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Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, illinois 60439operated by The University of Chicagofor the United States Department of Energy under Contract W-31-109-Eng-'8
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
by S.-H. Sheen, A. C. Raptis,and M. J. Moscynski
EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
by
S.-H. Sheen and A. C. RaptisEnergy Technology Division
and
M. J. MoscynskiInTech Management Consulting
September 1995
Work sponsored by
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGYOffice of Energy ResearchLaboratory Technology Transfer
DISTRIBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT IS UNLIMITED
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
CONTENTS
ACRONYMS, SYMBOLS, AND ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................... iv
QUOTES ................................................................................................................ :............... vi
actual air-fuel ratio/stoichiometric air-fuel ratioa/c air conditioningA/F air to fuel ratioABS antilock braking systemACRS air cushion restraint systemANL Argonne National Laboratory
approximately equal toARPA Advanced Research Projects Administration
C degrees CelsiusCAFE corporate average fuel economyCARB California Air Resources BoardCPU central processing unitCVT continuously variable transmissionsDOE U.S. Department of EnergyDR dead reckoningEGO exhaust gas oxygenEGR exhaust gas recirculationEMI electromagnetic interferenceeng. mgt engine management systemest. estimated
OF degrees Fahrenheitft feetFOD foreign object damageg acceleration of gravity, 32.17 feet per second per secondGM General Motors CorporationGMR giant magnetoresistanceGPS Global Positioning SystemHE Hall effectHEGO heated exhaust gas oxygenHUD heads-up displayHVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioningHz Hertz (cycles/second)in. inchIR infraredIVHS Intelligent Vehicle Highway SystemskHz kilohertzkg kilogramskm/h kilometers per hourL/s liters/secondMAF mass air flowMAP manifold air pressure
iv
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
MATmmMMWmi/h or mphNAVnmNOXOEMORBIIPMpot.r'VDFRFRVss
SAESAWTPSUVVVRVTECVVT
manifold air temperaturemillimetermillimeter wavemiles per hournavigation systemnanometeroxides of nitrogenoriginal equipment manufactureron-board diagnostic regulations by CARBpowdered metalpotentiometerpolyvinylidene fluorideradio frequencyrecreational vehiclessecondsSociety of Automotive Engineerssurface acoustic wavethrottle position sensorultravioletvoltsvariable reluctancevariable timing and lift controlvariable valve timing
v
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
QUOTES
"We are seeing a proliferation of sensors in automobiles due to environmental, safety, power trainand engine demands for performance."
"Even though we tend to think today's automotive testing and technology is state of the art, weare just breaking the edge of vehicle dynamics. We never had a way to test so many thingsbefore."
Hank Norlin, Application Engineer, DATRON
"A lot of sensors are for industrial use. We're trying to get them into more commercialproducts."
Craig Autio, Engineer, Whistler
"The vast majority of our sensors are engine-oriented..."
Bob Vance, Purchasing Agent, Chrysler
"We see that [engine sensors] as a market we can play in that will be worth in excess of $600million. For a company our size, we feel that we will do nicely if we can get a small percentage ofthat."
Richard Van Es, CFO, American Electronic Components (AEC)
vi
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
SUMMARY
The automotive vehicle sensor market isdriven by increased demand for convenience,comfort, safety, efficiency, and environ-mental protection. Sensors integrated withelectronics, communications, and computerintelligence are poised for a growth surge.Integrated sensors with intelligence are oftenreferred to as "smart sensors" or "intelligentsensors." They will be used in conjunctionwith all types of devices. The implication forthe automobile industry is the advent of the"smart car.",
Automotive vehicle sensor development andusage will be a dominant technology thrustover the next five to seven years. Cars aresmart now but will become much smarterwith the expansion of sensor technology in
conjunction with microprocessor control.
The automotive market is a significantportion (-25%) of the total sensor market.Other large user segments are manufac-turing, aerospace, medical, and heatingventilation, and, air conditioning. In 1993,the world automotive market for sensors wasabout $535 million. It is forecast to be about$1.5 billion in 2000. This is a growth rate of=18% per year.
The taxonomy used to classify sensors in thisreport has four categories: Vehicle System,Vehicle Application, Property Sensed, andTechnology Used. The primary system isengine management. There are >100 specific
vehicle sensor applications. Importantproperties sensed in automotive vehiclesinclude temperature, pressure, acceleration,flow, oxides of nitrogen, oxygen, proximity,speed, and position. The most commonlyused technologies are micromachined silicon,piezoresistive, variable reluctance, Halleffect, capacitive, and electromechanical.
Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs)of vehicles do not generally make or developthe sensors they use. System suppliers to theOEMs do much of the coordination ondevelopment and a significant amount ofdevelopment themselves. The actual sensormanufacturers tend to be smaller companies.Some are very small and highly specialized.
There is still opportunity for individuals orsmall groups to make a major breakthroughin automotive vehicle sensors. There isample room for creativity and clever appli-cations of existing technologies to be used tonew situations.
The importance of silicon and semiconductortechnology and manufacturing methods inthe sensor market cannot be over-emphasized. The products are cheap,reliable, fairly rugged, and can be massproduced.
In the automotive sensor market, thequestion is not one of making a great sensor.It is a question of making 10 million greatsensors cheaply.
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
INTRODUCTION
In FY 1994, the U.S. Department of Energy(DOE), Office of Energy Research, underthe Laboratory Technology Transferprogram, funded Argonne National Labora-tory to develop a national data base onsensor and control technologies. The database will be incorporated into the DOEIntegrated Technical Information System, theon-line system maintained by DOE's Officeof Scientific and Technical Information. Theprimary use of this resource is to provide theU.S. industry base with a dial-up data basethat catalogs existing sensors and controltechnologies, along with new and developingsensors and control technologies. Names oftechnical contacts will also be documentedand maintained. There are two potentialbenefits of the data base. (1) Promoting theinteraction of U.S. sensor and controlcompanies with U.S. manufacturers, thenational laboratories, and universities. Thiswill lead to enhanced collaboration on newinitiatives and development of technologies.
(2) Increase U.S. industry competitivenessthrough the proper identification andapplication of advanced sensor and controltechnologies.
