JOURNAL7OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA

Letters to the Editor

Color Naming Experiments and theTwo-Quanta Theory

F. H. C. MARRIOTTUniversity Laboratory of Physiology, Oxford University,

Lonzdon;, E1gland(Received March 5, 1959)

IN a recent paper Bouman and Walraven' have described ex-periments on color naming of a small centrally fixated field

presented in a brief flash. They state among their conclusions,"In the extreme red two receptor systems are active, the one beingmore sensitive and leading to colorless for a two-quanta excitation,the other to red." This theoretical conclusion, however, is contra-dicted by their own published experimental results. I have donefurther experiments which agree well with Bouman and Walraven'sresults, but both sets of experimental findings show that more thantwo quanta are necessary both for colorless and red perceptions.

Bouman2 has questioned the validity of the frequency-of-seeingcurve method of investigating quantum effects and retinal organi-zation. However, it has been shown 31- that, provided the experi-ments are carried out in an appropriate way, with randomizationof stimuli, the frequency-of-seeing curve gives a perfectly reliablelower limit for the mean number of quanta acting at threshold[called I (55%) by Pirenne and Marriott 3 -5 ]. This simply meansthat the quantal nature of light produces random variations in thestimulus which cannot be reduced by the effects of other variationof physiological or other origin. The quantity I (55%) is notnecessarily the same thing as the lowest number of quanta whichcan, ideally, elicit a response. According to Bouman a twofoldcoincidence, two quanta falling in a single retinal unit within acertain summation time, is the necessary and sufficient conditionfor a positive response. If several units and long exposure timesare involved, this may give a steeper curve than the Poisson sumcorresponding to n =2, but Brindley0 has shown that even withlarge fields and long exposures the frequency-of-seeing curvecould never become steeper than the Poisson sum correspondingto n=4 if the two-quanta theory were the true explanation ofthreshold vision.

Now the curves given by Bouman and Walraven' for smallfields and short flashes both for colored and colorless responsescorrespond to Poisson sums with n=8 to 10, as far as can bejudged from their figure [Fig. 2(c)]. My own results, using redfiltered light, a 10 field, and a 0.1-sec flash, give curves with muchthe same slope. On the basis of Brindley's argument both are com-pletely inconsistent with Bouman's two-quanta theory. It followsthat a twofold coincidence is not a sufficient condition for a re-sponse (colored or colorless) in these experiments. The only posi-tive conclusion which can be drawn is that the mean number ofacting quanta at the threshold for colorless or colored perceptions,I (55%), is at least 8-10 quanta.

Bouman and Walraven's derivation of the two-quanta theoryfrom the area-threshold relationship depends on the followinghypotheses: (a) the retinal areas concerned consist of a numberof similar independent units; (b) each of these units has the samedefinite threshold n in terms of acting quanta, and consequentlya definite frequency-of-response curve of the Poisson sum type;(c) when any one of these units receives a supraliminal stimulusthe subject gives a positive response.

If these hypotheses are true, then there must be a perfectlydefinite frequency-of-seeing curve for each retinal area considered.Therefore Brindley's reasoning about frequency-of-seeing curvesfor several units inevitably applies to this curve, and the argu-ments above, proving on the basis of the experimental results ofBouman and Walraven and of the author that if (a), (b), and (c)are true, then n>2 are valid.

I am grateful to Professor Y. Le Grand for facilities to do thiswork in his laboratory in Paris, and to the Medical ResearchCouncil and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique fora French Government Exchange Scholarship.

I M. A. Bouman and P. L. Walraven, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 47, 834 (1957).2 M. A. Bouman, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 45, 36 (1955).M. H. Pirenne and F. H. C. Marriott, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 45, 909 (1955).

4 F. H. C. Marriott, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 46, 661 (L) (1956).5 See M. H. Pirenne and F. H. C. Marriott, in Psychology, a Study of a

Science, edited by S. Koch (McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,1959), Vol. I.

