. These commands can be used to view the MySQL process. You can view the details of SQL execution in this way. • File
This privilege determines whether the user can execute the LOAD DATA INFILE command. Caution should be exercised when granting a user this privilege, because users who have this privilege can load any file into a table, which is very dangerous to MySQL. • Super This privilege allows the user to terminate any queries (these queries may not be performed by the user). The above privileges are very dangerous and hackers often take advantage of these loopholes, so extra caution should be exercised when granting a user this privilege. The MySQL database shall be adequately protected to ensure that data in the MySQL database is absolutely safe.
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11.2.3.2 User Authentication and Privilege Control
11 User authentication is the first line of defense for the database system. The
primary function of the identity authentication system is to prevent invalid users from
registering to the database to perform illegal access operations and malicious
operations on the database by verifying the user name and password. User privilege
control is to grant certain privileges to the user while limiting his access to the database
and grant the user privileges to perform access operations on database entities while
preventing the user from accessing unauthorized data.
11.2.3.3 Audit Trail and Intrusion Detection
12 Audit trail and intrusion detection is mainly used for departments with high security
requirements and is the last line of defense for the database system. User identity
authentication and privilege control is the most widely used database security system,
but security vulnerabilities and the problem of valid users abusing their privileges exist
in all systems.
11.3 Instructions of Network Platform Front Shows
11.3.1 Instructions of Network Platform Front Designs
11.3.1.1 Platform Navigation
Center Profile – News – Notice – Technology Achievements – Policies and Regulations
– Documents Download – Contact Us
11.3.1.2 Design Concept
For the domestic professional and industrial portal site construction, the main idea is
to design the information to allow users to query and attention in the first time there is
a convenient operation process, through the home page design, making some
important, such as notice Announcements, the latest scientific research, the latest
policies and regulations and so on, information can be displayed on the first page for
the user to understand, with the navigation design, allowing users to find the
information you want to know the first time.
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11.3.2 Web Platform Front Page Description
The front page mainly consists of three kinds of page forms:
(4) two-screen page design
Home page using two-screen design style, some important elements such as
membership login, notice and policies and regulations, will present a comprehensive
display.
(5) single page design
For the “Introduction to the Center Introduction” and “Contacts” above, both of the page
impressions belong to the one page impressions.
(6) news show
“Dynamic work”, “notice”, “scientific and technological achievements”, “policies and
regulations”, “file download” and so on are all done by means of news display.
11.4 Project Facilities Management Platform
11.4.1 Network Platform Background Basic Information Description
11.4.1.1 Backend Administration Notes
Temporary backend URL: www.nswaitertest.com/tj_admin; User name: admin Password: admin320
11.4.2 Network Platform Background Instructions
The backend we use to manage the construction of the platform fully corresponds to the frontend:
For each column on the frontend, a corresponding information processing center can be found on the backend.
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Home page large image management is done in the background.
11.4.3 Home Page Navigation Management
(1) About Us Management
About Us Management in the background: Content Management - Column Content - Operate on the About Us page:
Work such as Edit Text and Insert Image is performed here. In the background: Content Management - Column Content - Add and maintain on the Work List page:
(2)Notices and Announcements Management
In the background: Content Management - Column Management - Operate on the List of Notices and Announcements page:
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(3)Scientific and Technological Achievements Management
In the background: Content Management - Column Management - Manage on the List of Scientific and Technological Achievements page:
(4) Policies and Regulations Management
In the background: Content Management - Column Management - Manage on the List of Policies and Regulations page:
Click on the corresponding column to add, modify or maintain the corresponding content.
(5)Document Download Management
In the background: Content Management - Column Management - Manage on the List of Documents Available for Download page:
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Click on the corresponding column to add, modify or maintain the corresponding content.
(6) Contact Us Management
In the background: Content Management - Column Management - Add, modify and maintain content on the Contact Us page
(7) Links Are Separately Managed Here in the Background
(8)Home Navigation Sub-sections to Maintain Changes
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❖ Second, in the process of development, it is also a need to develop special
technology appropriate for fly ash treatment in waste incineration plants in
China by actively drawing lessons from foreign advanced experience and
combining with China's actual conditions so as to realize independent
intellectual property rights, industrialization of treatment technology of fly ash
and full economic and social benefits;
❖ Third, with the development of technology, it is hopeful to realize fly ash re-
utilization. Main chemical composition of fly ash is almost the same as that of
blast furnace slag, pulverized fuel ash, etc., so incineration fly ash has a
certain utilization value. Technically, it can be developed into a kind of
auxiliary cementitious material, further enhancing fly ash treatment work.
Thus, resource re-utilization can be realized, efficiency improved,
environmental pollution reduced and cost saved. Therefore, re-utilization is
the development trend of fly ash treatment work in the future.
(3) Unveiling specifications. To overcome operation difficulties during the stabilization,
resources utilization and disposal process of incineration fly ash, on the basis of
reviewing existing laws and regulations, it is recommended that specifications for
resources utilization technology, treatment and disposal modes, as well as prevention
and control on environmental pollution, product requirements, innocent degree and
other respects of fly ash in different regions and of different sources against non-
standard treatment, disposal and resources utilization by some enterprises without any
treatment in advance or after simple cement solidification, which will easily trigger new
environmental pollution and so on.
12.2.4 Strengthening Source Reduction
727. Fly ash in China is under complicated conditions, and front-end extensive
lifestyle caused by indiscriminate collection and extensive management of the front-
end waste is bound to lead to problems in the back end. Content of certain substances
in waste incineration fly ash is high because content of those substances in the waste
is high. For example, incineration of food waste mixed with plastic waste finally leads
to high content of inorganic chlorine and organochlorine in the fly ash. In the country
that waste classification is carried out soundly, the content of chlorine is much lower
than that in China and the content of heavy metals in fly ash is very low. Most of the
hazardous substances in the fly ash are caused by poor front-end classification, from
which we can see the significance for China to promote waste classification.
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728. It is recommend to use clean energy and raw materials, reduce excessive use
of packaging materials, introduce minimally processed vegetables and clean
agricultural and sideline products to the city, carry out resources comprehensive
utilization, promote scientific waste classification, thus reduce MSW amount during the
process of product production, circulation and consumption; realize source reduction
for fly ash generated from waste incineration disposal.
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TA-8963 PRC Final Report Appendices
321
Appendices
Appendix 1 Summary of Workshops
Appendix 2 Summary of Surveys
Appendix 3 Summary of International Study Tour
Appendix 4 Draft Technical Specification and Policy for Municipal Solid
Waste Incineration Fly Ash
Appendix 4.1 Pollution Control Technical Specification for Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Fly Ash
Appendix 4.2 Pollution Control Technical Policy for Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Fly Ash
Appendix 5 The Engineering Manager System of Waste Processing Plant
and Personnel Training in Japan