The initial scope of this project is to develop(1) the data base structure and establish aprototype for demonstration and (2) a database that focuses on a technology areacritical to a major DOE initiative such asautomotive or environmental areas. Thedata base structure was established inFY 1994, and an automotive vehicle sensordata base was developed in FY 1995.
This report is an introduction to the field ofautomotive vehicle sensors. It contains aprototype data base for companies workingin automotive vehicle sensors, as well as aprototype data base for automotive vehiclesensors. A market analysis is also included.
The report was prepared primarily byMichael J. Moscynski of InTech Manage-ment Consulting, Ann Arbor, MI.
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
MARKET ANALYSIS
General Comments
The general market for sensors will increaseas it is driven by increased demand forconvenience, comfort, safety, efficiency, andenvironmental protection. Sensorsintegrated with electronics, communications,and computer intelligence are poised for agrowth surge. Integrated sensors withintelligence are often referred to as "smartsensors" or "intelligent sensors" and will beused in conjunction with all types of devices.The implication for the automobile industryis the advent of the "smart car."
The automotive market needs inexpensive($1 or less), highly reliable (for practicalpurposes, 100%) sensors that lendthemselves to mass production (tens ofmillions). The bulk of the market sharein sensors currently belongs to largecompanies with familiar names (e.g.,Motorola, Honeywell, Delco Electronic).
Sensor manufacturers generally supply to asecond-tier supplier that makes an entiresystem for automobile OEMs. There areexceptions: a system supplier may make theindividual sensor, or an OEM may make theparticular subsystem, e.g.,. an antilockbraking system (ABS). Competition is fierceat all three levels of this hierarchy. Inno-vations often come from small companies oreven individuals, however.
Automotive Market
The automotive market is a significantportion of the total sensor market. It hasbeen about 25% of the total market. Other
large user segments are industrial, aerospace,medical, and heating, ventilation, and airconditioning (HVAC). In 1993, the worldautomotive market for sensors was about$535 million. It has been forecast to beabout $1.5 billion in 2000, for a growth rateof 18% per year. Micromachined silicon andHall effect sensors in the world automotivemarket are discussed below.
Micromachined Silicon Sensors
These sensors are used in pressure andaccelerometer applications. The world automarket for micromachined silicon sensors in1993 was about $315 million, and isexpected to grown =14%/yr to $885 millionin 2000. Micromachined silicon sensors cancost $10 to $50 each.
Hall Effect Sensors
Hall effect (HE) sensors are used extensivelyfor angular position and speed applications.Because of their greater expense and smallerair gap compared to variable reluctance (VR)sensors, they are used for more preciseapplications. Camshaft and crankshaft speedand position applications are typical. Theworld auto market for HE sensors wasabout $78 million in 1993, and has beenforecast to be =$170 million in 2000(=12%/year growth).
Giant Magnetoresistive (GMR)Sensors
GMR sensors have the potential to replacemost HE sensors and increase the growthpotential of sensors for position and speed.
3
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
SYSTEMS
Sensor Taxonomy andClassification
Sensors can be classified in many ways: use,technology, application, property sensed,cost, manufacturing methods, etc. Thetaxonomy used in this report has fourcategories:
1. Vehicle System in which a sensor isused. HVAC is an example of a vehiclesystem that employs several sensors.
2. Vehicle Application or use of the sensor.HVAC high-side refrigerant pressureis an example of a specific application fora sensor.
3. Property Sensed by the sensor. Fluidpressure is an example of a generalproperty measured by a sensor.
4. Technology, or the basic physicalphenomena that the sensor uses to do itsjob. An example of technologiesemployed in a sensor are micro-machined silicon and piezoresistivesensors.
Vehicle Systems
The following vehicle systems are used inthis report:
1. air cushion restraint system (ACRS)
2. brake/traction control
3. collision avoidance
4. comfort/convenience
7. navigation (NAV)
8. safety
9. smart cruise control
10. suspension
11. testing
12. vehicle security
Several important vehicle systems arediscussed below. They all rely heavily onone or more sensor inputs in order tofunction. The information from the sensor isusually sent to a system CPU for dataprocessing and actuator movement or otheraction to be taken.
1. Air Cushion Restraint System(ACRS)
The air cushion restraint system mustoperate quickly when needed, 100% of thetime, but never for a false alarm. ACRSsystems decide to deploy the airbag(s),pretension seat belts, and lock seat belts.The standard application uses multiplesensors for input to the ACRS. For instance,two or three crush sensors and anaccelerometer to measure g-forces typical ofa crash would all be utilized before firing theairbag(s). Currently, there is an industrydebate as to whether single-point crashsensor deployment is adequate.
Other important considerations in ACRSsystems are the presence of occupants otherthan the driver and their orientation, in orderto deploy the airbags and restraints tominimize injury
5. engine management (eng. mgt.)
4
6. HVAC
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
Children in car seats are a special problem inair bag deployment in the front seat. Sensorsand systems to tell the ACRS of the presenceand seating direction of a child seat are beingdeveloped. Regulation FMVSS 208 willtake effect in 1998.
Side-impact crashes are another special case.Sensors to pick up lateral proximity, sidecrushing, and axis-oriented acceleration areused for this system.
Primary sensor inputs to the ACRS are airbag stored gas pressure (if applicable),forward and lateral acceleration, ignitionswitch on/off, body door closure, seat beltposition or other restraint device, passengerpresence and orientation, and child seatpresence and orientation.
2. Braking/Traction Control
Antilock Braking System (ABS)
An ABS relies on sensors to provide inputon wheel (tire) speed from all four wheels.The hydraulic oil pressure in the brake linesis needed, also. Brake pressure givesinformation about the driver's intent and levelof braking action to be taken. To maintainstraight-line travel without locking a wheel,there should be no difference in wheel speedamong the four wheels. The CPU receivesthe wheel speeds and oil-pressure signals andindividually controls the braking forceapplied to each wheel to avoid skiddingwhile stopping in the minimum distance.
Primary sensor inputs to the ABS are speedof all four wheels, acceleration, and brakepedal force.