6 G. S. Brindley, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) B67, 673 (1954).

Technical Notes

National Science Foundation AnnouncementThe National Science Foundation announces a new program for

support of renovation and/or construction of graduate level(doctoral) research laboratories in the natural and engineeringsciences at institutions of higher education. Generally speaking,equipment to be supported will be limited to standard fixed equip-ment (e.g., laboratory benches, built-in refrigerators, etc.),whether the grant is for construction of a new laboratory or therenovation of an existing one. Proposals pertaining to laboratoriesfor research use in any area of the basic sciences will be con-sidered. However the Foundation will not consider requests forsupport of facilities to be used primarily for instructional purposes.

Grants made under this program will require matching by theinstitution, from non-Federal sources, to the extent of at least 50%of the direct costs to be incurred. During the fiscal year 1960(July, 1959, to June, 1960), funds for this program will be severelylimited in amount. Accordingly, it is expected that it will bepossible to meet only the most urgent needs.

Proposals should be submitted to the National Science Founda-tion, Washington 25, D. C., by December 1, 1959. In most casesit will be helpful to address an inquiry to the appropriate Divisionof the Foundation before preparing the proposal. It is anticipatedthat grants under this program will be made about June 1, 1960.

American Physical Society Division of FluidDynamics Meeting

A meeting of the Division of Fluid Dynamics of the AmericanPhysical Society will be held at the University of Michigan inAnn Arbor on November 23-25, 1959. It will be devoted to variousaspects of the physics of fluids, including superfluidity, hydro-dynamics, magneto-fluid dynamics, rarefied gas dynamics,turbulence and boundary layer phenomena, and high-speed andhigh-temperature fluid flows. The scope of the Division of FluidDynamics covers kinetic theory, statistical mechanics, structureand dynamics of gases, liquids, and other fluids.

Abstracts of contributed papers, of not over 200 words, pre-pared in accordance with the rules printed in any recent issue ofthe Bulletin of te American Physical Society, should be sent induplicate to the Secretary of the Division, Raymond J. Emrich,Department of Physics, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsyl-vania. Deadline date for receipts of abstracts is October 9, 1959.

The Program Committee is: W. M. Elsasser, R. J. Emrich,F. N. Frenkiel (Chairman), A. M. Kuethe, and Otto Laporte.The Organizing Committee is: A. M. Kuethe (Chairman), W. C.Meecham, and R. S. B. Ong. The abstracts of the 1958 DivisionalMeeting have been published [Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. Ser. II, 4, 193(March 30, 1959)].

1022

VOLUME 49, NUMBER 10 OCTOBER 1959

TECHNICAL NOTES

Arrangements are being made by the Organizing Committee tohouse participants in the Michigan Union on the Ann ArborCampus. Room reservations are to be made individually by writingto the Michigan Union, mentioning that you will be attending theAmerican Physical Society meeting.

Seminar on Applied Spectroscopy

The Eighth Annual Seminar on Applied Spectroscopy will beheld on January 6, 7, and 8, 1960, at the University of Florida,Gainesville, Florida. The Seminar is sponsored by the Universityof Florida in cooperation with the Southeastern Association ofSpectrographers. The following topics and lecturers will be pre-sented: The Physical Basis of Spectra, by Fred Brech, Jarrell-Ash Company; Spectrographic Determination of Non-MetallicElements, by C. E. Harvey, C. E. Harvey Associates; Statisticsfor Spectrographers, by Roberta L. McCutchen, Oak RidgeNational Laboratory.

Address all inquiries to Professor W. T. Tiffin, University ofFlorida, Gainesville, Florida.

Inter-Society Color Council

The 29th Annual Meeting of the Inter-Society Color Councilwill be held at the Philadelphia Museum College of Art, Phila-delphia, Pennsylvania, on Monday and Tuesday, April 11 and 12,1960. On Monday, April 11, meetings of the color problems sub-committees will be held. The annual business meeting will be onTuesday morning, April 12. During the afternoon a symposiumwill be held under the general title of Creative Color. The Banquetwill be held on Tuesday evening.

For further information, write: Mr. Ralph M. Evans, Secretary,Inter-Society Color Council, Color Technology Division, Building65, Eastman Kodak Company, Rochester 4, New York.

Careers in Optics

The Optical Society of America is currently preparing a brochureto be titled, Careers in Optics. This brochure is being written tocreate interest in the possibility of Optics as a career, and isdesigned for an audience of students in the late part of a highschool program or students in the early years of college. It ishoped that the brochure will be able to strike the attention of theaudience for which it is intended, and to this end plans are beingmade to include a relatively large number of photographs. It isalso to be hoped that the photographs will be of a striking anddramatic sort, and indicative of the diversity of work being donewithin the field.

The Optical Society would appreciate any ideas about photo-graphs which might be included, or suggestions as to what ac-tivities would be photographable and appealing to the intendedaudience. Prints would be particularly appreciated. Since a largepercent of the photographs will probably be in color, ideas aboutusing this medium effectively would be very helpful.

The brochure is intended to cover all fields of Optics, and it ishoped that it will be printed before the end of the year. To thisend readers of this Journal are urged to submit their ideas as soonas possible. It is believed that if most people practicing withinOptics were to think about the kind of photographs needed thebrochure could have the necessary appeal while covering most ofthe areas within Optics. A few moments thought will probablybring to mind some particularly striking photograph, experiment,or an experimental plate that would serve well.

Send communications to the Secretary of the Optical Society,Dr. Kasson S. Gibson, National Bureau of Standards, 209 EastBuilding, Washington 25, D. C. Prints will be returned if requested.

ASTM Joint Spectroscopy Symposium,San Francisco, California,

October 12-15, 1959

Program of Invited and Contributed Papers

Unsolved problems in spectroscopy will be stressed, but theprogram will not be confined solely to this aspect.

Monday A.M., October 12, 1959

Mainly Optical Emission

M. F. Hasler, Applied Research Laboratories, Chairman

R. E. Hess, Editor, American Society for Testing Materials,"Introductory remarks."

J. Rand McNally, Jr., Oak Ridge National Laboratory,"Challenges in atomic spectroscopy" (discussion of research andapplication aspects of atomic spectra).

John Conway, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Universityof California, "Spectroscopy of radioactive materials."

David L. Fry, General Motors Research Laboratory, "Com-munications in spectrochemical analysis" (subject pertaining toASTM Committee E-2).

Monday P.M., October 12, 1959

X-Ray

A. Zalkin, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory,University of California, Chairman

L. S. Birks, U. S. Naval Research Laboratory, "Basic practicesin x-ray fluorescence."*

J. W. Kemp, Applied Research Laboratories, "The future ofx-ray fluorescence instrumentation."

Isidore Adler, U. S. Geological Survey, "Application of x-rayspectroscopy to unsolved problems in geochemistry."

Edward A. Curley, Riverside Cement Company, "Quantitativelight element analysis, Fe to Mg, for Portland cement by x-rayspectroscopy."

Tuesday A.M., October 13, 1959

Ultraviolet Absorption and Flame Photometry

Joseph Guffy, California Research Corporation, Chairman

J. M. Vandenbelt, Parke, Davis & Company, "Problems inultraviolet absorption spectrophotometry."

Wilbur I. Kaye, Beckman Instruments, Inc., "Spectroscopy inthe region 175-200 m."*

Bert L. Vallee, Harvard Medical School, "Selected topics inflame photometry."

Paul T. Gilbert, Beckman Instruments, Inc., "Analytical flamephotometry: new developments."

Bruce E. Buell, Union Oil Company, "Special problems in thedetermination of TEL in gasoline by flame photometry."*

Tuesday P.M., October 13, 1959

Magnetic Resonance

Russell Varian, Varian Associates, Chairman

James N. Shoolery, Varian Associates, "Nuclear magneticresonance (NMR) spectroscopy."

Richard H. Sands, University of Michigan, "The unpairedelectron via EPR."