Traction Control
Traction control is similar to but the oppositeof ABS. It allows power to be applied to thedriving wheels without spinning. This is avery useful feature on slick roads whenstarting from a dead stop. Traction controlrequires sensor information for wheel speed.If a wheel starts to spin, braking is appliedand the power is reduced by a signal to thethrottle. The CPU maintains traction controlautomatically.
Primary sensor inputs to the traction controlsystem are speed of all four wheels, forwardacceleration, and engine power.
Next-Generation ABS
Active ABS will be the next generation ofABS. GMR sensors may be used in place ofvariable reluctance (VR) sensors. GMR candetect zero wheel speed. A powder-metal(PM) or ferrous metal encoder ring can beembedded in a wheel bearing seal. Therotating ring is sensed by an electrical bridgecircuit in the stationary part of the sensor.Use of magnetic material is discouraged nearbearings because the field could result inmagnetic foreign object damage (FOD) tothe bearing.
Other zero-speed alternatives for active ABSinclude HE and magneto-optic sensors.
Active ABS may replace the need for avehicle speedometer. It can also be used asinput for dead reckoning (DR) navigation aspart of a Global Positioning System (GPS).The DR system can augment the navigationsystem when a satellite signal is not reachingthe GPS.
5
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
Primary sensor inputs to the advancedbrake/traction control system are speed of allfour wheels, steering wheel position andspeed, brake pedal pressure, vehicle yaw(spinning) rate, lateral acceleration, forwardacceleration, vehicle speed, and enginepower.
3. Collision Avoidance
A number of systems can assist the driver byproviding a warning or active evasion inforward, lateral, or rear collisions.
Forward-looking systems typically useDoppler radar, a laser, IR system, or a videosystem to "look" ahead of the vehicle.
Lateral proximity sensors can warn ofvehicles or obstruction in the driver's blindspot. This is a useful feature during parking.
Rear proximity sensing is used to warn oftailgating vehicles. It is also useful duringparking, particularly for obstructions belowthe driver's line of sight.
Primary sensor inputs to the collisionavoidance system are front, lateral and rearproximity using radar, laser, millimeter wave(MMW), IR, or ultrasonic ranging, vehiclespeed, brake pressure, engine power, andsteering wheel position and acceleration.
4. Comfort/Convenience
Vehicle Status and Warnings
Numerous sensors provide the driver withwarnings and information on vehicle status.Some of these applications are well known.
More advanced warnings that are or willbecome available include road surfacecondition, vehicle location, fuel quality, tirepressure, and blind-spot proximity. Detailedengine and vehicle warnings, diagnostics, andinstruction systems are expected to advancein capability and usage.
Law Enforcement Radar Warning
Commercially available systems to sense thepresence of microwave radar used for speed-limit law enforcement are well established.As more vehicle systems use microwaveradiation for other purposes, the signal-to-noise environment for this application willdegrade. Primary sensor input is microwaveenergy.
Two-Way Radio Receivers andCellular Phones
Two-way radio receivers have been commonin taxis and service and delivery vehicles formany years. This usage is expected toincrease. There has recently been a dramaticincrease in the use of vehicle cellularphones, a special application of two-wayradio receivers. Use of cellular phones willcontinue to increase dramatically. Primarysensor input is radio frequency (RF) energy.
5. Engine Management
Sensor inputs for engine management includeambient air temperature and pressure,altitude, throttle position, manifold airpressure and temperature, camshaft andcrankshaft position, coolant temperature,mass air flow, cylinder pressure, throttleposition and throttle body temperature, EGRflow, oxygen sensor, engine speed, vehicle
6
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
speed, combustion quality, engine knocking,and fuel quality. The management of theengine functions is by a CPU.
Combustion Control System
The air/fuel mixture delivered to the intakemanifold is important for emission control,fuel efficiency, and performance reasons.
Manifold Air Pressure (MAP)
Intake manifold pressure is an excellentindicator of engine load and performance.MAP has been historically referred to as"engine vacuum" because it is usually belowatmospheric pressure to allow aspiration ofair into the engine.
Exhaust Gas Oxygen (EGO)
The EGO sensor compares oxygen concen-tration of the outside air to the oxygenconcentration in the exhaust. The purpose isto provide a signal to the CPU to optimizethe fuel/air mixture for maximum economyand minimum emissions. An engine burninglean will be too hot. An engine burning toorich will waste fuel. The ideal mixture is14.7:1 air to fuel; this is the stoichiometricratio. The symbol for the actual air-fuelratio/stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is A. WhenX = 1, the ratio is stoichiometric, <1.0 itis rich, and >1.0 it is lean. The EGOsensors in use today must be hot (=600*F) tooperate properly. When they are workingproperly, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,and nitrogen oxides are controlled.
Exhaust Gas Rfctiulation (EGR)
To reduce NOX emission, part of the exhaustgas is recirculated through the EGR valve tothe intake manifold to lower the maximumcombustion temperature. Sensor inputs are
engine coolant temperature and throttleposition.
Fueling the Engine
Sensors are used in conjunction withdelivering fuel to the engine. The quality andcomposition of alternative fuels and fuelmixtures is becoming increasingly important.
Accurate measurement of methanol concen-tration in gasoline as an alternative fuel isimportant for performance and emissioncontrol. Methanol sensors allow changes inspark time and fuel injection for performanceoptimization. One methanol sensor usescapacitance, temperature, and conductanceto measure methanol concentration.
Ignition
Spark plug timing detonates the fuel/airmixture in the combustion chambers at theproper (but variable) time due to otherengine parameters. This function waspreviously handled by mechanical cams,manifold vacuum diaphragms, and breakerpoints before the mid-1970s. Hall effectvane sensors can provide the signal to fire.A ferrous metal lobed wheel breaks themagnetic field pattern between the sensorand magnet. The number of lobes equals thenumber of cylinders.
Primary sensor inputs are engine speed,MAP, and crankshaft and camshaft position.
Transmission Control
Primary sensor inputs from the transmissionare gear selection, transmission oiltemperature and pressure, throttle positionand throttle body, vehicle speed, andaccelerator pedal position.