L. D. Tuck, University of California Medical Center, "EPR ofheterocyclic compounds."*

A. E. Siegman, Stanford University, "Maser applications andtraveling-wave techniques for magnetic resonance spectroscopy."*

William F. Forbes, University of Newfoundland (to be read by

October 1959 1023

NECROLOGY V 4

J. Guffy), "Band nomenclature for ultraviolet absorption spectraof conjugated systems."

Wednesday, October 14, 1959

All-day tour of San Francisco Peninsula electronics companies(Ampex, Hewlett-Packard, and Varian Associates) and theGeneral Electric Vallecitos Research Laboratory. Space will belimited, and will be open on a first-come, first-served basis to allpersons attending the ASTM national meeting in San Francisco.Arrangements are in the hands of the ASTM TransportationCommittee.

Thursday A.M., October 15, 1959

Mainly Infrared Absorption

R. A. Ogg, Standord University, Chairnman

M. Kent Wilson, Tufts University, Selected topic in infraredspectroscopy.

W. J. Potts, The Dow Chemical Company, "Some of the prob-lems facing chemical infrared spectroscopy today" (tentativetitle).

Louis A. Strait, University of California Medical Center,"Sample handling in infrared spectroscopy."*

R. F. Robey, Esso Research and Engineering, "Ten years of aidto applied spectroscopy by committee E-13."

Thursday P.M., October 15, 1959

General Topics in Spectroscopy

C. Stacey French, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Chlairman

Norman D. Coggeshall, Gulf Research and Development Com-pany, "The combination of techniques in hydrocarbon analysis."

R. Robert Brattain, Shell Development Company, will reporton three European spectroscopy meetings he will have attendedearlier in 1959.

D. G. Rea, California Research Corporation, "Molecularspectroscopy in the U.S.S.R."

R. A. Friedel, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Topic in ultravioletspectroscopy.

* Contributed Papers.

Personalia

W. F. G. SwannDr. W. F. G. Swann, internationally known physicist, retired

as Director of the Bartol Research Foundation of The FranklinInstitute in August. He was succeeded by Dr. Martin A. Pomerantz,Senior Staff Physicist.

Dr. Swann will be named Director Emeritus, serve as a specialconsultant to staff members, and continue his own research atBartol. He is recognized for his work in the fields of atmosphericelectricity, cosmic radiation, accurate thermal measurements,electrodynamics, relativity, and quantum theory.

Dr. Swann received his education at Brighton Technical College,the Royal College of Science, London, University College, King'sCollege, and the City and Guilds of London Institute, during whichtime, in 1905, he took his Bachelor of Science degree with firstclass honors and, in 1906, his Associate of the Royal College ofScience degree. From 1905 to 1907 Dr. Swann was Junior Demon-strator in physics at the Royal College of Science, and in 1907 hewent to the University of Sheffield as Assistant Lecturer andDemonstrator and remained until 1913. He received his Doctor ofScience degree from London University.

In 1913, Dr. Swann came to the United States to become Chief

of the Physical Division of the Department of Terrestrial Mag-netism at Carnegie Institution in Washington, D. C. In 1918 hewent to the University of Minnesota as Professor of Physics, andin 1923 to the University of Chicago in the same capacity. In 1924he became Professor of Physics and Director of the Sloane Labora-tory of Yale University. At the same time The Franklin Instituteinvited him to become Chairman of the Advisory Research Com-mittee of the Bartol Research Foundation and he acted in thiscapacity until 1927 when he became the first Director of theBartol Research Foundation.

Dr. Swann belongs to the Physical Society of London, LifeFellow; American Physical Society, Fellow and past President,1931-33; American Philosophical Society, Councillor, 1939-42,Secretary, 1939-46; the British and the American Associations forthe Advancement of Science, the American Geophysical Union,and the Optical Society of America.

Dr. Swann has received honorary degrees from Yale University,Swarthmore College, and Temple University. He was recentlyelected a Fellow of the Imperial College of Science and Technology,London, England.

Necrology

Frederick K. Loomis

On May 1, 1959, Frederick K. Loomis, a physicist in the Spring-dale Laboratories of Time, Inc., died in Norwalk, Connecticut.Mr. Loomis was a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology and had worked as a consultant on special problemsin measurement, control, methods, and systems for various re-search and production divisions of the Springdale Laboratories.Mr. Loomis had been a member of the Optical Society of Americasince 1943 and was a former chairman of the Society's WesternFairfield County Chapter.