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
6. HVAC
The HVAC system provides heated orcooled and dehumidified air to the cabin.Newer systems can also sense pollutantsfrom vehicle exhausts, pollen, and dirt, andemploy filtration.
The system is locked out of operation duringcertain conditions. Sensors are used todeactivate the a/c system when operationcould damage it. Low refrigerant, lowambient air temperature, and various combi-nations of heater and defroster selections willlock out the a/c system.
Typical sensor inputs to the HVAC systemare high-side and low-side refrigerantpressures, fluid temperature, ambientair temperature, and cabin temperature.Advanced systems use carbon monoxide,hydrocarbon, and dust and pollen sensors.Hydrocarbons can build up during trafficjams and in parking structures.
7. Navigation (NAV)
Early navigation systems consisted of tripcomputers that gave various trip statisticssuch as fuel and range information.
Global Positioning System
NAVSTAR satellites provide signals to GPSreceivers. The signals contain satelliteinformation and time information. Whenthree satellite signals are received, they canbe used to establish a three-dimensionalreceiver location. GPS are being installed insome vehicle.. Sophisticated systems showmap overlays with vehicle positionsuperimposed. Sensor input is RF energy.
A number of systems utilize sensors toincrease personal safety and reduce the riskof injury to vehicle occupants.
Fuel, Electrical Fuel Pump, andBattery Cutoff
After sensing a crash, this system reduces theprobability of secondary damage from fire.It can cut off one or more of the following:fuel flow, electric fuel pump, natural gassupply, and electric power (including that onall-electric vehicles). The primary sensorinput is crushing or acceleration.
Emergency Door Unlock
After sensing a crash from crush sensors oracceleration sensors or both, the CPUactuates a door-unlocking system. Thisallows rescue workers to enter the vehiclefor passenger removal more easily than if thedoors were locked and the passengers wereunable to help. The primary sensor input iscrushing or acceleration.
Commercial Transportation
There are special cases for systems andsensors in public transportation. Forinstance, there are instances when a publicbus or commercial coach should not move,such as during fueling and taking onpassengers. A proximity sensor in thefueling door can lock out transmissionengagement if the door is open. A proximitysensor or some other sensor can be used toalert the driver that a wheel chair ramp hasnot been stowed; the transmission can alsobe locked out. The primary sensor input isproximity.
8
8. Safety
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
9. Smart Cruise Control
Smart cruise control uses all the features andsensors of ordinary cruise control plus theaddition of collision avoidance sensors. ACPU receiving input on vehicle speed andthe range ahead to a leading vehicle canmake speed adjustments. This prevents tail-gating or inadvertently having a rear-endcollision with a leading vehicle. The systemcan be activated for highway speeds or forstop-and-go sluggish traffic conditions. Thetechnology is available but the decisionalgorithms needed to use it are still underdiscussion.
Primary sensor inputs are vehicle speed,brake pedal force, and forward proximity toother vehicles and closing rate.
10. Suspension
For improved vehicle handling, safety, andcomfort, suspension control systems havebeen developed. Two basic types ofsuspension systems use sensors: theadaptive system and the active system.
Adaptive System
The individual stiffness of the system isvaried with input from sensors for vehiclespeed, steering wheel velocity, gearbox andengine speed, throttle position, and wheelattitude and position. This changes the ridecharacteristics considerably.
Active System
Beyond an adaptive system, the CPUreceives information on vehicle-corner heightabove the road. The system equalizes theinclination of the vehicle by using jacks toassist the springs by air pressure, hydraulics,or electric power.
Special Load Leveling
Heavy trucks and large recreational vehicles(RVs) are other potential applications forsuspension leveling systems. Motor homescan use a load-leveling auxiliary jackingsystem for parking on uneven ground.
11. Testing
A special use of sensors is in testing ofvehicles during R&D. Today's R&D sensorsand systems often become tomorrow'sproduction option and then standardequipment later. R&D sensors incorporateall systems and applications used inproduction vehicles. They are generallymuch more sensitive and are connectedto automatic and remote data-recordingdevices. For example, they detect:
" Complete wheel dynamics, position, andattitude.
" Very precise steering wheel information,including torque, position, velocity, andacceleration.
" Precise vehicle forward and lateralvelocity (drift).
12. Security
Vehicle security includes systems andsensors to physically safeguard the vehiclewhen it is unattended.
Antitheft
Antitheft devices usually require severalsensors. Audio sensors tuned to thefrequency of breaking auto glass can warnof attempted forced entry. Simple tosophisticated sensors can be used to detect
9
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
shock or acceleration from forced entry,also. Proximity sensors can be used to givean audible warning that the vehicle is armedand alarmed. Some sensors use microwavefield disturbance of the entire interior cabinand immediately adjacent outside spaceto detect intrusion. The primary sensorinput is acceleration, shock, glass breakageacoustics, or microwave field disturbance.
Remote Locking and Unlocking
Keyless entry allows the doors and trunk of alocked vehicle to be unlocked as the driverapproaches the vehicle, and locked as thedriver leaves it. This saves the driver theinconvenience of using the key whencarrying parcels or during inclement weather.
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
VEHICLE APPLICATIONS
There are more than 100 specific appli-cations or uses for sensors on automotivevehicles. Not every sensor is found on anyone automobile. In general, the moreexpensive the vehicle, the more sensors andthe higher level of performance and comfortit will have. Below is a partial list of sensoruses.
Power will usually be provided byautomobile battery (nominally 12 V)through the on-board microcontrollerboard that provides a regulated 5 V.
Passenger Compartment
Engine Compartmenttheor
PCTrunk and Chassis
Braking System
-40 to +85 C
-40 to +125*C
-40 to +1 10*C
-40 to +1 800C
Battery voltage varies from 8.5 to 14.6during normal operation. It can drop farbelow this range during cold-weather startsand climb far a& ve if the charging systemmalfunctions. The possibility of reversedvoltage during installation and doublevoltage during a jump start is a hazard.Voltage transients of 60 V occur, also.Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is part ofthe vehicle environment.
Temperature Ranges
Vehicle sensors must operate in ambient-airtemperatures of +55*C in Arizona to -40*Cin Alaska.
Extreme temperatures can reach 180*C inthe engine compartment and 250*C in thebraking system.
Chemmal
Sensors may be exposed to chemicals suchas gasoline, brake fluid, transmission fluid,coolant, oil, water, and windshield washerfluid.
Assembly Stress
During installation in the automobile, sensorscan undergo rugged handling. One-waykeyed assembly is often used to preventimproper insertion. The 48-in. drop test isstandard for shock durability testing tosimulate drops during assembly.
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
PROPERTY SENSED
There are many properties sensed inautomotive vehicle applications andsubsystems. Property sensed is a usefulway to classify sensors. The: following list isbeing used in this study.
Sensors make use of many technologies.Below are listed common technologies usedin automotive sensors described in thisreport.
1. acoustic: sound waves.
2. capacitive: two electrical nonconduc-ting surfaces, separated by a dielectricmaterial that stores a charge.
3. Doppler: frequency shift due to relativemotion of transmitter and receiver.
4. electromagnetic: coupled electricaland magnetic field flux.
5. electromechanical: mechanical orphysical device with electrical control oractuation.
6. giant magnetoresistance (GMR):large magnetoresistance or change inelectrical resistance due to a magneticfield.
7. Hall effect (HE): semiconductorcarrying a current in a magnetic fieldnormal to the current flow creates avoltage potential in the semiconductornormal to the current flow in thesemiconductor.
8. hot film/wire anemometry: electricalresistance change with temperaturechange due to convective cooling ofwire or film in gas flow.
9. inductance: oscillating circuit currentcaused by metallic (ferrous ornonferrous) object or another circuit.
10. infrared (IR): thermal radiation withlonger wavelengths than visible light.
11. laser: natural vibration of molecules ina media to generate extremely coherentelectromagnetic IR, visible, or ultra-violet (UV) light.
12. magneto-optic: influence of a magneticfield on light.
13. magnetoresistive:resistance due tochange.
change in electricala magnetic field
14. magnetostrictive: change in dimensionof a ferromagnetic body caused by achange in its state of magnetization.
15. micromachined silicon: machining ofsilicon by fine chemical etching.
16. microwave: electromagnetic wavebetween about 1 mm and 1 m inwavelength.
17. optical: lenses, prisms, mirrors, andlight, usually in the visible wavelengths.
26. thick film: piezoresistive materialsensitive to temperature or stress,applied in layers by screen printing.
27. ultrasonic: acoustic frequencies abovehuman hearing, or >20,000 Hz.
28. variable reluctance (VR): changingmaterial voltage corresponding tochanging magnetic flux.
29. vortex shedding: vortices (VonKarman stream) generated behind abluff body are proportional to the airflow rate; ultrasonic or pressure sensingof vortex rate is detected.
30. zirconium oxide: heated sensor ionpump to detect oxygen
Sensor Types
Selected sensor types are discussed below.
Variable-Reluctance Sensors (VR)
This is a magnetic sensor composed of apermanent magnet wrapped with a winding
of wire. It is used with a reluctance wheel,i.e., a notched or toothed wheel. Reluctancewheel rotation near the tip of the sensorchanges the magnetic flux, creating ananalog signal in the coil. VR sensors arereliable and need no power supply. This isthe technology of choice for ABS wheel-speed sensing. VR can have a larger air gap(<2 mm) than HE (<1.5 mm) and is cheaperthan HE. Two electrical wires are neededfor the signal. VR provides an unreliablesignal below about 3 mi/h.
Vane Hall Sensor
In this device, current flow is applied to asemiconductor in the presence of an externalmagnetic field. This creates a voltageproportional to the magnetic field strength.The output is a sine wave signal. Magneticfield changes, caused by a reluctor wheel orvane-type interrupters, cause the sensor togenerate a digital voltage. These sensors canbe used at zero and near zero speeds and arerobust in noise.
Hall Effect (HE)
This is the technology of choice for engineapplications. Small, well-controlled air gapscan be maintained, but cost is higher becauserare-earth magnets are required. An HEdevice needs external power, often withthree electrical wires; this can sometimes bereduced to two wires if a shunt circuit isadded at additional cost. Output is a crispsquare wave.
Gear-Tooth Hall Sensors
This sensor combines the Vane Hall sensorand the reluctance-sensing capability ofa variable-reluctance sensor. A rotating
16
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
reluctance wheel near the face of the sensingelement causes a voltage change in the Hallelements as the magnetic flux changes.Voltages from the elements are comparedand converted to an accurate digital signal.Both zero and near-zero speeds can besensed. They are accurate and robust in anoisy environment.
Magnetoresistive Sensors
Magnetoresistance is the related change inelectrical resistance in the presence of amagnetic field. The operation is similar tothat of gear-tooth Hall sensors. Magneticflux changes caused by rotation of thereluctor wheel in turn causes electricalresistance changes in the magnetoresistiveelements. Comparison and conversion of theresistance level differences yield an accuratedigital voltage signal. Zero speed can besensed. They have highly repeatable switchpoints and can be used for misfire detection.
Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR)
GMR is basically similar to HE or magneto-resistance. GMR was developed by Frenchresearchers in 1988. Thin films of conduc-tive, nonmagnetic metals sandwichedbetween magnetic layers are used to produceGMR sensors. External magnetic fieldscause the outer layers to align parallel, whichdecreases the resistance in the middleconductive layer and thereby magnifies theGMR effect. The optimal conductive copperlayer is thought to be ~1.5 to 2.0 nm thick,and the magnetic layer 6 to 8 nm. GMR cantolerate an air gap of up to 3.5 mm. Thesensor can fit in a small package (approx.0.036 x 0.036 in.); this is about one-quarterthe size of a comparable HE sensor.
A silicon chip is micromachined by chemicaletching to provide a pressure-sensingfunction by using the piezoresistive propertyof silicon. An IC chip is often integratedwith the pressure-sensing chip for signalconditioning, temperature compensation, andamplification.