Willibald Weniger

The Optical Society of America regrets to inform its membersof the death of Professor Willibald Weniger of Corvallis, Oregon,on March 13, 1959. Professor Weniger had been a member of thisSociety since 1920.

Karl Wilhelm Meissner

We are reprinting here a memorial resolution prepared byKenneth L. Andrew and I. Walerstein for the Purdue UniversityFaculty. We feel it to be a tribute which expresses the feelings ofthose members of the Optical Society who were fortunate enoughto know Dr. Meissner.

"On April 13, 1959, the sudden death of Professor K. W.Meissner robbed spectroscopy of one of its most ardent and giftedworkers. Dr. Meissner was an internationally known spectros-copist as a result of nearly a half century of contribution to thisfield of Physics in the form of scientific publications, editorialwork, book reviews, consulting, and a book on spectroscopy.

"Karl Wilhelm Meissner was born December 15, 1891, in Reut-lingen, Germany. During the period 1898 to 1910 he studied inthe schools in Reutlingen. From 1910 to 1915 he studied physicsand mathematics at the Universities of Tuebingen and Munichunder such outstanding men as Paschen, Roentgen, and Sommer-feld. In 1915 he received the Doctor's degree at the University ofTuebingen. After a brief interval as a public high school instructorat Stuttgart he became an assistant in the Department of Physicsat the University of Zurich under the direction of Professor EdgarMeyer; in 1919, he became Privatdozent. In 1925 he was called tothe University of Frankfurt/Main as Associate Professor and wasadvanced to Professor in 1928. In 1930 he was made Director of

Vol. 491024

TECHNICAL CALENDAR

the Physics Department at the same University. His refusal tocompromise the basic principles of democracy and human freedomled to his dismisal in 1937 by the Nazi regime. The following yearhe came to this country as Assistant Professor of Physics at theWorcester Polytechnic Institute in Worcester, Massachusetts.From 1941 until his death he served at Purdue University, firstas Visiting Professor and, after he had received his U. S. citizen-ship, as Professor in charge of the Spectroscopy Laboratory of thePhysics Department.

"He was the author or co-author of more than sixty publicationsconcerned with the theory of optical instruments, the precisionmeasurement of wavelengths, regularities in spectra, term an-alysis of spectra, hyperfine structure, isotope shift, Stark andZeeman Effect, lifetime measurements of metastable atomic states,and gaseous discharge phenomena.

"Dr. Meissner was the first to experimentally prove the existenceof oxygen in the sun. This he did as a young student in 1914.In 1933 he proved the existence of sulfur in the sun, using spectro-scopic techniques similar to those he used in the case of oxygen.

"In 1918, as a result of Dr. Meissner's careful work and detailedanalysis, he was able to show conclusively that the term series ofneon converged to two different limits. Prior to this work only asingle series limit had been encountered in all of the spectraanalyzed, and this startling new result had a great influence onthe development of the theory of atomic spectra.

"In 1935 he developed, independently of Minkowski and Bruck,the atomic beam method for the study of hyperfine structure;from that time on, he used this method for the solution of manyproblems related to nuclear spin and magnetic moments. From1942 on, Professor Meissner was interested in the development ofan atomic beam light source for the production of the primarystandard of length. In his experiments at Purdue, he succeeded,by this method, in obtaining the calcium line X4226 A with ahalf-width less than one-third that of any other line currentlyproposed as a primary standard. In carrying out this work, heobtained in 1958 interference fringes with an order of interferenceof 2.56 million. Interference at such a high order had never beenobserved before. Just one month prior to his death he succeededin extending this by almost the incredible factor of two.