Micromachined SiliconAccelerometer Sensor
A cantilevered sensor beam is micro-machined by chemical etching in a siliconchip. The tiny inertial mass and flexureelements are machined from one piece ofsilicon. The seismic mass is cantileveredbetween two plates that act as electrodes.The capacitance changes as the cantileveredbeam flexes due to acceleration. The platesshield the beam from damage during highacceleration. Entrapped air or a squeeze filmdamps the mass. The sensor is combinedwith an IC chip to produce a proportionalanalog output. Positive and negativeaccelerations can be sensed in the samedevice. The IC chip can provide signalconditioning, amplification, and temperaturecompensation. These sensors usually have awide useful range of acceleration values.
Vortex-Shedding Mass FlowSensor
A rapidly moving fluid passing over a bluffbody in the flow produces a continuousstream of vortices known as a Von Karmanvortex street. Vortex generation is propor-tional to flow rate. Sensing the rate ofvortex formation will be proportional to thevolume flow rate, usually of air. The vortex
17
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
formation rate can be sensed by a pressuresensor or an ultrasonic sensor.
Metal Beam CapacitiveAccelerometer
Texas Instruments uses a metal beamcapacitive device for a low-g accelerometer.The capacitive element is an etched metalblade that is welded to a substrate. Themetal blade is Alloy 41, a common semi-conductor material used in lead frames. Thesubstrate is alumina ceramic. The substrateis metalized by screen printing with a thinfilm of gold ink. Squeeze-film air damping isused. Table 1 compares several types oflow-g acceleration sensors.
Table 1 Comparison of Low-g AccelerationSensors
DCMethod Cost Durability Response
Hall/MR poorer poorer average
LVDT poorer poorer average
Micromachined poorer average goodSilicon
Piezoelectric good average poor
Metal Beam good good goodCapacitive
Information Source: Texas Instruments
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
SPECIFIC-USE SENSORS
Knock Detection
Knock is perceived as an unpleasant noise todrivers. It is caused by a particulardetonation pattern in the combustionchamber. An accelerometer tuned to theexpected frequency range can provide asignal to change engine control parameters,such as ignition timing, to avoid knock. Thefrequency band of knock is 7 to 17 kHz.
Tire Pressure Sensor
SSI will have a prototype remote tire-pressure sensor in November 1995. Themain purpose is to eliminate the spare tire.The four tires would be run-flats withseparate bladders or another technique forsupport when air is lost. The tire sensorwould alert the driver that pressure hasdropped.
In one scheme, a piezoresistive siliconpressure sensor is embedded in the metalwheel (rim). It is inductively coupled to areceiver. No external power is supplied tothe sensor. The sensor gets its powerinductively by rotating with the tire. A smallantenna with an air gap of 20 to 30 mm picksup the signal. The reading is then sent to theCPU to alert the driver.
In another scheme, the ABS speed sensorslook for changes in wheel speed among thefour tires. A logic device would then inferlow air pressure. All four tires would haveto be the same size and have the sameamount of wear.
ABS Tire Considerations
A spare tire that is a smaller than the otherthree tires can interfere with the normal
working of an ABS. ABS systems work toreduce the differential speed among all fourtires. This is also a problem if the four tireshave greatly unequal wear. It is sometimesrecommended that tires for ABS-equippedcars be changed in sets of two or even fourfor maximum effectiveness.
Micro-Impulse Proximity Radar
A wideband, spread-spectrum radar, Micro-Impulse, has been invented at LawrenceLivermore Laboratory. It has been licensedto Amerigon Inc. and AlliedSignal's Auto-motive Division. This device is expected tofind applications for the driver's blind spot,providing backing-up help and as a parkingaid. Cost is predicted to be under $10.00 perunit. The transmitter emits pulses as short as50 trillionths of a second. Range of thedevice is claimed to be up to 200 ft.[Lawrence Livermore National Lab pressrelease NR 94-03-20]
Radar-Laser Proximity
Preview Distance Control (radar-laser) isbeing developed by Mitsubishi. The devicemeasures the distance ahead to the nextvehicle. A miniature video camera providesvisual identification. [Automotive Industries,p. 86, June 1995]
Millimeter Wave (MMW)Proximity Sensor
Delco Electronics is developing a proximitysensing system called FOREWARN. It has adevice that looks forward at 77 GHz and arearward-looking device at 24 GHz. Thedriver is given an audible alarm and amomentary brake pulse. An EyeCueheads-up display (HUD) can be used to givea reconfigured image to the driver.[Automotive Industries, p. 86, June 1995]
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Advanced Braking and TractionControl
A combination of braking and tractioncontrol with lateral acceleration and yaw ratesensors allows drivers to maneuver on sheetice without spinning or losing control.Vehicles with such systems will beintroduced in Europe in 1996 and in the U.Sa year or two after that.
Active Collision Avoidance
This system would not only give the driverwarnings but would actually take overvehicle operation. Many issues remain to beworked out. Such a system would not beavailable for some years, but it is possible. Itwill require a wider array of sensors andmore sophisticated logic than presentlyav%,a!.ble, in order not to do more damagethan it avoids.
Super-Smart Highways
Super-smart highways and vehicles in thefuture will allow unattended driving. Thiswill increase the demand for and capability ofa wide range of sensors. Each vehicle on thehighway will be managed by a highwaycontrol system. On-board and stationarysensors, actuators, and communications willbe needed.
U.S.A.
Intelligent Vehicle Highway System (IVHS)is a program for a very advanced futurehighway. The vehicles are guided to a greatextent automatically. This program is jointlyfunded by the National Highway TrafficSafety Co. mission and the Advanced
Research Projects Administration (ARPA).It focuses on sensors and communicationsand is a $600 million, six-year program.
Europe
The PROMETHEUS program is sponsoredby European automobile manufacturers.Begun in 1986, it is a part of the largertechnical research initiative, EUREKA.DRIVE is another European program that isconcerned with the infrastructure to createan intelligent future highway system.
The programs are concerned with collisionavoidance, cooperative driving using vehicle-to-vehicle communications, route/map guid-ance and driver vision enhancement. Thesystems provide travel and trafficinformation.
Exhaust Silencing
Engine exhaust noise is generated by thepulsating pressure variations related to eachcylinder releasing high-pressure gas throughthe exhaust valve as the engine cycles. If thepulsations are matched in magnitude, but1800 out of phase, the resultant noise can begreatly reduced. Such systems are underdevelopment and will require sensors tocoordinate the amplitude and phasegeneration of the counterwave to cancel theoriginal muffler noise.
Oil Monitoring
Monitoring the oil quality in the engine andtransmission has the potential benefit foreconomy, environmental improvement anddamage avoidance. To protect themselves,OEMs specify fixed intervals for oilreplacement with little modification exceptfor fleet use or very dusty conditions. Agreat deal of oil is wasted by too-frequent oil
20
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
changes. Because engine and transmissiondamage can occur if the oil becomesdegraded before being changed, sensors willbe installed in the engine crankcase andtransmission to warn the driver of the needfor an oil change. The sensor will probablylook for a viscosity change. This wouldreduce the environmental impact of recyclingand disposing of automotive oilsprematurely.
Variable Valve Timing (VVT)
VVT is available on a few models now andhas been tried before by General Motors(GM) in a limited sense. The major impactof VVT is still to come. VVT will requiresensor input for maximum effectiveness andcan have several degrees of sophistication.The original GM attempt was to idle somecylinders not needed for power during cruiseconditions for economy. The ultimate usewill be to control each valve individually tosuch an extent that the throttle will not benecessary. VVT allows modification andcontrol of the timing and of the fuel/aircharge into each cylinder for maximumefficiency, sound reduction, and emissioncontrol.
Honda's 2.2 L Variable Valve Timing andLift Control (VTEC), 4-cylinder engine wasselected as one of the 10 best enginesof 1995 by Ward's Auto World magazine(pp. 28-37, Jan. 1995]. The VTEC engineprovides different valve timing for variousspeed ranges.
Smart Cruise Control
Smart cruise control uses all the features andsensors of ordinary cruise control plus theaddition of collision avoidance sensors. ACPU receiving input on vehicle speed andthe range ahead to a leading vehicle can
make speed adjustments. This preventstailgating or inadvertently having a rear-endcollision with a leading vehicle. The systemcan be activated for highway speeds or forstop-and go sluggish traffic conditions. Thetechnology is available but the decisionalgorithms needed to use it are still underdiscussion.
Primary sensor inputs are vehicle speed,brake pedal force, forward proximity toother vehicles, and closing rate.
Navigation System
Advanced systems that will program routesto selected destinations are coming. Acorresponding electronic view of positionwould be given to the driver and updatedrapidly. Nissan calls their developmentsystem "BirdView" because it provides abird's-eye representation to the driver. It isupdated every 1.5 to 3.0 sec.
Transmitter Headlights
New headlights could have their spectrachanged to, for example, incorporate moreUV in order to be more visible to othervehicles' sensors. Other "transmitters" maybe added to all vehicles in order to enhancecommunication with other vehicles. Thisconcept is like adding a radar reflector toenhance return echoes.
Steer-by-Wire
Steer-by-wire, like fly-by-wire, will even-tually come to automobiles. Indirect sensingof the driver's intent by, say, a joystickrather than hard mechanical linkages willbe developed. Speed of movement, grippressure, etc., could be added signals fromthe driver to signal intent. This type ofcombined speed and direction, or possibly
21
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
other driving-intent functions, will have animplication for sensor development andintegration.
Electric-Powered and Hybrid-Fueled Vehicles
Experts predict that by about 2005automotive vehicles that are all-electric orhybrid-fueled will be made in significantquantities. This will change the "enginemanagement" system a great deal from whatit is today. Sensors for battery operation,charging, condition, fuel cell monitoring,kinetic energy storage, and many otherparameters will need development. Driveraids to operate the vehicle efficiently andsafely will still rely on sensor input to theCPU.
Data Transmission
More attention will be given to data handlingand transmission in future vehicles as more
sensor information and actuator instructionsare handled. Data transmission must beshielded from the electromagnetic inter-ference (EMI) that is common in vehicles.Transmission rates from 10,000 to 125,000baud are required today.
Smart Card for Cars
Smart cards are making their way into manyaspects of daily life. They will probably alsodo so in automotive vehicle. Card-to-CPUand system communication could take place.The card could replace the function ofkeyless entry and security and remember allthe drivers' preferences. Maintenance andother data from sensors may be transmittedto and stored on the smart card. Security forthe card due to unauthorized use may requiremore sensors if the card is lost or stolen.