"The particular genius of this experimental physicist was hiswealth of creative ideas, coupled with his ability to analyze aproblem into its important components. He would then isolateeach part, attack it with the meticulous care, skill, and confidencewhich breeds success, and bring the result to bear on the finalsolution. He possessed almost 'total recall' and could apply to anynew problem the sum total of related experiments, failures andsuccesses alike, which he or others had performed even thoughthey might have been carried out nearly forty years earlier. Hehad an amazing dexterity and infinite patience in approachingany physical problem. He never rushed his graduate students tohasten the completion of a task, if they were truly working, eventhough their pace were but a fraction of his. On the other hand,the example which he set in interest and devotion, the hours whichhe himself gave to his work, and his unquenchable feeling orurgency frequently proved to be more of a goad to his studentsthan a constant verbal admonishment could ever have been.His enthusiasm was great and infectious, and the response to itpredictable.

"Professor Meissner was a true scholar. His scholarly interestsextended far beyond his own specialty and embraced not onlyscience, but history, literature, and language as well. He spokeGerman, French, English, Italian, and read a great deal of litera-ture in each of these languages, as well as in Latin, Greek, andHebrew. His interest in every part of the learning process im-mediately responded to any indication of honest curiosity ordesire for knowledge on the part of a student. If this desire hap-pened to lie in Dr. Meissner's chosen field of spectroscopy theresponse was apt to be overwhelming. He felt that everythingshould be done to encourage the young student's interest in thisfascinating field.

"Karl Meissner was a deeply religious man and an ardent readerof the Bible. He was still able to recite verbatim the long passagesof scripture which he had committed to memory in childhood andhe derived great comfort from this in time of illness when he wasbedfast. He had a keen sense of justice, and any infringement onhuman rights or the freedom of the individual became his concern.Quietly and unostentatiously he set about to assist a wrongedindividual or to help an underprivileged group. He did not hesitateto speak out against any action that would place in jeopardy thebasic freedoms of mankind or the cause of world peace. However,sternness was not in his character. He was gentle and kindly andalways interested in other people as human beings regardless oftheir status in society. He was an instant favorite with childrenbecause he could lose his inhibitions and become one of them. Hehad a delightful sense of humor and could always recall an appro-priate story relating to the situation at the moment.

"Professor Meissner had taken a sabbatical leave this semester.During February and March, he spent four days a week at theArgonne National Laboratory working on the spectrum of radiumand three days a week working with his students and in the labora-tory at Purdue. On Thursday, April 9, he sailed from New Yorkon the Cunard Liner, Ivernia, enroute to Europe. He had plannedto visit his sister and niece in Esslingen, Germany, and then to visitseveral scientific laboratories. He had been invited to present apaper on his recent accomplishments with the atomic beam sourceat the International Symposium on Interferometry to be held inJune at Teddington, Middlesex, England. He was to have spentthe summer term at the University of Kiel, Germany, as a visitinglecturer in spectroscopy.

"On the first day at sea he penned a lengthy, delightfully writtenletter to his wife, Dr. Hanna H. Meissner of the Department ofSociology. It showed that he was in good spirits, completely re-laxed, and thoroughly enjoying his favorite mode of travel.The letter was mailed at Halifax, Novia Scotia, and reached Mrs.Meissner on Monday, April 13. That evening, following a waltzon board ship, Dr. Meissner sat down and suddenly died as aresult of a coronary thrombosis.

"Letters from fellow passengers that have since come to Mrs.Meissner attest to his gracious qualities of friendliness and under-standing of human character, traits which soon became evidenteven to total strangers.

"In this simple way, ended the life of a great man."

Technical Calendar

October8-10 Optical Society of America, Chateau Laurier, Ottawa,

Canada8-10 American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists,

Washington, D. C.11-16 ASTM Spectroscopy Synposium, San Francisco,

California18-22 Electrochemical Society, Columbus, Ohio22-24 Acoustical Society of America, Cleveland, Ohio

November4-6 Eastern Analytical Symposium and Instrument Ex-

hibit, Hotel New Yorker, New York4-6 Society of Rheology, Lehigh University, Bethlehem,

Pennsylvania4-6 American Nuclear Society, Sheraton Park Hotel,

Washington, D. C.

December26-31

27-30

American Association for the Advancement of Science,Chicago, Illinois

American Astronomical Society, Cleveland, Ohio

October 1959 1025