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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fluoride (PVDF) filmTechnologies: piezoelectricApplications: temp., acceleration, IR,
acoustic
Analog Devices804 Woburn St.Wilmington, MA 01887Auto Marketing ManagerWilliam Riedel617-937-1670Product: accelerometer, Hall Effect sensorsTechnologies: micromachined polysilicon,
Hall effectApplications: ACRS, brake/traction,
suspension
Automotive Technologies International,Inc.37633 Schoolcraft Rd.Livonia, MI 48150Scott S. Turner313-432-0444Fax: 313-432-0062Product: CrushSwitchTechnologies: electromechanicalApplications: ACRS, front, side, vehicle
occupant
BLD Products Ltd.534 East 48th St.Holland, MI 49423Sale ManagerTerry Nyboer616-396-1291 x5620Fax: 616-395-5605Product: temp., press., position sensorsTechnologies: thermistor, piezoresistive,
magnetic fieldApplications: eng. mgt
Breed Technologies, Inc.5300 Old Tampa HighwayP.O. Box 33050Lakeland, FL 33807-3050Market AnalystStephanie O'Neil941-384-6505Product: accelerometer, crash detectionTechnologies: micromachined siliconApplications: ACRS
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
CTS Corp.Automotive Products17370 North Laura Park Dr., Suite 400ELivonia, MI 48152Senior Account ManagerGerald F. Cornetet313-591-5475Fax: 313-591-4523Product: pedal position, Hall, EGRTechnologies: potentiometer, HallApplications: eng. mgt, suspension
DATRON Technology, Inc.Suite 18033533 West Twelve Mile Rd.Farmington Hills, MI 48331Hank Norlin810-489-3140Fax: 810-489-3144Product: speed, distance, drift, steeringTechnologies: optoelectronic, microwave,
FASCO Controls Corp.23800 W. Ten Mile Rd.Southfield, MI 48034-3176VP Sales & MarketingDennis M. Fedolak810-358-3600Fax: 810-358-3608Product: door-ajar, pres. switches, positionTechnologies: electromech., , HEApplications: eng. mgt., safety
First Inertia SwitchG10386 North Holly Rd.P.O. Box 704Grand Blanc, MI 48439Sales AdministratorDeedee Grant810-695-8333Fax: 810-695-0144Product: accelerometer, crash sensors,
wheel pos.Technologies: electromechanical,
micromachined silicon -Applications: emergency door unlock, fuel
shut-off
28
Automotive Vehicle Sensors
GE Control ProductsAutomotive Systems ControlWest Wall St.Morrison, IL 61270Tim Seifert815-772-1380Fax: 815-772-1184Product: pressure, temperature sensorsTechnologies: thermistor, strain gaugeApplications: A/C refrigerant pressure and
temperature
Hi-Stat Manufacturing Co.Suite 2002350 Franklin Rd.Bloomfield Hills, MI 48302Account ManagerRobert Melenovsky810-332-2280Fax: 810-332-2296Product: pres., temp., speed, level, sensorsTechnologies: capacitive, thermist., VR,
Hitachi America Ltd.Automotive Products Division34500 Grand River Ave.Farmington Hills, MI 48335Kim Postema810-474-2800Product: comprehensive linesTechnologies: numerousApplications: eng. mgt., brake/trac.,
suspen., HVAC, NAV
Holley Automotive Division11955 East Nine Mile Rd.P.O. Box 2003Warren, MI 48090-2003Manager Market DevelopmentMichael Magnoli810-497-4517Fax: 810-497-4103Product: throttle positionTechnologies: potentiometerApplications: eng. mgt
Honeywell Micro Switch11 West Spring St.Freeport, IN 61032-4353MarketingJudy Libertin815-235-6847Product: comprehensive linesTechnologies: numerousApplications: eng. mgt., comfort, safety,
brake/trac., etc.,
Kavlico14501 Los Angeles Ave.Moorpark, CA 93021Marketing Communications ConsultantLori Appel805-523-2000 x2206Fax: 805-523-7125Product: pres., tempTechnologies: capacitive-ceramicApplications: eng. mgt., brake/trac.,
suspension
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
Kelsey-Hayes11878 HubbardLivonia, MI 48150MarketingCarol L. Merritt313-513-4854Fax: 313-513-4457Product: Vehicle Stability Management
Kistler Instrument Corp.75 John Glenn Dr.Amherst, NY 14228-2171Marketing ManagerBruce Lent716-691-5100Fax: 716-691-5226Product: accelerometer, cylinder pres,Technologies: micromach., silicon,
piezoelec., piezores.Applications: eng. mgt, R&D
Lucas Automotive5500 New King St.P.O. Box 7002Troy, MI 48007-7002Eng. Mgr. Actuation & ABSPatrick Hool810-641-2500Fax: 810-641-1905Product: Electronic Actuation SystemTechnologies: variousApplications: brake/traction advanced
system
Lucas Electronics Systems Products1000 Lucas WayHampton, VA 23666Account Development DirectorMalcolm Graham804-766-4461Fax: 804-766-2286Product: pressure, accelerationTechnologies: micromachined silicon,
Nippondenso America Inc.24777 Denso Dr.P.O. Box 5133Southfield, MI 48086-5133Account ManagerThomas McInerney810-213-2344Fax: 810-350-7773Product: comprehensive linesTechnologies: numerousApplications: HVAC, ACRS, brake/trac.,
safety, comfort
Phillips Technologies (old Airpax)Suite 30832605 W. Twelve Mile Rd.Farmington Hills, MI 48334Director Business DevelopmentJack Obermeyer810-553-6030Fax: 810-553-6025Technologies: speed, positionApplications: variable reluctance,
magnetoresistive
Polaroid119 Windsor St. - 2BCambridge, MA 02139Applications ManagerPhilip W. Jackman617-386-3961Fax: 617-386-3966Product: Ultrasonic Ranging SystemTechnologies: ultrasonic, piezoApplications: collision avoidance
Rathsburg Associates, Inc.(distributor for Analog Devices, etc.)41100 Bridge St.Novi, MI 48375-1300Sales EngineerWilliam Kittle810-615-4000Fax: 810-615-4001Product: auto elec. mfg. rep.Applications: auto sensors and actuators
Robert Bosch Corp.Automotive Group3800 Hills Tech Dr.Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3417Roman Serra810-553-1390Product: tilt pres., CO, acceleration, etc.Technologies: thermal, PR, thick film,
piezo-ceramicApplications: eng. mgt.,
SiemensAuburn Hills, MIAccount Manager North American SalesRick Wilson810-252-1000Technologies: variable reluctance, Hall
EffectApplications: NOx, MAF, wheel speed,
trans. speed
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Automotive Vehicle Sensors
Siemens2400 Executive Hills Dr.Auburn Hills, MI 48326-2980Manager North American SalesRichard Wilson810-253-2874Fax: 810-253-2998Product: comprehensive linesTechnologies: numerousApplications: eng. rngt., safety, comfort,
SSI24114 Research Dr.Farmington Hills, MI 48335Market Development ManagerJeffrey A. Valdovinos810-471-0500 x21Fax: 810-471-0507Product: wheel speed, ABS, pressureTechnologies: VR, Hall, magnetoresistive.
TRWTransportation Electronics Division24175 Research DR.Farmington Hills, MI 48335-2642Dir. Marketing and New BusinessDevelopmentJohn T. McGowan810-442-5391Fax: 810-442-5172Product: crash, occupant, child seat, sensorsTechnologies: piezo-ceramic, Rolamite,
ultrasonicApplications: front/side airbag,
occupant/child presence
Vishay Dale2300 Riverside Blvd.P.O. Box 74Norfolk, NE 68702-0074Product ManagerGeorge Ornelas915-771-6175 x7102Product: thermistor, thick film resistorsTechnologies: thermistors, thick film
resistorsApplications: supplier to sensor mfg., OEMs
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DOE Chicago Field OfficeManagerF. Herbaty
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